TRX500 TOPIC 7: DATA COLLECTION

17th November 2022 (Thursday):

Questionnaire and Interview

22nd November 2022 (Tuesday):

Observation and Measurement
2022/23 class picture
Topic Data
Collection: Dr. Asmida Isa
Dept. of Biomedical Science
A dva n ced Medi ca l & D en t a l
In st i t u t e, U S M
17th November 2022 a smi da .i sa @u sm.my

2 – 5 pm
Definition
Data collection is a systematic process of gathering data.
Whether you are performing research for business, governmental or
academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge
and original insights into your research problem.
While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of
data collection remains the same.
Instruments used in data
collection
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Observation
4. Measurement
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
Lecture outcomes
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to …

§Understand basic concept in questionnaire design

§Discuss the construction and administration of

questionnaires
Some basic ideas…
§Underlying assumption that some information is accurately known by the
informants
§Questionnaire are useful for obtaining evidence for mental states,
attitudes and events experienced by the participants
§ For example, degree of work satisfaction, type of personality, level of daily
energy expenditure

§It is a monologue from the researcher to which the potential respondent

may or may not respond
 1. Specifies information that is being sought
•Comes from research question, objective, and discussion with
research team
•No question is conceptualised as of yet

Questionnaire
construction 2. Drafting the questionnaire
•Lists the information to obtain from respondent
•Phrasing of question and the overall design of questionnaire are
important for questionnaire validity

3. Piloting the questionnaire

•Testing questionnaire with a small group of intended respondents,
or in some cases, colleagues
•May uncover problems with the questionnaire

4. Re-drafting the questionnaire Major problems

•Revision following input gathered from the pilot
•Major revision may require another pilot phase Minor problems

5. Administration of questionnaire
Questionnaire and Question
formats
Questionnaire formats
Self-administered Interviewer-administered
questionnaire questionnaire
Respondents are able to complete the Requires expert interviewers to administer the
questionnaire with minimal or no assistance questions.
from the researcher
Questionnaire formats
Self-administered questionnaire Interviewer-administered
questionnaire
• Cheap • Lower rejection rate

BENEFITS
• Less susceptible to interviewer bias • More detailed responses can be elicited
• Ease in administration – post, online • Greater control over how forms are filled
out

• Higher rate of rejection • Expensive and time consuming as they

COSTS
• Less control over how the forms are filled out required expert to be interviewing the
- Incomplete questionnaire respondent
- Erroneous filling of questionnaire • Risk of introducing interviewer bias
- Assumed honesty
Question formats:
Open-ended vs. Closed response
Open-ended type
• No predetermined response schedule in which the
respondent must fit a response
• Elicit more detailed responses but requires a very large
amount of effort to encode for data analysis
• Longer time to answer such question … may lead to
refusal to complete some questions
• However, it depends on the context of research too –
this format of question is extremely useful for
qualitative study that places importance on depth
analysis
Question formats
Why did you choose XYZ Newspaper advertisement
Closed-response type Insurance to insure your TV advertisement
• Respondents are supplied with car? Personal recommendation
Previous insurance with us
predetermined list of response options
• Highly convenience and speed in providing
responses
• However, the list of answer for closed-ended
questions should be carefully design – to
minimise bias responses e.g. restricting range
of answers
• Researchers need to be careful not to impose their
own conceptualisation of the situation under
investigation on questionnaire design
Open-ended vs. Closed-response format
Open-ended Q1. How do you feel about the standard of treatment
you received while you were a patient at this
hospital.
Closed-response Q2. How would you rate the standard of treatment
received while you were a patient at this hospital?
(Circle the number)
1 – Excellence
2 – Good
3 – Moderately good
4 – Fair
5 – Poor
Question formats (Benefits)
Open-ended Closed-response
• More detailed answers elicited • Tightly structured

BENEFITS
• Responses easily encoded and analysed
• Less time taken to collect responses

• Less structured • Less ‘depth’ in answers

COSTS
• Responses difficult to encode and analyse • May frustrate respondents
using powerful statistical methods
• Greater time taken by respondent to answer
• Respondent may find writing an essay more
difficult than circling a number
QUIZ 1 - Slido
https://app.sli.do/event/jrx4diq6qMr7QCiy9PWCDy #3767 663 and passcode qmka07

An analogy between open vs. close-ended questions is like a student answering essay
vs. multiple choice question in an examination.

So… which one would you prefer? Why?`

Question formats:
Likert-type scales vs. forced-choice response
Likert-type
• Five- or seven-point response item (e.g.,
strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree,
strongly agree)
• Allows for middle ‘undecide’ response (e.g.,
neutral, unsure, undecided)
• Risk for acquiescent response mode – when
respondents give middle responses all the
time perhaps because of laziness or wish to
conceal their true opinions
Question formats
Forced-choice response
• Respondent forced to give either a
positive or a negative response (e.g.,
strongly disagree/ disagree/ agree/
strongly agree, Yes/No)
• Forcing them to make judgement
about each response option
• Undecided response is not allowed
• Extreme response mode –
respondents never selects an
intermediate point on the rating scale
Question formats:
Wording and design of questions
Things to avoid in wording questions
Do you like maths
• Double-barrelled questions
or science?
Question formats:
Wording and design of questions
Things to avoid in wording questions

• Double-barrelled questions

• Level of wording: Use simple Trisomy 21 vs.

word choice Down Syndrome
 Question formats:
Wording and design of questions
Things to avoid in wording questions

• Double-barrelled questions

• Level of wording: Use simple

word choice
“Older people” = • Ambiguous questions
>30 vs. >60
 Question formats:
Wording and design of questions
• Feel committed: How often Things to avoid in wording questions
do you go to
church/mosque? • Double-barrelled questions
• Response format: Exclusion
of answer options (e.g., • Level of wording: Use simple
‘never’, ‘not applicable’ word choice
• Carryover effect:
Attitude to abortion Q1. Do you • Ambiguous questions
value human life, Q2. Do you
think that unborn babies • Bias and leading questions
should be murdered in their
mothers’ wombs?
 ANY
QUESTION?
PLEASE MARK YOUR ATTENDANCE

starTS at 3.48 PM
2. interview

DR. ASMIDA ISA

DEPT. OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES
ADVANCED MEDICAL & DENTAL
INSTITUTE, USM
Lecture outcomes
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to …
Distinguish between structured and unstructured interviews
Outline commonly used strategies for conducting interviews
Compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative
strategies for conducting interviews
Interview is a conversation!
Purpose: elicit information

Question & Answer

Content of the
conversation

Rapport
Interviewing models
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

Involved reading of a prepared No direct questions… but rather

questionnaire, and prompting respondents to reflect
on their current interests and
Record the responses in the form of
concerns
filling in a response sheet following
their answers Responses are not recorded
using response sheet
The questions are provided in
systematic order - minimal variation
Think of it as following a prepared
script
Interviewing models
Semi-structured
Structured interview Unstructured
interview interview

what determines the extent of interview

structuredness?
 Factors influencing the structure
Semi-structured
Structured interview Unstructured
interview interview
Whether there is a fixed set of questions:
Fixed set of questions fixed themes

The way in which information is recorded:

Planned response sheet free-form notes

The types of questions:

Closed-response questions open-ended questions

The extent of control:

Interviewer directs the conversation respondent assume active role
The Choice Is Based On The
Objectives Of The Research
If the researcher simply wished to collect some basic
symptom data, the structured interview would be
preferable.

However, if the researcher wished to study people’s

conceptualization and interpretation of their illness, an
unstructured interview may be quite suitable
1) History taking of cancer patients; structured or
unstructured?

2) Management of long-term problems among cancer

patients; structured or unstructured?
Interviewing models
Structured Advantages Disadvantages
• May be less-consuming • Responses may not be
• Data consistency across recorded in the
respondents respondents’ own words

• Responses may be • May be time-consuming

Unstructured

recorded in respondents’ • Lack of data consistency

own words, hence reducing across respondents
bias through interpretation
• Respondent has some
input into the research
agenda
Interview process

1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview
interviewees of participants

4) Response
schedule/answer 5) Free-form
6) Follow-up
checklist unstructured notes
 Interview process
4) Response
1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview schedule/answer
interviewees of participants
checklist

• Enlist the identified • Completion of predesigned response

• Varied substantially according
•Quantitative study, sampling techniques will
participants by getting into
contact with them – phone,
to methods employed i.e.,
structured vs. unstructured
sheet
• Validity: During vs. Following the
determine the representativeness of study findings –
mail, face-to-face meeting interview
interview session
• But the presence of recording
• Sell your study to them! • Crucial key point – must elicit
random sampling • Make assurance (privacy participants’ views and not
instrument may be a concern to
participants
interviewers’
•Qualitative study, researchers will select key
protection, level of
involvement – time, travel
• Quality of interviewer –
• Problem may arise if novel or
unexpected turn of the interviews –
sensitive, non-evaluative,
informants – participants who are most likely to
distance, emotional
demand).
alert, skilled at delivering and
though this is unlikely in a well-
designed response sheet. E.g: Study
sequencing the questions
provide required info • Methods of recording
interview – accessibility of
about cancer patients long-term
problems, but few patients have
•Data saturation – no new info is expected to be added
interview data for
history of other underlying illnesses.
• Phone interviews – computerised
independent scrutiny
that will enhance or change the findings response sheet
 Interview process
4) Response
1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview schedule/answer
interviewees of participants
checklist

• Completion of predesigned response

•• Enlist
Quantitativethe identified participants by getting
study, sampling into contact
• Varied substantially according
to methods employed i.e.,
sheet
techniques will determine the • Validity: During vs. Following the
with themof–study
representativeness phone, mail, face-to-face meeting
structured vs. unstructured
interview
interview session
• But the presence of recording
•• Sell your
Qualitative study to them! Explain the purpose
findings – random sampling
study, researchers
• Crucial key point – must elicit
participants’ views and not
instrument may be a concern to
will select key informants – participants
• Make
participants assurance
who are most likely (privacy protection, level of
interviewers’
• Quality of interviewer –
• Problem may arise if novel or
to provide required info unexpected turn of the interviews –
• involvement
Data saturation – no new– infotime, travel distance, emotional
sensitive, non-evaluative,
is though this is unlikely in a well-
alert, skilled at delivering and
designed response sheet. E.g: Study
demand).
expected to be added that will
enhance or change the findings
sequencing the questions
• Methods of recording
about cancer patients long-term
problems, but few patients have
interview – accessibility of
history of other underlying illnesses.
interview data for
• Phone interviews – computerised
independent scrutiny
response sheet
 Interview process
4) Response
1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview schedule/answer
interviewees of participants
checklist

• Enlist the identified • Completion of predesigned response

• Quantitative study, sampling
techniques will determine the
Varied substantially
•participants by getting into according to methods employed
sheet i.e.,
• Validity: During vs. Following the
contact with them – phone,
representativeness of study structured
mail, face-to-facevs. unstructured interview
meeting
interview session
findings – random sampling • But the presence of recording
• Qualitative study, researchers Crucial key point – must elicit participants’ views
••Sell your study to them! instrumentandmay not
be a concern to
Explain the purpose participants
will select key informants –
participants who are most likely
interviewers’
• Make assurance (privacy • Problem may arise if novel or
to provide required info Quality level
•protection, of interviewer
of – sensitive, non-evaluative,
unexpectedalert,
turn ofskilled at–
the interviews
• Data saturation – no new info is involvement – time, travel though this is unlikely in a well-
expected to be added that will delivering
distance, and sequencing the questions
emotional designed response sheet. E.g: Study
enhance or change the findings
Methods of recording interview – accessibilityabout
•demand). of cancer patients long-term
interview
problems, data
but few patients have for
independent scrutiny history of other underlying illnesses.
• Phone interviews – computerised
response sheet
 Interview process
4) Response
1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview schedule/answer
interviewees of participants
checklist

Enlist the identifiedof predesigned

• •Completion response sheet
• Varied substantially according
• Quantitative study, sampling participants by getting into to methods employed i.e.,
techniques will determine the •Validity: During
contact with them vs. Following
– phone, structured the interview session
vs. unstructured
representativeness of study interview
mail, face-to-face
•But the meeting of recording instrument may be a concern to
presence
findings – random sampling • Crucial key point – must elicit
• Qualitative study, researchers • Sell your study to them! participants’ views and not
will select key informants – participants
Explain the purpose interviewers’
participants who are most likely • •Problem
Make assurance may arise if novel
(privacy • Quality or unexpected
of interviewer – turn of the interviews –
to provide required info protection, level of sensitive, non-evaluative,
• Data saturation – no new info is though this
involvement – time,istravel
unlikely in askilled
alert, well-designed
at delivering and response sheet. E.g:
expected to be added that will distance, sequencing the questions
enhance or change the findings Study emotional
about cancer patients • Methods oflong-term
recording problems, but few patients
demand).
have history of other underlying illnesses.
interview – accessibility of
interview data for
•Phone interviews – computerised
independent scrutinyresponse sheet
 Interview process
4) Response
1) Selection of 2) Recruitment
3) Interview schedule/answer
interviewees of participants
checklist

• Enlist the identified • Varied substantially according • Completion of predesigned response

• Quantitative study, sampling participants by getting into to methods employed i.e., sheet
techniques will determine the structured vs. unstructured • Validity: During vs. Following the
contact with them – phone,
representativeness of study interview interview session
mail, face-to-face meeting • But the presence of recording
findings – random sampling • Crucial key point – must elicit
• Qualitative study, researchers • Sell your study to them! participants’ views and not instrument may be a concern to
will select key informants – Explain the purpose interviewers’ participants
participants who are most likely • Make assurance (privacy • Quality of interviewer – • Problem may arise if novel or
to provide required info protection, level of sensitive, non-evaluative, unexpected turn of the interviews –
• Data saturation – no new info is involvement – time, travel alert, skilled at delivering and though this is unlikely in a well-
expected to be added that will distance, emotional sequencing the questions designed response sheet. E.g: Study
enhance or change the findings • Methods of recording about cancer patients long-term
demand). interview – accessibility of problems, but few patients have
interview data for history of other underlying illnesses.
independent scrutiny • Phone interviews – computerised
response sheet
Response
schedules/answer
checklists
Interview process (cont.)
5) Free-form
(unstructured) 6) Follow-up
notes

• Interviewers making free-form notes to record • Having completed the interviews,

what they believe is important the interviewer may wish to follow
• E.g., Case note by clinicians up with the participants
• Involved substantial judgement/ interpretation • May give the interviewer copies
on the part of interviewer of their findings
• However, might affect the validity due to bias
and reduced data
• May not result the same in the recording of the
same type of data across interviewees
• The primary data is inaccessible for independent
scrutiny
• Constant note-taking is warranted – some
participants may find this a bit off putting
 Free form
(unstructured)
notes

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Methods of recording interview
information

Video recording Audio taping Response sheet Unstructured

notes
 Advantages Disadvantages

Video Full transcripts of interview possible Intrusive

Non-verbal data available Less disclosure (Eg.; privacy concern)
recording Accessible to independent analysis Necessity for substantial, and costly, post-interview
analysis
Potentially greater rates of refusal to participate

Full transcripts of interview possible Intrusive (Probably less than video)

Audio taping Accessible to independent analysis Reduced disclosure
Necessity for substantial, and costly, post-interview
analysis
Potentially greater rates of refusal to participate

Same data recorded for all interviews Unexpected answer may not be well-handled
Response Little post-interview analysis required Interview may bias data in their recording
sheets Inaccessible to independent analysis

Cheap and simple Interview may bias data in their recording

Unstructured Inaccessible to independent analysis
notes Some data may be omitted
Necessity for some post-interview analysis
HOW DO WE
DECIDE WHICH IS
THE BEST
METHOD?

Based on the need of

the person using the
information
What is the type of interview:
1) If the information user simply wants some
basic data such as the age, sex and symptom
profile of a patient.

2) If the interviewer is interested in exploring

reactions of interviewees to the death of a
close relative.
 Focus group
Structure
: Involved 6 -10 participant
: Interviewer as moderator or facilitator
: May involve multiple sessions
It is more of a discussion than an interview
Group dynamic - core to this method of data
collection
Thus, the interviewer’s role is critical to
moderate and facilitate the flow of the
discussion
◦ Ensure the direction of discussion remain
within research parameter
◦ Minimise the presence of group dynamic
bias e.g., Groupthink
 FURTHER READINGS
Gill et. al., 2008 Robinson et. al., 2005
advantages of focus group over
one-to-one interview?

Allow for maximum data collection

Encourages participation from those who are reluctant
to be interviewed on their own

However…..
Difficulty in transcribing multitude of voices talking over
one another or interrupting
 Analysis of interview data

Quantitative Qualitative
E.g., Counting no. words spoken
by participants or no. of
questions asked by interviewer

They could be used to test

certain hypothesis e.g. to obtain
the quantitative measure of
participants relative
contribution to conversational
process
 Analysis of interview data

Quantitative Qualitative
I. Descriptive – termed ethnography ethnos (people) and graphei (to write)
• Often written from the participants perspective as the first person
• To provide detailed description of particular set of circumstances and to encourage
readers to make their own interpretation
• As Hammersley (1985) stated, “the task [of ethnographers] is to document the
culture, the perspectives and practices of the people in these settings. The aim is to
‘get inside’ the way each group of people sees the world” (p152)
• Context is important – socially and culturally

II. Theoretical – key approach is Grounded Theory using two methods i.e.,
• Comparative method – researcher codes and analyses data to develop concepts
• Theoretical sampling method – cases are selected purposively to refine the theory
previously developed
Coding and thematic analysis tools
Coding
◦ Organise data collected in an interview
Thematic analysis
◦ Identification of themes emerged from the coding

Think of it as a process of identifying pattern of (conversation)

content
 Coding &
Thematic
Analysis
Process
Reference:
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
A study by Liu et al. (2020) described the experiences of these health-care providers in
the early stages of COVID-19 outbreak (N = 13 nurses & physician).

Theme 1
“We must try our best to win this battle. As health-care providers,
we are at the forefront. I fight for my family, and I fight more for this
society.” (N2)
“This is my duty because I am a medical worker. No matter what
will happen…” (N3)
“Every patient has to stay in their room, so their activities of daily
living are all facilitated by nurses, such as getting food and water.
When severely ill patients cannot get out of bed without oxygen, we
need to assist them to use bedpans.” (N3)
“We are not treating the disease, we are treating the patient. Many
patients have severe anxiety and we need to deal with this.” (P1)
“I comforted the patient while I gave the injection, [I told him]
‘Patients who were more serious finally recovered.’ I wanted to give
him some hope and kept encouraging him, ‘We will not give up on
you. You cannot give up on yourself either’… Then he felt better.”
(N4)
A study by Liu et al. (2020) described the experiences of these health-care providers in
the early stages of COVID-19 outbreak (N = 13 nurses & physician).
Theme 2
“I felt very depressed on the first day in the infectious disease hospital
because there as only one entrance and passage for medical staff, and it is a
real isolation unit with negative pressure. I felt it was difficult to breathe…
This new environment brought a sense of oppression.” (N9)
“I have to treat many patients who are not in my specialty. Although the
country has released six editions of diagnosis and treatment guidelines [ for
COVID-19], there is still no effective antiviral medicine. It is an unknown
disease, and everyone feels powerless.” (P2)
“It feels clumsy to walk and do procedures. Although I am good at
venipuncture, I cannot feel blood vessels to draw blood with three layers of
gloves even when I palpate carefully. My glasses and protective goggles are
blurry because I am hot, and it is very difficult to do things, such as writing
nursing notes and medication administration. I must hold the medicine close
to the face shield to read the words on it. I am very anxious and irritable,
because I have so much work to do but I can’t see well.” (N5)
“When a patient with an infectious disease dies, the body is wrapped in
several layers of cloth, packed into two bags, which are sprayed with
disinfectant... It is a little hard to accept this form of death.” (N2)
A study by Liu et al. (2020) described the experiences of these health-care providers in
the early stages of COVID-19 outbreak (N = 13 nurses & physician).
Theme 3
“I am not overstrained because I trust our hospital. Our
hospital gives us strong logistical support, including
providing medical protective supplies, accommodations,
transportation, food, medicines, and subsidies.” (N3)

“To keep up with the workload, the most important thing

after work is to eat and sleep to replenish strength.” (P4)

“This is a special experience. I am lucky to have joined

this team and to be combating the virus… I feel that I still
have potential, I have become qualified for this
challenging job within a short time.” (N1)

“I am proud that I do not hesitate in the face of risks and

danger. My awareness of self-protection and
communication skills have also improved.” (P1)

“I cherish life, because I don’t know when an accident

will happen.” (N3)
Reference:
Li, S., Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhao, N., & Zhu, T. (2020a). The impact of COVID-19 epidemic declaration on psychological
consequences: A study on active Weibo users. International Journal of Environmental Research Public Health, 17(6), 2032.
doi:10.3390/ijerph17062032