Approaches to History (Bibliography)
When in 1969 the British historian J.H. Plumb argued that the past was already dying (Plumb,
J.H. The Death of the Past. Springer, 1989), and he started questioning the future of history
as a discipline based on the idea that people forget about the past very easily. He was not so
crude to suggest that anyone was killing it, but he wrote that under the influence of science
and industrialization, the past was disappearing and history as an ‘intellectual process was
taking its place. Examples of the development of Plumb’s point were represented by David
Lowenthal who argued that history is dying, and the past is very much alive through heritage
(Lowenthal, David. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2010). The idea that the discipline of history is terminally ill has been contrasted
by other historians like William Faulkner who argued that the past is alive and that memories
and resentments from Civil War times have far from disappeared (W. Faulkner, Requiem for
a Nun (1951), Act 1, sc. 3). The beliefs that the past repeats itself are foundational in the
ideology of Karl Marx who stated that Revolutionary activism was constantly revamped and
nurtured by old ideas. (K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1851/2), in D.
McClellan (ed.), Karl Marx: Selected Writings (Oxford, 1977).
If the past is not dead, the complexity of this debate has unfolded deeper issues related to
nature and the use of history for other purposes. The core question for historians has been
‘What do we know for fact and what can be interpreted? The British historian E.H. Carr
published his book What is History? in 1961 (Carr, Edward Hallett. What Is History? New
York, Vintage, 1961). He dominated this debate for many years and wrote that history is 'an
unending dialogue between the present and the past. According to him, historical objective
facts are there but their selection and interpretation are subjective. Carr’s argument was
reiterated in Geyl’s book on Napoleon that history is ‘an unending dialogue between the
present and the past’. (Pieter Geyl. Napoleon for and Against. Penguin, 1968).Norman
Davies discusses in his interview, drawing on Carr’s work, the need to separate evidence
from judgement. Carr believed in historical causality, but other historians deny that this helps
us to explain the present and predict the future. Historian Mark Phillips argues historians
have certain “norms of distance,” self-imposed rules about how much detachment or
immediacy is appropriate in approaching their subjects, which can change over time
depending on the cultural context within which they are working (Phillips, Mark Salber.
“Distance and Historical Representation.” History Workshop Journal, vol. 57, no. 1, 2004,
pp. 123–141).
Historiography is the science of writing history. It includes the evolution of different schools
of thought and techniques used to interpret different historical events and the changing nature
of history. During the 19th Century, a major change in interpreting history came from
historians who integrated the philosophical method within their interpretative ones. The work
of Wang and Cheng are an important contribution to the topic (Wang, Q.E. (2021). History of
Historiography. In Bloomsbury History: Theory and Method Articles. London: Bloomsbury
Publishing. from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350970861.061
Cheng, E.K. (2021). What Is Historiography and Why Does It Matter? In Bloomsbury
History: Theory and Method Articles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Retrieved January
10, 2023, from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350970854.049)
Pre-classical and Classical historiography
Historiography is not a recent phenomenon and the first historians developed ways of
interpreting history in Ancient Greece in the 5th Century B.C. Herodotus is the first historian.
Despite some criticism over his work being too idiomatic, he developed an impressive body
of work. (Herodotus, et al. The Histories. Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press,
2008). Thucydides was also an important historian and contemporary of Herodotus and
looked at the economic impact on Athens. (Thucydides. Thucydides. With an English
Translation by Charles Forster Smith. Palala Press, 3 May 2016.). During the Medieval
period, the historiographical framework was profoundly affected by the religious discourse
within Christianity as well as Islam and other religions. St Augustine who lived during the 5 th
Century was the greatest church historian and his body of work is still relevant today as he
originated the very notion of ‘Just War’ in his 22 volumes of the City of God (Augustine. The
City of God. Translated by Marcus Dods; Volume 1. Legare Street Press, 27 Oct. 2022).
Within the Islamic tradition, Ibn Khaldun who lived in the 15 th Century is regarded as the
greatest Arab historian. His work is innovative as he applies a scientific method in analysing
history and societies and his greatest contribution was the cyclical explanation of history (Ibn
Ibn Khaldûn, et al. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History - Abridged Edition.
Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2020). Among the many contributors during this
period from Giambattista Vico (Pompa, Leon. Vico: A Study of the “New Science.”
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010) to the positivist Comte (Auguste Comte.
General View of Positivism. 2020), Ranke is regarded as the first modern historian and lived
in the 18th Century. His work was based on criticism and he began to question the nature of
sources and persuaded historians to approach them with an inquisitive mind. (Leopold Von
Ranke. Deutsche Geschichte Im Zeitalter Der Reformation. S.L., Salzwasser-Verlag Gmbh,
2015).
New Materialism
Historical materialism is a methodological approach articulated by Marx to understanding
how society and economy are materialistic conceptions of history. In 1859, ‘Contribution to
the Critique of Political Economy’ was published and its preface has been regarded as the
foundation of the materialist interpretation of history or historical materialism. Although
Marx’s preface laid down the foundation for historical materialism, Engel’s 1878 book Herr
Eugen Duhring’s Revolution in Science, laid down the principles of historical materialism
(Engels, Friedrich. Anti-Dühring. 1878. Wellred Books, 2017). The originality of historical
materialism stands in its methodology since it looks for the causes of development and
changes in societies and how humans produce the means for life. Thus, historical materialism
investigates how the progress of views and institutions is determined by the material
conditions of life. The development of this methodological approach to history can be found
in other works by Marx or Engels, including 1. Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophic
Manuscripts of 1844. Lanham, Start Publishing LLC, 2013; 2. The Poverty of Philosophy.
New York, International Publishers, 1935, 3. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The
Communist Manifesto. J E Burghard, 1848, 4. Marx, Karl. A Contribution to the Critique of
Political Economy. 1859. Fairford, Echo Library, 1859 and 5. Marx, Karl, and David
Mclellan. Capital. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, Pok, A. (2021). Marxism and Its
Influences. In Bloomsbury History: Theory and Method Articles. London: Bloomsbury
Publishing from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350970885.077
and Henning, C. (2022). Karl Marx. In Bloomsbury History Theory and Method. London:
Bloomsbury. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350927933.131
The Annales
The systematic scientific approach to history began in the 19th Century when historians
understood the importance of removing anecdotes and fables from history and in the 20 th
Century, history began to work with other disciplines and new approaches to history were
inaugurated. As part of these developments, the Ecole Normale Superieure in France became
the pioneering institute where interdisciplinary work between sociologists and historians took
place. In 1929 the publication of the ‘Annales de Histoire economic and social, widely known
as the Annales, inaugurated a new approach to history. The Annales school was established
by March Bloch and Lucian Febvre and promoted an approach to history that focused more
on the different aspects of human life rather than traditional political history. March Bloch
criticised the periodisation of history and his major work is the ‘Historian Craft’ (Bloch,
Marc, and Peter Burke. The Historian’s Craft. Manchester, Manchester Univ. Press, 2012);
Feudal Society, the Royal touch, and French rural history (Bloch, Marc. The Royal Touch
(Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 20 Feb. 2015) Febvre covered work on intellectual history
and history of emotions (Febvre, Lucien. “La Sensibilité et l’histoire: Comment Reconstituer La
Vie Affective d’autrefois?” Annales d’histoire Sociale (1939-1941), vol. 3, no. 1/2, 1941, pp. 5–
20). Burke as well as Krom and Guyatt have offered an account of the Annales (The lessons of
Max Weber and Marc Bloch. (2021). Krom, Guyatt and Burke covered the Annales in their
work (Krom, M. , Guyatt, E. (Trans.). An Introduction to Historical Comparison (pp. 23–37).
London: Bloomsbury Academic. from http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350123359.0009
Burke, P. (2021). The Annales in Global Context. In Q.E. Wang (Ed.). Historiography:
Critical Readings: Scientific Models: From the West to the World (pp. 51–62). London:
Bloomsbury Academic. from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350237117.0008)
Post Modernism
The last few decades have seen the rise of a cluster of methodologies that go under the name
“postmodernism.” Originating in European, and especially French, literary theory, this
approach represents what some have called the “linguistic turn” in historical studies. Michel
Foucault (Foucault, Michel, and David Couzens Hoy. Foucault: A Critical Reader. Oxford,
UK; New York, NY, USA, Basil Blackwell, 1986.), Jacques Derrida and Jacques Lacan are
the key intellectuals behind the development of this approach. A method known as
“deconstructionism” lies at the heart of the postmodernist analysis of many forms of art and
literature, as well as of historical literature. Postmodernists aimed to deconstruct traditional
approaches to history by focusing on the importance of language and human nature. By
deconstructing history, the goal was to give equal importance to other histories that have been
disregarded by mainstream history and Jean Francois Lyotard (Jean-François Lyotard. The
Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Minneapolis, Minn. Univ. Of Minnesota
Press, 1979), Keith Jenkins (Jenkins, Keith, and Alun Munslow. Re-Thinking History.
London, Routledge, 1991) and Paul Ricoeur (Ricœur, Paul. The Reality of the Historical
Past. Marquette University Press, 1984) are representatives of this movement.
Postmodernism, which is prominent today in the field of cultural history, has had a
particularly marked effect on women’s history, gender studies, and the history of
imperialism; yet it remains controversial. Critics of postmodernism such as Hitchens’s book
Why Orwell Matters, claim that its emphasis on oppression and marginalization is a
distortion of the past and that it too readily lends itself to present-day polemical purposes and
political causes, to the detriment of scholarly rigour (Hitchens, Christopher. Why Orwell
Matters. New York, NY, Mjf Books, 20080).
Post-Colonialism and Subaltern Studies
Post-Colonial history developed in the UK and the US in the 1980s and focused on the study
of the formerly colonized regions and their independent development. The goal of this
approach was to look at the legacy of colonialism around the world between the 18th and
20th Centuries. The work of Franz Fanon (Frantz Fanon, et al. The Wretched of the Earth.
Preface by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. Penguin Books:
Harmondsworth, 1967) Important contributions to this approach also came from Young
(Young, Robert. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Chichester, West Sussex, UK,
Wiley Blackwell, 2016), Ngũgĩ Wa Thiongʼo (Ngũgĩ Wa Thiongʼo. Decolonising the Mind:
The Politics of Language in African Literature. London, J. Currey; Portsmouth, N.H, 1986).
Edward Said has been regarded as the pioneer scholar to start this critical approach with his
major contributions: Culture and power and Orientalism. (Said, Edward W. Orientalism.
Brantford, Ont., W. Ross Macdonald School, Resource Services Library, 1978 and Said,
Edward. Power, Politics, and Culture. Pantheon, 2001). According to Said, Otherness is part
of modern nationalist rhetoric to define a nation and once it is negated, it is subject to the
power of the colonizer. It is this discourse that early post-colonial thinkers, like Said, hoped
to displace. Criticism of his work has been written by Bernard Lewis and other scholars
including Al-Azm (al-‘Azm, Sadik Jalal. " Orientalism and Orientalism in reverse
". Orientalism: A Reader, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000, pp. 217-
238. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474470476-026) Rotter (Rotter, Andrew J. “Saidism
without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History.” The American Historical Review,
vol. 105, no. 4, Oct. 2000, p. 1205, 10.2307/2651409).
Subaltern Studies, a post-colonialist critical approach, came out in 1982 as a series of journal
articles published by Oxford University Press in India. A group of Indian scholars trained in
the west wanted to reclaim their history. The purpose of this new approach was to regain
history for the underrepresented and marginalised groups and to break away from Western
imperial History. Subaltern Studies promoted aspects of history including class, caste,
gender, race, language, and culture. The primary leader was Ranajit Guha who had written
works on peasant uprisings in India (Guha, Ranajit. A Subaltern Studies Reader, 1986-1995.
Minneapolis, the University of Minnesota Press,1997).
Another leading scholar of subaltern studies is Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Her approach
considers different theoretical approaches from deconstruction, and Marxism, to feminism. In
other words, proponents of subaltern studies suggest that we need to find alternate sources to
locate the voice of the subaltern historically. (Chakravorty, Gayatri Spivak. Can the
Subaltern Speak?: Reflections on the History of an Idea. Edited by Rosalind C Morris, New
York, Columbia University Press, 2010). This new approach had profound political
repercussions not only within academia but also in the wider society. Prakash highlighted
important points in relation to this approach (Prakash, G. (2021). Subaltern Studies as
Postcolonial Criticism. In Q.E. Wang (Ed.). Historiography: Critical Readings: Challenges
and Criticisms: From the 1990s to the Present (pp. 35–49). London: Bloomsbury Academic.
from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350237124.0008.
Dirlik’s approach to post-colonialism includes an analysis of globalisation and Eurocentrism
(Dirlik, A. (2021). Is There History after Eurocentrism?: Globalism, Postcolonialism, and the
Disavowal of History. In Q.E. Wang (Ed.). Historiography: Critical Readings: Challenges
and Criticisms: From the 1990s to the Present (pp. 104–125). London: Bloomsbury
Academic. from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350237124.0012)
Critics of Subaltern Studies, like Dipesh Chakrabarty suggest that it is impossible to fully
break from the western narrative (Dipesh Chakrabarty. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial
Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton, N.J.; Oxford, Princeton University Press,
2000).
Conceptualising history
From 1975 to 1995 the research interests of historians changed over time toward newer
approaches that incorporated other disciplines and led to new approaches like Gender
History, History of sexuality, Food History, Environmental History etc. These new
approaches and fields have developed new methodological approaches to history and
redefined concepts related to gender, identity, minorities, and post-colonialism. The work of
Tamm and Burke has highlighted these new trends and how history is adapting its methods to
new challenges posed by our societies. Environmental history and the History of memory are
discussed in the book and offer new ways of understanding the past (Tamm, Marek, and Peter
Burke. Debating New Approaches to History. Bloomsbury Publishing, 4 Oct. 2018) the
development of this approach can be found in Crozer’s article which highlights important
development of the concept of Gender over time (Crozier-De Rosa, S. (2021). Gender. In
Bloomsbury History: Theory and Method Articles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350970861.062)
Gender History and Islamic Feminism
Gender History is a sub-branch of history and began a century ago with the work of
Christine, De Pisan (Christine De Pisan and Rosalind Brown-Grant. The Book of the City of
Ladies. London; New York, Penguin Books, 1999). As a concept, gender is a social and
cultural construct and refers to the way by which men and women are socially conditioned by
their social roles. Joan Scott argued that gender was a key category of historical analysis and
that it is vital to understand how femininity and masculinity are constructed in different
societies (Scott, Joan W. “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis.” The American
Historical Review, vol. 91, no. 5, Dec. 1986, pp. 1053–1075, 10.2307/1864376 and Scott,
J.W. (2021). Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis. In Q.E. Wang (Ed.).
Historiography: Critical Readings: Scientific Models: From the West to the World (pp. 271–
291). London: Bloomsbury Academic. from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350237117.0026)
According to Judith Butler, gender is not a thing or a variable, but a system of relations that
shape our behaviour and the way we see the world (Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble:
Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London, Routledge, Mar. 1990). The work on
gender has also focused on societies in which women lived both in the private and public
spheres. In this regard, the work of both Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work,
and Family (Tilly, Louise A. Women, Work and Family. Routledge, 2016) and Rosalind Carr,
Gender and Enlightenment Culture in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Carr, Rosalind. Gender
and Enlightenment Culture in Eighteenth-Century Scotland. Edinburgh, Edinburgh
University Press, 2014) are extremely important contributions to the field. The connection
between gender and the marginalised has produced a new body of work which has used
intersectionality to frame the history of the dispossessed in Western society as well as
overseas. Lerner’s major ‘Black women in White America’ was published in 1972 and
covered 350 years of black women’s slavery history (Lerner, Gerda. Black Women in White
America. Vintage, 1973). Angela Davis’ book ‘Women, Class and gender’ has delivered a
comprehensive history of how class inequality, race and gender have affected the status of
Black Women in the US (Davis, Angela Y. Women, Race, & Class. Knopf Doubleday
Publishing Group, 2011).
The uncovering of the relationship between power and representation in Said’s orientalism
has been developed by feminists of Muslim background. Melika Mehdid’s study on
representations of colonial Muslim women, brings together orientalism, imperialism, and
gender and demonstrates that feminist readings of Orientalism can be applied to a Middle
Eastern context. (Mehdi, Malika. “A Western Invention of Arab Womanhood: The “Oriental”
Female.” Women in the Middle East, 1993, pp. 18–58, 10.1007/978-1-349-22588-0_2).
Mohja Kahf has shown that orientalist representations of women were instrumental in
constructing the French and British empires which, ‘in subjugating whole Muslim societies,
had a direct interest in viewing the Muslim woman as oppressed (Mohja Kahf. Western
Representations of the Muslim Woman. University of Texas Press, 1 Jan. 2010). The most
prolific scholars on Feminism and Islam have been in Egypt with the work of Leila
Ahmed (Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate.
New Haven, Yale University Press, 2021), Margot Badran (Badran, Margot. Feminists,
Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt. Princeton, Princeton University
Press, 1999); Beth Baron (Baron, Beth. The Women’s Awakening in Egypt: Culture, Society,
and the Press. New Haven Yale University Press, 2010) and Cynthia Nelson (Nelson,
Cynthia. Doria Shafik Egyptian Feminist: A Woman Apart. American University in Cairo
Press, 1996). The parallels for Turkey are described by contributors to Zehra Arat (Zehra F
Kabasakal Arat. Deconstructing Images of “the Turkish Woman.” New York, Palgrave,
2000) and by scholars writing mostly in Turkish. For Iran, Parvin Paidar (Parvin Paidar.
Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 2005) and Afsaneh Najmabadi's articles and book have discussed the challenges of
gender in Iran (Afsaneh Najmabadi. Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards
Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity. Berkeley, Calif. Univ. Of California
Press, 2010).
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