The Formation of Elements

1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – hydrogen and

helium
2. Stellar Nebula – birthplace of stars
3. Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis in Stars
– elements up to iron
The Formation of Elements
3. Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis in Stars
protostar – no nuclear fusion yet
main sequence – fuse hydrogen to helium
red giant – fuse helium to carbon and oxygen
The Formation of Elements
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
2. Stellar Nebula
3. Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis in Stars
4. Nucleosynthesis by neutron capture –
elements heavier than iron
The Structure of the Atom:

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-atomic-models-timeline-sorted-by-the-year-they-were-proposed_fig12_318027503
Chemical Bonding (Intramolecular Forces)
Atoms bond to become stable (8 valence electrons)
1. Ionic – metals and nonmetals; attraction
between oppositely charged ions.
2. Covalent – nonmetals; sharing of outer
electrons; single, double, triple bond.
3. Metallic – metals; sharing of “sea” of
delocalized electrons.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:
1. Ion-Dipole – the force between an ion and a
dipole (polar molecule).
2. Dipole-Dipole (Van Der Waals) – attractive
forces between polar molecules.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:
3. Hydrogen Bonds – special type of dipole-dipole
interaction that involves hydrogen and an
electronegative atom such as nitrogen, oxygen, or
fluorine.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:
4. (London) Dispersion Forces - force that act on
all molecules and always occur because electrons
are unevenly distributed

https://missballinger.wordpress.com/vce-chemistry/unit-1-2/chapter-7-covalent-bonding/
Properties of Matter:
• The stronger the IMFA, the greater will be the
surface tension, the higher will be the
viscosity, melting and boiling points, and heat
of vaporization, and the lower is the vapor
pressure.
Biological Macromolecules
• large organic compounds; carbon atoms are
covalently bonded with atoms of other
elements particularly hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorous
• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids
Biological Macromolecules
• Carbohydrates - general formula CnH2nOn
- provide energy for cellular functions.
- serve as structural support inside the cell
walls of living organisms.
Biological Macromolecules
• Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides – one sugar molecule
Ex. fructose, glucose, galactose
• Disaccharides – two sugar molecules
Ex. sucrose (glucose + fructose) , lactose (glucose
+ galactose) , maltose (glucose + glucose)
• Polysaccharides – starch, cellulose, glycogen
Biological Macromolecules
• Lipids - made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
- store energy for later use and serve as water –
repelling component of cell membrane.
- fats, oils, wax, hormones, glycerol, steroid.
- classified as saturated (animal fats), unsaturated
(plant sources) and trans fatty acids (synthetic).
Biological Macromolecules Function of Protein Common Examples

• Proteins - made of carbon, 1.) Provide Structure Feather, collagen,

keratin

hydrogen, oxygen and 2.) Send Message Insulin

3.) Transport and Hemoglobin in the
nitrogen. Storage blood, albumin in
egg white
- play vital part in all life 4.) Helps in the Actin and myosin in
Mobility muscle cells
processes such as transporting 5.) Acts as Catalyst Enzymes
oxygen, nutrients and minerals 6.) Immunity Antibodies in the
form of globular
throughout the whole body. proteins
Biological Macromolecules
• Nucleic Acids - made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphate.
- building blocks (monomers) are nucleotides
which has three basic parts: phosphate group,
nitrogenous base and pentose sugar.
- play an essential role in the storage, transfer, and
expression of genetic information.(DNA and RNA)
Chemical Reactions
Atoms can form molecules and molecules can
break apart to form atoms.
• Evidences of Chemical Reactions
- color changes
- a solid is formed (precipitate)
- bubbles form
- heat and/or flame is produced or absorbed
Chemical Reactions
Types of Chemical Reactions:
• Combination (Synthesis) – 𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐴𝐵
• Decomposition - C → 𝐴 + 𝐵
• Single Displacement - A + BC → 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵
• Double Displacement - A𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 → 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶
• Combustion - A𝐵 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 +
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Energy and Chemical Reactions
• In a Chemical Reaction, Energy is either ABSORBED or
RELEASED, and are usually in the form of HEAT or LIGHT.
• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY is applied since the
total amount of energy is the same.
• Exothermic Reaction – Energy of Reactants ˃ Energy
of Products.
• Endothermic Reactions - Energy of Products ˃ Energy
of Reactants.
Factors Affecting Rate of Chemical Reaction:
• Nature of Reactants – molecules that are joined
by simple bonds react faster.
• Surface Area - more contact between reactants
leads to faster reaction.
• Temperature - higher temperature translates into
more collisions per unit time.
Factors Affecting Rate of Chemical Reaction:
• Presence of Catalyst – catalysts speeds up the
reaction by lowering the activation energy
• Concentration - If the concentration of the
reactants are increased, the number of molecular
collisions also increases.
 The Earth and the Universe
• Geocentric View – Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Brahe
• Heliocentric View – Aristarchus, Copernicus, Galileo,
Kepler, Newton

http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/liao/introduction.html
The Earth and the Universe
• Kepler’s Laws of Planetary
Motion:
• Law of Ellipses
• Law of Equal Areas
• Law of Harmonies

https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/90830
Aristotelian vs Galilean Motion
• Aristotle
• Natural Motion - straight up or down.
• Violent Motion - requires a push or a pull; motion
continues only so long that there is an applied force.
• Projectile Motion - the projectile motion of an object is
parallel to the ground until it is the object’s time to fall back to
the ground.
• Heavy objects fall faster than light objects
Aristotelian vs Galilean Motion
• Galileo
• Vertical Motion - In the absence of
resistance, objects will fall not depending
on their weight, but in the time of fall.
• Horizontal Motion - An object in
motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in
motion, and an external force is not https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/20
16/10/21/aristotles-laws-of-motion/
necessary to maintain the motion.
Aristotelian vs Galilean Motion
• Galileo
• Projectile Motion - is a
combination of uniform motion
in the horizontal direction and
uniformly accelerated motion in
the vertical direction.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Law of Inertia
-an object moving with constant
- an object at rest remains at rest. velocity remains moving in a straight
line with unchanging speed.

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-uniform-
https://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/2984724-car-parking-lot motion-and-uniform-acceleration-motion
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Law of Acceleration

• change in speed
• change in direction
• change in both speed and
direction https://mechanicalbase.com/conversion-of-units-for-acceleration/
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Law of Interaction
• Action and reaction forces
• occur simultaneously
• equal in magnitude
• applied in different
bodies (opposite in direction)
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

- all objects attract each other with a force of gravity.

- gravity is the weakest among fundamental forces.
Newtonian Mechanics
• Distance vs Displacement
• Speed vs Velocity
• Constant Velocity vs Constant Acceleration
Newtonian Mechanics
• Constant Velocity vs Constant Acceleration
Work and Energy

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Work and Energy
• Work is done when the energy of the object is
changed.
• Potential Energy - 𝑃𝐸𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1
• Kinetic Energy - 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Conservation of Energy
• Law of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, only transformed.
Conservation of Momentum
• Momentum – inertia in motion 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Theories of Light:
• Corpuscular Theory – Newton; particle nature
• Wave Theory – Huygens; wave nature
• Electromagnetic Theory – Maxwell; light is an
EM wave.
• Quantum Theory – Planck; light as photons
(packets of quantized energy).
Light Interaction with Materials:
Light Interaction with Materials:
• Reflection of Light
• Regular Reflection and Diffuse Reflection
• Law of Reflection
Light Interaction with Materials:
• Reflection of Light
• Colors
Light Interaction with Materials:
• Refraction of Light
Light Interaction with Materials:
• Dispersion and Scattering
of Light