**Class Notes: Biology**
*Topic: Fundamentals of Biology*
1. **Introduction to Biology:**
- Definition and scope of biology.
- Levels of biological organization: atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms,
populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere.
- The scientific method and its application in biology.
2. **Cell Biology:**
- Cell theory: cell structure and function.
- Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells.
- Organelles and their functions: nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.
- Cell membrane structure and transport mechanisms.
3. **Genetics:**
- Mendelian genetics: inheritance patterns, Punnett squares.
- Chromosomal theory of inheritance.
- DNA structure and replication.
- Gene expression: transcription, translation, regulation.
4. **Evolution:**
- Principles of evolution by natural selection.
- Evidence for evolution: fossil record, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular biology.
- Mechanisms of evolution: genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection, speciation.
5. **Ecology:**
- Levels of ecological organization: organismal ecology, population ecology, community ecology,
ecosystem ecology, global ecology.
- Energy flow and nutrient cycling.
- Biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystems.
- Interactions between organisms: competition, predation, symbiosis.
6. **Biodiversity:**
- Definition and importance of biodiversity.
- Classification of organisms: taxonomy, phylogeny.
- Major taxonomic groups: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
- Threats to biodiversity and conservation efforts.
7. **Physiology:**
- Homeostasis and feedback mechanisms.
- Function of major body systems: nervous system, endocrine system, digestive system, circulatory
system, respiratory system, immune system, reproductive system.
- Regulation of physiological processes.
8. **Plant Biology:**
- Plant structure and function: roots, stems, leaves, flowers.
- Photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
- Plant reproduction: pollination, fertilization, seed dispersal.
9. **Microbiology:**
- Characteristics of microorganisms: bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists.
- Microbial diversity and importance.
- Microbial ecology and interactions with other organisms.
10. **Biotechnology:**
- Applications of biotechnology in medicine, agriculture, and industry.
- Genetic engineering techniques: gene cloning, PCR, recombinant DNA technology.
- Ethical considerations in biotechnology.
11. **Human Biology:**
- Human anatomy and physiology.
- Health and disease: causes, prevention, treatment.
- Human genetics and genetic disorders.
12. **Behavioral Biology:**
- Animal behavior: innate vs. learned behavior, social behavior, communication.
- Neurobiology and behavior.
- Evolutionary explanations for behavior.
These notes cover the foundational concepts of biology, ranging from cell biology to ecology and
including topics such as genetics, evolution, and physiology. They provide a comprehensive overview of
the field of biology and its various sub-disciplines.
