Finals Health- Education

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 CHAPTER 9

Determinants of Learning
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO and emotions as the learner interacts with the
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT environment which accumulates in the body
Growth is tantamount to the word "increase" or the system and in turn internalizes all these forming
quantitative changes in terms of learning. Growth into ideas, assumptions and inferences explicitly
simply means the acquisition of more knowledge manifested through behavior change.
which often results in maturation, while Experiences make up the raw material that is the
development is the orderly, dynamic changes in a basis for both learning and development.
learner resulting from combination of learning, Students construct their understanding of the
experience, and maturation (Eggen: 1994). world based on these experiences (Bigge: 1982).

Development represents the qualitative changes in

an individual as evidenced by their intellectual, Note:
Experience with the physical world entails
emotional and physiological capabilities. This
observation from which development may occur
encompasses the ability of the body to function through the acquisition of knowledge and
consistent with growth patterns. Hence, growth and analysis. It is just like comparing similarities and
development are intertwined or interrelated in order differences between rectal and oral thermometers.
to proceed with normal maturation process. One has to observe in order to accurately
differentiate the two apparatuses and make
FACTORS INFLENCING INTELLECTUAL comparisons in terms of use and functions to
DEVELOPMENT come up with precise description of purposes and
indications.
Development of intellectual faculties is part of the
qualitative change expected in an individual as one
goes through the process er stages of development.
It requires several complex factors to enable one to 3. - is the acquisition of knowledge,
arrive at an expected learning behavior, habits and abilities, habits, attitudes, values and skills
values in life. derived from experiences with varied stimuli. It
is the product of experiences and the goals of
1. - refers to the biological changes education where students are trained to profess
in individuals that result from the interaction of for further development. Learning ranges from
their genetic makeup with the environment. The simple forms to more complex activities
genes of an individual provide the blueprint for acquired and assimilated, depending on
development; the environment interacts with interaction between the learner's genetic make-
these genes to influence rate and direction of up and the learning environment resulting in
growth (Eggen: 1994). maturation and development (Eggen: 1994).
2. - refers to observing.
Encountering or undergoing changes of
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO
Individuals which generally occur in the course STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
of time. This also involves feelings Conceptually, the stages of development best
describe the ways students think about the

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world and the use of information. Progress from one child who can classify objects into toys and non-
stage to another represents qualitative changes in toys performs a mental operation. Preoperational
students' thinking. These stages of change are more stage refers to an incomplete stage of
analogous to the transformation of a caterpillar to a development. Many dramatic changes occur in
butterfly than the slow and gradual accumulation of children as they pass through the preoperational
bricks to build a house (Chiatum: 2004). stage, and a child at the end of the stage is very
The characteristics and developmental milestones of different from one time at the beginning.
each stage, keep these ideas in mind, such that:  Example: A child who can explain that
dividing a cookie dough into little pieces
a. Growth and development is a continuous does not result in any less dough than before.
process from. conception till death. a. Language development also occurs at this
b. These stages are continuous rather than stage.
discrete hence, a child develops gradually, b. Toddlers can formulate a number of
visibly and continually. concrete concepts.
c. While chronological ages are attached to c. Abstract concepts such as values remain
stages of growth and development, the rate beyond the grasp of the child's ability to
at which children pass through them differs understand.
widely, depending on individual maturation
rates and their culture. - the child learns to
d. While rate varies, all children must pass accommodate more information and change
through each stage before progressing to their ideas to fit reality rather than reasons.
another more stage. complex development Their thinking is influenced by the following:
The Cognitive Theory of Jean Piaget explains the a. Centration - the tendency of the child is to
developmental task each child passes through focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to
during the growth and development process the exclusion of all other aspects.
(Whaley and Wong: 2008). b. Non- transformation - the child is unable
to mentally record the process of change
Following are the learning tasks inherent in each from one stage to another. Their sense of
stage: understanding is still not fully determined as
the child is only concerned with events at
0 - in the
present.
sensorimotor stage, a child first develops tuning
c. Irreversibility - the child is unable to
sensory and motor capacities such sight and
mentally trace a line of reasoning back to its
hearing. This is shown in their reflex behavior in
beginning. The child thinks primarily on the
response to the stimulus the infants is in contact
basis of their own perception of events.
with. This means that their thinking is limited to
d. Reasoning - preoperational children do not
how the world responds to their physical
use inductive or deductive reasoning.
actions. An infant has no representations of
Problem solving is based on what they see
objects in memory which 1iterally means that
and hear directly rather than what they recall
any object that is "out of sight" is "out of mind".
about objects and events.
 Example: A child when reasoning
- the preoperation stage is deductively, concludes that the number
characterized by perceptual dominance. A of coins in the two rows is the

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 same; no coin has been added or taken - Searches for objects behind parent's back
away, hence, the number must be the - "We go to the store
same, event if the bottom row is longer. - Points out car window and says
A fourth grader given the problem "truck!"
simply says, "You just made the row - Concludes that all water in a sink
longer," or "You just spread the coins came from the faucet
apart", reflecting her reasoning.
As previously cited, every individual is unique and
thus, student is entirely different from another
- the school age or the concrete
student regardless of his, her demographic profile. It
operations stage marks the advancement in the
is therefore important for the teacher acknowledge
child's ability to think about the world around
these differences to be able to devise a teaching
him. It is characterized by:
strategy most suited to each of her students. In
a. Able to discover concrete solutions to
doing so, the teacher should consider the following
everyday problems.
aspects:
b. Starting to overcome preoperational
deficiencies.  Intelligence
c. Reasoning tends to be inductive.  Multiple Intelligences
d. Ability to think logically about concrete  Emotional Intelligence
objects hence, they can form conclusions  Socioeconomic Status
based on reason rather than men perception  Culture
alone.  Gender differences
e. Aware of past, present and future time  At-risk Students
1. - the teacher's primary
consideration in evaluating the learning needs of
her students is the intelligence level of each one.
a. Adolescents have logical thinking with Intelligence refers to aptitude or the person's
ability to provide scientific reasoning. solve capacity to acquire knowledge ability to think,
hypothetical abstract reasoning and capability in problem
b. They can problems and causality. solvi which is explained by the following
c. Have mature thought.. (Feldman: 2004):
a. Intelligence is determined by genetics and
Table 3. Piaget's stages of development and their
environment.
characteristics.
b. Intelligence is measured based on the results
Stage: Sensorimotor (0-1 year old) of intelligence tests or aptitude tests.
c. Students with high aptitude need less time
 Characteristics: Goal directed behavior and instructional support.
 Example: Makes jack-in-the-box pop up
The teacher can adjust and adapt instructional
Stage: Preoperations. (1-3 years old) approaches considering the differences in students'
 Characteristics: ability (Chiatum Hammond: 2005), as follows:
- Object permanence Rapid increase in a. flexible time requirements
language ability with over generalized b. increased instructional support
language c. strategy instruction
- Symbolic thought d. peer tutoring
- Dominated by perception e. cooperative learning
 Example :

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 problems systematically. They are also able to
differentiate important concepts from the less
a. - an indicator of
important. Strategic learners employ strategies
intellectual differences of learning for in order for them work efficiently and
individuals is the time requirement to grasp effectively to make their tasks case (Quinn:
comprehensively the subject well. This is 2000).
equated with the students' rate of growth and
their readiness to learn. Some students learn d. - It is said that student
faster than other students, hence, a teacher achievers are more equipped with the necessary
should design a teaching strategy that will knowledge and skills in facing challenges of
address students' time requirements in terms of learning. They can serve as sources of
learning. To facilitate the process, a teacher may information for less able students.
allow students who are slow learners to work on e. - studies showed that
alternative activities to provide more time for students who tutor less able students even
instruction. On the other hand, the teacher may benefit more than the less able students. Student
design extra activities such as free reading time, tutors are able to recall their knowledge in
related learning experiences, computer activities tutoring and further enhance their skills in skill
and other self enhancing activities for fast demonstrations. Student tutors are able to
learners. These activities can further enhance the enhance their social skills during cooperative
students' knowledge, interests and skills in the learning activities.
subject matter.
b. - to help
slow learners compensate for their relative 2. - the theory of multiple
deficiency in learning, there are a number of intelligences was proposed by Dr. Howard
methods available to the teacher including the Gardner, professor of education at Harvard
following: University. The theory states that the traditional
 The teacher's instructional style or approach concepts of intelligence, based on
must be adjusted to students' needs for 1.Q. testing, is far too limited. He thus, proposed
learning without compromising the overall eight different intelligences:
topic requirement for the course to be  Verbal-linguistic intelligence or "word
finished; smart" .
 Support of fast learners is involved in  Logical-mathematical intelligence or
helping the slow learners through peer "number/reasoning smart"
tutoring and group activities;  Spatial intelligence or "picture smart"
 Clarify and expand explanation of the  Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence or "body
subject matter before having students smart"
attempt to ask on their own;  Musical intelligence or "music smart" .
 Break lengthy assignments into shorter  Interpersonal intelligence or "people
segments; and smart"
 Provide frequent feedback as students work  Intrapersonal intelligence or "self smart"
through new materials.  Naturalist intelligence or "nature smart"
c. - research shows that  Other intelligences
student achievers are more likely use strategies a. Linguistic Intelligence or Word-smart -
that make their learning more effective. The verbal linguistic intelligence has to do with
strategic learners analyze and break down tasks words, spoken or written. Individuals with
or problem into smaller units and formulate verbal linguistic intelligence display a facility
solutions to tasks with words and languages and are typically
good at:
 Reading,

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  Writing. dexterity for motor movements i activities such as
 Story - telling, and dancing, craft making, and acrobatics, among
 Ward Memorization others.
They learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to Bodily-kinesthetic intelligent individuals could
lectures, discussion and debate. They excel in become good athletes, actors, dancers, and
negotiations, teaching and oration or persuasive e.craftsmen. - musical intelligence has to do with
speaking and learn foreign languages easily. music, music composition, rhythm, and bearing.
One learns best with music playing in the
Ward smart individuals could become good background and may use songs in memorizing
lawyers, creative writers, and teachers, among information. Individuals with high musical
Logical-Mathematical - students who have
b.others.
high logical mathematical intelligence are good intelligence are good in:
in:  Singing,
 Logical Reasoning,  Musical composition, and
 Abstractions,  Playing musical instruments
 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, and Individuals who have high musical intelligence
 Numbers could become musicians, singers, composers, and
conductors.
Individuals who have high logical-
mathematical intelligence excel in the
sciences, engineering, and commerce,
f. - people who have high
among others.
interpersonal intelligence are good in interacting
with others. They are usually extroverts
sensitive to others' needs, feelings, interests and
c. Spatial - this type of intelligence has to do with motivations. They learn best from group work
vision and spatial judgment. People with strong and activities. They are good in:
visual spatial intelligence are good in the  Communication
following:  Leadership,
 Visual and mental manipulation of  Negotiations, and
objects,  Politics
 Visual memory,
Individuals who have high interpersonal
 Arts, and
intelligence could become successful
 Geographic directions politicians, social workers, human resource
Spatial intelligent individuals may excel in the arts, managers, salespersons, teachers, and
engineering and architecture. counselors.

d. - this intelligence has to

do with movement. Individuals with this g. - intrapersonal intelligence
intelligence excel in: has to do with introspective and self- reflective
 Sports capacities. Individuals are usually introverts.
 Dance, and They learn best when allowed to concentrate on
 Other activities related to movement the subject by themselves and have a high level
These individuals have good muscle memory. of perfectionism. They are usually good in:
However, the intelligence requires skills and

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 deals with beauty and ugliness.
 Psychology. Other Intelligences include spiritual, existential
 Analysis, and moral intelligence.
 Philosophy, and
 Theology According to Gardner, existential intelligence is
the capability to raise and reflect on philosophical
Individuals who have high intrapersonal questions about life, death and ultimate realities.
intelligence could become philosophers,
psychologists, and evangelists, among others 3. - is a combination of
competencies. These skills contribute to an
individual's capability to manage and monito his
h. - this intelligence or her own emotions, to correctly gauge the
has to do with nature, nurturing and relating emotional state of others and to influence
information to one's natural surroundings. opinions (Caudron, 1999; Goleman, 1998)
Individuals with this type of intelligence have Goleman describes a model of five dimensions
great sensitivity to nature and the environment. (1995). Each area has its own set of behavioral
Covers metaphysics, the origin and essence of attributes as follows.
things. the nature man, among others. They are a. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize
usually good in: one's own feeling as this happens, to
 Botany accurately perform self- assessment and
 Zoology have self-confidence. It is the keystone of
 Metaphysics emotional intelligence.
 Ontology b. Self-management or self-regulation is the
 Astronomy Environmental Science ability to keep disruptive emotions and
impulses in check (self-control maintain
Individuals who have high naturalistic
standards of honesty and integrity
intelligence could' become successful
naturalists, environmentalists, veterinarians, (trustworthiness), take responsibility for
farmers, gardeners, and scientists. one's performance (conscientiousness),
handle change (adaptability), and be
comfortable with novel ideas and approaches
is a concept that deals with the (innovation).
nature of 22 knowledge, in particular, and the c. Motivation is the emotional tendency of
different aspects of what people 'know.' This guiding or facilitating the attainment of
includes: goals through:
 Achievement drive to meet a standard of
 Conceptual knowledge - this consists of
excellence:
ideas or abstract understanding of an actual
 Commitment or the alignment of goals
thing or event such as the shape of an apple.
with the group or organization;
 Perceptual knowledge - this is derived
 Initiative to act on opportunities; and
from one's senses such as the color of an
 Optimism or the persistence to reach
apple.
goals despite set backs.
 Intuitive knowledge - the cognitive
d. Empathy - is the understanding of others
meaning of a thing independent of reason
by being aware of their needs, perspectives,
such as gut feeling or intuition.
feelings, concerns, and sensing others
is a concept which relates to the ideas of developmental needs.
right and wrong and the means by which the two are e. Social skills - are fundamental to
delineated. emotional intelligence. They include:

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 imposed by the school as a learning
institution. This is often based on its
 Influence, or the ability to induce desirable
mission, vision, objectives and goals
responses in others through effective
whether it is a secular or non-secular
diplomacy of persuasion.
institution.
 Communication or the ability to both listen
 Example: A student with strong Islamic
openly and send convincing messages.
faith may find it difficult to adapt to a
 Leadership, or the ability to inspire and
learning institution run by Catholics
guide groups and individuals.
where Christian values such as
 Building bonds, or nurturing instrumental
compulsory attendance to first Friday
relationships.
mass is strictly imposed.
 Collaboration and cooperation with others
b. Classroom Organization - in most
toward a shared goal.
classrooms, students work and learn
 Create group synergy, the ability to pursue
individually. Emphasis is placed on
collective goals.
individual responsibility, which is often
Researchers have found that the student's emotional reinforced by grades and competition.
awareness and ability to handle feelings will Competition demands both successes and
determine her success and happiness in life. For failures, and the success of one student is
teachers, this quality of "emotional intelligence" tied to the failure of another.
means being aware of student's feelings and able to c. School Communication - cultural
empathize and guide them. For students, it includes conflict in communication may occur in an
the ability to control impulses, delay gratification, institution with Communication signals may
motivate themselves, sensitivity to other people's not always have the same meaning to
feelings, and ability to cope with life's challenges. another student of a different ethnicity.
 Example: A common Filipino student
4. - is a measure may tap his friend's head or nape as a
of a family's position in society as determined means of saying "hello" or "hey there". If
by family income, its member's occupation, and this is done to a fellow Filipino friend, it
level of education. SES affects learning both at would mean nothing but a mere act of
home and in school. Poverty affects a learner's friendliness. It would be disrespectful to
well-being and quality of life. This in turn do this to a Thai friend. This is because
affects the student's concentration, learning in their culture, it would be disrespectful
potentials, motivation, interests and participation to tap or touch someone else's nape or
in class. head.
5. - refers to attitudes, values, customs
and behavior patterns that characterize a social Different Treatment of Boys and Girls
group. Like SES, culture al influences school - from the day they were born, male and
success, through the students' attitudes and value female babies are treated differently. A
and ways of viewing the world that are held and baby girl is handled more delicately while a
transmitted by culture. Culture influences the baby boy is seen as tougher and more
following hardy. In regard to discipline, fathers are
a. Students' Attitudes and Values - to rougher and physical with their sons
become a good student, one must be able to compared to their daughters whom they
adopt to the cultural values tend to discipline verbally.
Stereotyping Boys and Girls - this
gender-based treatment extends up to the
child's school years. Males are considered
better in Mathematics while

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 females are better in English. This  Low motivation
stereotyping somehow has a subconscious  Dissatisfaction with and lack of interest
effect on students. Female students who school
have potential in the field of mathematics  High suspension rates
may be unable to explore their potentials  Poor attendance
due to the belief that females are not as
good, males when it comes to numbers Teachers with at-risk students should design their
(Simons: 1987). It is important for the teaching strategy in a way that would give more
teacher to design his or her teaching structure and support to dent's learning needs.
strategy with careful consideration of The following table presents suggestions on how to
providing equal learning opportunities address the learning needs of at-risk students:
regardless of student gender.
All learners have the potential to excel in any field :

7. - are those in danger of

failing to complete their education. They have  – Course
learning problems and adjustment difficulties. expectations need to be clearly laid out, and
They often fail even though they have the assignments and grades need to be designed to
capability to succeed. encourage achievement.
 - The teacher needs to bring
Table 4: Characteristics of at-risk students (adapted content personally to students through
from Educational Psychology Classroom interactive teaching rather than depend on
Connections 2nd Edition.) curriculum materials, such as the texts or
workbooks.

 Low SES - Interactive teaching with high
 Inner City questioning levels invites students to participate
 Minority in lessons. Open ended questions allow
 English as a second language successful responses and give students a chance
 Separated families to explain their thinking,
 Male  -
Student
 Transience progress should be monitored frequently
through classroom questions, quizzes and
assignments
 High rate
 -
 Lower grades
Content should be broken down into smaller
 High rate of drug use
steps, and student mastery should be ensured
 Management problems
before moving on to the next step. Constant
 Low self-esteem
review of earlier materials provides for
 Retention in grade
overlearning
 Low achievement
 High criminal activity rates  - Classroom
 Low test scores questions, assignments, and quizzes should be
 Less involvement in extracurricular designed to maximize opportunities for success.
activities

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 - Teachers should b. Competence motivation creates drive in
assume that all students can learn and emphasize oneself to master tasks and enhance skills.
higher order thinking in all classes. c. Competence motivation is essential in
coping with the fast changing environment.
LEARNING NEEDS BASED ON MASLOW'S
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
 Intellectual achievement (knowing and
Learning needs of students based on Maslow's understanding)
hierarchy needs is divided into two (2) categories  Self-esteem (recognition and approval)
(Simons: 1987):

1. - are those needs whose  Belonging (love and acceptance from

absence energizes moves people to meet them. family and peers)
Until a lower need is met, an individual unlikely  Safety(freedom from emotional and
to move to a higher need. physical threat)
2. - are needs "met", as they  Survival (shelter, warmth, food, water)
expand and grow a people have experiences
with them. Growth needs require people indulge
in activities that are physically and
psychological stimulating and enhances strength
and vigor to proceed to a highe level task.
a. As stated in the Bible, man is a steward to
Implications of the Hierarchy of Needs to Education God's creation. Hence, there is need for
control and temperance to do what is right to
a. Impoverished students who are unable to
oneself and to others.
meet their basic needs such as food and
b. Man continuously strives for competence
enough rest tend to have diminished
and autonomy.
motivation to learn.
c. Teachers may satisfy a student's need for
b. Students who have a low sense of security
control encouraging inputs such as opinions,
tend to achieve less than those who have a
suggestions a criticisms, among others,
high sense of security.
during class lectures discussions.
c. Growth needs energize and direct student
learning.
d. True motivation for learning develops only
a. Achievement motivation is the drive to excel
when students see the relationship between
in learning task to experience pride in
what they are learning and their primary
accomplishment
goals on rewards and punishments.
b. The need to achieve is balanced by the need
OTHER LEARNING NEEDS to avoid failure
c. Students with high need to avoid failure tend
to avoid challenging tasks.
a. Competence motivation is an innate need in d. Students with high need for achievement
human beings - an individual has the desire tend to be motivated by challenging
to improve one's capability in performing assignments, high grading standards, explicit
tasks necessary for development. feedback and the opportunity to try an
accomplish tasks as expected.

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e. Students who do not want to fail, are motivated the ability to think logically and overcome
by simple assignments, liberal grading, and preoperational deficiencies.
protection from embarrassment due to failure. e. Pubescent or Adolescent - Formal
Operational Thought (12-1 years) - they
MEMORY AID have logical thinking and scientific
1. Learners Are Categorized According to: reasoning.
a. Growth and development
b. Stages of development 5. Aspects Influencing Individual Differences
c. Individual differences a. Intelligence
b. Multiple Intelligences
2. Growth and Development Defined: c. Emotional Intelligence
a. Growth is the acquisition of more d. Socioeconomic Status
knowledge which often results in e. Culture
maturation. f. Gender Differences
b. Development is the orderly, dynamic g. At-risk Students
changes in a learner resulting from a
combination of learning, experience, 6. Intelligence - also known as "aptitude"
maturation.
7. Theory of Multiple Intelligences - the theory
3. Factors Influencing Intellectual Development proposes that the traditional notion of
a. Maturation - the biological changes in intelligence based on I.Q. testing, is far too
individuals that result from interaction of limited.
their genetic make-up the environment.
b. Experience - refers to observing, States Eight (8 various intelligences)
encountering, or undergoing activities a. Verbal - "word smart"
generally as these occur in the course of b. Logical-mathematical intelligence-
time. "logical or number smart
c. Learning - is the acquisition of c. Spatial intelligence "picture smart"
knowledge, abilities, habits, attitudes, d. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence - "body
values and skills. smart"
e. Musical intelligence "music smart"
4. Stages of Development f. Interpersonal intelligence "people
a. Infancy - Sensorimotor Stage (0-1 Year) - smart"
Focuses on reflex behavior as a g. Intrapersonal intelligence "self smart"
determinant of sensory and motor smart"
capacities thinking is limited and has no h. Naturalist intelligence - "nature
object in memory.
b. Toddler - Preoperations Stage (1-3 Years) 8. Emotional Intelligence - the student's
- Characterized by perceptual dominance. emotional awareness and ability to hand
A toddler who can classify objects into feelings indicates her success and happiness
toys and non-toys while performing a in all walks of life.
mental operation
c. Pre-schooler - Perceptual Intuitive 9. socioeconomic Status or SES - is a measure of
Thought (3-7 years) - the child tends to a family's societal position as determined by
accommodate more information and family income, its member's occupation, and
change their ideas to fit reality, level of education which may affect a
d. School age - Concrete Operations Stage learner's learning potentials and motivation.
(7-11 Year) Advancement and
10. Culture - the attitudes, values, customs, and
behavior patterns that characterize a social
group.

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 What is the tendency of a learner to focus on
11. Gender Differences - refer to the different one perceptual aspect of an event to the
treatment of boys from girls as imposed by exclusion of all other perspective?
cultural practices or society itself.  Centration
12. At-Risk Students - these are students in Which of the following develops tuning sensory
danger of failing to complete their education and motor capabilities, thinking that is limited
even if they have the learning potential and and has no object in memory?
due to learning problems and adjustment  Sensorimotor stage
difficulties. What is the ability to logically think in advance
and the ability to overcome preoperational
13. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - categorized deficiencies?
into deficiency needs and growth needs.
 Concrete operational stage
14. Other Learning Needs - includes the need for 0 What are the cultural practices of society where
competence, the need for control and the treatment of boys compared to girls differ?
 Gender difference
self-determination and the need to
achieve.

Which one simply means the acquisition of more

knowledge that often results in maturation?
 Growth
Which one refers to an orderly, dynamic
changes in a learner resulting from a
combination of learning experience and
maturation?
 Development
What is the biological change in individuals that
result from the interaction of their genetic
make-up with the environment?
 Maturation
Which one is a process of observing,
encountering, or undergoing things generally as
these occur in the course of time?
 Experience
What refers to the acquisition of knowledge,
abilities, habits, attitudes, values, and skills?
 Learning
Which one is characterized by perceptual
dominance?
 Preoperations stage

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 CHAPTER 10

Motivation in Learning
After understanding the various means through not use direct motivation, but rather she arranges
which students learn, the teacher needs to determine the environment, utilizes activities and various
the best way to encourage her students to learn and devices to help motivate students to learn.
keep them motivated throughout the course or series
of lessons being taught. It is only when the student PURPOSES OF MOTIVATION
remains motivated that learning takes place.
Teachers motivate their students to learn in order
MOTIVATION DEFINED to:

 Motivation is a process by which an individual  Arouse the desire to achieve a goal;

creates an inner drive to accomplish goals or  Stimulate action to accomplish a particular
objectives. It is something within an individual objective;
such as need, idea, physiologic state, or  Cause a student to perform in a desired way,
emotions that incite him or her to action. Arouse interest thereby making a student
Motivation influences an individual to act. It is a simply work; willingly and to complete
stimulus that causes man to act toward a tasks;
particular objective where previously. there was  Use various incentives such as the offering
little or no attraction to that objective (Bastable: of rewards or an appeal in order to excel;
2004). and
 Motivation is the practical art of applying  Stimulate an individual to follow a certain
incentives and arousing interest for purposes of direction desired for learning.
causing a student to perform in a desired way. It TYPES OF MOTIVATION
means choosing a study material and present
them in a way that appeals to student's interests occurs when the learner
and causes them to willingly work and complete wants to learn for the sake of learning. It is
this with sustained enthusiasm (De Young: based on personal motives and consists of self-
2003). generated factors that influence individuals to
 Motivation involves the use of various devices behave in a particular way, or to move to a
such as the offering of rewards or an appeal or particular direction. This involves factors such
desire to excel (adapted from The Dictionary of as:
Education: 2004).  Heredity
 In a sense, psychological motivation may be  Intellectual abilities Instinctual drive
interrelated, regarded as an energized state of an  Personal philosophy, vision and
individual brought about by dynamic factors, be mission in life
it intrinsic or extrinsic. Although maybe difficult  Desire for recognition
and often impossible to distinguish whether  Desire to serve others
motivation is intrinsically or extrinsically  Intrinsic motivation creates a sense of
related. responsibility or feeling that learning is
 The term is used to refer to important and having control over one's
devices and activities that the teacher may own resources, autonomy or freedom to net,
employ to bring about increased or active methods to use and develop skills and
learning. In a strict sense, the teacher does abilities, interest and challenge in

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 work and opportunities for advancement.  These are biological basic needs such as:
 Students maybe motivated to learn by food, clothing and shelter, among others.
understanding more their own strengths and Unless these needs are met, only then can an
weaknesses as learners (Wizers: 2006) individual proceed to the next category of
However, the influence of heredity and needs.
inherited traits, interaction of personality  According educational psychologists, the
and cognition affects maturation of learners teachers' to physiologic needs must be met
to absorb more information... in order to efficiently and effectively transfer
learning to a student. In the same manner
2. - occurs when the students' 11 physiologic needs must be met
learner wants to learn for reasons other than his in order to understand knowledge very well
or her own personal interest. Extrinsic for learning to take place. A student with an
motivation is based on social motives which empty stomach may find it difficult to
may include: concentrate hence, learning is hampered.
 Rewards such as increase in pay,
praise or promotion, as well as  Teachers and students have inherent need to
 Punishments, such as disciplinary survive to protect themselves from any
action, withholding pay and criticism; health hazards or injury. This include having
 To please significant directly involved a protection plan for sickness through
with the learner; environmental cleanliness, sanitation, waste
 A desire to compete with peer groups; management, clean air, and protection from
and fire hazards, among others. Adults have little
 Recognition and celebration. awareness of their security needs except in
 Extrinsic motivation is developed through times of emergency or periods of conflict in
the use of incentives which is an external the social structure such as strikes or
influence that moves a learner to act. widespread rioting. Children often display
 Both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of signs of insecurity such as separation
motivation are within learner. It is only the anxiety and the need for safety like being
learner who provides and activates these fed, cuddled, touched and talked to (Simons:
motivators. Intrinsic motivators tend to have 1987).
a deeper and more long term effect than
extrinsic motivators.
 Teachers and learners need a sense of
MASLOW'S THEORY OF MOTIVATION AND belongingness, love and acceptance from
significant people such as family members,
NEEDS
friends and neighbors in the community.
In 1943, psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed When social needs are met, feeling of
the theory of motivation and needs. According to loneliness and alienation from others are
this theory, people are motivated based on a variety easily overcome.
of needs which he categorized into five basic
groups:  Learners have the need for a stable, family-
based, high level of self-respect and respect
from others. A teacher should be careful not
to hurt her student's self-esteem by being
more friendly, tolerant and patient towards
her students'

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 mistakes and misbehaviors without knowledge of aptitudes and limitations they
undermining the need for discipline and will know what to build upon, what
good manners. The teacher must also potentials they really have.
encourage her students to strengthen their f. Make sure that the learner's basic needs are
talents and capabilities, recognize their satisfied, such as safety, belongingness and
potentials and learn to appreciate a value esteem needs.
their work. The teacher should likewise plan g. Refresh consciousness by teaching the
remedial measures to change students' learner to appreciate beauty and other good
weaknesses into strengths by helping them things in nature and in life.
realize their weaknesses and to accept h. Teach learners that self-regulation is good,
change that would make it easy for both the and complete abandonment is bad. It takes
teacher and the student to cope and adapt to control to improve the quality of life in all
each other needs. areas of living.
 Self esteem can be raised by rewarding i. Teach learners to transcend and analyze
students for the good they have done. Giving problems and attend to serious problems in
a student a verbal "pat-on-the- back and a life. These include the problems of injustice,
small present for a task that has been done of pain, suffering, and death.
correctly serve to boost a student's morale j. Teach learners to make good decisions by
self-concept (Niven: 2006). giving them opportunities to practice and
experience problem solving using
 refer to the realization of success Maslow hypothetical situations in the clinical
describes self-actualization as an individual's laboratory or in any related learning
need to be and do that which the individual was experience.
"born to do."
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS OF LEARNERS
Maslow states that teachers should respond to the
Learners are people easily affected by several
potentials of the learner to grow into a self-
factors surrounding them, be they intrinsic or
actualizing individual of her own kind. Points that
extrinsic. The learning process is initiated and
teachers should address to help learners respond to
facilitated by these factors depending on the
their self-actualization needs are the following
strength to which these motivate or affect learning
(Simons: 1987):
outcomes.
a. To be authentic, aware of their inner selves
and to listen to their inner-feeling voices. arise from the learner because
b. To transcend their cultural conditioning and she is part of a social setting. Learning takes
become world citizens. place within oneself, but enhanced when a
c. To discover their vocation in life, their learner is within a group of learners. Like for
calling, fate or destiny, particularly in example the difference in learning outcomes
finding the right career or mate. when a student does a home study program,
d. Teach learners that life is precious, that there isolating herself from interacting with other
is joy to be experienced, and if people are students, compared to a student learning in a
open to seeing the good side of life in all regular class interacting with her classmates and
kinds of situations, it makes life worth teachers. These needs are not purely biological
living. but represent the educative forces which any
e. Accept the learner as she is and help her social setting exercises on one's physical and
learn her inner nature. From real mental make-up.

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To motivate learners to undergo the process of of aspiration, which are determined largely
change and to meet their psychosocial needs the by an individual's self-concept, her
teacher should be concerned with the following to assessment of her own abilities, the amount
initiate learning: (Heidgerken (1971) of effort she is willing to exert in trying to
achieve a particular goal and her previous
a. - a student's feeling of being safe
success or failure in similar or related tasks.
and protected. It is a form of self-
preservation and therefore always present in h. - this refers to
some form of human behavior. A student acknowledgement of one's achievement in
learns best if she knows that the learning some activity by others. Ryan (2007) posits
environment is safe from risk factors such as that recognition pleases an individual which
fire, floods, Collapsible buildings, and inspires her to accomplish tasks that benefit
burglars, among others. herself and others for a common good. The
best example is Florence Nightingale where
b. - this is a feeling of concern or
is recognized as the Mother of Modern
worry about some anticipated event which
Nursing Professionally, Florence
seem to involve some danger to the
Nightingale standardized nursing practice,
individual learning process such as
through her human touch and scientific
assignments, and course requirements,
researches. Nightingale expanded the
among others.
meaning and ideals of nursing to satisfy
c. - student has the feeling of human needs of caring, making nursing the
being blocked or hindered to achieve a goal most indispensable profession locally and
because of some barriers or constraints in globally
the learning process.
i. - it is sharing experiences
d. - the need to achieve a status and activities with others. Since man is a
of self- sufficiency, which arises from the social being. She has an inner need to be
individuality of each person. Achieving accepted as a member of the group.
selfhood is a strong and positive
j. - this is a conscious awareness of
motivational force.
an inner desire for some object which has
e. - this is the fulfillment of concern or importance to a person. Interests
one's personality potential. It is an important are closely allied to attitudes, but may be
motivational force for man to aspire the best different in some aspects, such that:
things in life for her and others to  They involve personal identification with
recognition their capabilities and self-worth. the object, while attitudes do not.
Few men can achieve this status, some are  It is generally considered that interests
constrained by opportunities to excel both are directed toward a class of objects,
from within and outside the organization. while attitudes are oriented toward some
f. - the overt manifestation of specific objects.
one's personality to speak for oneself, her  Interests may be instinctual or acquired,
ideas, opinions, and feelings in a respectful but attitudes are only acquired.
manner without creating enemies. Assertion k. - the individual's inner
also arises from the basic need to display requirement for God. Some scholars have
one's personality to oneself and others. long recognized this need as one of man's
g. - the need to attain some most important needs. Modern psychologists
worthwhile goals, the degree of which varies like Jung, also have
from one person to another. Often, this need
is described in terms of levels

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 testified to the crucial motivational role of a task better than others. However, an
man's religious needs. Other psychologists individual may choose to compete with
denied its existence and substitute ideals in others or with herself as a form of
its place. motivation to improve or further enhance
her knowledge and skills.
2. - refers to the use of praise, reproof,
Following are three kinds of competition:
competition, knowledge of results, quizzes,
grades, among others, to initiate and sustain 1. Competition wherein an individual is one of
motivation. The effect of these incentives on the group that competes with another group;
students is relative and vary widely according to 2. Competition wherein an individual competes
the needs of the individua learner and goal of with other individuals in the same group;
learners, in general. However, caution is needed and
it their use for they may become ends in 3. Self-competition wherein an individual
themselves. Too many incentives may create compete against her own record.
complacent behavior and overshadow the rea
meaning of responsibility which may also  Competition can be held against absent
obscure development an maturity. or imaginary rivals. It can be intentional
and explicit, or implicit.
 Everyone, regardless of an individual's  Unwise use of competition can create
demographic profile psychologically undesirable traits in students, such as
craves for recognition or approval from fear, aggression, frustration, and
others whose may encourage or suppression and result in competition
discourage the individual to pursue becoming the end instead of the means
higher tasks for motivation.
 A number of studies attested the  Self-competition yields the greatest
assumption of the effectiveness of praise amount of learning. It is the fairest type
and reproof in motivating students to because the individual is not competing
study and pursue behavioral with someone of greater ability. Its
modifications among learners. power to stimulate does not wear out,
 According to Heidgerken, teachers must too.
be very careful in the use of praise and
reproof because unwise use can create
undesirable traits in students. Overuse  Students must be kept informed of their
can weaken their effectiveness. The progress through self evaluation,
teacher should use praise and reproof to assignments, tests and examinations and
build a sense of achievement in the through conferences with teachers. It
students, this will give them a feeling of strengthens the learner's determination to
satisfaction because, they have achieved reach the goal that she has set for herself.
a particular set of objectives.  It is important for a student to have
knowledge of her progress because this
may also motivate her to strive harder
 is urging oneself to take action to
and improve her knowledge or skills in
achieve a certain objective in order to
certain areas of concern.
prove one's capability or excellence. It
 Studies show that students who are kept
entails motivating oneself to perform
informed of their progress learn

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 more readily than those who are not Emulation is exemplified in cases where
well-informed of their progress. students are required by the teacher to do
their test in oral or written exercises.
 School marks stimulate school work to a Students are praised and recognized for
greater degree than other forms of bes and neat performance of assigned
motivation. School marks are used as tasks.
basis for grading and offer a powerful
stimulus to induce learning activities.  The use of material rewards helps
motivate students to learn However,
 often yields positive results. When a there are drawbacks in the use of
student knows that the best work is to be material rewards, such that:
exhibited, the desire to do better work is - It is necessary to increase rewards
stimulated or created. periodically to sustain and maintain
motivation to learn.
 The desire to play, when properly - Students may think that the
stimulated and directed, will maintain attainment of material reward is the
interest and facilitate learning. Play is an primary goal, while school learning
incentive for learning and a great factor becomes only an incidental means to
in physical and mental development. It an end which is quickly cast aside or
develops personal discipline essential in ignored when the reward is attained.
doing mature roles and ensuring - Other kinds of incentives maybe as
responsibility. effective or more effective and do not
lead to relegate learning to a
secondary position.

 has a motivating value. Examination  Punishment is used as a form of extrinsic

creates drive among students to prepare motivation. Traditionally, punishment
and review in order to attain a passing has been assumed to accomplish the
mark which will spare her of following:
embarrassment due to failure. - Teach the learner respect for
authority.
- Block undesirable responses.
 To be in the Dean's list is a motivation - Force the learner to do something he
itself. It gives a student sense of was not ready to do or did not want to
recognition and pride. However, this do.
type of motivation appeals only to bright - Set an example for potential offender.
students. - Make the student pay attention to
class work.
- Motivate students to learn assigned
 as a school incentive was widely material.
employed in the past (Gregorio: 1976).
These however, may block students desire to pursue
This principle governing emulation
life's goals since it imposes a self- threatening
should be to excel without hurting or
behavior derived from external
degrading others.

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forces, hence, may impair learning. However, for Understanding of the nature of motivation in
some cases, punishment may work; depending on learning a important, because:
the way it is carried out and as perceived by the
learner. 1. Motivation determines, not only the intensity
of the effort learn, but also the extent to
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN LEARNING which this effort is made as an activity of the
total personality.
 The purpose and importance of motivation in 2. Motivation of learning activities helps the
learning should be clearly understood by the student concentrate on what she is doing,
teacher. The fundamental aims of motivation are thereby gaining satisfaction.
as follows (De Young: 2007): 3. Continuous motivation is needed to help
1. To stimulate and facilitate learning activity. learners concentrate on the lessons to be
2. Learning is an active process and students learned.
need to be motivated and guided toward
desirable ends.. ASSESSING MOTIVATION AMONG LEARNERS
3. Learning is self-initiated, but it must be
aided by motives, or incentives so that the  Student motivation is markedly influenced by
learner will persist in the learning activity. the learning goals established and the feedback
4. A definite motive or incentive is valuable in provided. Both the teacher and students work to
all work, as motives and incentives will accomplish the goals and feedback can be
prepare the students to learn. pursued to meet the needs of each student. To
5. The greater the readiness to learn, the greater maximize the effectiveness of the learning
attention will be given to work on hand and process, the teacher needs to carry out brief
the sooner the desired result will achieved. motivational assessment of students (Bastable:
6. It is important to get the learner into a state 2003).
of readiness to learn for it increases  Both internal and external factors affect
alertness, vigor and wholeheartedness of individual learners' motivation. These factors
learning. can be positive, serving to encourage motivation
7. One sure way to operationalize the law of or negative impeding a desired outcome in a
effect is to assist the learner in achieving given individual. Redenson (2001) sees
ends and purposes which she desires to motivational assessment of the learner to be
attain. integral to successful teaching. Following are
 The real problem in motivating students for aspects of assessing students' motivation:
schoolwork is how to discover values strong 1. Previous learning experiences, like positive
enough to stimulate students to effectively give and negative outcomes and processes;
their best efforts. The value that appeals 2. Personal attitudes and beliefs about learning
strongly to one individual may have little or no like reasons for taking up nursing;
appeal to another individuals. Moreover, the 3. Readiness to learn such as interest in the
value that appeals to an individual at one time subject and impact of external factors such
may not appeal as strongly at another time. as family life;
Hence, the teacher must be continually alert to 4. Availability of resources to support learning,
perceive these differences and fluctuations. such as library, laboratories, computer
Since no two learners react the same way, access, social support, financial resources;
motivation for learning must vary for every and
individual (Turney: 1931).

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 5. Level of anxiety where moderate levels of h. Dean's List
anxiety enhances motivation while high i. Emulation
levels of anxiety impede it. j. Material Rewards
k. Punishment
MEMORY AID

a. Motivation is the process which creates an PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

inner drive within, individual to seek
1. What is a process which creates an inner drive
goals or objectives.
b. Motivation influences an individual to act. in an individual to seek goals or objectives?
 Motivation
a. To arouse for desire to achieve a goal. 2. Which one occurs when the learner wants to
b. To stimulate action toward a particular learn for the sake of learning based on personal
objective. motives or intentions?
c. To cause a student to perform in a desired  Intrinsic motivation
way. 3. People are motivated based on a variety of
d. To create interest thereby cause a student needs and categorized into five basic groups.
to do the work hand and willingly Which theory does this refers to?
complete it.  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
e. To use various devices such as offering 4. What needs arise in an individual because he or
rewards or an app with the desire to excel. she is in social setting?
f. To push an individual to a certain
 Psychosocial needs
direction.
5. Which refers to the use of praise, reproof,
:
competition, knowledge of results of quizzes,
a. Intrinsic motivation develops when the
grades, among others?
learner wants to learn for the sake of
learning which is based on personal  Incentive
motives intentions. 6. Which stimulates schoolwork to a greater
b. Extrinsic motivation develops when the degree than the other forms of motivation?
learner wants to learn for reasons other  School marks
than learning which is based on 7. What creates a drive among students to prepare
environmental social motives. and review in order to get passing marks?
 Examination
Maslow states that people are motivated based on 8. What refers to the use of material rewards to
a variety needs which is categorized into five motivate students to learn?
basic groups:  Material reward
a. Physiological Needs 9. What is used as a form of extrinsic motivation?
b. Safety Needs  Punishment
c. Social Needs
10. Which statements show the least value of
d. Esteem Needs
motivation in learning?
e. Self-actualization Needs
 A specific motive or incentive is valuable in
a. Psychosocial Needs all work, as motives and incentives make for
b. Incentives. readiness
c. Knowledge of Progress
d. School Marks
e. Exhibiting Good Works
f. Game or Play
g. Examination

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 CHAPTER 11

The Learning Process

 Although there are a number of different process. The learner gets involved in a series
learning theories, there is considerable of mental activities that will work out to
agreement among educators that learning is grasp comprehensively all the concepts
essentially a changed behavior brought about by taught. In this aspect, the learner undergoes
exposure to various stimuli and that certain the process of unlearning, relearning, and
elements must be accomplished for learning to learning.
take place. emphasis on different aspects of
learning. Teaching theory places. Teaching STAGES OF LEARNING
precedes learning which is initiated by a process
or activities and is the central focus of a nurse A teacher must understand the of teaching and
educator is to create change in the learners. learning in order provide enough time and resources
Following is the learning process: for stages raining students so that the level of
knowledge desired can be achieved. It is important
the to include in the learning plan identification of
available training and acquiring outside resources
- Learning is manifested when needed. The following stages and
through change in behavior according to characteristics of resources learning were adapted
what is acceptable, consistent with the from the theory of Dreyfus as cited by Patricia
nursing discipline, and which learning is Benner (Tomey and Aligood: 2007):
applied for. Results or outcomes of
behavioral change, such as concepts, skills
and attitudes, are described rather than the  Has awareness of the subject area, but
ongoing process of learning (Davis: 2006). only in terms of abstract concepts and
ideas;
 Possesses little to no ability to put ideas
into practice in a reliable way; and
- emphasis of  Follows a set of rules without regard for
the learning process is on the dynamics of context in learning
learning, the sequence and the pattern of
change of behavior in the individual and  Has attained marginal learning to an
group of learners. The learning process acceptable performance level after
determines the level of interest and coping with real experiences;
understanding of the different aspects of the  Begins to understand the scope of the
learning situation which causes the learner to subject area and acknowledge her lack of
react, organize and pattern her behavior knowledge about the discipline; and
during a learning activity.  Able to apply tools, processes, and
principles in contexts similar to well
- function emphasizes certain defined cases they have studied.
critical aspects of learning, such as
motivation, retention, transfer and other
ongoing activities involved in the learning

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  Attained learning after exposure to a  Advanced beginner - dependent upon
working knowledge of a number of areas matching a situation to a proper rule set
making up the subject;  Competent - able to analyze situations in
 New skills and capabilities are order to determine the best alternative
internalized with the ability to go beyond  Proficient - focuses on choice that best
rule-bound procedures in a more achieves intuitive plan
complex setting ; and  Expert - actions are instinctual, automatic
 Capable of adapting their learning to manner, transparent view of self
varying situations by analyzing changed
circumstances and choice of alternatives.
 Novice - difficulty discerning between
 Has gained from experience in different relevant and irrelevant aspects of nursing
situations; situation
 Tools and concepts have been  Advanced Beginner - feel highly
internalized and can be applied to a responsible but rely for help from more
variety of situations without much effort; experienced mentors
and  Competent - consciously consider the
 Has an intuitive, holistic grasp of a value of alternative outcomes
situation without having to ignore the  Proficient - moves quickly based on
problem prior to determining a solution. previous experience
 Expert - instinctual does what normally
 Has fully internalized both perception works; meeting patients needs is of utmost
and action into their normal work importance
processes.

BENNERS STAGES OF LEARNING

 Novice - guided performance for skill
acquisition
 Advanced beginner - marginally
 Novice - needs elements to be clearly and acceptable performance having coped with
objectively defined; no background real situations
experience of situations  Competent - internalized and applied in
 Advanced beginner - perceives similarity more unstructured settings; gaining sense of
with prior examples; have enough mastery
experience to grasp situations  Proficient - intuitive and applies
 Competent - considers various consciously in all settings; skilled responses
alternatives: more realistic, has critical view to situation; increased confidence in their
of self own knowledge
 Proficient - internalized and intuitive  Expert - intuitive and applies instinctual in
situation grasp of all settings; recognize all variables in
 Expert - internalized and intuitive patter problem solving and decision making; no
recognition based on deep experiential longer relies on rules but connect decision
background with standards

 Novice - none; rule- guided, task-  Novice - 2 to 5 days

compilation oriented  Advanced beginner - 5 to 10 days

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  Competent - 20 to 30 days a. Helping the student identify patient
 Proficient - as needed to address needs; and
specific issues that may arise b. Selecting and arranging a learning
 Expert - informal through interaction with situation which will give the student:
other experts  The maximum opportunity to learn,
 To identify, analyze, and meet nursing
problems and
 Novice - 1 to 2 months  To motivate a patient to develop self-
 Advanced Beginner - 3 to 6 months reliant behavior.
 Competent - 12 to 18 months
 Proficient - 1 to 3 years 3. Perception - is making the student is capable
 Expert - 5 to 10 years to appraise nursing situations using her
senses and forming insights by:
a. Observing the patient's physical and
THE LEARNING PROCESS psychological condition;
b. Reading the patient's chart and nurses
EXPERT notes; and
c. Talking with the patient and her doctor,
The elements of the learning process consist of
and other personnel involved in patient
setting goals, selecting appropriate stimuli,
instructor. care and finally, her
perceiving, responding to stimuli, determining
consequence and learning experiences (Wiggens: The teacher can help the student
2006). improve perceptual ability through:

1. - the teacher must set long-term goals a. Assisting the student in discussing the
with his or her students. This can be patient's problem.
achieved through a long term process of b. Providing the necessary cues, to analyze
teaching and learning such as to acquire patient needs and problems.
nursing knowledge, professional values and c. Identifying and interpreting the patient's
skills. This is followed by specifying nursing needs and
learning objectives that requires short term d. Directing her attention to critical
activities to motivate students to learn and elements regarding nurse-patient
ultimately achieve the goal. relationship.

The teacher can help the student by:

4. - refers to the ability of the
a. Being available for guidance and as a student to identify patient care needs and
resource person to the student formulates an appropriate nursing care plan.
b. Encouraging the student to apply She also takes effort to communicate with
problem solving an student; and "critical her patients to disseminate information
thinking" to a given situation. through health teaching regarding nursing
care needs and home care.
2. - increase the ability of the student The teacher can help the student respond
to recognize the patient's specific needs in well to patient care needs through:
relation to the overall problem of the patient.
a. Checking student's nursing care plan,
The teacher can help the student reach his b. Helping her decide priorities of care,
or her goals by support and encouragement,

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 c. Giving encourage self-reliant behavior may also
d. Helping student realize that by the provide meaningful experience for the student
nursing problem may you require which motivates her further to perform well in
different approaches balde before it can the clinical area.
be solved; and
e. More time may be needed before very Note: The student's response to a given situation
tangible results can be obtained. through her nursing care plan is a result of her
 The teacher should help the student formulate perception analysis of the situation.
long-term planning and facilitate students'
6. - the student utilizes personal
understanding while giving her support to attain
knowledge and experiences to solve current
immediate success in her nursing career.
problems. She may also make use of other
 The student in turn should recognize assisting courses offered throughout the curriculum as
the patient is not sufficient; she may have to basis for designing her nursing care plan.
apply further nursing theories a techniques to
encourage the patient to work and negotiate with The teacher can help the student integrate
her so and the final goal of patient care is past learning by:
attained
a. Encouraging the student to examine past
nursing knowledge and experiences for
5. - refers to the outcome of
validity and reliability of learning
nursing care rendered by the student to the
b. Identifying what nursing care measures
patient, the expected effects, the side effects were done to the patient; and
adverse reactions to nursing interventions. c. Making conscious use of the nursing
Nature of Consequences: knowledge and the skills she had
acquired in nursing for a particular
a. There is a rewarding or satisfying patient and or other patients.
response to the student, when health of
the patient progresses or made By assigning the patient to the student, the teacher
comfortable while in her state of illness. indicates her confidence in the student's ability to
A dissatisfying response occurs, on the integrate and transfer her knowledge of principles
other hand, if the patient does not and skills that she had acquired in past learning
respond to treatment or does not seem to experiences. The teacher is also able to judge the
improve in health. student's level of learning and readiness to apply her
b. A rewarding or satisfying response to the knowledge and skill to various complex situations.
student, if much learning was attained
while meeting the nursing needs of the MEMORY AID
patient. The student may still gain
nursing knowledge and experience from :
every nursing measure she used but did a. learning occurs from the point-of-view of
the end-result or outcome of teaching.
not meet patients' needs.
b. Learning is more concerned with what
 In this situation, the student confirms her happens during the course of learning than
response to her nursing care plan; who is to the end-results of learning.
make a breakthrough in terms of patient care. c. Learning can also be described as a
This in turn encourages her to continue caring function.
for her patient. The positive response of the
patient to nursing care which

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 acceptable performance level after coping with
a. Novice - the learner has awareness of the real experiences?
subject area but only in terms of abstract  Advance beginner
concepts. 5. What is the stage of learning when the student
b. Advanced Beginner - has attained has attained after exposure to a working
marginal learning to an acceptable knowledge of a number of areas making up the
performance level after coping with real subject?
experiences.
 Competent
c. Competent - has attained a working
6. What is the stage of learning when the student
knowledge after exposure to a number of
areas making up the subject. has fully internalized both perception and action
d. Proficient - has an intuitive, holistic grasp into their normal work processes?
of the situation without having to ignore  Expert
the problem prior to determining a 7. Which one requires a long term process of
solution. learning before one can achieve what is desired?
e. Expert - has fully internalized both  Goal
perception and action into their actual 8. What increases the ability of the student to
work situations. recognize the patient’s specific needs in relation
- set of long term process of learning. to the overall problem of the patient?
- increase the ability of the student to  Stimuli
recognize the patient's specific needs in relation to 9. What is the ability of the student to assess the
the overall problem of the patient. nursing situation using her senses and insights?
- the ability of the  Perception
student to assess nursing 10. When the student selects and identifies patient
- the student selects and identifies care needs and formulates an appropriate
patient care needs and formulates an appropriate nursing care plan. What learning process takes
nursing care plan.
place?
 Response

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. All of the following describe the theory of
learning process, except: Which one is not
included?
 Learning is more concerned with the end
- results of learning than with what happens
during the course of learning.
2. What is the stage of learning when the learner
has awareness of the subject area but only in
terms of abstract concepts?
 Novice
3. What is the stage of learning when the student
has an intuitive holistic grasp of the situation
without having to ignore the problem prior to
determining a solution?
 Proficient
4. What is the stage of learning when the student
has attained marginal learning to an

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 CHAPTER 12

Theories and Principles of Learning

THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR 1. - if response to a
IMPLICATIONS stimulus is satisfying to oneself, the tendency
for this is to be repeated under similar
 Learning theories are guidelines or principles
circumstances. The behavior is reinforced,
that direct an individual to understand the
developed, and internalized.
meaning of an event or situation. Theories
provide basic knowledge that underpin the 2. - immediate, positive,
teaching- learning process. Theories and tangible or intangible reinforcement through
practice are interrelated. They explain the of praise, reward, or recognition are major
each other since without theories, there can be conditions for successful behavioral change.
no practice and practice can be irrelevant Negative reinforcement slows down the rate at
without theories. which behavior occurs but does not eliminate it.
 Although transition from theory to practice is However, frequent negative inforcement may
difficult, a little critical thinking and reflective either suppress or demotivate the learner causing
thought, reveals that the study of human unhealthy behavior or impaired learning
learning theory, types of learning, and forces process. Response to learning is strengthened by
that influence learning can provide guidelines multiple and consistent reinforcement. The
for practice and help teachers establish the shorter the time interval between response and
conditions necessary to achieve learning reinforcement to learning, the more effective is
outcomes. the reinforcement in building stronger response.
 Over the years, theories of learning and the However, overuse of repetition or reinforcement
study of specific factors and conditions that can lead to students' loss of interest and sill not
influence learning have universal applicability. by itself establish association or connection to
In addition, (White 1991) learning principles learning.
have been generated for particular age groups. A 3. - increases memory and
teacher who makes decisions based on these improves learning performance. Frequent
principles is using the best available techniques application of the learned principles into
to guide professional teaching behavior. She has practice strengthens the learning process and
a chance of interacting effectively with learners can easily be internalized and shown in students'
than one who is not willing to apply the attitude and behavior.
principles. The following principles of learning 4. - a
are supported by empirical evidence and have critical prerequisite to behavior change is the
broad applicability to all types of learners, yet establishment of verbal and nonverbal
modification based on individual differences connections. Knowledge put into practice
and particular circumstances would be useful. provides a significant meaning of
interrelationships between what is real and what
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING is ideal. Forgetting occurs because of
In order for learning to take place and goals be interference of new learning experiences with
achieved, certain guidelines or principles are previously acquired ones. Previous practices
enumerated the following basic principles of may be replaced by current trends which makes
learning (Hoozer 1987): previous knowledge irrelevant.

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5. - perceptual readiness and internal psychomotor skill. This include the process of
motivation - these are mandatory conditions for perceptual awareness, reception, memory, recall,
behavioral change. The student who has the discrimination, association, generalization,
desire to learn regarding the subject matter chaining, and decision- making responses.
makes comprehension and retention easy, Psychomotor behaviors include affection and
whereas, students who are not interested to learn cognition, while Cognitive
make teaching and learning difficult. knowledge, include
6. - this comprehension, application, analysis, and
influences the ease with which learning takes synthesis responses which precede evaluation
place Systematic and dynamic presentation of responses.
subject matter consistent with students' 12. - flexibility is the
readiness to learn motivate active and ability of students to change and allow for more
productive learning process. ways to expand the learning process. Adaptation
to change to suit oneself into different events
7. - response associations and
and situations in order to speed up the learning
discrimination abilities - these are prerequisites
process. Developing general patterns of
to chained behaviors. However, connection or
personal, social, and emotional adjustment
association cannot be established by mere
include affecting, receiving, responding,
repetition of a response.
valuing, and organization responses.
8. - the cognitive
constructs of perceptual imagery and
 Learning to do requires a skillful, creative and
recognition of features, such as form, spatial
discerning application of knowledge. An
arrangement, texture, and so on an prerequisites
individual must learn how to think creatively,
to concept formation.
critically, and holistically and how to deeply
9.
understand the information received.
- students observe and analyze
 Education must contribute to the holistic
events and its relevance to current practice,
development of the individual's:
retains those that are useful and those that are
 Mind
not. These can be done through active sensory,  Body
cognitive and emotional participation and direct  Intelligence
physical involvement in learning process.  Sensitivity
10. - prerequisites to  Aesthetic sense
principles of learning and perception are concept  Personal responsibility
acquisition, and recall of previous knowledge  Spiritual values
learned, while Prerequisites to problem-solving
behaviors are Association, discrimination,
concept formation, generalization, recall
13.
perception, and selection responses.
- sharing Learning is a dynamic,
11. - some cognitive,
holistic and lifelong process through which
affective, and psychomotor behaviors can be
mutual respect, understanding, caring and
acquired, Strengthened or weakened by
compassion, social responsibility, solidarity,
observing and imitating the actions of others.
acceptance and tolerance of diversity among
The Use of critical thinking skills is a
individuals and groups are internalized. To
prerequisite to acquiring these cognitive
practice together the solving of problems and
work towards a just and free, peaceful

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 and democratic society, this is addressed
1. - learning
through the following efforts:
is of special value to teachers of nursing in
a. Develop broader or better perceptions of
understanding the unitary characteristic of
attitude toward self and others;
behavior. The teacher should understand that the
b. Professional behavior and interactions with
learner responds to the "whole" situation Or
others;
total pattern as a "whole person" in a unified
c. Understand others' history, traditions and
way. To make earning unitary and holistic, the
spiritual values; and
student must:
d. A spirit of respect for the values of
a. Respond simultaneously intellectually,
pluralism and peace.
emotionally, and physically.
b. React to the whole learning situation rather
14. - the aim of education is the than to a particular single stimulus.
complete of fulfillment man, understanding the c. Unless interference occurs, the students total
complexities of personality, expressions and reaction is Coordinated and integrated
commitments as an individual, member of a toward achievement of her goals.
family and community, citizen and producer,
inventor of techniques and creative mentors. Example:
Learning to be is anchored on:
The patient is no longer considered as "that little
a. Self - knowledge and relationship with
boy in Room 10". He is considered as a whole
other people;
person with psychological forces and anxieties,
b. Successful personal experience and
which some role in initially causing his illness and
personality training;
may interfere with his recovery as well as his
c. Highly individualized process and
physical condition.
interactive social experiences;
d. Freedom of thought, judgment, feeling and Furthermore, the patient responds to the total
imagination to develop talents to keep situation, and thus the personality of the nurse. The
control of their lives, and doctor and all who come in contact with the patient
e. Conscientization which is the process of will influence in some way his reactions and
being aware of contradictions existing recovery.
within oneself and in society and gradually
being able to bring about personal and 2. - learning
social transformation. is an entirely individual matter for the simple
reason that every behavior has to do with her
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING own learning. Each student must learn using her
own style of learning. Learning is social because
There are several primary characteristics of
it takes place in a group as some type of
learning, each of which may be applied the teaching
response to the social environment of the
and the learning of nursing in different ways.
individual. Some learners have high intellectual
Following are characteristics of learning posited by
ability while others low; some are able to
Heidgerken (1981):
express themselves comfortably, others have
a. Unitary and holistic difficulty in self- expression; some are leaders in
b. Individual and social group activities, others only tend to follow;
c. Self-active and self-initiating some are slow and deliberate to action, others
d. Purposive and goal-oriented are quick, active and fast-moving; some are
e. Selective and creative social, others shy and retiring; some are
f. Influential and is transferable definitely mechanical, others are aesthetic and
find security and affection in family and
friends. Others seek

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 to satisfy these needs through their classmates 6. Which type of learner who has a “hands on”
and teachers. Simply expressed, individuals learning style?
differ from one another and capabilities. are  Accommodating
their learning 7. Which type of learners who use their learning to
Factors which can give rise to differences among find solutions to practical issues?
individuals are numerous but among the most  Converging
important are the following: 8. Which type of learning style is concise and
logical in approach?
a. Heredity and genetic factors which influence  Assimilating
personality development to a great extent; 9. It states that one must be physically,
b. Family upbringing and religious orientation; emotionally, and mentally ready to learn. Which
Educational opportunity to become law is it referring to?
intellectually prepared, responsible, socially  Law of readiness
aware of his personality; 10. Which law stresses the idea that repetition is
c. Health which includes the physical, basic to the development of an adequate
psychological and social wellness; response to a stimulus?
d. Nourishment that enables the mind and body to  Law of exercise
grow and develop;
e. Work experience, and
f. Environmental factors.
Since meaningful learning can proceed only by
means of the learner's own purposes, aptitudes,
abilities and activities, it is necessary for the teacher
to assess individual differences of the learner in
each teaching-learning situation (Bastable: 2007).
These differences have to be recognized since
learning and society's achievements come from
diverse capacity, interest and viewpoint of
individuals.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the type of learning that is carried out in
the cognitive domain of the intellect?
 Ideational learning
2. Which type of learning refers to mental states
which are characterized be feeling and emotion?
 Emotional learning
3. What type of learning is carried out in the
conative or psychomotor domain?
 Skill or psychomotor learning
4. What principle stimulates that there are several
types or levels of learning?
 Conditions of learning
5. What type of learner looks at things from
different perspective?
 Diverging

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 CHAPTER 13

Education Communication in Teaching and Learning

 The clinical practice setting provides students theories, and the stimuli to which other
and teachers with opportunities to share a persons will respond or react.
common goal of what to teach and what to  Developments in communication very much
learn. This depends on the ability of both influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the
students and teachers to share their insights and teaching and learning process. Communication
their values regarding nursing experience embodies the instructional process which is the
through effective communication process. heart of education, and instructional materials
 The teacher's ability to motivate the learners and give shape and substance to the curriculum,
to ensure that the learners properly absorb the control its contents which significantly affect
lessons being taught is directly related to the the teaching-learning process. Hence,
teacher's communication abilities, both in terms communication lends support to the
of her knowledge and skills. The teacher's development of effective "instructional
ability to personally talk to her students during materials (Devin: 2006).
the course of the lesson can help identify  Studies show that a variety of communication
problems arising from the discussions. Concerns tools were used as an aid to teaching. of the
of both the teacher and learners can be managed following: The traditional mode of
through professional relationship and open communication
communication process. 1. Print supplemented by motion pictures
2. Slides or films, and
3. Radio and disk recordings
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN
TEACHING AND LEARNING Modern mode of communication includes the
media such as:
PROCESS
1. Television/Radio
 Nursing education process is complex, with the
2. Programmed machine teaching
components al intimately interconnected.
3. Language laboratories
 One of its most critical components is effective
4. Computers/Internet/Social Media
communication.
5. PowerPoint Presentations
 Communication presents a variety of meanings
6. Blackboard settings
to people. In an educational setting, it can be
 Current instructional media, are not merely aids
defined as (Rosengren: 2000):
to teaching, but they can also store and
1. Anything that conveys a message. It carries
disseminate information in ways never achieved
a message from one person to another.
before; perform functions which were for a
2. It means interacting with one another to
longtime the exclusive domain of the teacher;
simply assume the role of another person
illustrate, discuss, analyze, present content, form
and secure a common experience.
concepts, and build generalizations; and even
3. The ability to understand and find meaning
systematically prescribe areas for student's
into the message sent for appropriate
inquiry. These new capabilities of teachers in
response.
nursing in the classroom and in the clinical
4. Effective communication requires
setting need re- examination and possibly
knowledge of the subject matter, the
reformulation in order to appropriately utilize
communication

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 strategies specific to the subject content taught information originates from the teacher as a
(Young and Paterson: 2007). "source.
 Active communication process enables the  The purpose then must be encoded or
teacher to present facts, design concepts, and transformed into message which can be
guide students in their related learning transmitted. The teacher may directly encode
experience with a view of accomplishing the her message through perceiving, thinking,
objectives for learning. Furthermore, active reasoning, judging. speaking, writing,
communication can help the teacher do the drawing, gesturing,
following (Lewis: 1993): demonstrating, etc., into iconic or digital
 Works with individual students and gain signs designed to attain desired response
attention. from the students.
 Directs their learning to transfer meaning
from one area to another.
 Uses machines for presentation of much of :
the factual materials and routine exposition.
a. Communication Skills - the ability of the source
 Points out further references.
to clearly convey her message whether written
 Asks critical questions and
or oral.
 Encourages students to accept increasingly
b. Knowledge - source is equipped with sufficient
higher levels responsibility for their own
information or has mastery of the subject which
learning or educational growth
will help communicate her efficiently and
 Everything that goes on in the teaching- learning
effectively. message
situation whether in the classroom, in the
c. Attitudes - in conveying her message, the source
clinical setting, in the home such in the
uses various communication techniques such as
community health nursing, is in some way a
gestures or body language, facial expression and
form d communication. Furthermore, the teacher
voice modulation, among others.
of nursing must be concerned with the teaching
d. Social Status - the source chooses the
of basic communication skills between:
appropriate diction and set of words in
 Patient and nurse;
conveying her message depending on the type of
 Nurse and family;
recipient of the message.
 Nurse and doctor; and
 Example:
 Nurses and other health care personnel
- During an immersion in rural areas. a
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION nursing practitioner must use common
words or native dialect/language in
There are 4 major elements essential to the process order to be able to efficiently and
of human communication such as source, message, effectively disseminate health
channel or a transmitter and receiver (Kozier: information to the public.
2005):  Verbal skills constitute the primary
communication skills in a teacher. These are
generally classified as (Kozier: 2005):
 In a teaching-learning situation, the teacher
a. Speaking and writing;
is the "source" of communication by
b. Listening and reading;
originating or perceiving an idea or purpose
c. Intellectual abstracting skills- such as
which she wants to communicate in order to
perceiving, memorizing, reasoning, judging;
produce a particular response in the
d. Attitude toward the subject being taught; and
learner. All

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 e. Learners and the teacher himself or herself. distortion" on the part of both listener and
 The teacher who lacks self-confidence, does not speaker is to have
respect students or is bored with the subject  the receiver "feedback" to the sender what
matter, blocks the communication process and she thinks she was saying (Falvo: 2003). The
creates negative impact on the listener. form or structure and content of the message
Conversely, if she has self- confidence, respects will be influenced by the purpose and the
her students, shows interest and enthusiasm for intent of the source and by the type of
her subject, communication takes place more channel selected to transmit the message.
smoothly.
 To encode the purpose of the source into a
message, a channel is needed. In the case of
 The goal, intent or purpose to be face-to-face communication, the encoding
communicated by the teacher is expressed function is channeled directly by the
through the form of a message. In reality, intellectual, the sensory and the motor skills
the message is a physical form of words; it is of the source, such as vocal mechanism for
the translation of ideas, the purposes and oral communication, the muscle system for
intentions of the teacher (Clark: 2008). the written word or the drawing of pictures,
 The purpose of communication may be to posture and gestures and facial expressions
inform, persuade or entertain. The message for nonverbal communication. These
intended to inform a person may not really messages are then transmitted from the
inform that person because she already has source through a channel.
the information, however, the same message  When the teacher transmits the desired
may inform and entertain at the same time message through other means than her own
the intended recipients of such message. vocal mechanism, the various media, usually
 A teacher communicates to her students not described as audio-visual media, are used. A
only the intended message but certain chalkboard may be used to encode and
aspects of personality and feelings of which transmit the message by means of her own
she is unaware of. This "selective hands. In case of demonstration, one's hands
inattention" on the part of the teacher creates and voice may be used.
what has been frequently called the "arc of
distortion" between the speaker and the
listener.  In the teaching-learning situation, the
 In other words, the speaker (a source) student for whom the message is intended is
always communicates a least two things the considered the receiver in the
intended, as well as the unintended. If these communication process. The student who is
two messages are inconsistent, the listener or the receiver interprets the message by
the receiver may wonder which of them listening attentively, reading, logical
should determine his or her response. The reasoning and judging what is perceived to
arc distortion is further complicated by the be the message. Only then can the message
listener's own "selective inattention." It may be responded to. The knowledge that the
well be that the receiver hears the speaker receiver brings to the particular
saying something that she did not communication situation also influences
communicate. One way of reducing the students' response to it. If the message is
"arcs of coded in a language she

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 does not understand, or in terms of concepts is the detection of the rotation and tilting
beyond her understanding she will not be of the head which is necessary in the
able to respond accordingly. maintenance of body balance. The ear
has a remarkable ability to distinguish
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION certain sounds, even against a
background of a chaotic noise.
 The basis for verbal communication is the c. Gustation - the sense of taste is closely
interaction or oral between individuals. This allied with the sense of smell, so. much
is usually done face-to- face. Individuals so that without it people are unable to
may now use modern communication. taste various foods. The manner in which
technologies such as the internet live chat or people serve food can communicate
telephone technologies in oral or verbal social and economic status, such that:
communication.  There are individuals who still use
their fingers instead of utensils to pick
 The key components of verbal
communication consists of sound, words, up their food.
speaking and language (Kozier: 2004).  Most eat with silver or more recently,
with stainless steel utensils. People
likewise spend a great deal of time
choosing, China glassware, among
 Nonverbal communication does not use
others
words but rather mon of actions through
 All of these utensils signify wealth,
signs, facial expressions and other body
gentleness, or a current fad. People
languages or movements. This is commonly
who entertain others generally use
done and observed as she performs her daily
their best China, linens, and silver,
activities with or without conscious
and serve special foods, not only to
knowledge. Nonverbal communication is
convey their desire to please their
used more often because it utilizes the five
guests, but also in many instances, to
(5) senses which include:
display their "good taste" as well as
a. Sight - visual observation communicates
economic standing. These all can
many information. A nurse attending to a
have high communicative value.
patient may observe another irritable
d. Olfactory - the sense of smell, is a
patient in line. This catches her attention
distance receptor. An example of non-
thus, she works faster so she can attend
verbal olfactory communication is when
to the next patient.
one smells a smoke from afar. The smell
b. Audition - most human communication
of smoke will alert a person of a
is mostly received through eyes and ears.
possibility of fire and thus, take
Although people readily recognize the
immediate action.
importance of the ear for verbal
e. Touch - the sense of touch is a close
communication, less attention is paid to
receptor using hand and body contact
the functions of the ears in nonverbal
that conveys warmth, feelings, desires,
communication.
intentions, quality of expression,
Physiologically, the ear is not only one
gratitude or sympathy to another person.
sense organ but two, such as one
It indicates the kind of message one
function is hearing; and the other one
needs to relay to someone in order to
elicit response.

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 Touch is one of the most positive means b. Knowledge of the source conveys
of contact and communication. It can be a adequate information or mastery of the
friendly and pleasant way of treating subject which helps communicates
people, a casual, non verbal expression messages efficiently and effectively.
that signify meaning and candor. c. Attitudes of the source uses various
communication techniques such as
RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION gestures or body language, facial
TO TEACHING AND expression and voice modulation, among
others in conveying his message.
LEARNING d. Social Status of the source chooses
appropriate diction or set of words in
 Many factors influence the effectiveness of any
conveying messages depending on the type
particular communication, some of which are of recipient of the message.
(De Young: 2004):
a. Knowledge; a. Verbal or oral communication
b. Ability; b. Nonverbal communication
c. Experience;
d. Attitude; and
e. Sociocultural status of both source and
receiver.
 These foregoing concepts which apply to human PRACTICE QUESTIONS
communication wherever and for whatever
1. What is the ability of the source to clearly
purpose, apply equally to the teaching learning
convey his or her message whether written or
situation in nursing such as the classroom, the
oral?
clinical setting, the public health agency, the  Communication skills
family home, and other clinical settings.
2. Which one indicates that the source is equipped
 Teaching is significantly communication. Good with sufficient information or mastery of the
teaching requires a teacher experienced with: subject which will help him or her communicate
1. Old or new ideas; his or her message efficiently and effectively?
2. Directions or demonstrations;  Knowledge
3. Intercommunication between teacher and 3. The source uses various communication
students; techniques such as gestures or body language,
4. Mutual sharing of experiences; and facial expression and voice modulation, among
5. Continual feedback or reciprocal response others in conveying his message. Which one is it
adjustments. referring to?
MEMORY AID  Attitude
4. Which appropriate diction or set of words do the
a. Source source convey his message depending on the
b. Message type of the one who receives the message?
c. Channel or a transmitter  Social status
d. Receiver 5. Which of the following is a factor that
influences communication?
 All of the above
a. Communication Skills Ability of the
source to clearly convey his or her
whether written or oral.

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 CHAPTER 14

Evaluating the Teaching Program

 The heart and soul of nursing education is the relationships are important and personality plays
clinical program where nursing knowledge is a vital role in establishing effective relationships
shaped into professional practice. Integrating with patients (O'Connor: 2006).
previous experience into the teaching role can  Evaluation uses skills for appraisal purposes to
be very beneficial to a nurse educator. determine one's strengths and weaknesses and
 Examining teaching through the lens of student how far a nurse performs efficiently and
perspectives enables the teacher to tap how effectively to meet desired goals and objectives
students experience the teaching learning of care.
process. The growth of teachers depends on the  Evaluation is based on principles. The first
extent of their responsiveness to change that lies principle is that anything that exists at all exists
ahead. The expression of student perspectives in some amount and therefore can be measured.
can be an outcome of the teaching program. The second principle is that the worth or value
EVALUATION DEFINED of a teaching method, a learning method and
materials of instruction is not known until their
 Evaluation is a process of ascertaining or effect is measured (De Young: 2004).
judging the value of something through careful
appraisal. It is a means of helping an individual FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION
or group of individuals to be self- directing. It  Assessing learning is a formative feedback that
assists in the establishment of specific goals and is done to find out what and how well patients
objectives, which in turn serve as criteria for are learning, what a nurse is teaching without
judging desirable changes (Gregorio: 1971). giving a grade. While evaluating is a process of
 Evaluation is done every day. It is the way measuring the extent of learning and assigning a
through which an individual expresses her likes grade. Evaluation may include formative and
and dislikes, and by it, she determine what is of summative feedback (Bradshaw and
value and what is not. Lowenstein: 2007). Evaluation further aims to:
 Evaluation involves measurement or appraisal of 1. Improve educational program;
an activity in terms of a particular standard. 2. Achieve educational goals;
Evaluation involves a continuous process of 3. Motivate and guide the learning activities of
gathering data and recording, assembling and the individual learners;
interpreting information for purposes of creating 4. Motivate the teacher to evaluate critically
change that will promote better performance or her teaching practices, the student's learning
accomplish desired objectives (Levine and effectiveness and her own personal goals;
Feldman: 2006). and
 Evaluation in nursing requires assessment of the 5. Motivate the teacher to work together for the
cognitive outcomes of knowledge and improvement of the curriculum and the
understanding a delineation of what is and what educational program.
shall be. It requires evaluation of student's  Specifically, evaluation is an integral tool in
personal traits, since nursing is a personal nursing education to guide its progress (Clark:
service, one in which interpersonal 2008). This will help determine the following:

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 1. The level of knowledge and understanding  Sampling of the objectives - all of the objectives
of the student in her classes at various times in each course should be tested. The teacher
during the semester; who has defined carefully and clearly the
2. The level of the student's clinical behaviors implicit in the educational objectives
performance at various stages; will be aware of all the objectives as basis for
3. Awareness of the specific difficulties of developing good tests,
individual students, or of an entire class, as a  Sampling of the content - since it is not possible
basis for further teaching; for the teacher to test the extent of student
4. Diagnose each student's strengths and knowledge on all of the course content, the
weaknesses and to suggest remedial teacher must resort to sampling of the content.
measures which may be needed; The teacher must make certain that there are
5. Encourage students' learning by measuring enough items representative of the range of the
their achievement and them of their success, course content taught emphasizing what the
6. Help students acquire the attitude, and skills students "must know" rather than the "nice to
in self-evaluation; know" component of the course.
7. Help students become increasingly self-
directing in their study; 1. - the validity of the test is the
8. Provide the additional motivation for degree or extent to which it measures what it
examinations that offer opportunity to intends to measure. The degree to which a
practice critical thinking, the application of test measures anything and measure it
principles, the making of judgments among accurately, is the reliability of the test. What
others is intended to measure' is the criterion for
 Estimate the effectiveness of teaching and the relevance of the test.
learning techniques of subject matter and of 2. - the reliability of a test cannot
instructional media in reaching goals and be determined by examining the test. It must
objectives of the course; and be determined through application and
 Gather information needed for administrative statistical computation.
purposes, such as selecting students for honors, 3. - it refers to the development
courses, placement of students for advanced of evaluation devices capable of being
standing, writing administered and scored with reasonable
recommendation, meeting graduation ease and within the limits of time and of the
requirements, among others. resources imposed by circumstances.
4. - tests are used for various
EVALUATION PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS OF purposes, besides providing basis for
NURSING COURSES students' grades and diagnosing of students'
abilities in measuring speed, power and
The evaluation program should reflect the
comprehensiveness, and for many other
following:
purposes.
1. The educational objectives
2. Teaching and learning procedures STEPS IN EVALUATION
3. Student progress 1. State objectives progress can be measured if
4. Learning outcomes direction is clear,
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF EVALUATIVE 2. Define changes in behavior as expected of
the educational outcomes.
DEVICES

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 3. List and briefly describe situations that give b. True or false questions - this is designed to
opportunity for the expression of desired test the learner's ability to identify the
behavior of the learner. correctness of the statement of facts or
4. Develop appropriate and systematic means principles but limited to test the lowest level
of eliciting kinds of behavior implied in of knowing, knowledge and comprehension.
objectives to be evaluated. c. Matching questions - this is used to test the
5. Decide on ways of recording and lowest level of knowing which is useful in
summarizing behavior such as scoring, determining the learner recall of the
rating, or describing behavior and the basis memorized relationship between two things
for evidence collected. such as terms and definitions, dates or
6. Check validity, reliability, and difficulty of events. They can be scored in less time than
the measures used. the subjective tests. However, using this
7. Establish conditions that permit the student type of evaluation have some disadvantages
to give her best performance. since they provide little or no opportunity to
8. Assign scores on the basis of the foregoing measure students' ability to organize and to
steps. express her thoughts. More time is required
9. Develop methods of interpretation. to prepare good objective type of questions
than essay questions.
EVALUATIVE DEVICES
1. - refer to the subjective 3. -
type of evaluation in which students are given describes a situation, not previously presented to
questions requiring critical analysis of situations the student with sufficient detail to point out the
based on concepts or principles learned. problem involved.
Although time consuming to score, essay type of
Following are advantages in the use of
questions lend the learners to testing the highest
objective problem situation tests:
level of thinking, particularly analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation of given situation  Used to represent patterns of behavior that
(Emerson: 2007). constitute nursing competence;
2. - consist of a large  Less time consuming for the student to
number of questions and statements. Students' answer;
answers are indicated by marking the correct  Useful to determine the students' ability to
response to a particular question in a prescribed apply principles to new or related situations;
manner. The questions are in objective form, and
and the examinations are usually printed,  Can analyze easily the type of errors made
photocopied or mimeographed and a copy is by students in the use of basic principles and
given to each student (De Young: 2003). concepts.
Objective tests are more reliable than the essay
However, there are also disadvantages of
or other types because they are free from
objective problem situation tests which are the
personal opinion in scoring.
following:
a. Multiple choice questions - these are
challenging to create but are easy to score.  Time consuming to prepare,
Literature examinations are made of  Requires great skill to prepare valid,
multiple choice items. These could help reliable problem situations, and
students get familiar with the type of test and  Requires considerably more space than
determine the level of knowing, recall, and objective tests.
beyond recall.

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 these are tests and 4. Do a return demonstration to determine
scales that have met the criteria of testing There skills learned and collect evidence of
are three types of standardized tests: teaching effectiveness.
a. Intelligence tests - this type of test attempts 5. Document the teaching information and
to indicate the capacity, the brightness or evidences of what the patient has learned.
native intelligence of students compared to This is done for legal and accreditation or
the norm of her age. audit purposes.
b. Prognostic tests - these are tests intended to To determine what clients have learned is a gauge
discover the possibilities of a student's of teaching effectiveness of the nurse which
success in a particular area. requires expertise in terms of knowledge, skills, and
c. Achievement tests - these tests are designed professional attitude.
to indicate the accomplishment of the
student in the particular subject areas of the EVALUATING STUDENT LEARNING
curriculum.
 Teachers are required to evaluate student's work
5. - is a standardized method of as well as performance in tests. Judgments and
recording interpretations of behavior. Students ratings must consist of oral reports, term papers,
are rated on a scale from low to high with and book reports, among others. The following
respect to a particular or specific unit. are criteria to determine effectiveness of student
learning (Clark: 2008):
EVALUATING PATIENT LEARNING 1. Major elements and sub-elements
concerning the rating.
 Assessing and evaluating patients' learning is a 2. The relative importance of each element.
crucial point in teaching. Knowing the extent of 3. The range of scale used.
what people learn will make all efforts of 4. Test blueprint. A chart that spells all the
teaching meaningful and worthwhile. contents about the level of knowledge to be
 Following are few techniques for feedback on tested
patient's learning (De Young: 2003).
1. Ask the patient to read pamphlets or TYPES OF STUDENT EVALUATION
brochures and fact sheets summarizing what
the nurse have taught. Repeat important The teacher is key to the choice of evaluation
information. method that guide the processes of instruction and
2. Interview patients with thorough assessment of outcomes. Students are important part
observation, discussion and gesturing can of the evaluation process and should be part of the
elicit adequate response and understanding planning process (Keating: 2006).
of the information taught. The following are types of evaluation:
3. Determine change of patient behavior
related to health care practices. 1. -
Example: Teach mother how to bathe a formative evaluation measures or evaluates
newborn. She may be able to repeat what was the processes and progress, along with the
taught about bathing and can answer the goal and objective, the level of students'
question asked by the nurse. learning and progress of the educational
program. It is the on- going feedback given
to the learners throughout the learning
process (De Young: 2003). This will help
the learners

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 identify the strengths and weaknesses in measured against that of the other
order to find solutions for improvement. students in the clinical group. It is a
This may be graded or non-graded. A norm or a standard measure for all the
written formative evaluation rate is also students in the clinical course or a
called as anecdotal records or clinical program.
progress notes. Example: Course evaluation, b. Criterion-referenced measurement - the
student achievement, satisfaction index learner is compared to a well- defined or
predetermined criteria of performance
2. standard that has been delineated in
- is given at the end of the terms of goal behaviors. It measures the
learning experience in order to assess cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
whether the learner has achieved the attributes that are required for nursing
objectives and is ready to move on to the students in the clinical practice.
next experience. Clinical or related learning Emphasis of evaluation is placed on the
experience (RLE) evaluation in nursing application of knowledge and skills in
always involves summative evaluation. This nursing practice
is similar to goal-based evaluation which c. Evaluative Data Sources - the teacher
compares the results of the student may obtain data from different sources
performance to the overall goals of the for use in formal evaluation. Meaningful
program. This will determine the students input from different sources as possible
level of achievement and extent to which not only enhances the credibility of the
learning outcome has been met (Gaberson evaluator but it provides better
and Oerman: 2007). Learners are informed description of students entire learning
of the behavior expected of them to achieve experiences (Emerson 2007)
a certain grade. Grading is less subjective
The following are sources of evaluation of
when criteria are spelled out and each
student performance:
learner is held to that standard. Example: To
prepare caring and competent professional - Faculty observation
nurses to meet the health care needs of the - Written assignments of students
population. This measures the graduate - Students clinical records
nurse care of clients and their level of - Oral communication with peers patients
competency. Success rates of graduates, clinical instructors other members of the
clinical performance and leadership roles is health team
shown in the results of the summative or - Self-evaluation.
outcome evaluation. - Agency personnel
- Other members of the health team.
3.
- student performance is EVALUATING THE TEACHER
reviewed and evaluated using instruments as Teachers need feedback from their learners in order
basis for measurement. measurement (Burns to determine their own strengths and weaknesses.
and Grow: 2005). It is a referencing An appraisal of their teaching performance through
a. Norm-referenced measurement - is varied means will ensure efficient and effective
applied to clinical evaluation, where teaching performance (Clark: 2008). The following
each student's performance is are ways to measure teaching performance:

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 a. - may be attainment of the proximate aims of the
done during one or two class sessions and curriculum.
used as the means for evaluating the b. Consistent with the aims of a democratic
behavior of both teacher and students. society.
c. Course objectives and the goals of the
b. - is done by having a
curriculum will be attained.
colleague sit in several classes of a teacher
d. Motivate students at appropriate times and
or any colleague being evaluated. She later
in a manner that will stimulate curiosity and
gives in objective appraisal of strengths and
challenge them to continue efforts for
weaknesses observed on her colleague.
improvement.
Specific criteria based on the role and
e. Varied and flexible enough to adapt to
functions of the teacher are made as basis
individual student's ability and educational
for peer evaluation.
background.
c.
f. Lead to the development of independent
- students are the
thinking, good judgment, intellectual
recipients or end-users of teaching. They are
resourcefulness, self-discipline, and integrity
the clients through which teachers are made.
of purpose and mastery of various areas of
Hence, student surveys are considered as the
knowledge and skills.
primary sources for teachers to improve or
g. Well-arranged for purposes of correlation,
enhance teaching effectiveness. Opinions
continuity and integration of theory and
may vary depending on students experience
practice.
and capability.
h. Offer the students enough opportunities for
d. - this is the
self-activity so that knowledge is attained,
teacher's introspective analysis of her own skills are acquired, and desirable attitudes
teaching effectiveness. Her personal become habitual.
knowledge, capabilities and limitations to i. Emphasize on the relative importance of the
teach would somehow lead her to reflect on various learning experiences.
her chances for change and improvement. j. Cooperatively planned activities and
CRITERIA FOR SELF-EVALUATION OF evaluated by the teacher and students
throughout the course.
TEACHING WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
CHOICE OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES TEACHING AND ASSESING SKILLS LEARNED
 Related Learning Experiences (RLE) are vital to The teacher assesses students' ability to perform
students development of professional attitudes. skills adequately and describe how they can be
The acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values refined following these Mages (Keating: 2006):
is derived from varied sources. However, it 1. - the teacher demonstrates
should focus on educational philosophy and skills at normal speed without making
course objectives (Gaberson and Oerman:
comments regarding performance.
2007).
2. - the teacher demonstrates
 The criteria for evaluating the learning with accompanying comments or suggestions
experience include the following, such that
for improvement.
learning experiences should be:
3. - the teacher demonstrates
a. Consistent with the philosophy of the
accompanying comments and suggestions for
educational institution and lead to the
the learners.

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4. - the learner demonstrates the g. Help students become increasingly self-
skill with accompanying comments or directing in their pursuit of knowledge;
clarifications h. Provide more examinations and
opportunities to practice critical thinking,
5. is the most effective way to move the application of principles and the
from consciously incompetent to consciously making of judgments, among others;
competent (Levine and Feldman for i. Estimate the effectiveness of teaching and
improvement 2006). learning techniques of subject content and
use of instructional media in reaching
MEMORY AID goals of the course; and
j. Gather information needed for
a. is the process of ascertaining or judging administrative purposes, such as choice of
the value of something through careful students for honors, courses, placement of
appraisal. It is a means to help an students for advanced standing, writing
individual or group become self- directing. recommendation and meeting graduation
b. Evaluation helps establish specific goals, requirements, among others.
which in turn serve as criteria for judging
desirable changes. a. State objectives. Progress cannot be
measured unless direction is clear.
a. Improve the educational program; b. Define change of behavior expected of
b. Achieve educational goals; educational outcomes.
c. Motivate and guide the learning process c. List and briefly describe situations that
of individual student give opportunity for the expression of the
d. Motivate the teacher to evaluate critically behavior desired.
her teaching practices, the student's d. Develop appropriate and systematic
learning effectiveness and her own means of eliciting kinds of behavior
personal goals; and implied in objectives to be evaluated.
e. Motivate the faculty to work together for e. Decide ways of recording and
the improvement of the curriculum and summarizing (scoring, rating, describing)
the educational program as well as of behavior and the basis of evidence
individual courses. gathered.
f. Check validity, reliability, and difficulty
a. Determine the level of knowledge and of the measures used
understanding of the student in her classes g. Establish conditions that permit the
at various times during the semester; student to give her the best performance.
b. Assess the level of the student's clinical h. Assign scores on the basis of the
performance at various stages; foregoing steps.
c. Become aware of the specific difficulties i. Develop methods of interpretation.
of individual students, or of the entire
class, as basis for further teaching, a. Sampling of the objectives
d. Diagnose every student's strengths and b. Sampling of the content
weaknesses and to suggest needed c. Validity
remedial measures; d. Reliability
e. Encourage students' learning by e. Practicality
measuring their achievement and f. Usefulness
informing them of their success;
f. Help students acquire the attitude of and a. Essay examinations
skills in self- evaluation;

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 b. Objective examinations
c. Objective problem-solving situations
d. Standardized tests
e. Rating scales

a. Tape and video recording

b. Observation by a colleague
c. Student opinion
d. Teacher self-evaluation

ST
1 SEM DONEEE !!!
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which is not a function of educational CONGRATS LIPAT NA
evaluation?
 Motivation of the parents to evaluate
TAYO >,<
critically teaching practices, the student’s
learning effectiveness and her own personal
goals.
2. Which is the least purposes of evaluation?
 To determine the student’s capacity to
pay school fees.
3. Which is not part of the evaluation process?
 Developing inappropriate and systematic
means of eliciting kinds of behavior implied
in objectives to be evaluated
4. What is the form of evaluation that consist a
large number of objective questions and
statements?
 Objective examinations
5. What is this form of evaluation that describes a
situation, not previously presented to the student
with sufficient detail to point up the problem
involved?
 Objective problem - solving situations
6. What are tests and scales that have met the
criteria for testing?
 Standardized test
7. Which one is considered a standardized method
of recording and interpreting behavior?
 Rating scale
8. Which one refers to introspective analyses of
one’s own teaching practices?
 Teacher self-evaluation

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