MASTER OF ARTS

IN SOCIOLOGY
SEMESTER‐I

SOC-1.1: INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIOLOGY

CREDIT: 4

BLOCK: 1, 2, 3 & 4

AUTHOR

Dr. Prafulla Kumar Jena

 C.D.O.E.
Education For All

ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY

Founded in 1943, Utkal University is the 17th University of the country and the first of
Orissa. It is the result of the efforts of Pandit Nilakantha Dash, Maharaja Krushna
Chandra Gajapati, Pandit Godavarish Mishra and many others who envisioned a
progressive education system for modern Odisha.

The University started functioning on 27 November 1943, at Ravenshaw College,

Cuttack. It originated as an affiliating and examining body but shifted to its present
campus spread over 400 acres of land at Vanivihar in Bhubaneswar, in 1962.

A number of Postgraduate Departments and other centres were established in the

University campus. There are presently more than two hundred general affiliated colleges
under the University. It has eleven autonomous colleges under its jurisdiction, twenty-
eight constituent postgraduate departments, 2 constituent law colleges and a Directorate of
Distance & Continuing Education. It boasts of a centre for Population Studies, a
School of Women’s Studies, an Academic Staff College, a pre-school and a high school.
The University also offers a number of self-financing courses.

NAAC accredited in its 3rd cycle with A+ status in 2023. It is a member of the
Indian Association of Universities and the Commonwealth Association of
Universities.
 C.D.O.E.
Education For All

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE & ONLINE EDUCATION UTKAL

UNIVERSITY: VANI VIHAR BHUBANESWAR:-751007

From the Director’s Desk

The Centre for Distance and Online Education, originally established as the University
Evening College way back in 1962 has travelled a long way in the last 52 years. ‘EDUCATION
FOR ALL’ is our motto. Increasingly the Open and Distance Learning institutions are aspiring to
provide education for anyone, anytime and anywhere. CDOE, Utkal University has been constantly
striving to rise up to the challenges of Open Distance Learning system. Nearly one lakh students
have passed through the portals of this great temple of learning. We may not have numerous great
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We wish you happy reading.

DIRECTOR

1
 SOC‐1.1
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Brief Contents
Block No Block Unit No Unit

01 Emergence of Sociology and

01 Importance of Sociology
Emergence of 02 Scope of Sociology
Sociology
03 Nature of Sociology
04 Sociology and other Social
Sciences

Block No Block Unit No Unit

05 Society, Man and Society

02 06 Community
07 Association
Basic Concepts 08 Groups
09 Social Status
10 Roles
11 Culture

Block No Block Unit No Unit

12 Socialization Stages Agents

03 13 Social Stratification‐ theories,
Socialization Forms.
14 Social Mobility,
15 Social Processes
Block No Block Unit No Unit

16 Social Change ‐ its associated

04 concepts
17 Evolution
Social Change 18 Progress
19 Development
20 Factors of Social Change

2
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE AND ONLINE EDUCATION, UTKAL
UNIVERSITY, BHUBANESWAR
Program Name: Master in Sociology Program Code: 010316
Course Name: Introduction to Sociology

Course Code: SOC-1.1 Semester: I Credit: 4 Block No. 1 to 4 Units No. 1 to 20

EXPERT COMMITTEE:
1. Prof. Navaneeta Rath
Dept. of Sociology Utkal University, Vani Vihar

2. Dr. Rabindra Garada

Dept. of Sociology Utkal University, Vani Vihar

3. Dr. Tanaya Mohanty

Dept. of Sociology Utkal University, Vani Vihar

COURSE WRITER:

Dr. Prafulla Kumar Jena

CONTENT AND STRUCTURE EDITOR

Dr. Pralap Kumar Sethy

Faculty and Course Co-ordinator in Sociology, CDOE, Utkal University

PUBLISHED BY
CDOE, UTKAL UNIVERSITY

3
 SOC – 1.1 INTRODUCTIONS TO SOCIOLOGY
Content

Blocks/Units
Page No 1-40
Block-01 Emergence of Sociology:
Unit-01 Emergence of Sociology and Importance of Sociology
Unit-02 Scope of Sociology
Unit-03 Nature of Sociology
Unit-04 Sociology and other Social Sciences

Block-02 Basic Concepts:

Page No 41-113
Unit-05 Society, Man and Society
Unit-06 Community
Unit-07 Association
Unit-08 Groups
Unit-09 Social Status
Unit-10 Roles
Unit-11 Culture
Page No 114-153
Block-03 Socialization:
Unit-12 Socialization Stages Agents
Unit-13 Social Stratification- theories, Forms.
Unit-14 Social Mobility
Unit-15 Social Processes
Page No 154-192
Block-04 Social change
Unit-16 Social Change - its associated concepts
Unit-17 Evolution
Unit-18 Progress
Unit-19 Development
Unit-20 Factors of Social Change

1
 Block-01 Emergence of Sociology

Unit-01 Emergence of Sociology and Importance of Sociology

Unit-02 Scope of Sociology
Unit-03 Nature of Sociology
Unit-04 Sociology and other Social Sciences

2
 Unit-01 Emergence of Sociology and Importance of Sociology

Structure
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
1.3 Emergence of sociology
1.3.1 Emergence of Sociology In India
1.3.2 Importance of Sociology
1.4 Summary
1.5 Self Assessment Questions
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Study Guide

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1.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
1. Learn the meaning of sociology.
2. Study the emergence of sociology as a separate discipline.
3. Understand the Antecedent of Sociology

1.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of human society that focuses on society, human
social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture
associated with everyday life.
Sociology is relatively a new science:
As a discipline of academic interest, it is of recent origin. Though the roots of sociological
writings go back to the Greek and the Roman philosophy; it emerged as a new discipline only in
the first half of the 19th century, as a response to the crisis caused by the French and the
industrial revolutions. Earlier, History, Economics, Political Science, and Philosophy attempted a
study of various problems related to society. Later, when man was confronted with complexities
of social life, it became necessary to establish a separate discipline for the study of society. The
social, economic, political and intellectual background of the 18th century Europe facilitated the
emergence of sociology. It emerged in European society corresponding to its socio-historical
background which had its origin in the Enlightenment period. This period embodied the
scientific, technological, intellectual and commercial revolutions in Europe on the one hand; and
the French revolution of 1789 on the other. The Enlightenment period stretched from 14th to
18th century and had given rise to force of social change which rocked the feudal monarchy and
church in Europe. Similarly, the industrial revolution in England brought about deep rooted
changes in the nature of society and role of individual in the society.
1. It gave rise to varieties of social and cultural problems. All these developments provided the
requisite impetus to the scholars and thinkers of that period to develop a science of society
which could address these problems. Notable among them was Auguste Comte, a French
philosopher, who developed a science of society and named it as sociology. In his famous
took “ Positive Philosophy “, Comte pointed out the need for the creation of a distinct
science of society which he first called “Social Physics” and later “Sociology” that should

4
concern itself with an analysis and explanation of social phenomena. Sociology has been
defined as the science of society. It is the scientific study of social relationships or activities.
It studies social life, actions, behaviors and incidents. Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Karl
Marx, Max Weber and Herbert Spencer made significant contribution to the development of
sociology.
Every subject or branch of knowledge has its own history and subject matter, so also
sociology. Every subject has its own approach, concepts and methods through which it
studies its subject and becomes distinguished from other. Hence, our concern in this unit is to
study the foundations of sociology. This first unit of the paper-1, i.e. Introduction to
sociology, introduces the subject sociology as it emerged as a discipline and its subsequent
growth and development both in international and Indian context. It also tries to explain
contribution of modern pioneers to the development of sociology. This unit also highlights
the scope, subject matter and importance of sociology. It explains the two major schools of
thought on the scope of sociology i.e. Formalistic and Synthetic school of thought. This unit
also highlights the interrelationship of sociology with other social sciences. It is a well
known fact that different social sciences are interrelated and one cannot make a sharp
distinction between them. But at present, it is recognized that sociology synthesizes other
social sciences. Now, Sociology, Social Anthropology, Economics, Political Science, History
etc. share most of their views and method. What is sociology and its roots:
Sociology is the general study of social life, groups and societies. Sociology is a humanistic
social science .It study the behavior of human beings in society. Other social sciences like
Economics History etc. also study the same but their focus of interest is different. Sociology
is concerned with social relationships of man with man and social interactions. It is the
scientific study of social relationships, their variety, their forms and whatever affects them. It
aims to study social action, not in its economic, political, religious or ethical sense, but the
way it influences the social behaviour. It is the social nature of human action that concerns
sociologists. Sociology is the science of social reality and social institutions. As a science of
society, sociology studies social institutions, social groups, social processes and social
organizations.
Famous French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term Sociology in the year 1839. The
word “Sociology” has been derived from two words i. e. the Latin word “Socius “ or

5
 “Societus” meaning society, companion or associate and the Greek word “Logos” meaning
“study” or “science” Hence, the etymological meaning of the term sociology is the science of
society or the study of society. Society is a web of social relationships i.e. human
inter-actions and interrelations. Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups or
human interaction among human beings. It is a science which is concerned with association
of human beings and analysis and explanation of social phenomena. Sociology is not only the
study of social relationships, activities and incidents but also of their forms. It is the synthesis
of social sciences. According to Simmel, the main object of sociology is the study of the
forms of social interaction. Sociology is concerned with the “whole” of human society and
not with the “parts” which make up the whole. Its central concern is to study society as an
interconnected whole. It subject matter is our own behavior as social being.

1.3 Emergence of sociology

In order to comprehend any subject, it is pertinent to look into the socio-cultural coordinates of its
genesis and growth. It is a truism that that the history of social life and its problems is as old as human
being itself. The origin of sociology is associated with the evolution of man. However the roots of
sociological understanding go back to the ancient Greek and Roman literature. But the systematic study
of society emerged in the West. Besides, we do find references of law, the state and the society in
Plato’s Republic (427-347 B.C) and in Aristotle’s Ethics and politics (348- 322 B.C.). Similarly,
Roman philosopher Cicero’s book De Officiis (on justice) was a treasure of insights in philosophy,
law, polities and sociology. St.Augustine’s De civitate Dei (345-430 A.D) deals with social concepts
and questions.

Later on significant works of subsequent ages like the summa theological and de regimine
prnicipum of Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) De Monarchia of Dante (1265-1321) deals with social
concepts and questions of their time. In the modern periods, there appeared some writers who
treated problems of life and society on a more realistic level. No clear cut distinction was made
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between state and society until the 16 century. Machiavelli in his famous work “The prince” made
an objective discussion on state and statecraft. Another notable author of this period was Sir Thomas
Moore (1477-1535) who, in his book “Utopia” published in 1515, dealt with day to day social
problems. Scholars like Thomas Campanella
(1568-1639) in his “City of the Sun” Sir Francis Bacon in his “New Atlantis” (1561-1628) and
James Harrington in his “The common wealth of Nations” made discussion on what real life ought

6
to be. Similarly, famous Italian writer Vico and French scholar Montesquieu gives stress on scientific
investigation of social phenomenon. In his book”The New Science” Vico opined that society was
subject to definite laws which could be observed through objective observation. Montesquieu in his
famous work “The Spirit of Laws” had analysed the role of external factors in life of human
societies French scholar Saint Simon tried to develop a new science which would study social life
like physics studies the physical world. But the origin of sociology is attributed to the numerous
th th
developments in the 18 and 19 century especially the Industrial revolution and the French
revolution. These two epoch-making events changed the entire history of human society. It resulted in
metamorphic changes in the realm of economy, polity, culture and religiosity of mankind. This altered
reality attracted the attention of the scholars like Saint Simon, Auguste Comte and others. They
attempted to explain this social transition thereby envisioning their ideas on social reconstruction.
Sociology owes its birth to this intellectual endeavour. Comte is rightly called as the founder of
sociology because he coined the term and also its theme and methodology. Study of the social
institutions was special significance for him. In his famous work “Positive Philosophy”, Comte
pointed out the need for the creation of a distinct science of society which he first called “social
physics” and later “sociology” that showed concern for analysis and explanation of social phenomena.

1.3.1 Emergence of Sociology In India

We find the growth of sociology as a discipline is a product of Western intellectual discourse.
However, writings about society can be traced back to the ancient Indian mythological, religious and
spiritual texts such as the Veda, Upanishads, Puranas, Smritis, writings of Kautilya and
Sukracharya that talk volumes about rites, laws, customs, economy, polity, culture, morality,
aesthetics and science. All these writings are replete with insights concerning social order and stability,
mobility, human interrelationship and social governance. For instance, Kautilya’s Artha Shastra is a
monumental treatise on political economy and Shukracharya’s Niti Shastra offers vast wisdom on
morality, social customs, ethics, folkways and mores.

th
“Charaksamhita” of 8 century B.C advise the healers to take into account the norms, values and
customs of the people who would come to them. Most of the classical accounts of Indian Society can
be found in the writings of Meghasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. Detailed socio-cultural description of Indian society is also found in the works of three
Chinese travelers,Fa-hien(400-411 A.D),Yoan Change (624-644 AD) and 1-Tsing (671-695 AD).
Similarly, a sort of sociological approach may be marked in the famous Aarab traveler Al-Bironi’s
(973-1030) description of the social life and customs of the people. Valuable information on socio-

7
cultural conditions and daily life of people of India are available from the narratives of Ibn Batutta
(1333-1347). Famous Muslim scholar in Akbar’s court (1556-1605) Abul Fazal is known for his
work “Ain-i-Akbari”. It gives a wonderful description of society in all its aspects in Akbar’s time. Abd-
al-Rahman Ibn-khaldun (1332-1406) the famous Islam scholar is known for his popular treatise
“Muqaddamah” where he describes the rise and fall of states and gives stress on geographical and
climatic factors as causes of social change. However the above scholars were not sociologists in the
modern sense. But they were keen observers of social life and society and thereby providing valuable
material for sociology.

During British period, the rapid acquisition of knowledge of Indian Society and the intensification of
missionary activities began to develop from 1760 onward. Missionaries and
British officials made earnest effort to study the social life and culture of people of India. Dr.
François Buchanan conducted an ethnographic survey of Bengal in 1807 which is still considered
as a brilliant work of sociological importance. In 1816, Abbey Dubois, a French Missionary in
Mysore wrote a book entitled “Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies” which is regarded as a
valuable sociological document. Famous social reformer Raja Rammohan Roy’s writings on religion,
women and society continue to excite the intellectual discourse for their rich sociological content.
Besides, Vivekananda Dadabhai Naroji, M.G. Ranade and many others also added the much needed
intellectual stimulus to the larger discourse of ‘individual and society’ in India. The making of
Indian Sociology can be traced back to this intellectual climate and its corresponding socio-cultural
milieu.

Emergence of sociology as a profession in India: Sociology emerged as a separate academic

st th
discipline in Indian universities in the 1 half of 20 century. At the beginning it was associated with
Anthropology. However, the growth of sociology and anthropology passed through three phases such
as.

1. First phase - 1773-1900.

2. Second phase - 1901-1950.
3. Third phase - 1950 till date.

The beginning of studies in sociology in Calcutta University was first started in 1907. But there was no
separate department of sociology. Later on in 1914 Social Philosophy and Sociology were
introduced in Mysore University. The first department of sociology started in Bombay University in
1919 followed by the University of Lucknow in 1920s. Osmania University offered sociology as one of

8
the options at B.A level in 1928 and as an independent MA programme in 1946. Subsequently, other
Indian universities started opening Sociology as a PG program after Independence.

1. Auguste Comte: Prominent French Philosopher Comte coined the term sociology and
contributed substantially to the making of the discipline. His important works include Positive
Philosophy, Systems of Positive Polity and Religion of Humanity. His significant sociological
themes include Law of Three Stages, Hierarchy of Sciences, Positivism, Social Statics and Social
Dynamics. His major intention was to create a science of society. Comte opined that sociology must
follow the method of natural sciences. He believes in the unilinear theory of evolution and opines
that human knowledge and society pass through certain definite progressive evolutionary stages.
2. Emile Durkheim: (1858-1917) Another French sociologist Durkheim attempted to
establish the status of sociology as an independent and distinct science. He was a follower of
Comte’s tradition and aimed at developing a scientific sociology. He is considered as the builder of
sociology. His major contributions include Division of Labour in Society, Elementary Forms of
Religious Life, Le Suicide, Rules of Sociological Method etc. He was the first modern thinker who
emphasized on the reality of society. In his theory the ultimate social reality is the group. He
advocates the objective, factual and empirical method of study. For him, sociology is the study of
social facts. Social life has to be analyzed in terms of social facts. He considers social facts to be
external to individual.
3. Herbert Spencer: (1820-1903) Herbert Spencer, a British scholar, played a leading role
th
in the intellectual movement in social sciences in the 19 century. His sociology is essentially
evolutionistic. His main focus was on the evolutionary growth of social structures. For him,
evolution begins in the inorganic world of matter, goes through the organic or living world of plants
and animals and ends in the human and social world of men. He believed that all phenomena
organic, inorganic and super-organic follow the same natural law of evolution. His main works are
Social Statics, The Study of Sociology, The Principles of Sociology and Man versus the State etc.
4. Max Weber: (1864-1920) Max Weber, a German philosopher and Sociologist, contributed
significantly to the evolution of Sociology as a scientific discipline. For him, individual is the basic
unit of society. Weber opines that it is necessary to analyse human motivations, actions and
relationships scientifically. Verstehen i.e interpretative understanding is the method which is more
effective in understanding the dynamics of society and culture which cannot be reduced to mere
observable objects. The task before the social scientist is to observe the inner meaning of a social
phenomenon. Society and culture are not elements to be quantified in line with the objects in nature;
rather they are to be interpreted. Social action and human relationships are qualitative in nature.

9
 Therefore, it is imperative to make use of empathy along with the property of objectivity for a
comprehensive understanding of social phenomenon. Ideal type can serve as the appropriate
methodological tool for the purpose. For him sociology is the interpretative understanding of social
action. His main works are the Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, Economics and
Society, Methodology of Social Sciences.
5. Karl Marx: (1818-1883). Marx, a versatile thinker, a prolific writer and a critique was a
product of German idealism. His writings carry deep imprints of the ideas of Hegel, Kant,
Feneurbach and Adam Smith. However, his writings are highly original and polemical and are not
in complete conformity with these scholars. Although he claims to be a Sociologist, his writings
are deeply concerned with burning social issues of his times. He has extensively written on class, class
formation, struggle, exploitation, poverty, alienation and social change. The issue of class and class
struggle is central to Marx’s thought. In his words, ‘the history of all hitherto existing societies is the
history of class struggle’. His main works are Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, Capital, The
Holy Family, the Poverty of Philosophy, The Communist Manifesto, German Ideology etc.
6. Talcott Parsons (1902-1982): Parsons is a leading American sociologist. He views sociology
as the analysis of social relationship and cultural product. He tried to keep social science as close
to natural science. He opined that the role of reason is supreme in sociological theory. The social
science, which he calls action science, is that which deals with the realms of interaction and values.
His important books are “The structure of Social action and ‘The Social System’. Some of his salient
themes include (i) action frame of reference, (ii) social system and
(iii) pattern variable. Parsons opines that a social system consists in a plurality of individual actors
interacting with each other in a situation. The core of a social system is the patterned normative
order through which the life of a population is collectively organized.

1.3.2 Importance of Sociology

As compared to other sciences; sociology is a new and younger science. Still sociology has been
viewed as the science of society and mother of all social science. But sociologist differs among
themselves regarding the importance and values of sociology. One set of critics trivialize
sociology as a discipline having little connectedness with social reality. On the contrary, others
argue in favour of its importance as a scientific enterprise rooted in the study of social reality.
However, importance of sociology may be known from the following.
1. A scientific study of society is only possible through sociological analysis.
2. Study of sociology also helps in understanding and analyzing various social problems.

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 3. Sociological insights help in effective planning, formulation of social policy and good
governance.
4. A branch of sociology called criminology helps in a proper understanding of crime and
criminality in society.
5. Study of sociology also helps in the comparative understanding of groups, culture and
societies.
Sociology as a discipline offers a plethora of themes and issues concerning social
reality like tribal studies, social exclusion and inclusion, gender studies, Diaspora,
urban studies, social movements etc for academic discourse and research
investigations.

1.4 Summary
The Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment were the main three
reasons that influenced or contributed to the emergence of sociology. The emergence of
sociology began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The lives of common people were
much better and easier during this historical period. Due to all the changes that occurred during
this period, the people became more open-minded and started to live a good life with several
options. All these changes were an important turning point for that period, leading to an
economic and technological boom and helping people to learn to live in societies.

1.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Discuss in brief the emergence of sociology as a district academic discipline.
2. Discuss the origin and growth of sociology in India.
3. Discuss Auguste Comte’s contribution to the development of sociology.
4. Sociology is the science of society. Explain.

1.6 Key Words

Sociology- Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and
consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups,
organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts.
Enlightenment- he great 'Age of Reason' – is defined as the period of rigorous scientific,

11
 political and philosophical discourse that characterised European society during the 'long'
18th century: from the late 17th century to the ending of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815

1.7 Study Guide

1. Bottomore, T.B. Sociology, Bombay, 1978.
2. Bierstedt, Robert 1970. Social order. Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing co.ltd, Mumbai.
3. Barnes, H.E: Sociology and Political theory.
4. Barnes, H.E: An Introduction to the History of Sociology, Chikago, 1948.
5. Coser, Lewis, A: Sociological Theory: A book of Readings, London, 1957.
6. Dube, S.C, 1977: Understanding Society: Sociology: The discipline and its significance: Part-I,
NCERT, New Delhi.
7. Vidya Bhusan and Sachdeva, D.R: An Introduction to Sociology Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
8. McIver and Page: Society: An Introductory Analysis.

th
9. Giddens, Anthory : 2001, Sociology, 4 edition polity press, Cambridge.

10. Inkles, Alex 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the discipline and profession.
Prentice Hall New Jersey.
11. Ginsberg, M. Sociology. Oxford University press, 1961.
12. Johnson, H.M. Sociology: A systematic Introduction.
13. Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan: An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing House, 1960.
14. Bogardus, E.S. Sociology.
15. Giddings, F.H. Scientific study of Human society.
16. Lundberg, G.A: Sociology.
17. Calberton, W.E: The Making of Society.
18. Green, Arnold: Sociology.
19. Sing, Yogendra. 1979. “On the History of Sociology in India” in Mohini Mallick (ed) Social
Enquiry: Goals and Approaches, Manohar, Delhi.

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 Unit-02 Scope of Sociology

Structure
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
2.3 Scope of sociology
2.3.1 Definitions of Sociology
2.3.2 Scope of Sociology
2.3.2.1 Formalistic or specialistic school
2.3.2.2 Synthetic School
2.4 Summary
2.5 Self Assessment Questions
2.6 Key Words
2.7 Study Guide

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2.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
Understand the Scope of Sociology
Learn the Methods of Sociology

2.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of human society that focuses on society, human
social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture
associated with everyday life. Every subject or branch of knowledge has its own history and
subject matter, so also sociology. Every subject has its own approach, concepts and methods
through which it studies its subject and becomes distinguished from other.

2.3 Scope of Sociology

Every subject has its own scope and subject matter. Sociologists differ among themselves
regarding the scope of sociology. As a result, there is no unanimity of opinion amongst scholars about
the scope of sociology. Some sociologists opine that sociology studies everything and any- thing
under the sun, whereas, others opine that the scope of sociology is very limited as it studies only those
things which are not studied by other social sciences. V.F. Calberton opines “since sociology is so
elastic a science, it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and end, where sociology
becomes social psychology and where social psychology becomes sociology or where economic
theory becomes sociological theory, something which is impossible to decide”. However, an attempt
has been made to demarcate the exact scope of sociology.

2.3.1 Definitions of Sociology

Sociology is a new social science. French sociologist Auguste Comte coined the term sociology in
1839. The term ‘sociology’ is derived from the Latin word ‘societus’ meaning ‘society’ and the
Greek word ‘logos’ meaning study or ‘science’. Etymologically sociology means the ‘science of
society’ sociology concerns itself with an analysis and explanation of social phenomena. It studies
social life, actions, behaviours and incidents. Sociology is the study of social relationships, groups
and societies. Its subject matter is our own behaviour as social beings.
Sociologists differ in their opinions about the definition of sociology. Sociology has been defined as the
science of society. Some others have defined sociology as the scientific study of social relationships
or activities. But what defines sociology is not what it studies i.e. group or family, but how it studies a

14
chosen thing. In this context, it is necessary to discuss some of the definitions of sociology.
1. Auguste Comte, “sociology is the science of social phenomena subject to natural and
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation”.
2. Alex inkles, “Sociology is the study of systems of social action and their interrelations”.
1. Emile Durkheim “Sociology is the science of social institutions”.
2. Max-Weber, “sociology is the science which attempts an interpretative understanding of social
action”.
3. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relations their
conditions and consequences”.
4. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the science that deals with social groups, their internal
forms or modes of organization, the processes that tend to maintain or change these forms
of organization and relations between groups”.
5. H.P. Fairchild, “sociology is the study of the relationships between man and his human
environment”.
6. J.F. Culler, “sociology may be defined as the body of scientific knowledge about human
relationships.
7. G.A. Lundberg, “sociology is a body of related generalizations about human social
behaviour arrived at by scientific method”.
8. R.E. Park and F.W. Burgess, “sociology is the science of collective behaviour”.
9. P.A. Sorokin, “sociology is a generalizing science of socio-cultural phenomena viewed in
their generic form, types and manifold interconnections”.
10. Arnold Green, “sociology is the synthesizing and generalising science of men in all his
social relationships”.
11. Kimball Young, “sociology deals with the behaviour of men in groups”.
12. Gillin and Gillin, “sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study of
interactions arising from the association of living beings”.
13. G.Duncan Mitchell, “sociology is a science for scientific social development”.

An analysis of the above definitions shows that sociologists differ in their opinion about the
definition and the subject matter of sociology. But the common idea underlying all these is that
sociology is concerned with human beings and their relationships. It gives stress on the social aspect
of these relationships. MacIver opines that whatever subject may be included in the subject matter,
its real subject matter are social relationships. This social relationship is the basis of social

15
interaction of social processes. That is why man becomes a social animal only when he enters into
these social relationships. Hence, studying sociology means studying social relationships.

2.3.2 Scope of Sociology

Scope means area of study, field of inquiry or the subject matter. Each subject has its own field of study,
so also sociology. Study of sociology is organized within a specific boundary which is known as the
scope of sociology. Without a demarcated boundary, it is very difficult to study a subject
systematically. Hence, it is necessary to demarcate the boundary or scope of a subject. There are two
main schools of thought among sociologists on the issue of scope and subject matter of sociology:
Formal school or specialistic school of thought and synthetic school of thought.

2.3.2.1 Formalistic or specialistic school

This school of thought is headed by German sociologist George Simmel. Alfred Vierkandt, Leopold
Vonwiese, Max-Weber, Albion Small, Ferdinand Tonnies, E.A. Ross, Park and Burgess are other
important supporters of this school. According to this school of thought the subject matter of
sociology consists of this school opine that sociology cannot study social life as a whole. Hence,
the scope of sociology is very limited. They want to keep the scope of sociology distinct from other
social sciences. They consider sociology as a pure and independent science. However, the views of the
supporters of this school of thought regarding the scope of sociology are discussed below:
1. George Simmel: Formalistic school is headed by German sociologist George Simmel.
According to Simmel sociology should confine its study to formal behaviour instead of studying actual
behaviour. Sociology comprehends the forms of social science which describes analyses, classifies and
delineates the forms of social relationships, the process of socialization and social organization etc.
Simmel makes a distinction between the forms of social relationships and their contents and opines
that sociology should confine itself in explaining different forms of social relationships and study
them in abstraction where as their contents are dealt with by other social sciences. Co-operation,
competition, sub-ordination, division of labour etc. are different forms of social relationships. As
sociology confines itself in studying forms of social relationships, its scope is very limited.
2. Alfred Vierkandt: Another leading supporter of formal school Vierkandt opines that
sociology is a special branch of study which deals with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic
relationships. These mental relationships consist in love, hate, Co-operation etc. which shape
particular types of social relationships. He maintains that sociology can be a definite science only
when it abstains from a historic study of concrete societies. Thus, in his opinion the scope of sociology
is very limited as it deals with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationships like love, hatred, co-

16
operation, competition etc.
3. Leopold Vonwiese: Another main advocate of formal school Vonwiese opined that the
scope of sociology is very limited as it only studies the form of social relationships and forms of
social processes. He has divided these social relationships and social processes into many types. He
has indentified more than 650 forms of human relationships. Similarly there are two types of social
processes in society such as associative and dissociative which includes cooperation and conflict
respectively.
4. Max Weber: Another supporter of formalistic school Max-Weber opines that the aim of
sociology is to attempt an interpretative understanding of social action and social and classification
of social action and social behavior. It should confine itself in the analysis and classification of
social action and social behaviors. Social behavior is that which is related to the behavior of others. As
social behavior does not include the whole of human relations, hence the scope of sociology is very
limited.
5. Albion Small: Another advocate of formal school A. Small opined that the scope of
sociology is much limed as it does not study all the activities of society but only confine itself in
studying the genetic forms of social relationships, behavior and activities.
6. Ferdinand Tonnies: Tonnies has supported the formal school and the idea of pure sociology.
On the basis of forms of social relationships he has differentiated between ‘Gemeinschaft’ (society)
and ‘Gesellschaft’ (community) and opined that the main aim of sociology is to study the different
forms of social relationship that comes under these two categories.
Form the above views of supporters of formalistic school it may be concluded that sociology studies
a particular aspect of social relationships. It studies the forms of social relationships in their abstract
nature not in concrete situation. Thus, the formalistic school has confined the scope of sociology to
the abstract study of the forms of social relationships.
Criticism of formalistic school: The formalistic school of thought has been criticized from the
following grounds.
1. The formalistic school of thought has extremely narrowed down the scope of sociology
to merely the abstract forms of social relationships.
2. The distinction between the forms of social relationships and the content of social
relationships is not possible. It is also not possible to study the abstract forms by
separating it from concrete relations.
3. The formalistic idea of pure and independent sociology is purely imaginary in nature.
4. Besides sociology, other social sciences like economics, political science, Psychology

17
 also study social relationships.
5. Comparison of sociology with geometry is impractical and incorrect.

2.3.2.2 Synthetic School

It came into existence in reaction to the formalistic school of thought. It tries to make sociology a
synthesis of the social sciences or a general science and encyclopedic. According to this school of
thought, the scope of sociology is very wide and all inclusive. According to this school of thought,
different aspects of social life are inter-related. We can’t understand society with the study of one
aspect only; hence sociology should attempt to study social life as a whole. Sociology studies the
whole of social life; hence its scope is very wide. The main advocates of this school of thought are
Emile Durkheim, L.T. Hobhouse, P.A. Sorokin, Morris Ginsberg, Karl Mannheim, Alex inkles and
many others. Opinions of supporters of this school of thought regarding the scope of sociology are
described below.
1. Emile Durkheim: The main advocates of synthetic school Durkheim opines that the scope of
sociology has three main divisions or field of study i.e. (i) social Morphology (ii) Social Physiology
and (iii) General Sociology.

i) Social Morphology: It includes all those subjects which are fundamentally geographic,
such as, population, its size, density, distribution, mobility etc. This comprehends two
studies. First, analysis of the size and quality of the population in as much as it affects
the qualities of social relationships and social groups. Second, study of the social
structure, or a description of the main forms of social groups of institutions as well as
their classification.
ii) Social Physiology: Social physiology is inclusive of all those subjects that are studied by
particular social sciences, such as religion, economy, language, morals, law etc. In other
words, social physiology has different branches, such as sociology of law, sociology
of religion etc. which are regarded as special aspects of sociology.
iii) General Sociology: General sociology is the philosophical part of sociology. Its function
is to discover the general character of these social facts and to formulate general social
laws.
2. L.T. Hothouse: Famous English sociologist L.T. Hothouse holds similar opinion like
Durkheim about the scope of sociology. He represents the philosophical side of sociology.
According to him, sociology is a science which shows social life of man as its sphere. He opines that

18
 it is possible to have a fuller comprehension of the whole from the study of its parts. Hence,
sociologist should interpret social life as a whole. Keeping in mind the interrelatedness of social
relations, sociologists should try to interconnect the results arrived at by social science. While studying
the parts, sociologists have to correlate the results of the study with an eye to the whole of society.
Then only the study of part contributes to a fuller comprehension of the whole.
3. P.A. Sorokin: Sociology studies various aspects of the social relationships hence can’t be
called as a special science. He also subscribes the view that sociology is a synthesis of the social
sciences or a general science. According to him, the scope of sociology includes the study of
general features of social phenomena and the study of relationship between the different aspects
of social phenomena.
4. Morris Ginsberg: According to Ginsberg, Sociology studies and classifies all forms of social
relationship, studies the relationship between individual and society and the relationship among
different aspects of social life such as economic, political, religious, etc. He divides the scope of
sociology into four main divisions such as social morphology, social control, social process and
social pathology. Social morphology studies the quality and quantity of population, social group, social
structure, and social institutions. Social control studies the mechanisms i.e. both formal and informal
by which society controls the behaviour of its members. Social process studies different types of
interaction like cooperation and conflict. Social pathology studies social problems of poverty,
population, crime etc. According to him the main functions of sociology is to discover sociological
Principles of social life and tries to determine the relation between different parts of social life.
5. Karl Mannheim: Another supporter of synthetic school of thought Karl Mannheim opines
that the scope of sociology is very wide. He divides sociology into two categories such as systematic
and general sociology and historical sociology. Systematic and general sociology deals with main
factors of living together found in different kinds of society where as historical sociology deals with
the historical variety and general forms of society. Historical sociology has two divisions such as
comparative sociology and social dynamics. Comparative sociology is concerned with historical of
features. On the other hand, social dynamics is concerned with the interrelations between social factors
and institutions in a particular society.
6. Alex Inkles: Another protagonist of synthetic school of thought Alex Inkles opines that the
scope of sociology includes social analysis, Primary concepts of social life, Basic social
institutions and social processes.
Thus, it may be concluded that there is no conflict between two schools of thought about the scope of
sociology. Sociology is both a general science and a special science. It synthesizes all special science.
Hence the scope of sociology is very wide. One school studies the part and other studies the whole.

19
Both part and whole are interrelated we can’t study the part without studying the whole and vice-versa.
7. Subject Matter of Sociology: Subject matter means scope, area of study or field of inquiry.
Every subject has its own subject matter so also sociology. Study of sociology is organized within a
specific boundary which is known as the scope or subject matter of sociology which is already
discussed. But, there are some critics who opined that sociology does not have a subject matter of its
own and whatever subject matter it has it is hotchpotch of various social sciences. Sociology borrows
from other social sciences as it is merely an assemblage of various social sciences. But this criticism
is totally incorrect. Sociology is not only an independent science with subject matter of its own
but also it is considered as the mother of all social sciences. Other social sciences have spheres
within sociology just as associations have the spheres within community as MacIver remarks.
2.4 Summary
Sociology is scientific in nature. Survey method involves systematic collection of facts regarding
a group of people residing in a particular geographical, cultural or administrative area. In
historical method, a researcher begins to study the events, processes and institutions a society
had earlier. In comparative method, a researcher tries to compare different societies or different
groups within the same societies to understand man’s social behaviour. In Case study method, a
particular phenomenon is analyzed through intensive analysis of an individual, group or
community. Statistical method tries to understand a social phenomenon by the use of
mathematical calculations. In content analysis, a researcher tries to understand a particular
phenomenon by analyzing newspapers and magazines. All the aspects of a society- economic,
political, and social -form the subject matter of sociology.

2.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define sociology and discuss its scope.
2. Explain the formalistic or specialist school of thought.
3. Explain the synthetic school of thought of the scope of sociology.

2.6 Key Word

Applied science- It is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions from the
method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and
medicine.

20
Pure Science- The focus of pure sciences is on developing theories, laws and principles that explain the
natural phenomena in world and the universe around us.

2.7 Study Guide:

1. Bottomore, T.B. Sociology, Bombay, 1978.
2. Bierstedt, Robert 1970. Social order. Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing co.ltd, Mumbai.
3. Barnes, H.E: Sociology and Political theory.
4. Barnes, H.E: An Introduction to the History of Sociology, Chikago, 1948.
5. Coser, Lewis, A: Sociological Theory: A book of Readings, London, 1957.
6. Dube, S.C, 1977: Understanding Society: Sociology: The discipline and its significance: Part-I,
NCERT, New Delhi.
7. Vidya Bhusan and Sachdeva, D.R: An Introduction to Sociology Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
8. McIver and Page: Society: An Introductory Analysis.

th
9. Giddens, Anthory : 2001, Sociology, 4 edition polity press, Cambridge.

10. Inkles, Alex 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the discipline and profession.
Prentice Hall New Jersey.
11. Ginsberg, M. Sociology. Oxford University press, 1961.
12. Johnson, H.M. Sociology: A systematic Introduction.
13. Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan: An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing House, 1960.
14. Bogardus, E.S. Sociology.
15. Giddings, F.H. Scientific study of Human society.
16. Lundberg, G.A: Sociology.
17. Calberton, W.E: The Making of Society.
18. Green, Arnold: Sociology.
19. Sing, Yogendra. 1979. “On the History of Sociology in India” in Mohini Mallick (ed) Social
Enquiry: Goals and Approaches, Manohar, Delhi.

21
 UNIT-03 Nature of Sociology

Structure
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
3.3 Nature of Sociology
3.4 Summary
3.5 Self Assessment Questions
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Study Guide

22
3.1 Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
 Define the meaning and nature of sociology

3.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Science is a body of systematic knowledge. Science is based on reason and evidences. A science
is “a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged
and showing the operation of general laws.” Science collects facts and links them together in
their casual sequence to draw valid inferences. Science adopts scientific method. Scientific
knowledge is acquired through observation, experimentation, generalization etc. Science has the
following characteristics such as objectivity, observation, accurate prediction, experimentation,
accurate measurement, generalization and cause-effect relationships.

3.3 Nature of Sociology

Sociology as A Science: There exists a great controversy about the exact nature of Sociology. The
root question is, whether sociology is a science? Sociologists get divided among themselves into two
opposite groups. For one group of sociologists, sociology is a science because it adopts and applies the
methods of natural sciences for social investigation. Founding fathers of sociology Auguste Comte,
Emile Durkheim and others subscribe to this view. On the contrary, the other camp holds a different
viewpoint that sociology is not a science. German scholar Max Weber does not entirely accept the
mechanistic viewpoint of science as advocated by Comte. However, sociology is a behavioural science
which tries to explore and explain social reality as objectively as possible.
MEANING OF SCIENCE: Science is a body of systematic knowledge. Science is based on
reason and evidences. A science is “a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or
truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws.” Science collects facts and
links them together in their casual sequence to draw valid inferences. Science adopts scientific method.
Scientific knowledge is acquired through observation, experimentation, generalization etc. Science has
the following characteristics such as objectivity, observation, accurate prediction, experimentation,
accurate measurement, generalization and cause-effect relationships.
Sociology is a Science: According to Comte and Durkheim, “Sociology is a science because it
adopts and applies the scientific method. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the
study of its subject matter. Hence Sociology is a science. It is a science because of the following
reasons.

23
 (1) Sociology pursues scientific method: Sociology studies social reality with the
application of scientific method. It believes that human action can be subject to scientific
investigation like natural phenomenon.
(2) Sociology uses observation as a tool: Sociologist studies social world as a social
observer. The whole world is the laboratory of sociology. The sociologist applies fieldwork
method in the understanding and interpretation of the human world.
(3) Objectivity is possible in Sociology: Like natural sciences, Sociology engages itself in
objective analysis. Sociological insights are based on facts emerging from field investigation.
(4) Sociology describes cause-effect relationship: Like natural sciences, sociology also
traces the cause and finds answers to it. While studying family or population growth, sociology traces
the relationship between family disorganization and divorce and population growth and poverty.
Family disorganization is the cause of divorce and population growth is the cause of poverty. Thus,
sociology describes cause-effect relationship in social disorganization and population explosion.
Hence sociology is a science.
(5) Sociology makes accurate measurement: Sociology, like natural sciences also
accurately measures social phenomena or relationships. By using statistical method, socio- metric
scale, scales of measurement sociology effectively and accurately measures social relationships.
Hence Sociology is a science.
(6) Prediction is possible: Like natural sciences, sociology does frame laws and attempts to
predict more accurately. On the basis of cause-effect relationship, sociology can accurately predict
about future. If there will be dowry in society then it will lead to suicide, poverty. Cuvier opines that
this predictive value of sociology is improved day by day. As Sociology matures day by day, it
predicts more accurately.
(7) Generalization is possible: The notion that generalisation drawn by social sciences is
not universal is proved wrong. Like natural sciences, sociology draws generalizations based fieldwork
which is universally applicable. The concept of incest taboo-prohibited sex relationship among
blood relatives is a universal truth.

SOCIOLOGY IS NOT A SCIENCE: There are some scholars like Max-Weber who deny the
status of science to Sociology. He said Sociology can’t be an objective Science. However, those who
deny the status of science to Sociology they put forth following arguments:
(1) Lack of Objectively: Sociology cannot be called a science because it cannot maintain
complete objectivity with social phenomena. Sociologist has his own prejudice and bias hence he

24
 cannot observe his subject with complete detachment. Complete objectivity in the study of human
behaviour is impossible. Sociology deals with social relationships which cannot be studied like
physical objects. Hence, objectivity is not possible in Sociology.
(2) Lack of Experimentation: Sociology is not a science because it can’t make
experimentation. Sociology deals with human relationships which cannot be put to laboratory test.
We can’t see or weigh human relationship because it is abstract in nature. We can’t do experiment
with abstract things.
(3) Lack of Prediction: Like natural sciences, Sociology can’t accurately make prediction.
Natural Sciences make prediction on the basis of certain data. But Sociology deals with social
relationships and human behaviour which are so uncertain and peculiar that we can’t make any
accurate predication about it. We can’t predict what will be one’s behaviour at a certain point of time
nor can we predict about the trends or speed of social change. Hence sociology is not a science.
(4) Lack of accurate measurement: Sociology can’t make accurate measurement like
natural sciences. There are definite standards of measurement like kilogram or meter by which it is
possible to measure things. But in Sociology we have no such measuring instruments. Besides
sociology deals with social relationships which are qualitative in nature and which can’t be measured
accurately in any yardstick. Hence Sociology is not a science.
(5) Lack of Generalisation: Sociology can’t make generalizations like natural sciences
which is universally applicable. Sociology deals with human behaviour and no two individual are alike.
Hence the conclusions drawn by Sociology can’t be uniform or universally applicable. Social
Phenomena is so complex and complicated and is governed by so many factors that it is really
difficult to draw a conclusion which will be universally applicable.
(6) Terminological Inadequacy: Sociology has yet to develop adequate sets of concepts and
terminologies that can sufficiently equip the scholars in theorization and explanation of social
reality. There is growing tendency among scholar to use commonsense vocabularies in sociological
discourses.
Famous Sociologist Robert Bierstedt in his book “The social order” clearly explains the nature of
Sociology in the following way:
1. Sociology is a social and not a natural science.
2. Sociology is a positive and a normative science.
3. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.
4. Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science.
5. Sociology is a generalizing science and not a particularizing science.

25
 6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.

3.4 Summary
Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction. In order to carry out their
studies, sociologists identify cultural patterns and social forces and determine how they affect
individuals and groups. They also develop ways to apply their findings to the real world.
Studying sociology is beneficial both for the individual and for society. By studying sociology
people learn how to think critically about social issues and problems that confront our society.
The nature of sociology studies people and society with sociological meaning which are better
prepared to make informed decisions about social issues and take effective action to deal with
them.

3.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Explain the nature of sociology.
2. Is sociology a social science?
3. In what sense sociology is a science? Explain.

3.6 Key Words

Social Group- A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact on the basis
of mutual expectations and who share a common identity.
Status- Social position is the position of an individual in a given society and culture. A given
position may belong to many individuals

3.7 Study Guide:

1. Bottomore, T.B. Sociology, Bombay, 1978.
2. Bierstedt, Robert 1970. Social order. Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing co.ltd, Mumbai.
3. Barnes, H.E: Sociology and Political theory.
4. Barnes, H.E: An Introduction to the History of Sociology, Chikago, 1948.
5. Coser, Lewis, A: Sociological Theory: A book of Readings, London, 1957.
6. Dube, S.C, 1977: Understanding Society: Sociology: The discipline and its significance:
Part-I, NCERT, New Delhi.
7. Vidya Bhusan and Sachdeva, D.R: An Introduction to Sociology Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
8. McIver and Page: Society: An Introductory Analysis.

26
 th
9. Giddens, Anthory : 2001, Sociology, 4 edition polity press, Cambridge.

10. Inkles, Alex 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the discipline and profession.
Prentice Hall New Jersey.
11. Ginsberg, M. Sociology. Oxford University press, 1961.
12. Johnson, H.M. Sociology: A systematic Introduction.
13. Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan: An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing House, 1960.
14. Bogardus, E.S. Sociology.
15. Giddings, F.H. Scientific study of Human society.
16. Lundberg, G.A: Sociology.
17. Calberton, W.E: The Making of Society.
18. Green, Arnold: Sociology.
19. Sing, Yogendra. 1979. “On the History of Sociology in India” in Mohini Mallick (ed) Social
Enquiry: Goals and Approaches, Manohar, Delhi.

27
 Unit-04 Sociology and other Social Sciences

Structure
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
4.3 Sociology and other academic disciplines
4.3.1 Relationship between social and natural sciences
4.3.2 Sociology and Anthropology
4.3.3 Sociology and Economics
4.3.4 Sociology and Political Science
4.3.5 Sociology and History
4.3.6 Sociology and Psychology
4.3.7 Sociology and Ethics
4.4 Summary
4.5 Self Assessment Questions
4.6 Key Words
4.7 Study Guide

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4.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
 Discuss the relationship between Sociology and Anthroplogy
 Discuss the relationship between Sociology and Economics
 Understand the relationship between Sociology and History
 Explain the relationship between Sociology and Political Science
 Explain the relationship between Sociology and Psychology

4.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Different social sciences are interrelated and one can’t make a sharp distinction between them. Any
such attempt to study society as a totality suggests that its study should be done as a whole. But in
recent years it is recognized that sociology synthesizes other social sciences but it is at the same time
as special science having its own individual view point. It is also considered as the mother of all social
sciences. All other social sciences depend on sociology because no aspect of human life can be
detached from its social aspect. Besides, no social science is in a position to give a complete
picture of society. Sociology endeavors to study social life as a whole by taking help from other social
sciences. Hence, there exists a very close and intimate relationship between sociology and other
social sciences. In this context the study of interrelationships among social science is very important.

4.3 Sociology and other academic disciplines

The meaning, nature and scope of sociology will be better understood in the light of its relationship
with other social sciences. For a complete understanding of human social life it is necessary to study not
only one but all the aspects minutely. Sociology is a social science and a science of society. As a social
science, it attempts to study social life as a whole. But for the complete study of social life as a whole
sociology requires the help of other social sciences. Different social sciences are interrelated and one
can’t make a sharp distinction between them. Any such attempt to study society as a totality
suggests that its study should be done as a whole. But in recent years it is recognized that sociology
synthesizes other social sciences but it is at the same time as special science having its own individual
view point. It is also considered as the mother of all social sciences. All other social sciences depend on
sociology because no aspect of human life can be detached from its social aspect. Besides, no
social science is in a position to give a complete picture of society. Sociology endeavors to study
social life as a whole by taking help from other social sciences. Hence, there exists a very close and
intimate relationship between sociology and other social sciences. In this context the study of
interrelationships among social science is very important.

29
4.3.1 Relationship between social and natural sciences:

Social life is very complex. To understand this complex social life it is necessary to study all the
aspects minutely. The factors and elements that influence social life are affected by both natural and
social factors and elements. Hence, the subject matter of science has been categorized into two parts
i.e. natural sciences and social sciences. The subject matter of natural sciences is the forces of
nature where of subject matter of social sciences is social phenomena. Goal of both these sciences
is same i.e. exploring the relationship between the natural world and the human world. Hence, both
are mutually related and influence each other. At the same time both are also different from each
other from multiple angles. While natural sciences are objective social sciences are subjective. Natural
sciences are studied through scientific method. Scope and subject matter of both sciences also differ.
But both are interrelated.

4.3.2 Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. Hence it has close and intimate relationship with
Anthropology. The relationship is so close that Anthropologists like A.L. Kroeber consider Sociology
and Anthropology as twin sisters. They often appear as two names for the same subject. R.
Redfield recognizes the closeness between these two social sciences.
Sociology is a science of society. It studies behaviour of man in groups. The term Sociology has been
derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ means society, companion or association and the Greek word
‘logos’ means study or science. Hence Sociology is concerned with the association of human beings. It
is a science that deals with social groups.
Similarly the term Anthropology is derived from tow Greek words ‘anthropos’ meaning man and
‘logos’ meaning study or science. Accordingly anthropology means study of man. As a science of
man it deals with man, his works and behaviour. Anthropology studies the biological and cultural
development of man. Anthropology has a wide field of study which can be broadly divided into four
main divisions such as physical anthropology, archeology, cultural anthropology and social
anthropology. Physical anthropology studies bodily characteristics of early man and thereby tries to
understand both primitive and modern cultures. Archeology studies cultures of pre-historic period.
This study facilitates sociologists to make a comparative study of present social structure. It is
concerned with the early periods of human existence. It reconstructs the origin, spread and evolution
of culture by examining the remains of the past societies. Social anthropology deals with the
behaviour of man in social institutions. Social anthropology and sociology are one and the same.
Evan Pritchard considers social anthropology as a branch of Sociology.

30
However there exists a very close and intimate relationship between Sociology and Anthropology. Both
contribute to the growth of each other. Both have a symbiotic relationship. Anthropology studies
primitive man in a pre-literate society whereas sociology studies man in modern complex societies.
Anthropology is holistic in nature because it studies all aspects of man in a social setting; whereas
this is not possible in sociology because of its vastness and complexity of modern life. However their
close relationship can be known from the following.
Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology. Without the help of anthropology the study of
Sociology can’t be complete. It is a part of Sociology. Anthropology provides knowledge about
ancient societies. To have a comprehensive understanding of present society Sociology takes the help
of anthropology. Contributions of many Anthropologists like R. Brown, Linton, Mead and Pritchard
enriches sociological knowledge. The origin of family, marriage, religion etc. can be better
understood through anthropological knowledge. Sociology accepts the concepts like cultural area,
cultural traits, and cultural lag etc. from anthropology. Sociology accepts the anthropological
conclusion that racial superiority is not responsible for mental development. ‘Thus Sociology is
greatly benefited by anthropological studies.
Similarly, Sociology contributes richly towards the growth of anthropology. Anthropology accepts
many concepts of Sociology. Research and contributions of many Sociologists like Emile Durkheim,
Herbert Spencer is of great help to anthropology. Anthropologists greatly benefited by the Sociological
researches. Ideas and conclusions of Sociology contribute to the research in anthropology.
Thus, there exists a close and intimate relationship between Sociology and Anthropology. Both study
human society and both are concerned with all kinds of social groups like families, friends, tribes
etc. Many of the ideas and concepts are used in both the discipline. Hence both are interrelated and
interdependent. However, in spite of the inter-relationship, both differ from each other.
Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society whereas anthropology is a science of man and his
behaviour.
(2) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is very
limited.
(3) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas anthropology studies man as a part of
society.
(4) Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic on the other hand
Anthropology studies cultures which are simple and primitive.
(5) Sociology studies modern, civilized and complex societies whereas Anthropology
studies ancient and pre-literate societies.
(6) Sociology is concerned with social planning whereas anthropology is not concerned with

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 social planning. On the basis of social planning sociology make suggestion for future but
anthropology do not make any suggestion for future.
(7) In the words of Kluckhon, “The Sociological attitude has tended towards the Practical
and Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the past.”

4.3.3 Sociology and Economics

Sociology is mother of all social sciences. Hence, it has close relationship with all social sciences
and so also with Economics. The relationship of Sociology with Economics is very close, intimate and
personal. There exists close relationship between these two because economic relationship bears a close
relation to social activities and relationships. Likewise social relationship is also affected by
economic relationships. Economic activities to a great extent are social activities. Hence both are
mutually related.
Sociology is a science of society. It is concerned with the association of human beings. Sociology is the
study of human inter-actions and inter-relations their conditions and consequences. But Economics
deals with economic activities of man. It is a science of wealth and choice. According to Prof. Robbins,
Economics is a social “science which studies human behaviour in relation to his unlimited ends and
scare means which have alternatives uses. “It is concerned with the activities of man such as
production, consumption, distribution and exchange. It also studies the structure and functions of
different economic organizations like banks, markets etc. It is concerned with the material needs of
man as well as his material welfare.
However, there exists a great deal of inter-relationship between these two sciences. Both are
interdependent and inter-related with each other. Due to this inter-relationship Thomas opines that,
“Economics is, in fact, but one branch of Sociology. “Similarly, Silverman opines Economics is
regarded as offshoot of Sociology which studies the general principles of all social relations. Their inter-
relationships are as follows:
Economics takes the help of Sociology. For its own comprehension economics takes the help of
sociology and depends on it. Economics is a part of Sociology hence without the help from
Sociology, Economics can’t understand itself completely. Economics is concerned with material
welfare of man which is common welfare. Economic welfare is a part of social welfare. For the
solution of different economic problems such as inflation, poverty, unemployment etc, Economists
takes the help of Sociology and takes into account the social events of that particular time. At the same
time society controls other economic activities of man. Economics is greatly benefited by the research
conducted by Sociologists like Max Weber, Pareto etc. Some economists also consider economic
change as an aspect of social change. Economics draws its generalization basing on the data

32
provided by Sociology. Thus, Economics cannot go far or develop without the help of Sociology.
Similarly Sociology also takes the help from Economics. Economics greatly enriches sociological
knowledge. Economic factors greatly influence each and every aspects of social life. Economics is a
part of sociology hence without the help of economics we can’t understand sociology properly.
Knowledge and research in the field of economics greatly contributes to sociology. Each and every
social problem has an economic cause. For the solution of social problems like dowry, suicide etc
Sociologists take the help form economics. Marx opines economic relations constitute the foundation
of Society. Economic factors play a very important role in every aspect of our social life; that is
why, Sociologists concerned with economic institutions. For this reason sociologists like Spencer,
Weber, Durkheim and others have taken the help from economics in their analysis of social
relationships. Thus both sociology and economics are very closely related with each other. There are
some problems which are being studied by both sociologists and economics. Economic changes
results in social changes and vice versa. However, in spite of the above closeness, inter-relationship
and inter-dependence both the sciences have certain differences which are described below:
Differences: 1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationships whereas economics is
science of wealth.
(2) Sociology is a much younger science which has very recent origin whereas economics is
comparatively old.
(3) Sociology is an abstract science whereas economics is concrete in nature.
(4) Sociology is a general social science whereas economics is a special social science.
(5) Sociology is concerned with the social activities of man whereas economics is
concerned with the economic activities of man.
(6) Society is studied as a unit of study in Sociology whereas man is taken as a unit of
study in economics.
(7) Both Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of the methods and
techniques they use for their study.

4.3.4 Sociology and Political Science

As a mother of social science, Sociology has close and intimate relationship with all other social
science. Hence, it has close relationship with political sciences as well. Their relationship is so close
and intimate that led G.E.C. Catlin to remark “Political Science and Sociology are two faces or aspects
of the same figure. “Similarly other scholars could not find any difference between the two
disciplines.

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Sociology is a Science of society. It is a science of social groups and social institution. It is a
general science of society. It studies human interaction and inter-relations their conditions and
consequences. Political Science is a science of state and government. It studies power, political
processes, political systems, types of government and international relation. It deals with social groups
organized under the sovereign of the state. In the words of Paul Junet, “Political Science is that part of
social science which treats the foundation of the state and principles of government. “It studies the
political activities of man. It only studies the organized society. However, their interrelationship can
be known from their interdependence and mutual relationship.
Sociology depends on political science. In the words of Morris Ginsberg, “Historically, Sociology has
its main roots in politics and philosophy of history.” Sociology is greatly benefited by the books
written by political scientists like Plato, Aristotle and Kautilya such as The Republic, The Politics and
Arthasastra respectively. Each and every social problem has a political cause. Political Science is a part
of Sociology. Hence sociology depends on Political Science to comprehend itself. To understand
different political events sociology takes the help from political science. Sociology draws its
conclusions being dependent on political science. Any change in the political system or nature of
power structure brings changes in society. Hence Sociology takes the help of political science to
understand the changes in society. Hence both are interdependent.
Similarly, political science also depends on Sociology. Political Science is a part of sociology. To
understand the part, it is necessary to understand the whole. Almost all political problems have a social
cause and for the solution of these political problems political science takes the help of sociology. State
frames its rules, regulations and laws on the basis of social customs, tradition and values. Without
Sociological background, the study of political science will be incomplete. Political Scientists are
largely benefited by the researches and research methods of the Sociologist. Some consider political
science as a branch of Sociology. State is considered as a social group hence is a subject of
Sociology.
Besides, there are some common topics which are being studied by both the subjects. These topics
include among other things War, Propaganda, authority, communal riots and law. With the help of
both political science and sociology, a new subject comes into existence which is known as political
sociology. Some political events like war are also significant social events. Thus both political
science and sociology contribute to each other. But in spite of their interrelationship and
interdependence both the sciences differ from each other in the following way.

Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationship whereas political science is a
science of state and government.

34
 (2) The scope of sociology is very wide but scope of political science is limited.
(3) Sociology is a general science but political science is a special science.
(4) Sociology studied organized, unorganized and disorganized society whereas political
science studies only politically organized society.
(5) Sociology studies the social activities of man whereas political science studies
political activities of man.
(6) Sociology is a new or young science but political science is an old science.
(7) Sociology studies man as a social animal whereas political science studies man as a
political animal.
(8) Sociology studies both formal and informal relations whereas political science studies
only formal relations.
(9) Sociology analyses both conscious and unconscious activities of man whereas political
science analyses only conscious activities of man.
(10) Sociology deals with all forms of association whereas political science deals with only
one form of association named state.

4.3.5 Sociology and History

As a mother of social sciences, sociology has close and intimate relationship with all other social
sciences. It has close relationship with history, because present society bears symbols of past.
Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that scholars like G. Von Bulow have refused
to acknowledge sociology as a science distinct from history.
Sociology is the science of society. It is a study of systems of social action and their interrelations.
Sociology is a science of social groups and social institutions. History studies the important past events
and incidents. It records men’s past life and life of societies in a systematic and chronological order. It
also tries to find out the causes of past events. It also studies the past political, social and economic
events of the world. It not only studies the past but also establishes relations with present and future.
That is why it is said that “History is the microscope of the past, the horoscope of the present and
telescope of the future.
However, both the sciences are closely interrelated and interdependent on each other. Both study the
same human society. Their mutual dependence led G.H. Howard to remark that, “History is past
Sociology and Sociology is present history,” Both take help from each other. At the same time one
depends on the other for its own comprehension.
History helps and enriches Sociology. History is the store house of knowledge from which

35
Sociology gained a lot. History provides materials sociologists use. History is a record of past social
matters, social customs and information about different stages of life. Sociology uses this information.
Books written by historians like A. Toynbee are of great use for Sociologists. To know the impact of
a particular past event sociology depends of history.
Similarly Sociology also provides help to history and enriches it. A historian greatly benefited from
the research conducted by Sociologists. Historians now study caste, class and family by using
sociological data. Sociology provides the background for the study of history. Now history is being
studied from Sociological angle. Every historical event has a social cause or social background.
To understand that historical event history need the help from Sociology and Sociology helps
history in this respect. Sociology provides facts on which historians rely on.
Thus history and Sociology are mutually dependent on each other. History is now being studied from
Sociological angle and Sociology also now studied from historical point of view. Historical sociology
now became a new branch of Sociology which depends on history. Similarly Sociological history is
another specialized subject which based on both the Sciences. But in spite of the above close relationship
and inter-dependence both the sciences differ from each other from different angles which are described
below.
Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society and is concerned with the present society. But history
deals with the past events and studies the past society.
(2) Sociology is a modern or new subject whereas history is an older social science.
(3) Sociology is abstract whereas history is concrete in nature.
(4) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limed. Sociology
includes history within its scope.
(5) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.
(6) Attitude of sociology and history differ from each other. Sociology studies a particular
event as a social phenomenon whereas history studies a particular event in it’s entirely.
(7) Sociology is a general science whereas history is a special science.

4.3.6 Sociology and Psychology

Sociology is a science of society. Hence it is closely related to other social sciences and so also
with psychology. Sociology and Psychology are very closely interlinked, interrelated and
interdependent. Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that Psychologist like Karl
Pearson refuses to accept both as special science. Both depend on each other for their own
comprehension. Their relationship will be clear if we analyze their interrelationship and mutual

36
dependency.
Sociology is a science of social phenomena and social relationship. It is a science of social group and
social institutions. It is a science of collective behaviour. It studies human behaviour in groups. But
psychology is a science of mind or mental processes. It is a science of human behaviour. It
analyses attitudes, emotions, perception, process of learning and values of individuals and process of
perception, process of personality formation in society. In the words of Thouless, ‘Psychology is the
positive science of human experience and behaviour.’ But both the sciences are closely related to each
other which can be known from the following.
Sociology receives help from Psychology. Psychology is a part of sociology hence without the help
from Psychology; Sociology can’t understand itself fully and properly. There are many
psychologists like Freud, Mac Dugal and others who have enriched Sociology in many respects. They
opine that the whole social life could be reduced finally to psychological forces. Each and every social
problems and social phenomenon must have a psychological basis for the solution of which sociology
requires the help form psychology. A new branch of knowledge has developed with the combination
of sociology and psychology which is known as social psychology.
Similarly, psychology depends on Sociology to comprehend itself fully. Psychology also requires help
from sociology in many cases. As human mind and personality is being influenced by social
environment, culture, customs and traditions hence psychology takes the help form Sociology to
understand this. To understand human nature and behaviour properly psychology depends on
sociology. There are many Psychological problems which must have a social cause. Psychology
requires the help from Sociology to understand these social problems. Research in Sociology richly
contributes to psychology. Contributions and theories of many Sociologists also are of great help to
Psychologists.
Thus, Sociology and Psychology are mutually dependent on each other. One can’t comprehend itself
without the help form others. Besides there are some common area of study such as social
disorganization, public opinion etc. which are being studied by both Sociologists and
Psychologists. Social Psychology a branch of Psychology is developed with the combination of the
two. In the words of Kretch and Crutchfield, Social Psychology is the science of behaviour of the
individuals in society.

Differences: However, in spite of the mutual relationship and dependence both the sciences differ
from each other in the following ways.
(1) Sociology is a science of society but Psychology is a science of mind.
(2) Scope of Sociology is wide whereas scope of Psychology is limited.

37
 (3) Society is the unit of study in sociology but individual is the unit of study in case of
Psychology.
(4) Sociology studies social processes whereas Psychology studies mental processes.
(5) Sociology studies and analyzes human behaviour from Sociological angle whereas
psychology studies and analyses human behaviour form Psychological angles.

4.3.7 Sociology and Ethics

Sociology is the science of society. Hence, it is closely related to all other social sciences and so
also with ethics. Different social sciences are interrelated. Hence, there exists some interrelationship
between sociology and ethics.
Ethics is the science of morality. Ethics is concerned with good or bad, ‘paapa’ or ‘punya’ and with
the moral rightness and wrongness of human action. It conditions social action. Ethics aims at the ideals
of ‘satya’ and fair play. Ethics wants individuals to be ethical which is in the interest of society. Ethics
throw light on the moral life of individuals and institutions. Ethics is a normative science. Ethics studies
individuals as moral agents of society.
Sociology and ethics are very closely and intimately related to each other. Ethics wants individuals to
be ethical which is in the interest of society. Good ethical standards provided solid foundations to
society. Society makes him believe. Hence, ethics and sociology go together. Individual good must be
in harmony with the general good of society. It is here that sociology and ethics come close to each
other. Ethics influences the social institutions. As a social animal, man acquires moral values as a
member of a social group. Moral life of individuals lies amidst a social group. Degree of moral
standards of individuals decides the nature of a society. Ethics is concerned with the moral
progress of society which decides the general progress of society. Thus, there exists a close
relationship between the two. This led many scholars to consider ethics as a branch of sociology.
Besides, the above close relationships, both the science differ in many respects. Sociology and Ethics
are two distinct disciplines. As a science of society sociology is concerned with group not individual.
But Ethics mainly concerned with individual and its morality. Sociology is a positive science but
Ethics is a normative science. Scope of sociology is very wide while that of Ethics is limited. Sociology
studies individuals and their social relations but Ethics studies moral life of individuals. Sociology is
the science of society where of Ethics is the science of morality.
Recent View
No doubt, all social sciences study their own specific aspects in the social phenomenon. All social
sciences share the same subject but their different attitudes create difference among them. According

38
to Simpson, social sciences are united and this unity is not imaginary. It is the dynamic unity of
different parts and every part is necessary for another and all other parts. One can’t deny the desired and
necessary unity among one specific and general social science.
But the recent view regarding the relationship between sociology and other social sciences is different
from any view which makes a sharp difference between social sciences. In recent years, the social
scientists recognize the need for a comprehensive study of society which can’t be made in a
fragmented manner. The interdisciplinary approach is one of the basic and fundamental developments
in the area of social science. Now, sociology, social anthropology, political science, economics,
history, psychology, ethics etc. share most of their views and method.

4.4 Summary
No doubt, all social sciences study their own specific aspects in the social phenomenon. All
social sciences share the same subject but their different attitudes create difference among them.
According to Simpson, social sciences are united and this unity is not imaginary. It is the dynamic
unity of different parts and every part is necessary for another and all other parts. One can’t deny the
desired and necessary unity among one specific and general social science.
But the recent view regarding the relationship between sociology and other social sciences is
different from any view which makes a sharp difference between social sciences. In recent
years, the social scientists recognize the need for a comprehensive study of society which can’t be
made in a fragmented manner. The interdisciplinary approach is one of the basic and fundamental
developments in the area of social science. Now, sociology, social anthropology, political science,
economics, history, psychology, ethics etc. share most of their views and method.
4.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Discuss in brief the relationship of sociology with other social sciences.
2. Sociology and Anthropology are twin sisters. Discuss.
3. “History is past sociology and sociology is present history” Explain.
4. Discuss the relation of sociology with political science.
5. What relation does Sociology bear with Economics?
6. Discuss the relation of sociology with Psychology.
7. Describe the relationship between sociology and Ethics.
8. Distinguish between formalistic and synthetic school of thought.
9. Why sociology is not a science? Explain.
10. “Sociology is the social science far excellence”. Explain this statement of Seligman.

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4.6 Key Words
Political science: According to Paul Junet, “political science is that part of social science which treats
the foundation of the state and principle of government.”
Economics: According to P rof. Robbins, Economics is a social science which studies human
behaviour in relation to his unlimited ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.”
Psychology: In the words of Thouless, “psychology is the positive science of human experience and
behaviour.” It is a science of human mind or mental processes.
Anthropology: Anthropology is the science or study of man. It deals with man, his work and
behaviour.It studies the biological and cultural development of man.

4.7 Study Guide

1. Bottomore, T.B. Sociology, Bombay, 1978.
2. Bierstedt, Robert 1970. Social order. Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing co.ltd, Mumbai.
3. Barnes, H.E: Sociology and Political theory.
4. Barnes, H.E: An Introduction to the History of Sociology, Chikago, 1948.
5. Coser, Lewis, A: Sociological Theory: A book of Readings, London, 1957.
6. Dube, S.C, 1977: Understanding Society: Sociology: The discipline and its significance:
Part-I, NCERT, New Delhi.
7. Vidya Bhusan and Sachdeva, D.R: An Introduction to Sociology Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
8. McIver and Page: Society: An Introductory Analysis.
th
9. Giddens, Anthory : 2001, Sociology, 4 edition polity press, Cambridge.

10. Inkles, Alex 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the discipline and profession.
Prentice Hall New Jersey.
11. Ginsberg, M. Sociology. Oxford University press, 1961.
12. Johnson, H.M. Sociology: A systematic Introduction.
13. Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan: An Introduction to Social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing House, 1960.
14. Bogardus, E.S. Sociology.
15. Giddings, F.H. Scientific study of Human society.

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 Block-02 Basic Concepts

Unit-05 Society, Man and Society

Unit-06 Community
Unit-07 Association
Unit-08 Groups
Unit-09 Social Status
Unit-10 Roles
Unit-11 Culture

41
 Unit-05 Society, Man and Society

Structure
5.1 Learning Objectives
5.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
5.3 Society
5.3.1 Origin of society
5.3.2 Meaning and definition.
5.3.3 Characteristics.
5.3.4 Functional prerequisites.
5.3.5 Types of society.
5.3.6 Man and society- interrelationships.
5.3.7 Man is a social animal.
5.4 Summary
5.5 Self Assessment Questions
5.6 Key Words
5.7 Study Guide

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5.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-

 Explain the concept of society in sociological perspective.

 Describe some major characteristics of society.

 Understand the relationship that exists between society and individual behaviours

5.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Sociology is a highly conceptual subject. Hence, conceptual clarity is the most important principle
of sociology. Once, one get control over concepts in sociology, its understanding becomes
very easy. Every science or subject has its own terms, terminology, ideas and concepts, so also
sociology. Hence, understanding of sociology requires the proper understanding of different
concepts used in it.

Concept ordinarily means an abstraction from reality. It is something that is conceived in mind.
Concept may be an idea, a notion or an observed or studied phenomenon represented in a word or
phrase. A phenomenon is a fact, not a concept. Its abstraction, as it is conceived, is a concept. In
the words of Goode and Hatt concepts are the “logical constructs created from sense
impressions, precepts, on even fairly complex experience”. P.V. Young describes it as
‘definition in short hand’ of a social reality such as a relationship or phenomenon. It is used to
communicate a particular idea, notion or relationship. One has to understand them not in their
dictionary meaning or as used in ordinary parlance but as used in the sociological context.
Sociology is full of concepts. Their accurate understanding is a prerequisite for the correct
understanding of sociology. Definite concepts give scientific form to any idea. Definite concepts
eliminate the ambiguity of meaning. In the present chapter discussions are mainly made on
various important concepts, such as society, community, associations, groups used in sociology.

5.3 Society
Society is an important basic concept of sociology. Sociology is the science of society. Hence,
for proper understanding of sociology, it is necessary to understand society. Besides, the existence of
man is tied up to that of society. Society is as old as human being itself. Interactions and
relationships among human beings are studied by sociology. These human interactions and
relationships are taking place in society. As a member of society and as a student of sociology
one needs to acquaint oneself with truest sociological meaning of the term society from the outset.
Hence, an attempt is made to explain the sociological meaning of the term society.

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5.3.1 Origin of society
Society is as old as human being itself. It is believed that human beings organized to end the
state of anarchy. It emerged out of men’s existence. A number of theories attempted to explain the
origin of society. These are
1. Divine origin Theory: According to this theory society was created by God. As God created
everything so he created the society. This theory during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
took the form of Divine Right Theory.
2. Force Theory: According to this theory, society is created due to superior Physical force.
People were brought together and compelled to live in society through physical force or physical
coercion. Force is behind the genesis of society. Society originated in the subjugation of the
weaker by the stronger.
3. Patriarchal Theory: This theory opined that society originated due to the expansion of family
system. Society is the family writ large. Sir Henry Maine defines patriarchal theory is the theory
of origin of society in separate families, held together by the authority and protection of the
eldest male descendant.
4. Matriarchal Theory: According to this theory society originated due to the expansion of family
system. It opined that polyandry were widely prevalent in ancient times than monogamy or
polygamy. Descent is traced through mother.
5. Social contract Theory: According to this theory society was originated as a result of contract
or agreement made among people. It believes that individual precedes society. Men created society
either to end the state of anarchy or to free themselves from the laws of nature. Thomas Hobbes,
John Locke and J.J. Rousseau were the main exponent of this theory. Hobbes opined men in the
state of nature were in conflict with each other due to his selfish nature. To protect himself
from evil consequences they organized society. Locke opined that there was no recognized
society. Locke opined that there was no recognized system of law and justice in the state of
nature. To
overcome this deficiency men entered into a contract and society was created. It was a popular
th th
theory during 16 and 18 century.

6. Evolutionary Theory: According to this theory society was created through a gradual process
of evolution. Society always moves from a less developed stage to a more developed stage,
from unorganized to organized and from less perfect to more perfect. Auguste Comte believes in
the evolutionary development of society which passes through theological, Metaphysical and
Scientific Stages. Morgan opined that society has passed through the primitive, barbaric and

44
 civilized stages of development. Karl Marx analyses the development of society on the basis of
the system of production which passes through the stages of primitive Communism, Slavery,
agriculture, feudalism and capitalism.
However, the above theories of origin of society do not provide a real picture of its origin.
All theories have been criticized by scholars from different angles.

5.3.2 Meaning and definition.

The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a companion,
association or fellowship. It is because man always lives in the company of his fellow beings. This led
George Simmel to remark that sociability is the essence of society. The term society is understood in
different sense. In our day to day discussion society is used to refer to the members of specific in
group for example-Adivasi Society, Harijan Society etc. Some other time it refers to some
institutions like Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj. At some other time society refers to an association like
consumer’s society, co-operative society or cultural society. Society is also used in the sense of a group
such as rural society or urban society.
But in Sociology, Society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of the norms
or interaction or relationships that arise among them. People exists only as an agent of social
relationships. Mere congregation of individuals does not constitute society. Rather society refers to
the complicated network of social relationships by which every individual is interrelated with his
fellowmen. Hence Society is abstract, not concrete, in nature. We can’t touch it but fill it.
Because, society resides in the minds of individual. Society is a process of living not a thing, a
motion rather than structure. A system of social relationships is the most important aspect of society.
Not all relationships are social. A social relationship implies reciprocal awareness among individuals.
This reciprocal awareness direct and indirect is the characteristic of every social relationship. This idea
of reciprocal awareness is implied in F.H. Giddings definition of society i.e. “a number of like-
minded individuals, who know and enjoy their like-mindedness and are, therefore, able to work
together for common ends.” Thus elements of society exist in the ‘Consciousness of Kind’ of
Giddings, ‘we-feeling’ of Cooley or ‘a common propensity of W.I. Thomas.

When more than one individual live together and mutual relationship develop among them
and different social processes like mutual co-operation, competition and conflict constantly take place
in society. The relationship established around these creates society. Here exists blood relationship
between parents and children, brothers and sisters. Voters and leaders are bound in a political
relationship. There exist economic relationships between the customer and shopkeeper. There exist

45
social relationships among neighbours. There exist religious relationships between the priest and the
family members. The network of these relationships is what we call society.

To understand the meaning of the term society more clearly and exactly we must have to give a
look towards the definitions given by Sociologists. But Sociologists are not unanimous in their opinion
about society. As a result we come across two types of definitions such as structural and functional
definitions. But these two views are not contradictory but complementary to each other. These two
views are discussed below:

(1) Structural views of Society: According to the Structural View Society is a structure.
Accordingly society refers to the social heritage of folkways, mores, ideals, institutions and habits.
Supporters of this view are Morris Ginsberg, F.H. Giddings, G.D.H. Cole, J.F. Cuber and others. Their
views are as follows:

(a) According to F. H. Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal
relations in which associated individuals are bound together”.

(b) According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society is the complex of organized associations and
institutions within the community”.

(c) According to Morris Ginsburg, “A society is a collection of individuals united by certain

relations or modes of behaviors which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations
or who differ from them in behavior.”

(d) According to J.F. Cuber, “A Society may be defined as a group of people who have lived
long enough to become organized and to consider themselves and be considered as a unit more or less
distinct from other human units.”

FUNCTIONAL VIEWS OF SOCIETY:

According to the functional views, Society is a process of social relationships. It considers society as a
complex of groups in reciprocal relationship, interacting among themselves and carrying on an
interdependent life and helping each other in fulfilling their wishes. Supporters of this view are
MacIver and Page, Parsons, Cooley, Leacock and others.

(1) According to MacIver and Page, “Society is a system of usages and procedures,
authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and of
liberties.”

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 (2) According to T. Parson, “Society may be defined as the total complex of human
relationship in so far as they grow out of action in terms of means and relationship, intrinsic or
symbolic.”

(3) According to C.H. Cooley, “Society is a complex of forms or processes each of which is
living and growing by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified that what takes place in
one part affects all the rest.”

(4) According to Leacock, “Society includes not only the political relations by which man is
bound together but the whole range of human relations and collective activities.”
Thus, from the above analysis we conclude that from a wider angle society is considered as both a
structural as well as functional unit. It is an organization, a system and a pattern. It is a system of rules
and regulations which changes in course of time. Society is a larger group of which individual is a
member. But society is not a group of people only rather it is a system of relationships which exists
among individuals or groups. That is why MacIver remarked that society is “a web of social
relationship”. This relationship may be of different types. But no social relationship could be possible
without awareness and without social relationship there could be no society.

5.3.3 Characteristics.
A comprehensive understanding of society requires a thorough analysis of its characteristics. But
the term society could be understood both from a narrower and broader sense. In a narrower sense
society refers to a group of people but in a broader sense it refers to the whole human society.
However, society has the following characteristics:

(1) Population: A society must have population. Without a group of people no society could be
formed. Of course, society refers not to a group of people but to system of social relationships. But
for the establishment of social relationships a group of people is necessary. This population is a self
perpetuating individuals who reproduces itself through some sort of mating relationship. Hence it is the
first requirement of society.

(2) Likeness: Likeness is the most important characteristic of society. Famous sociologist
MacIver opines that society means likeness. Without a sense of likeness, there could be no mutual
recognition of ‘belonging together’ and therefore no society. This sense of likeness was found in early
society on kinship and in modern societies the conditions of social likeness have broadened out into
the principles of nationality. Society consists of like bodied and likeminded individuals. Friendship
intimacy and association of any kind would be impossible without likeness. It also helps in the

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 understanding of one by the other. That is why F.H. Giddings opines that society rests on the
‘Consciousness of Kind’.
(3) Differences: Along with likeness, differences is another important characteristic of society.
Because society involves differences and it depends on it as much as on likeness. That is why
MacIver opines that “primary likeness and secondary differences create the greatest of all
institutions-the division of labour”. Because, differences is complementary to social relationship. If
people will be alike in all respect society could not be formed and there would be little reciprocity
and relationship became limited. Family as the first society based on biological differences and
differences in aptitude, interest and capacity. Though differences is necessary for society but
differences by itself does not create society. Hence differences are sub-ordinate to likeness.

(4) Inter-dependence: Interdependence is another important characteristic of society. This fact of

interdependence is visible in every aspect of present day society. Famous Greek Philosopher, Aristotle
remarked that ‘Man is a social animal’. As a social animal he is dependent on others. The survival
and well being of each member is very much depended on this interdependence. No individual is self
sufficient. He has to depend on others for, shelter and security and for the fulfillment of many of his
needs and necessities. With the advancement of society this degree of interdependence increases
manifold. Family being the first society is based on the biological interdependence of the sexes. Not
only individuals are interdependent but also the groups, communities and societies.

(5) Co-operation and Conflict: Both co-operation and conflict are two another important
characteristics of society. Because famous sociologist MacIver once remarked that “Society is Co-
operation crossed by conflict”. Co-operation is essentially essential for the formation of society.
Without co-operation there can be no society. People can’t maintain a happy life without co-operation
Family being the first society rests on co- operation. Co-operation avoids mutual destructiveness and
results in economy in expenditure.

Like co-operation conflict is also necessary for society. Conflict acts as a cementing factor for
strengthening social relations. In a healthy and well developed society both co- operation and
conflict co-exist. Because, with the help of these two universal process society is formed. Conflict
makes co-operation meaningful. Conflict may be direct and indirect. However both are necessary for
society.

(6) Society is a network or web of social relationship: Social relationships are the foundation
of society. That is why famous sociologist MacIver remarked that society is a network of social
relationship. Hence it is difficult to classify social relationships. But this social relationship is based

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on mutual awareness or recognition to which Cooley call we- feeling, Giddings call consciousness
of kind and Thomas as common propensity. Without these social relationships no society could be
formed. As social relationships are abstract in nature so also the society is abstract in nature.
Different kinds of social processes like co- operation, conflict constantly takes place in society. And
the relationships established around these create society. Hence a network of social relationships which
created among individuals constitutes society.

(7) Permanent Nature: Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not a

temporary organization of individuals. Society continues to exist even after the death of individual
members. Society is a co-he rent organization.

(8) Society is Abstract: Society is an abstract concept. As MacIver opines society is a web of
social relationships. We can’t see this relationship but we can feel it. Hence, it is an abstract concept.
Wright has rightly remarked that “society in essence means a state or condition, a relationship and
is, therefore, necessarily an abstraction”. Besides society consists of customs, traditions, folkways,
mores and culture which are also abstract. Hence, society is abstract in nature.

(9) Society is Dynamic: The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No society is
static. Every society changes and changes continuously. Old customs, traditions, folkways, more
values and institutions got changed and new customs and values takes place. Society changes
from it’s traditional nature to modern nature. Hence it is one of the most important characteristic of
society.

(10) Comprehensive Culture: Culture is another important characteristic of society. Each and
every society has it’s own culture which distinguishes it from others. Culture is the way of life of the
members of a society and includes their values, beliefs, art, morals etc. Culture is comprehensive
because it fulfills the necessities of social life and is culturally self- sufficient. Besides, each and
every society transmits its cultural pattern to the succeeding generations.
(11) Society is something more than mere collection of individuals. No doubt society consists
of individuals. But mere collection of individuals is not society. It is something more than and
something beyond the individual. Durkheim is right when he remarked that society is more than the
sum of it’s parts i.e. individuals.

(12) Accommodation and Assimilation: This two associative social process is also
important for the smooth functioning and continuity of society. Hence, it is also another
characteristic of society.

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 But besides the above characteristics famous sociologists MacIver and Page in their definition
mentioned some of the elements of society which are described below:

(1) Usages: Every society has some usages concerned with marriage, religion, education etc.
These usages differ from society to society.

(2) Procedures: In every society there are some procedures like modes of action which helps to
maintain its unity.

(3) Authority: Every society has some sort of authority. Every members of society has to obey
this authority. Some sort of authority is necessary for the maintenance of order in society.

(4) Mutual Aid: In every society there exists a feeling of mutual aid among its members.
Everyone needs helps from others.

(5) Groupings and Divisions: In every society there exist several groupings and divisions like
family, village, city etc. Which constitute a society?

(6) Controls: Every society exercises some sort of controls over its members. Hence control is
necessary for the smooth organization of a society.

(7) Liberty: Along with control every society give some liberty to its members some sort of
liberty or freedom is necessary for the organization of society. But control and liberty is not opposite to
each other.

Thus, Society is a permanent institution. It’s exact origin is unknown to history. It emerged from the
original instincts of man and continues to exist till the existence of man. It is not a mere structure. It
refers to the whole system of social relationships. It rests on the state of mind of individuals who
compose society.

5.3.4 Functional prerequisites.

Society is the most important concept used in sociology. It is the first and foremost social
group of human kind. It is as old as human being itself. The very existence of human beings is tied up
with society. When man’s collective life is institutionalized society came into existence. Different
institutions like family, school and state develops on the basis of value system. All these institutions
constitute human society. But the existence, continuity and preservation of human society requires the
fulfillment of certain basic functional needs and necessities. These needs are necessary for the smooth
functioning of society. These are known as functional pre-requisites of society. If society has to

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exist these pre-requisites must be met. However, human society has the following pre-requisites.

(1) The first and basic functional pre-requisites of human society are food, clothing, shelter,
security and defense against the dangers of outer environment. Sufficient provision must be made for
the fulfillment of the above basic needs of man.

(2) Co-ordination of human actions is another functional pre-requisite of human society. Every
human being must perform some acts which will help for the smooth continuation and functioning
of society. There must be some co-ordination among the human beings in performing different
acts. This co-ordination is possible through division of labour.

(3) Division of labour is another functional pre-requisite of human society. Different works of
society is allotted to individuals on the basis of efficiency. Every society has a clear division of labour
among its population on the basis of age, sex and efficiency. It will also lead to progress.

(4) Procreation is another important functional pre-requisite of society. Because, this will help
in the continuation of human society. Old population must be replaced by new population.
Procreation is the most important means of replacing members.

(5) Socialization is another important functional pre-requisite of society. New member of should
learn the values beliefs and behaviour system to maintain the continuity of society. By this process a
new born human being is socialized in the societal ways.

(6) Social control is another functional pre-requisite of society. This is necessary to maintain
and preserve value oriented behaviours. It exercises some control over individual and direct him to
conform to the societal behaviour.

(7) Meaningfulness of a goal in social life is another functional pre-requisite of society.

(8) Co-operation among the members is another functional pre-requisite of society. Without
co-operation no society can exist and functions smoothly.

But all these pre-requisites are very closely related and supplementary and complementary with one
another.

5.3.5 Types of society.

Society is as old as human being itself. But it is very difficult to mention different types of
society found in the planet. Human beings are living on this planet in social relationship with each other.

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They got divided among themselves into specific type of society with a common culture and shared life.
Type of society has not been the same all over the world. Society may be divided into different types
on different basis. Some of types of society are mentioned below:

1. Agrarian Society.
2. Tribal Society.
3. Industrial Society.
4. Stone Age Society.
5. Copper Age Society.
6. Iron Age Society.
7. Homogeneous Society.
8. Heterogeneous Society.
9. Primitive Society.

5.3.6 Man and society- interrelationships.

Sociology is mainly concerned with the study of society. Society refers to a complicated network of
social relationships by which every human being is interconnected with his fellow. Sociology gives
stress on the interactions and relationships among human beings. This relationships and interactions take
up to that of society. Origin of society is as old as man itself. Society is the sum total of interactions
among individuals. When more than one individual live together, mutual relationship develops
among them, society is created. This process of mutual relationships and interactions creates among
them the spirit of mutual cooperation, harmony, competition, conflict and accommodation. Such
processes are continuously taking place in society. The relationships and interactions established
around these human activities create society. Hence, there exists a very close relationship between man
and society. Their close relationships may be better understood from the following.

5.3.7 Man is a social animal.

Though accurate information about the exact origin of society is not known still it is an accepted fact
that man has been living in society since time immemorial. Man has to live in society for his existence
and welfare. In almost all aspect of his life he feels the need of society. Biologically and
Psychologically he is compelled to live in society. Because a complete isolated life is unbearable for
him and he can’t develop into a normal individual in isolation. The essence of the fact is that man
always belonged to a society of some sort, without which he can’t exist at all. Society fulfills all his
needs and provides security to him. He took birth, grows, live and die in society. Without society his

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life is just like fish out of water. That is why famous Greek Philosopher Aristotle remarked more than
two thousand three hundred (2300) years before that, “Man is a social animal. He, who lives without
society, is either a beast or God”. Hence, sociability or sociality of man is main reason why man
lives in society. Man learns all his social qualities from the society itself. That is why Prof. Park is
right when he opines that “Man is not born human but to be made human”. Hence there exists a great
deal of close relationships between man and society. Both are closely inter-related, inter-connected and
inter-dependent. Relationship between the two is bilateral in nature. But this close relationship
between man and society raises one of the most important questions i.e. in what sense man is a social
animal? Aristotle said so long ago that m a n is a social animal mainly because of the following three
reasons such as:
(A) Man is Social by Nature :
Man is a social animal because his nature makes him so. Sociality or Sociability is his natural instinct.
He can’t but live in society. All his human qualities such as to think to enquire to learn language, to
play and work only developed in human society. All this developed through interaction with others.
One can’t be a normal being in isolation. His nature compels him to live with his fellow beings. He
can’t afford to live alone.

To explain this social nature of man famous sociologists like MacIver, K. Davis cited a number of
case studies to justify the theory of development of man’s social nature. In these cases human infants
were isolated from all social relationship to make experiments on their social nature. Some of these
cases are described below.

(1) The case study of Kasper Hauser:

The first case study to experiment social nature of man was the case of Kasper Hauser. This unlucky
child Kasper Hauser from his childhood until seventeenth year was brought up in the forest of
Nuremberg in Germany. He was discovered in the year 1925. At that time it was found that he could
hardly walk, had the mind of an infant and could able to mutter only a few meaningless words. In spite
of several education and training human nature could not develop in him. Lack of social life could not
make him a social being.

(2) The case study of Amala and Kamala:

The second case was of two Hindu children namely Amala and Kamala were discovered in wolf’s
den in 1920. By that time Amala was two years old and Kamal was eight years old. Amala died
soon after the discovery. But Kamala who was identified as wolf’s child survived till 1929. He did
not behave like a normal individual. She walk on four limbs like a wolf, possessed no language but

53
uttered few wolf like growls. She was shy and apathetic towards human beings. After proper training
she could able to learn some social habits like speech, eating, dressing and the like. It shows how human
nature develops within her.
(3) The case study of Anna: It is another feral case study studied by sociologists and
psychologists to conduct experiment on human nature. Anna was an illegitimate American child who
had been placed in a room at age of six months only and discovered five years later i.e. 1938. She
was discovered. After discovery, it was found that she could not walk or speak and was total
indifferent to people around her. But after careful and systematic training it was found that she
quickly learn human qualities. But after few years she dies.

(4) The case study of Issabella: It is another feral case of experiment on human nature
conducted by Sociologist; Issabella was an illegitimate child who was locked in a room with her
deaf and mute mother by her Kinsmen to hid her existence. But when she was discovered she knew
no words and made only animal like sounds and her mind was undeveloped. But after some special
and careful education and training she became able to learn human behaviour and learn language.
Some changes were marked in his behaviour. She was enrolled in a school and became
successful in making adjustments with her classmate. Her case further strengthens the fact that man
became a social animal only when he lives is society.

All the above case studies prove that man is social by nature and he born with social nature
and all his social nature only develops in society and in interaction with his fellow beings. The
human infant of the above feral cases had the capability to learn and be human being but failed
to develop their human qualities in the absence of society and social contacts. Hence it shows
that man is social by nature. This social nature is not super-imposed on him or added to him
rather it is inborn.

(B) Necessity makes Man a Social Animal :

Man is a social animal not only by nature but also by necessity. It is said that needs and necessities
makes man social. Man has many needs and necessities. Out of these different needs social, mental
and physical needs are very important and needs fulfillment. He can’t fulfill these needs without
living in society.

All his needs and necessities compel him to live in society. Many of his needs and necessities will
remain unfulfilled without the co-operation of his fellow beings. His psychological safety, social
recognition, lover and self-actualization needs only fulfilled only within the course of living in

54
society. He is totally dependent for his survival upon the existence of society. Human baby is brought
up under the care of his parents and family members. He would not survive even a day without the
support of society. All his basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, health and education are fulfilled
only within the framework of society. He also needs society for his social and mental developments.
His need for self-preservation compels him to live in society. Individual also satisfy his sex needs
in a socially accepted way in a society. Similarly, haplessness at the time of birth compels him to
live in society. For the satisfaction of human wants man lives in society. Hence, it is also true that not
only for nature but also for the fulfillment of his needs and necessities man lives in society.

(C) For the Development of Mind and Personality man lives in Society :
This is yet another reason for which man is a social animal. Society not only fulfills his physical
needs and determines his social nature but also determines his personality and guides the course of
development of human mind. Development of human mind and self is possible only living in
society. Society moulds out attitudes, beliefs, morals, ideals and thereby moulds individual personality.
With the course of living and with the process of socialization man’s personality develops and he
became a fully fledged individual. Man acquires a self or personality only living in a society. From
birth to death individual acquires different social qualities by social interaction with his fellow
beings which moulds his personality. Individual mind without society remains undeveloped at infant
stage. Society preserves and transmits culture to succeeding generations. The cultural heritage
determines man’s personality by moulding his attitudes, beliefs, morals and ideals. With the help of
social heritage man’s in born potentialities are unfolded.

Individual mind or individual self develops through interaction with others. Famous sociologist
Charles. H. Cooley opines Child’s conception of self develops by way of imagining what others think
about him through “looking glass-self”. Famous Psychologist
G.H. Mead opines that self is social.
Besides Man acquires or learns education from society. This education plays an important
role in the development of human mind, self and personality. His potentialities develop only within
society. Thus, man for the development of his self, mind and personality lives in society.

Thus, from the above discussion we conclude that Man is a social animal. His nature and
necessities makes him a social being. He also depends on society to be a human being. He
acquires personality within society. There exists a very close relationship between individual and
society like that of cells and body. Both are complementary and supplementary to each other.
There can be no society without individuals. Similarly individual can’t be a social animal unless
he lives in society. This close relationship and mutual dependence between society and individual

55
 justify the famous statement of Aristotle that “Man is a social animal, He who lives without society
either a beast of God”.

5.4 Summary
The Sociological and anthropological significance of the conception of society and culture are
properly dealt with in this Unit. Society is derivative from the Latin word socius which means
companionship or comradeship. We have learnt that a society encompasses of a group of
populace and a universal culture is shared among them, they live in a particular geographical
area and experience themselves to represent a united and distinctive entity. We have also learnt
that, Society comprises group of people connected to each other through constant relations such
as affinity, wedding, social status, roles and social systems. In addition, society indicates the
populace of an area or country, sometimes even the globe, taken as intact. Culture is one of the
fundamental conceptions of Sociology. Ever since the derivation of the discipline in the 19th
century, Sociologists and Anthropologists have been conversing and discussing definitions of
culture. With the critical appraisal, we may say that culture is— erudite, as every human being
be required to study how to “be” a member of that culture, Shared, as it suggests all populace
ideas concerning behaviour, Symbolic, as it is bottom on the manipulation or management of
symbols, figures or signs, and Systemic or Universal and integrated, as the part or element of
culture work collectively in an integrated whole.
5.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define society and discuss its characteristics.
2. Man is a social animal. Justify.
3. Explain the functional requisites of society.
4. What do you mean by society? Explain different types of society.
5. Briefly discuss the origin and growth of society.
6. Write short notes on interrelationship between man and society.

5.6 Key Words

Society: The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘socious’ which means
companion, association or fellowship. MacIver and page opines, “society is a system of
usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of control
of human behaviour and of liberties.’
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5.7 Study Guide
1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology ? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay : Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan : Macmillan and
co.LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York : Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-06 Community

Structure
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
6.3 Community
6.1.1 Origin and growth.
6.1.2 Meaning.
6.1.3 Definitions.
6.1.4 Characteristics.
6.1.5 Types.
6.1.6 Distinctions between society and community.
6.4 Summary
6.5 Self Assessment Questions
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Study Guide

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6.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
 Study the origin, growth, characteristics and types of community
6.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
Community life is as old as human being itself. Human civilization grows and develops in the lap of
community. It is a well known fact that individual could not exist alone. He always lives with his
fellows in a group. At the same time it is also true that one can’t be a member of all groups. Hence,
an individual lives and establishes relations with those people who reside in a close proximity with
him. When more than one individual live together in a definite locality or in a close proximity with
each other, mutual relationships develop among them. It is also obvious and natural that people
residing in a definite area develop likeness, co-operation and fellow feeling among themselves. Due to
their common living they share common life, common customs, traditions, culture, and sentiment
and develop common social ideas among themselves. This fact of common social living within a
limited or definite geographical area gives birth to community. In other words, when the members of
a group or a number of individual live together and share no other particular interest but the basic
conditions of common life, the group is called community. All types of relationships exist within
community. Sociologists used the term community to refer to the unity of the common life of people.

6.3 Community
Like society, community is another basic concept of sociology. Community life is as old as human
being itself. Human civilization grows and develops in the lap of community. It is a well known fact
that individual could not exist alone. He always lives with his fellows in a group. At the same time it
is also true that one can’t be a member of all groups. Hence, an individual lives and establishes
relations with those people who reside in a close proximity with him. When more than one
individual live together in a definite locality or in a close proximity with each other, mutual
relationships develop among them. It is also obvious and natural that people residing in a definite area
develop likeness, co-operation and fellow feeling among themselves. Due to their common living
they share common life, common customs, traditions, culture, and sentiment and develop common
social ideas among themselves. This fact of common social living within a limited or definite
geographical area gives birth to community. In other words, when the members of a group or a
number of individual live together and share no other particular interest but the basic conditions of
common life, the group is called community. All types of relationships exists within community.
Sociologists used the term community to refer to the unity of the common life of people.

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6.1.1 Origin and growth.
The community is as old as humanity. Man has been living in community of some type since his arrival.
It is believed that community is the original and first abode of human civilization. Individuals assemble
in a group in order to attain common goals. The human civilization itself reared up in community.
During prehistoric age man has leading a nomadic or barbarian life and was wandering here and there
for food and could not settle up anywhere. But when his mental horizon developed he learns the skill
to collect food and other needs from a particular place, mainly on river banks or fertile areas and
permanently settled there. When a group of people or families permanently settled or lived together
in a particular area which led them to share each other’s joy and sorrows, as a result a pattern of
common living is created which marked the origin of community life. With the passage of time
community life expands with the creation of different socio- economic, cultural and political relations
among the people of a particular area. This led to the emergence of different social, political, economic
and cultural institutions. As a resulta full-fledged community was created. Sociologists have used the
term community to refer a group of people living within a definite area and sharing the basic conditions
of common life. Sociologists like Ferdinand Tonnies, Louis wirth, Emile Durkheim, Robert Redfield
and R.M. MacIver have made important contribution for developing the concept of community in the
field of sociology.

6.1.2 Meaning.
Famous sociologist R.M. MacIver made on early attempt to study community in sociology. According to
MacIver, Community is the name of settlement, Village, City, Tribe or nation. It is a local grouping
within which people carry out a full round of life activities. It emphasizes the unity of the common life
of people.

The term community has been derived from two Latin word ‘com’ and ‘Munis’ which means
‘together’ and servicing respectively. When the members of a group live together on a common
territory and share no particular interest but the basic conditions of common life we call it a
community. It is a local grouping within which people carry out a full round of life activities. In the
words of MacIver, community is the name of settlement, village, city, tribe or nation. Community
has three aspects: Geographical, social and Psychological. Thus, a community requires territory, all
types of relationships among members and a sense of we-feeling. When individuals live together on a
definite territory, have the feelings of mutuality and develop all types of relationships among
themselves it is called a community. MacIver says individuals life may be lived wholly within it.
Members have common or shared interest. They enter into definite social, economic and cultural

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relations and have developed a sense of ‘we-feeling’ and a sense of community consciousness which
distinguishes them from others.

But in common discourses the term community very often wrongly used such as racial community,
caste community, religious community etc. Here the meaning of the term community differs from
the one which is used in sociology. The term is also used both in a narrower and broader sense. In a
narrow sense community refers to Hindu or Muslim community but in a broader sense community
may refers to a nation or world community. It also refers to a village, a town or a tribal community.
Thus, great community and small community-both exist side by side. A community is an area of social
living marked by some degree of coherence. Besides, there must be some sense of we-feeling or
community sentiment among the members.
But sociologists differ among themselves in their approach to the meaning of community.
Some puts emphasis on area, some on social relations while others on psychological aspects.
6.1.3 Definitions.
1. According to MacIver, “Community is an area of social living marked by some degree of
social coherence.”
2. According to kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace
all aspects of social life”.
3. According to ogburn and Nimkoff, “Community is the total organization of social life within
a limited area”.
4. According to E.S.Bogardus, “Community is a social group with some degree of ‘we- feeling’
and living in a given area’.
5. According to Arnold W.Green, “ A community is cluster of people, living within a
contiguous small area, who share a common way of life”.
6. According to G.A.Lundberg, “Community is a human population living within a limited
geographic area and carrying on a common inter-dependent life”.
7. According to karl Manheim, community is “any circle of people who live together and belong
together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a whole
set of interest”.
8. According to T. Parsons, “A community is that collectivity the members of which share a
common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities”.
9. According to Morris Ginsberg, “Community is a group of social beings living a common
life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which result from that
common life which constitutes it “.

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10. According to Sutherland, “A community is a local area over which people are using the same
languages, conforming to the same mores, feeling more or less the same sentiments and acting
upon the same attitudes”.
11. According F.L. Lumley, “A community may be defined as a permanent local aggregation of
people having diversified as well as common interests and served by a constellation of
institutions”.
12. According to H.T. Majumdar, “Community comprises the entire group sympathetically
entering into a common life within a given area, regardless of the extent of area or state
boundaries”.
Thus, community refers to a group either small or large whose members live together in an area in
such a way that they share a common life and have developed a strong sense of community sentiment
of consciousness among them which distinguishes them from others. It is said that communities exist
within greater communities i.e. a town within a region, a region within a nation and nation
within the world. Community has four aspects; geographical, demographic, cultural and psychological.

6.1.4 Characteristics.
MacIver opined that community is a group of people who live together and share basic conditions
of common life. Hence, as a group, community has the following characteristics or elements which
distinguish it from others. Territory, mutuality an organized interaction are three main characteristics
of community. Common beliefs, close relationships and strong group feeling are other elements of
community. on the basis of these elements we can decide whether a group is a community or not ?
However, community has the following characteristics.

1. Population: Community must have population because it refers to a group of people.

This group may be small or large but without a group of people we can’t think of a
community. A community is formed when a group of people live together and share a
common life and organized by a strong sense of community consciousness. Population or a
group of people is the first prerequisites of community.
2. A Definite Territory: Definite Territory is the next important characteristic of
community. A group of people forms a community when it begins to reside in a definite
territory. Community is a territorial group. The territory may not be fixed forever. A group
of people like majority of community are settled and a strong bond of unit and solidarity is
derived from their living in a definite territory.
3. Community sentiment: To constitute a community the presence of sentiment among the

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 members is necessary. Without community sentiment a community can’t be formed only
with a group of people and a definite locality. Community sentiment refers to a strong
sense of we-feeling among the members or a feeling of belonging together. It refers to a
sentiment of common living that exists among the members of a territory. Due to their
common living within an area for a long time a sentiment of common living is created
among the members of that area. With this the members emotionally identify
themselves. This emotional identification of the members distinguishes them from the
members of other community. We-feeling, role-feeling and dependency feeling are the
elements of community sentiment.
4. Naturality: Communities are naturally organized. It is neither a product of human will nor
created by an act of government. It grows spontaneously. Individuals became the member
by birth. It grows in the lap of nature.

5. Permanence: Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of

individuals within a definite territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd or
association.
6. Similarity: The members of a community are similar in many respects. They live within
a definite locality and lead a common life and share some common ends. Similarity in
language, culture, customs, traditions and in many other thing is observed among the
members of a community. This similarity resulted in the development of community
sentiment.
7. Wider ends: A community has wider ends. Members of a community associate not for the
fulfillment of a particular end but for a variety of ends. This is natural for a community.
8. Total organized social life: A community is always marked by total organized social
life. A community includes all aspects of social life. Hence, a community is a society in
miniature.
9. A particular name: Every community has a particular name by which it is known to the
world. Members of a community are also identified by that name.
10. No legal status: a community has any legal status because it is not a legal person. It has
no rights and duties in the eyes of law. It is not created by the law of the land.
11. Concrete nature: A community is concrete in nature as we can its existence.

6.1.5 Types.
Community may be divided into the following types:

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 1. Great community: Great communities are characterized by diversity of organizations and
specialization of division of labour. Relationships among individuals become impersonal.
Nation, Metropolis are example of great community.
2. Little Community: Village, tribe are examples of little community. Little community
develops within great community. Smallness, distinctiveness, homogeneity and self-
sufficiency are main features of little community. Little communities are gradually
disappearing due to industrialization, organization and development of Metropolis.
3. Rural Community: These communities are found in rural areas. Village and tribes are
example of rural community.
4. Urban community: This community is found in urban areas. Cities, towns and Metropolis are
examples of urban community.

6.1.6 Distinctions between society and community.

The term society and community are two important concept used in Sociology. There exist both
similarities as well as differences between the two. But in a wider sense both society and community
is a social group. However, following differences is observed between the two.

(1) A group of individual is necessary for both society and community. But society
refers to a system or network of relationships that exists among these individuals, whereas
community refers to a group of individual living within a definite locality with some degree of
we-feeling.

(2) Society has no definite locality or boundary because it refers to a system of social
relationships. Hence it is universal or pervasive. On the other hand a community always
associated with a definite locality.

(3) Community sentiment is another important factor from which society and
community can be distinguished from each other. Community sentiment is an essential
characteristic of community. Without which a community can’t be constituted. But a society
may or may not have community sentiment. Society is more concerned with organization but
community is concerned with life from which organization develops.
(4) Society is abstract whereas community is concrete in nature. Community has its
own physical existence but society exists only in the minds of individuals who constitute it.
Community refers to a group of people who live in a definite locality but society refers to a
system of social relationships.

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 (5) Society is a broader concept whereas a community is narrower concept.
Because, there exists more than one community within a society. Hence community is
smaller than society.

(6) Society is based on both similarities as well as differences. But community is

based only similarities among it’s members.

(7) Society has wider ends but the ends of community are general or common.

(8) Size of a community may be small or big like a village community or a nation
community but the size of a society is always large.

6.2 Summary
Like society, community is another basic concept of sociology. Community life is as old as
human being itself. Human civilization grows and develops in the lap of community. It is a well
known fact that individual could not exist alone. He always lives with his fellows in a group. At
the same time it is also true that one can’t be a member of all groups. Hence, an individual lives
and establishes relations with those people who reside in a close proximity with him. When more
than one individual live together in a definite locality or in a close proximity with each other,
mutual relationships develop among them. It is also obvious and natural that people residing in a
definite area develop likeness, co-operation and fellow feeling among themselves. Due to their
common living they share common life, common customs, traditions, culture, sentiment and
develop common social ideas among themselves. This fact of common social living within a
limited or definite geographical area gives birth to community. In other words, when the
members of a group or a number of individual live together and share no other particular interest
but the basic conditions of common life, the group is called community. All types of
relationships exist within community. Sociologists used the term community to refer to the unity
of the common life of people.
6.3 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define community and discuss its characteristics.
2. Distinguish between society and community.
3. Discuss community as a primary social group.
4. What do you mean by community? Discus its types.

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6.4 Key Words

Community: The term community has been derived from two Latin word ‘com’ and ‘munis’ which
means ‘together’ and ‘servicing’ respectively. Community is the smallest territorial group with some
degree of we-feeling and embracing all aspects of social life.

Community sentiment: It refers to a strong sense of we-feeling or a sentiment of common living that
exists among the members of a locality.

6.5 Study Guide

1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology? New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology,
3. Bombay: Asia publishing house, 1960. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan: Macmillan and co.
LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society: The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York: Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-07 Association

Structure
7.1 Learning Objectives
7.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
7.3 Association
7.3.1 Meaning.
7.3.2 Definitions.
7.3.3 Characteristics.
7.3.4 Types.
7.4 Summary
7.5 Self Assessment Questions
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Study Guide

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7.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
 Know about the meaning and characteristics of association
7.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
Association is an organised group of people pursuing some common interests. Associations are
deliberately formed according to some fixed rules for fulfillment of some common interest or
interests. Groups organized to protect special interests are called associations. Associations are formal
organizations. They offer membership and elect or choose their officials for smooth functioning.
Associations have some sort of organization consisting of rules, regulations and code of conduct.
Associations establish defined and limited relationships among their members. An association is not
a community but an organization within a community. MacIver and Page believe that associations
develop systems of instruments for serving interests. Association is a working together of people to
achieve some specific purposes. Associations have a formal organizational aspect. They are voluntary
in nature. Unity and solidarity of associations depend on how efficiently and effectively they protect
the interests of their members. Basing on manifold needs of human beings there are various types of
associations. Trade unions, clubs, teachers associations, political parties, student union are examples
of association.
7.3 Association
Association is another basic concept of sociology. Sociology lays stress on the interactions and
interrelationships of human beings. Human interactions and interrelationships take place in society or
group. As a social animal, man always lives in groups. Group plays on important role in the
development of social organization, socialization and formation of personality. For this, group has an
important place among the basic concepts of sociology. Sociologist and social-psychologists have
given special attention to the study of groups. Individuals assemble in a group in order to attain
common goals. Association is a kind of social group which has many sociological importance. This
social group(i.e. association) from sociological point of view is an important characteristic of the
modern complex society. Primitive and agrarian societies mainly comprises of associations. Human
beings have bundle of needs and interests. Though it is not possible to fulfill these needs and interests
still he made several attempts to fulfill these. MacIver and page opines that man mainly follows three
ways to fulfill his needs and interests. Firstly, Man acts independently without considering others.
Secondly, he fulfills his self by conflict. Thirdly, he fulfills his interests through cooperation and
mutual assistance. Cooperation, conflict, the feeling of interest and utility is supreme in every
sphere of life. The groups which are established in order to protect and enhance these interests
through fixed rules, system of organization and formal manner are called associations. In other

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words when people take the help of others or a group of people organize themselves for the
achievement of common interest an association is formed. Men satisfy their variety of needs and
interests by establishing different associations. As there are many and varied needs, hence there are
various associations.

7.3.1 Meaning.
Association is an organised group of people pursuing some common interests. Associations are
deliberately formed according to some fixed rules for fulfillment of some common interest or
interests. Groups organized to protect special interests are called associations. Associations are formal
organizations. They offer membership and elect or choose their officials for smooth functioning.
Associations have some sort of organization consisting of rules, regulations and code of conduct.
Associations establish defined and limited relationships among their members. An association is not
a community but an organization within a community. MacIver and Page believe that associations
develop systems of instruments for serving interests. Association is a working together of people to
achieve some specific purposes. Associations have a formal organizational aspect. They are voluntary
in nature. Unity and solidarity of associations depend on how efficiently and effectively they protect
the interests of their members. Basing on manifold needs of human beings there are various types of
associations. Trade unions, clubs, teachers associations, political parties, student union are
examples of association.
Famous sociologists Ferdinand Tonnies, Max-Weber and R.M. MacIver have made important
contribution towards the development of the concept of association. Tonnies opined that
associations are those groups which are formed to protect the interest connected with trade,
public life etc. in modern societies. Weber divides association into community based and
federation based groups. Community based relationships are mainly found in primitive
societies. Federation based groups are based on rules, laws wisdom. MacIver opines groups
organized to protect special interests are called associations. MacIver and page have made
important contribution towards systematically analysing modern association.
7.3.2 Definitions.
According to MacIver, An association is an organization deliberately formed for the collective pursuit
of some interest or a set of interests which its members share.”

According to P. Gisbert, “Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose or limited
number of purposes.”

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According to E. S. Bogardus, Association is usually working together of people to achieve some
purposes.”

According to Gillin and Gillin, An association is a group of individuals united for a specific
purpose or purposes and held together by recognized or sanctioned modes of procedure or
behaviours.”

According to Morris Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another
by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing a
specific end or specific ends.”
From the above it is clear that associations are deliberate formation and formed for the
fulfillment of some goals. Associations have some sort of organization consisting of rules,
regulations and some code of conduct. For the formation of association four things are required
such as a group of people. People must be organized, some rules and regulations and common
purpose. Associations have a corporate character and when legal recognition is made it
becomes corporation. Associations are means through which their members seeks to realize
their shared interests.
7.3.3 Characteristics.
Association is characterized by several characteristics. These characteristics are mentioned below:

(1) A group of People: An association is basically a group of people who have some
common objectives. Without a group of people, no association can be formed. Hence a group of
people is important.

(2) Organization: Association does not refers to any ordinary group of people rather it refers
to an organized group of people. In other words when a group of people organize themselves
for the pursuit of some common interest an association is formed. Hence association is called as an
organized group. There are certain rules which guide the people.
(3) Common Aims and Objectives: It is the most important characteristic of
association. Because association does not refer to a mere collection of human beings rather it refers to
that group of individuals who have some common aims and objectives. All the members try to
achieve the common objectives. Hence association is a means to achieve the common objectives. For
example people having similar political objectives may join in a particular political party.

(4) Some rules and regulations: We know association is an organized group. Every

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organized group or organization based on some rules and regulations. This body of rules and
regulations governs and guides the relations of its members. These rules and regulations are either
written or unwritten. Members or officials of an association obey these rules and works according to
these rules and regulations.

(5) Co-operative Spirit: Association is the result of co-operative spirit of some organized
individuals. Hence, the other name of association is co-operation. Here people work together with a
co-operative spirit to fulfill some common purposes. This co-operative spirit helps them to realize
their objectives. When this spirit is lacking there is no co-operation and no association.

(6) Voluntary Membership: The membership of an association is voluntary in nature.

People voluntarily join in an association to fulfill their aims objectives. They can also withdraw their
membership when they feel so. Similarly no one can compel them to be a member of any association.
But he have to obey the rules and regulations of the association.

(7) Degree of Permanency: The degree of permanency varies from association to

association. Some association may be temporary where as some are permanent. There exists some
long-lived association like family or state. Similarly there exists some temporary associations like
flood relief association.

(8) Legal Status: Association is an organized social group which has responsible
members. This shows that association has legal status. It can sue and be sued. Legal action can also be
taken against the members as well as officials if disobey its rules and regulations.

(9) Office Bearers: An association have office bearers who manage it’s affairs and
guides it’s functioning. These office bearers are elected for a definite period of time by it’s
members.

(10) Artificial Nature: Association is an artificial creation. It is man made in nature.

Some individuals deliberately form association to fulfill their common objectives. It does not grow
naturally or spontaneously. There exists no natural bond between the members of association. Rather
there exists a bond of self interest.
(11) Limited Significance: Membership of an association has limited significance. Because
association is a temporary group organized for the fulfillment of specific interests of its members. It
has significance for its members so far it serves their purpose. When it fails to serves the purpose
it loses its significance.

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 Thus, we conclude that association is a group within society or community. It is a formal
organization as its membership is formal in nature. But all formal organization like army is not
associations. Association is guided by formal rules and regulations. Hence though association seems
like a formal organization but in reality it is not so. But both association and formal organization
is the product of modern industrial society and new political system. At present association plays a
very important role in the new socio-economic and political set up.
7.3.4 Types.
It is difficult to classify associations as the purpose and interests of the associations vary. However,
associations are normally classified according to the interests protected by them and on several bases.

According to MacIver and Page associations can be divided into specialized and non- specialized
categories. Associations which functions through specialized agencies are called specialized
associations. Specialized associations are further classified according to primary and secondary
interests. Primary interests are goals in themselves. Associations based on primary interests are small
in size. Family, clubs are related to these interests. Secondary interests are instrumental and utility
based. Economic, Political and technical interests come under this. Sate, Political parties are
connected with these interests.

On the other hand non-specialized associations are based on age groups and sex. Now- a-days non-
specialized associations are losing their existence and influence.

Associations may also be classified on different basis such as duration, power and functions, on the
basis of duration association may be classified into two types such as temporary association like Flood
Relief association and permanent association like state. On the basis of power association may be
classified into sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like university and non sovereign like clubs.
Similarly on the basis of function association may be classified into biological like family,
vocational association like Teachers association or Trade Union, recreational association like Tennis
club, Football club and philanthropic association like charitable institutions.
7.4 Summary
Association is another basic concept of sociology. Sociology lays stress on the interactions and
interrelationships of human beings. Human interactions and interrelationships take place in
society or group. As a social animal, man always lives in groups. Group plays on important role
in the development of social organization, socialization and formation of personality. For this,
group has an important place among the basic concepts of sociology. Sociologist and social-
psychologists have given special attention to the study of groups. Individuals assemble in a

72
group in order to attain common goals.
7.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define association and discuss its characteristics.
2. Explain association and discus its types.

7.6 Key Words

Association: It is an organized group of people for the pursuit of some specific purpose.

7.7 Study Guide

1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology ? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay : Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan : Macmillan and
co.LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York : Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-08 Groups

Structure
8.1 Learning Objectives
8.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
8.3 Groups
8.3.1 Origin of group life.
8.3.2 Meaning.
8.3.3 Definitions.
8.3.4 Characteristics.
8.3.5 Classifications of groups.
8.4 Summary
8.5 Self Assessment Questions
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Study Guide

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8.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the learner will be able to,
 Understand the nature of social group
 Know the types of social groups

 Differentiate between primary and secondary social group

8.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
Origin of group life is closely associated with the origin of man. Group is as old as human being
itself. The very existence of man is tied up to that of group. When a collection of individuals live
together and bound together into some kind of social relationships and share a common sense of
belongingness a group is formed. As a social animal, man has been living in groups since the very
beginning. Man begins his life as a member of a group. But the sociological study of groups is mainly
a twentieth century phenomenon. Group is formed as a result of mans mutual contract or agreement. It
emerged out of men’s existence.
8.3 Groups
Group is one of the most important concepts in sociology. It plays an important role in the process of
socialization, formation of personality and in the development of social organization. That is why
groups have an important place among other basic concepts of sociology. For this reason,
sociologists have given special attention to the study of groups. W.G. Summer, C.H. Cooley, T.M.
Newcomb and R.K. Merton have made important contributions to the development of the concept of
group.

As a social animal, man always lives in group. He never lives in isolation. The very existence of
man is tied up to that of group. Group is as old as man itself. Human life is essentially a group
life. He begins his life as a participating member of the group i.e. family. He born, live, grows and dies
in a group. He forms group to fulfill his different needs and to attain common goals. Human
relationships and interactions take place in group. Long term interactions or reciprocity for
attaining common goal is the basis of the structure of groups. Thus, in the process of interactions or
when individuals working together creates various types of groups. The concept of group may be
considered from both individual and society’s point of view. Study of group helps in understanding
the behaviour of individuals. Sociologist H.M. Johnson rightly remarked that “sociology is the
science that deals with social groups”. This shows the importance of groups in sociology. Groups
provide us companionship, experience, recognition and security in both a physical and emotional sense.
8.3.1 Origin of group life.
Origin of group life is closely associated with the origin of man. Group is as old as human being

75
itself. The very existence of man is tied up to that of group. When a collection of individuals live
together and bound together into some kind of social relationships and share a common sense of
belongingness a group is formed. As a social animal, man has been living in groups since the very
beginning. Man begins his life as a member of a group. But the sociological study of groups is mainly
a twentieth century phenomenon. Group is formed as a result of mans mutual contract or agreement. It
emerged out of men’s existence.
8.3.2 Meaning.
Even if group is one of the most important concepts in sociology, there is disagreement over its
meaning among sociologist. As a result there are several meanings of group in sociological literature.
In one sense group refers to any physical collection of people. In the words of E.S. Bogardus,
“Group refers to a number of units of anything in close proximity with one another”. Accordingly, it
may refer to a group of trees of trees, a group of houses, a group of horses etc. But in case of human
beings as MacIver and page says a group refers to “any collection of human beings who are brought
into social relationships with one another.” Individuals assemble in a group in order to attain common
goals. The concept of group may be considered either from the point of view of society or that of
individual. Individuals assemble in a group in order to attain common goals. Besides, being one of the
human collections, group has a given number of individuals, clarity of goal, long-term interaction and
common values.

A group is a number of people who share some common characteristics. Accordingly doctors,
nurses, commuters etc. Each refers to a group. A group also refers to a number of people who
share some organized patterns of recurrent integration. Family, club or church is example of such
group. Besides, any number of individuals who share consciousness of membership together and of
interaction may be called as a group. The essence of the social group is not physical closeness but a
consciousness of interaction.

Thus, a social group is a collection of interacting individuals who participate in similar activities and
have a consciousness of joint interaction. There exists some degree of reciprocity and mutual
awareness among the individuals. Members of a social group have similar goals. Members interact
according to some established patterns.

A social group is an organized one. Thus in the truest sociological sense a group refers to a collection of
individuals who are brought into social relationship with one another and organize themselves for the
fulfillment of common aims.

But, to have a fuller understanding of the term social group it must be distinguished from the terms

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like social aggregates, social category, potential group or quasi group. A social aggregate is a mere
collection of individuals who are in a particular place, at a particular time but share no definite
relations with one another e.g. passengers in a train. But a social category refers to a collection of
individuals who have some common characteristic e.g. caste, sex, age and occupational groups. A
potential or quasi group consists of a group of individuals having some common characteristics who
does not possess any recognizable structure. But a potential or quasi group became a social group
when it becomes organized. A social group has an organizational aspect i.e. rules, regulations,
structure etc., and a psychological aspect i.e. awareness or consciousness of the members. Members of
a social group linked together in a system of social relationships with one another and they interact
with each other according to norms of the group. A social group is dynamic in nature.

8.3.3 Definitions.
1. According to MacIver and Page a social group is “any collection of human beings who are
brought into human relationships with one another.
2. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “whenever two or more individuals come together and
influence one another, they may be said constitute a social group”.
3. According to George Homans group means such individuals that interact according to
established patterns.
4. According to Horton and Hunt, “Groups are aggregates or categories of people who have a
consciousness of membership and of interaction”.
5. According to Turner and Killing, “a group is always formed by the individuals who interact
and this interaction is affected by the fact that they are a unit. The awareness of interaction and
being a unit depends mainly on the criteria of the group”.
6. According to A.W. Green, “A group is an aggregate of individuals which persists it time,
which has one or more interests and activities in common which is organised”.
7. According to E.S. Bogardus, “A social group may be thought of a number of persons two or
more, who have some common objects of attention who are stimulating to each other, who
have common loyalty and participate in similar activities”.
8. According to Williams, “A social group is a given aggregate people playing inter-related roles
and recognised by themselves or others as a unit of interaction”
9. Bennet and Tumin consider similar goals and agreeable means also as the necessary factors
along with interaction in the structure of group.
10. Albion small opines, A group is “any number of people larger or smaller between whom such
relations are discovered that they must be thought of together”.

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 11. According to Elbridge and Merrill, “A social group may be defined as two or more
persons who are in communication over an appreciable period of time and who act in
accordance with a common function or purpose”.
12. According to sheriff and sheriff, “A group is a social unit which consists of a number of
individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another
and which possess a set of values or norms of its own, regulating the behaviour of individual
members at least in matters of consequence to the group”.
On the basis of the above definitions a social group can be understood as a
collection of individuals who are bound together into some kind of social relationships and
who share a common sense of belongingness. A social group has always a king of structural
arrangement which distinguishes it from category, collectivity and quasi group.

8.3.4 Characteristics.
From the above definitions some characteristics of the social group are inferred. They are as
follow:

(1) Given number of Individuals: A social group consists of a given number of individuals. Without a
number of individuals no social group can be formed. Two or more than those individuals are
necessary to form a group. This number may vary. These individuals belong to the group as members
of the group and are considered as unit of the group.

(2) Reciprocal Relation: There exist reciprocal relations among the members of a social group. These
reciprocal relations among the members are the basis or foundation of social group without which
social group cannot be formed. The members must interact or inter- related with each other.

(3) Common Goal: It is another important characteristic of a social group. The aims, objectives and
ideals of the members are common. For the fulfillment of these common goals social groups are
formed. Here individual interests are sacrificed for group interests.

(4) Sense of unity and solidarity: Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and
bond of solidarity. Common goals and mutual relations strengthen this bond of unity and solidarity.
This creates loyalty and sympathy among the members of social group.

(5) A strong sense of we-feeling: Members of a social group is characterized by a strong sense of we-
feeling. This we-feeling fosters co-operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the
members identify themselves with the group and consider others as outsiders.

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(6) Group Norms: Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are
supposed to follow. With the help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over it’s
members. These norms may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is followed by
punishment. The group norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.

(7) Similar Behavior: Member of a social group shows similar behaviour. As the interests, ideals
and values of a group are common hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar
behaviour helps in the achievement of common goals.

(8) Awareness: Members of social group is aware about the membership which distinguishes them from
others. This is perhaps due to ‘the consciousness of kind’ as opined by Giddings.

(9) Group Control: Social group exercises some sort of control over its members and over their
activities. This control may be direct or indirect. Of course group exercises control only over non-
conformists or deviants.
(10) Social groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. There are permanent groups likes
family and temporary groups like crowd, mob etc.

(11) Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is not static. It responds to different changes. The nature
of change may be slow or rapid but it is bound to occur.

(12) Social groups have established patterns.

8.3.5 Classifications of groups.

Sociology considers groups as its major unit of analysis. But groups are not alike. There are many
criteria by which social groups may be classified. They for instance, include the nature of their
interests, the degree of organization, the extent of their permanence, the kind of contact among the
members and the like. But sociologists have classified groups into different types according to their
own view point. Some sociologists have given a simple classification while other has given an
elaborate and exhaustive classification. Sociologist M.Ginsberg says, “ Groups can be classified in
numbers ways, according to size, local distribution, permanence and inclusiveness of the relationships
on which they rest, mode of formation, type of organisation and so forth. “Famous sociologist H.T.
Mazumdar in his book ‘The Grammar of sociology’ mentioned about ten dichotomous social groups
such as
(1) Primary and secondary group (2) In group and out group (3) Permanent and Transitory group (4)
Voluntary and involuntary group (5) Vertical and Horizontal group (6) Homogeneous and

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Heterogeneous groups (7) Formal and Informal group (8) Community and society ( 9) Institutional and
non-institutional ( 10) Contractual and non-Contractual.
George simmel classifies social groups on the basis of its size into three types such as (1) Monad: A
single person as a focus of group relationship (2) Dyad: A group at least two persons (3) Triad : A
group of three persons or so C.H. Cooley classifies groups into two types, namely (1) Primary
group and (2) Secondary group on the basis of the kind of contact. Dwight sanderson classifies
group into three types namely (1) Involuntary (2) Voluntary and (3) Delegate groups. George Hasen
classifies groups on the basis of their relations to other groups into unsocial, pseudo-social, anti-
social or pro-social. Hobhouse accounts three broad types of union based respectively on kinship,
authority and citizenship. F.H. Giddings classifies groups as genetic (based on birth) and congregate
(consciously formed) on the basis of types of relationships. Miller divides social groups into horizontal
and vertical groups. Tonnies classifies groups into Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Emile Durkheim
divides groups into mechanical and organic solidarity type. W.G. Summer classifies group into two
types namely in-group and out-group on the basis of consciousness of kind. Park and Burges have
classified groups into territorial and non-territorial groups. Gurvitch talks of three types of groups
such as communion, community and Mass. New comb divides groups into two type’s i.e. positive and
negative groups.

Thus, sociologists have classified groups into numerous categories according to their
own ways of looking at them. But out of all these classifications the classification made by C.H. Cooley
and W.G. Summer need special analysis.

PRIMARY GROUP:
Famous American Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley in his book ‘Social Organization’
published in the year 1909 has given the most popular classification of social group. In that book
he classified groups into primary and secondary type on the basis of nature of social relations and
closeness. Cooley only used the term ‘primary group’ in his book but no where he used the term
secondary group. But later on sociologist K. Davis, W.F. Ogburn and MacIver developed the
concept of secondary group from Cooley’s concept of primary group. This classification of Cooley is
almost similar with that of Summer’s in-group and out group and Tonnies Geminschaft and
Gesellschaft.

Primary group is a very small group in which few numbers of individuals come into direct
contact with each other. This group is characterized by intimate and face-to-face association and co-

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operation. They meet face to face for mutual help, companionship and for the discussion of their
common problems. Here direct, informal and primary relations are found. Primary groups are
universal group. They are nucleus of all social organizations. They are nursery of human virtues like
love, sympathy and co-operation. The real self of man develops in primary group.

Defining primary group Cooley opines that “By primary group I mean those characterized by
intimate face-to-face association and co-operation. They are primary in several, but chiefly in that they
are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideals of the individual. The result of intimate
association psychologically is a certain fusion of individualities in common whole. So that one’s very
self, for many purposes at least, is the common life and purpose of the group. Perhaps the simplest
way of describing the wholeness is by saying that it is a ‘we’, it involves the sort of sympathy and
mutual identification for which we is the natural expression. One lives in the feeling of the whole
and finds the chief aim of his will in the feeling”.

Cooley in his definition gives emphasis on face-to-face association, sympathy and we-
feeling among members. The r e l a t i o n s h i p s among them are i n t i m a t e l y p erso n al. All the
members directly co-operate with their fellows. As this group first comes in the life of an
individual hence it is called primary group. It continues to influence an individual from birth to death.
Primary group plays an important role in the process of socialization and in shaping personality of
an individual. Family, play group and neighborhood are the example of primary group.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY GROUP:

To have a clear understanding of primary group, it is necessary to analyze its
characteristics. The members of a primary group directly co-operate with each other and there exists
intimate and personal relationship among them. This intimacy of relationship based on the following
characteristics. Famous sociologists Prof. K. Davis divide these characteristics as internal and external.
These are as follows:

(A) External Characteristics:

The external characteristics are the physical conditions of primary group. One can observe these
characteristics from the outside. These are essential for the formation of primary group. Davis opines
that mainly there are three physical conditions or external characteristics such as :

(1) Small Size: Primary group is very small in size because it consists of less number of
individuals. Due to its small size members know each other personally and intimate relationship can

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 be established among them. The smaller is the size the greater is the intimacy among the members.
Small size also leads to better understanding among the members. Large size affects intimate and
personal relationship among the members.

(2) Physical Proximity: Physical proximity or closeness among the members is another
important and essential characteristic of a primary group. Personal, Close and intimate relationship
could be possible only when members are physically close to each other. Face to face relations,
seeing and talking with each other makes exchange of ideas, thoughts and opinions easy.
Repeated meeting strengthens close relationships among the members. Though physical closeness
leads to the development of primary group still it is not an essential feature of primary group.
Because, intimacy of relationship may not develop among people living in close proximity due to
difference in age, sex, language etc. on the other hand it may develop over distances by different
means of communication.

(3) Stability or durability of Relationship: It is another important external characteristic of

a primary group. To develop close, intimate and personal relationship among the members primary
group should be stable. Besides the relationship among the members of a primary group are
durable, because primary relations never ends. It is continuous in nature. This continuity of
relationship leads to close, intimate and personal relationship among the members.

(B) Internal Characteristics :

It is also known as the character of primary relations. These characteristics are related to the
inner part of primary relationship. These characteristics develop due to the external characteristics.
These are as follows:

(1) Similar Ends: Members of primary groups have similar ends, desires, attitudes and goals.
All the members look towards the world through the same eye. They co-operate with each other for
the attainment of their common goal. Each and every member works towards the welfare of the
group. Interest of one became the interest of others. Pleasure and pain of each member is shared by
all. It creates a sense of we-feeling and altruistic relationship among the members. In this respect
Prof. K. Davis remarked that child’s needs become the mother’s ends.

(2) Similar Background: The members of a primary group not only have physical
closeness and similar ends but also have similar background. They are brought up in a similar
environment. They are equally experienced and intelligent besides they are similar in many
respects.

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 (3) Relationships are an end in itself: Establishment of primary relationship is an end in
itself. It is not a means to an end but an end in itself. Primary relationship is valued for its own sake;
Primary relationship is the relationship of love and affection which is reflected in the relationship
of mother and the child. It is not lodged on selfish interest. Pleasure is the basis of primary
relationship. Primary relationship gives intrinsic pleasure to the individual as it is voluntary and
spontaneous in nature.

(4) Relationship is personal: The relationship among the members of a primary group is not
close but also personal. Each member knows each other personally and each one is interested in the
other. Primary relationship is not transferable because one can’t fill the absence of the other. No one
can take the place of our dead friend. This personal relationship found among mother-child, husband-
wife etc. This personal primary relationship is identified through love and affection.
(5) Relationship is Inclusive: Primary relationship is all inclusive because it includes all
aspects of the personality of the members. Here a person knows about others in detail and to the core.
Nothing is kept secret. Hence, an individual in a primary relationship is not an abstraction. He is treated
as a complete human being. As each one knows the other fully primary relationship became more real.
No formality is found in primary relationship.

(6) Relationship is Spontaneous: Primary relationship is spontaneous in nature. It grows

automatically among members. There is nothing like compulsion. Hence, primary relationship is
voluntary. No special effort is made for the growth of primary relationship. This type of relationship
found between the mother and the child.

(7) Control over Members: Primary group exercises maximum control over it’s members.
This is possible due to the fact that all the members of a primary group know each other personally.
Because of this control members of primary group perform their social role very effectively. This
prepares individuals to lead a successful social life.

(8) Individual Interest is subordinate to Group Interest: Individual members join in a

primary group to satisfy his own interest. But in a primary group individual interest is subordinate to
group interest. The common interests predominate over individual interest. All the members work co-
operatively to fulfill the common interest in which their individual interest also got fulfilled.

IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY GROUP :

Primary groups are important in several senses. They are equally important for individual as
well as society. It is also equally important for child, youth, adult and old. Primary groups prepare

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individuals to lead a successful social life. Primary group is the first group with which a child comes
in contact at the prime stage of his life. It is the birth place of human nature. Primary group plays
a very important role in the socialization process and exercises social control over them. With the
help of primary group we learn and use culture. They perform a number of functions for individuals
as well as society which show their importance.

(1) Primary group shapes personality of individuals. It plays a very important role in
molding, shaping and developing the personality of an individual. Individual first come in
contact with primary group. Individual is socialized in a primary group. It forms the social
nature, ideas and ideals of individuals. His self develops in primary groups. A child learns social
norms, standards, beliefs, morals, values, sacrifice, co-operation, sympathy and culture in a
primary group.
(2) Primary group fulfils different psychological needs of an individual such as love,
affection, fellow feeling, co-operation, companionship and exchange of thought. In primary group
he lives among his near and dear ones. It plays an important role in the reduction of emotional
stresses and mental tensions. Participation with primary groups provides a sense of belongingness to
individuals. He considers himself as an important member of group.

(3) Individual lives a spontaneous living in a primary group. Spontaneity is more directly and
clearly revealed in a primary group. Due to this spontaneous living members of a primary group
come freely together in an informal manner. This informal group satisfies the need for spontaneous
living.

(4) Primary group provide a stimulus to each of its members in the pursuit of interest. The
presence of other i.e. near and dear ones in a group acts as a stimulus to each. Here members
get help, co-operation and inspiration from others. The interest is keenly appreciated and more
ardently followed when it is shared by all the members. It is effectively pursued together.

(5) Primary group provides security to all its members. Particularly it provides security to
the children, old and invalids. It also provides security to its members at the time of need. Members
always feel a kind of emotional support and feel that there is someone on his side.

(6) Primary groups acts as an agency of social control. It exercises control over the
behaviour of its members and regulates their relations in an informal way. Hence, there is no chance
of individual member going astray. It teaches individuals to work according to the prescribed
rules and regulations.

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 (7) Primary group develops democratic spirit within itself. It develops the quality of love,
affection, sympathy, co-operation, mutual help and sacrifice, tolerance and equality among its
members.

(8) Primary group introduces individuals to society. It teaches them how to lead a
successful life in a society. It is the breeding ground of his mores and nurses his loyalties. K.
Davis is right when he opines that “the primary group in the form of family initiates us into the
secrets of society”. It helps the individual to internalize social norms and learns culture.

(9) Primary group increases the efficiency of individuals by creating a favourable

atmosphere of work. It provides them security and teaches many good qualities.

(10) Primary groups also fulfill different needs of society. It is the nucleus of all social
organizations.
SECONDARY GROUPS
Though it is said that Cooley has classified groups into primary and secondary but actually
he nowhere used the term secondary group. But it was later days Scholars inferred the concept of
secondary group from the Cooley’s primary group. We will discuss this because it has special
significance in modern society. Secondary groups are almost opposite of the primary groups. They are
large in size and are of short duration. Here face to face contacts are lacking. In secondary groups
human contacts are superficial and undefined. Member of secondary groups do not know each
other personally and exerts only indirect influence over others. Relations among members are
limited in scope and significance and are based on self-interest calculations. Here individual members
co-operate and communicate with each other through indirect means and formal rules. Interactions
among members are formal, utility oriented and interest based. That is why; secondary group is called
as special interest group. Relations among members are impersonal and touch-and-go type and
secondary in nature. They are characteristic of modern industrial society. Specialisation and division
of labour are the main characteristic of secondary group. A city, nation, political party trade union, a
factory, a corporation are classic example of secondary group. Sociologist Paul Landies called
secondary group as cold world. Secondary groups are consciously formed to fulfill some objectives.

(1) According to K. Davis, “Secondary groups can be roughly defined as the opposite of
everything already said about primary groups”.

(2) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The groups which provide experience lacking in
intimacy are called secondary groups”.

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 (3) According to H.T. Mazumdar, “When face-to-face contacts are not present in the
relations of members, we have secondary groups”.

(4) According to P.H. Landis, “Secondary groups are those that are relatively casual and
impersonal in their relationships. Relationships in them are usually competitive rather than
mutually helpful”.

(5) According to E.W. Stewart, “Secondary groups are groups created for specific purposes
and interested in their members mainly for their contributions to those purposes.” The meaning of
secondary group will be more clearly understood if we analyze its characteristics. These
characteristics are as follows :

CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY GROUP

(1) Large Size: Secondary groups are large in size. They comprise of a large number of
people and these members may spread all over the world. For example, the Red Cross Society, it’s
members scattered all over the world. Due to this large size indirect relations found among the
members.

(2) Definite Aims: Secondary groups are formed to fulfill some definite aims. The
success of a secondary group is judged according to the extent by which it became able to fulfill those
aims. A school, college or university is opened to provide education.

(3) Voluntary Membership: The membership of a secondary group is voluntary in

nature. Whether one will be a member of a secondary group or not it depends on his own
volition. No one can compel him to be a member of any secondary group. It is not essential that one
should be a member of a particular political party.

(4) Formal, Indirect and Impersonal Relation: The relations among the members of a
secondary group are indirect, formal and impersonal type. People do not develop personal
relations among themselves. Relations in a secondary group are not face-to-face rather touch and
go type and casual. They interact among themselves in accordance with formal rules and regulations.
Due to large size it is not possible to establish direct relations among themselves, one is not directly
concerned with the other aspects of his fellow’s life. Contact and relation among member are mainly
indirect.

(5) Active and Inactive Members: In a secondary group we found both active as well as
inactive members. Some members became more active while others remain inactive. This is due to

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the absence of intimate and personal relations among the members. For example in a political party
some members do not take active interests while some others take active interest in party work.

(6) Formal Rules: A secondary group is characterized by formal or written rules. These
formal rules and regulations exercises control over it’s members. A secondary group is organized
and regulated by formal rules and regulations. A formal authority is set up and a clear cut division of
labour is made. He who do not obey these formal rules and regulations losses his membership.

(7) Status of an individual depends on his role : It is another important characteristic of a

secondary group. In a secondary group the status and position of each and every member depends
on his role that he plays in the group. Birth or Personal qualities do not decides one’s status in a
secondary group.

(8) Individuality in Person: Secondary group is popularly known as ‘special interest

group’. People became member of secondary group to fulfill their self-interest. Hence they always
give stress on the fulfillment of their self-interests. After fulfillment of this interest they are no longer
interested in the group. As a result in secondary group individuality in person is found.

(9) Self-dependence among Members: Self-dependency among members is another

important characteristic of a secondary group. Due to the large size of the secondary group the
relations among the members are indirect and impersonal. Members are also selfish. As a result each
member tries to safeguard and fulfill his own interest by himself.

(10) Dissimilar Ends: Secondary group is characterized by dissimilar ends. The members of a
secondary group have different and diverse ends. To fulfill their diverse ends people join in a
secondary group.

(11) Relationship is a means to an end: Secondary relations are not an end itself rather it is
a means to an end. Establishment of relationship is not end rather individual establish relationship
to fulfill his self interest. They became friends for specific purpose.

(12) Formal Social Control: A secondary group exercises control over it’s members in
formal ways such as police, court, army etc. Formal means of social control plays an important role in
a secondary group.

(13) Division of Labour. A secondary group is characterized by division of labour. The

duties, functions and responsibilities of members are clearly defined. Each member has to perform

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 his allotted functions.

IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY GROUP

th
Sociological study of groups is mainly a 20 century phenomenon. But it is a truism that human
life is essentially group life. Hence, the study of groups is of utmost importance in understanding
the behaviour of men and women. It is an accepted fact that a group exercises considerable influence
on it’s members. Not only primary group but also secondary group exercises considerable influence
on it’s members. As secondary groups are organized and helps in fulfilling specific aims of it’s
members hence it has several importance for both individual and society.

Primary group have several importance in a simple, small and agricultural society. But in
present day modern society the trend is towards secondary groups. The changing trends of modern
technological society have swept away primary groups. For the fulfillment of his needs modern man
depends more on secondary groups than on primary groups. Most of the functions of primary group is
being withd rawn one after another. Most of the needs which were earlier satisfied by primary groups
are now fulfilled by secondary groups. No doubt the growth of secondary group as well as growing
importance of it has created several problems. But we can’t escape from the dominating influence of
secondary group. Because, most of our present day needs and most of our activities and achievements
are carried on through secondary groups. However, in spite of its shortcomings secondary group has
the following importance, advantages or functions.

(1) Efficiency: Secondary groups increases efficiency of its members. To fulfill their self
interest and specific goals all the members work efficiently. A clear cut division of labour is found
among the members. A formal authority is set up and a set of rules are formulated to manage and
regulate the secondary group efficiently. Emphasis is given on getting the work done efficiently.
Unlike primary group emotion and sentiment is subordinated to achievement. For this duties and
responsibilities of the members are clearly defined. All the members try to work efficiently to fulfill
their goals. This helps in increasing the efficiency of its members.

(2) Wider Opportunity: Secondary group provides better and wider opportunities for the
members to develop their faculties and talents. Previously there were only few pursuits like agriculture
and small trades. But at present there are many and varied occupations which open the way for new
careers. As a result, due to talent, hard work individual can rise to unbelievable heights in business,
industry, education, civil or technical services.

(3) Wider Outlook: Secondary group helps in broadening the outlook of it’s members. It is

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large in size and it’s members are widespread. As the secondary group accommodate a large number
and variety of individuals and localities this widens the out-look of its members. Besides, a secondary
group is more universal in it’s judgment than the primary group.

(4) Functional in Character: A secondary group relations are devoid of sentiment

characteristic of primary group relations. The secondary relationships are instrumental in
accomplishing certain specific tasks. In this sense they may be regarded as functional in character.

Distinction between Primary and Secondary Group: Both primary and secondary groups can be
distinguished from each other from the following points.

(1) Difference in Size: A primary group is very small in size and is confined to a small
area. It consists of very small number of individuals. But the size of a secondary group is very large
and it is spread all over the world. It consists of thousands of members who is widespread and scattered
all over the world.

(2) Difference in Stability: Primary groups are relatively stable or durable. For example
family is a stable organization. But a secondary group may be temporary or permanent. These are
temporary groups like flood relief association. As secondary groups are special interest groups after
the fulfillment of the interest it automatically vanishes.

(3) Difference in Co-operation: The nature of co-operation in a primary and secondary

group also differs from each other. The members of a primary group directly co-operate with each
other. They play, sit and discuss together. Due to face to face contact and personal relationships
direct co-operation among members is possible. But the members of a secondary group indirectly co-
operate with each other. There exist indirect relations among the members.

(4) Difference in Structure: According to the type of structure both primary and
secondary group can be distinguished from each other. Primary group is based on an informal
structure and is very simple. All the members participate in the same process and it is regulated by
informal rules and regulations. On the other hand secondary group is based on formal structure
and is regulated by a set of formal rules and regulations.

(5) Difference in Relationship: A great deal of difference is found in the relationships

among the members of a primary and secondary group. There exist direct, intimate and personal
relationships among the members of a primary group. The relations are all inclusive. But there exists
indirect and impersonal relations among the members of a secondary group. Here relations are
secondary and formal.

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 (6) Difference in the method of social control: Both primary and secondary group can be
distinguished from each other on the basis of the means by which they exercises control over their
members. Primary group exercises controls over its members through informal means such as
customs, folkways, mores etc. Secondary groups have limited control over its members. But
secondary group control the behaviour of its members through formal means such as police, jail,
court, law etc.

(7) Difference in Goal: Members of a primary group have similar or common aims and
objectives. Goal of a particular member is considered as the goal of all other members. But in a
secondary group, members have different goals. Each individual has his own goals or aims for the
fulfillment of which he joins in the group.

(8) Difference in effect on Personality: Both primary and secondary group can be
distinguished from each other on the degree by which they affect or determine the personality of an
individual. Primary group has a greater influence on the development of personality. It influences
the total personality of an individual. But secondary group has a little influence on the development
of personality of an individual. It is mainly concerned with a particular aspect of the personality of an
individual.

(9) Difference in Physical Closeness: Both primary and secondary group may be
distinguished from each other on the grounds of physical nearness. Members of a primary group
live in physical proximity to each other. There exist face-to-face relations among the members.
But members of a secondary group live at scattered place. Physical closeness is absent among the
members of secondary group.

(10) The relationship among the members of a primary group is spontaneous in nature
whereas the relationship among the members of a secondary group is governed by external forces.

(11) Primary relationship is all inclusive. Here each member know each other personally
and they are concerned with the total aspect of human being. But secondary relationship is not all
inclusive. Here members do not know each other personally and they are not concerned with the
total aspect of life of members.

IN GROUPS (We-Group)
Famous Sociologist William Graham Sumner has classified groups on the basis of we-
feeling into two broad categories such as in group and out group. The individual belongs to a number

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of groups which is considered as his in-groups. In groups are the groups with which an individual
identifies himself completely. Member of in-group has feelings of attachment, sympathy and affection
towards the other members of these groups. In-groups are generally based on a consciousness of kind.
Members of an in-group identify themselves with the word ‘we’. In groups are relative to particular
social circumstances. These groups are marked by a feeling of ‘ethnocentrism’ i.e. the members of
in-group consider their group superior than other groups. The family, the tribe, the college, the
village to which a person belong are his in- groups. The members of an in-group feel that their
personal welfare is in some way or other connected with the other member of the group. In the
relationship among the members of in- group they display co-operation, good will, mutual help and
respect for each other. Members of in-group possess a sense of solidarity a feeling of brotherhood. In
group members are always ready to sacrifice themselves for the group. Due to in-group human qualities
like love, sacrifice and sympathy develop among individuals. In group may be called as we-group.
We are Odias are the example of we-group feeling. There always exists a considerable degree of
sympathy among the members of in-group. In-group members identify themselves with the group as
a whole. In-groupness is the core of group life. This ingroupness sets the members of an in-group apart
from all other people.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IN-GROUP
(1) Ethnocentrism: According to Summner, ethnocentrism is one of the most important
characteristic of in-group. He opines ethnocentrism is that view of things in which one’s group is the
centre of everything and others are scaled with reference to it. Because of this feeling the members of
in-group consider their group superior than other groups. It is really the sentiment of patriotism. By this
primordial feeling an individual identify himself with the group.

(2) Similar Behaviour: It is another characteristic of in group. Members of in-group

always showed similar behaviour and they are similar in many respects. They showed similar
attitude, opinion and similar reactions.
(3) We-feeling: We-feeling is another important characteristic of in-group. We-feeling means
feeling of oneness. Members of in-group have a strong sense of we- feeling by which they identify
themselves and distinguish them from others. This shows a strong sense of unity among them.

(4) Sense of Unity: It is another characteristic of in-group. Members of in-group are

united by a strong sense of unity. In-groupness creates a strong sense of unity or living together among
the members of in-group. As a result of this members consider them as one and united.

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 (5) Love, Sympathy and fellow-feeling: This is another important characteristic of in-
group. Good human qualities like love, sacrifice, sympathy, mutual help and fellow feeling
develop only in a in-group. These human qualities govern the relationship among the members.

OUT-GROUPS (they Group)

Sumner classified groups into in-group and out-group on the basis of we feeling. Out group is
the opposite of in-group. An out-group is always defined by an individual with reference to his in-
group . Out-group are marked by a sense of difference and frequently, though not always, by
some degree of antagonism. In other words out-groups are those to which a person does not
belong. Out-group people used the term they or other to express them. Out-group refers to a group
of persons towards which we feel a sense of avoidance, dislike and competition. For example for an
Indian India is his in-group but China is an out-group for him. Out-group people do not share an
awareness of kind. One did not identify himself with his out-group. We feel a sense of indifference
towards the members of out-group. Individual develops a feeling of antagonism towards his out-group.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OUT-GROUP
Like in-group out-group is also found in all societies. Out-group has the following
characteristics.

(1) Out-group is always defined in relation to in-group. Dissimilar behaviour is marked

between the members of in-group and out-group.
(2) Out-group identifies itself with the help of ‘they’ or other feeling. Individual is not a
member of this group. Hence this kind of feeling develops among them.

(3) Individual expresses a feeling of antagonism or enmity towards out-group.

Sometimes individual consider out-group as his enemy.

(4) Individual always expresses or shows negative attitude towards the out-group. As a result
he do not identify with the out-group.

(5) Out-group is not based on ethnocentrism.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IN-GROUP & OUT-
GROUP
(1) The groups with which individual identifies himself are his in-group. One’s family,
one’s college are example of his in-group. But out-groups refers to those groups with which
individual do not identify himself. These are outside groups. Pakistan is an out-group for Indians.

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 (2) In group members use the tem ‘we’ to express themselves but they use the term ‘they’
for the members of out-group.

(3) Individual is the member of his in-group whereas he is not at all a member of his out-
group.

(4) In-group based on ethnocentrism, Ethnocentrism is one of the important

characteristics of in-group. But out-group is not based on ethnocentrism.

(5) Similarity in behaviour, attitude and opinion is observed among the members of in- group.
But they show dissimilar behaviour ; attitude and opinion towards the members of out- group.

(6) In-group members have positive attitude towards their own in-group but they have
negative attitudes towards their out-group.

(7) Members of in-group display co-operation, good-will, mutual help and posses a
sense of solidarity, a feeling of brotherhood and readiness to sacrifice themselves for the group. But
individual shows a sense of avoidance, dislike, indifference and antagonism towards the members
of out-group.

(8) In-group is a group to which individual belongs to but all other group to which he does
not belongs to are his out-group.
(9) Members of in-group feel that their personal welfare is bound up with other members of
group but out-group members do not feel so.

8.4 Summary
In the social sciences, a social group is defined as two or more people who interact with one
another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity. Regardless, social
groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large
social group.
8.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define group and discuss its characteristics.
2. Write a short note on origin of group life.
3. What do you mean by group and explain the classification of group?

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8.6 Key Words

 Group: A number of units of anything in close proximity with one another.

 Social group: It is a collection of interacting individuals who participate in similar activities and
which is organized.
8.7 Study Guide
1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology ? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay : Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan : Macmillan and
co.LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York : Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-09 Social Status

Structure
9.1 Learning Objectives
9.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
9.3 Social status
9.3.1 Meaning.
9.3.2 Definitions.
9.3.3 Characteristics.
9.3.4 Types.
9.4 Summary
9.5 Self Assessment Questions
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Study Guide

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9.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, the learner will be able to-
 Understand the meaning, characteristics and types of social status
9.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Social status is very important both for individual and society. A status system is a universal feature of
human society. It is basis of organization of group life and determines who occupies what. Inequality
of status is a marked feature of every society, ancient or modern. Inequalities are inherent in the nature
of human beings. Apart from natural differences, human being is also differentiated according to
socially approved criteria. Every member of society occupies different statuses. Hence, understanding
society requires an understanding of status is one of the structural units of a society.
9.3 Social status
As a science, sociology is mainly concerned with the study of society. In order to study and analyze
society sociology uses different concepts. Every subject has its own concepts and ideas, so also
sociology. Definite concept eradicates ambiguity of meaning and gives scientific form to any idea.
Social status is one such concept of sociology. The status is very important both for individual and
society. A status system is a universal feature of human society. It is basis of organization of group
life and determines who occupies what. Inequality of status is a marked feature of every society, ancient
or modern. Inequalities are inherent in the nature of human beings. Apart from natural differences,
human being is also differentiated according to socially approved criteria. Every member of society
occupies different statuses. Hence, understanding society requires an understanding of status is one of
the structural units of a society.
9.3.1 Meaning.
Ordinarily the word ‘status’ is used to refer to an individual’s total standing in society. It refers to a set
of privileges and duties. Status is usually defined as the rank or position of a person in a group or a
group in relation to other groups. Status is the social position occupied by the members in a particular
social setting. It also refers to social standing of a person based on some social evaluation. Status is a
position in the social system. It refers to what a person is. The term status is used to designate the
comparative amounts of prestige or respect accorded to persons who have been assigned different roles
in a group or community. Status of a person is based on social evaluations. Status may vary from person
to person or situation to situation. Status is closely related to roles.
9.3.2 Definitions.
Status has been defined by different sociologists in a number of ways. Some define it as a social posting
occupied by an individual in a particular social setting. While others define it as a social standing of a

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person according to some social evaluation.
According to MacIver and Page: “Status is the social position that determines for its possessor, apart from
his personal attributes or social service, a degree of respect, prestige and influence”.
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “Status is the rank-order position assigned by a group to a role or to a
set of roles”.
According K. Davis, “Status is a position in the general institutional system, recognized and supported by
the entire society spontaneously evolved rather than deliberately created, rooted in the folkways and
mores”.
According to A.W. Green, status is a position in a social group or grouping, in relation to other positions
held by other individuals in the group or grouping”.
According to secured and Bukman, “Status is the worth of a person as estimated by a group or a class of
persons”.
According to H.T. Mazumdar, “status means the location of the individual within the group his place in
the social network of reciprocal obligations and privileges rights and duties”.
Martindale and Menachesi define status as “a position in social aggregate identified with a pattern of
prestige symbols and actions”.
Thus, the above definitions make it clear that status is a social position which involves some sort of
evaluations. These evaluations help in ranking of different statuses in a hierarchical order. Secondly,
status is culturally determined, despite the fact they may be based on biological factors such as age, sex,
race etc.
9.3.3 Characteristics.
Status has the following characteristics.
1. Status is the structural unit of a society.
2. Status is a position or social standing of a person.
3. Status evolved spontaneously.
4. Status is closely related to roles.
5. Status involves some sort of evaluations.
6. Status is comparative in nature.
7. Status may be achieved or ascribed.
8. Status is created by opinion of others.
9. Status is variable.
10. Status is greeted with respect.

9.3.4 Types.
There are mainly two types of status:
(a) Achieved status.

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 (b) Ascribed status.
(A) Achieved Status: Statuses which are not fixed by inheritance, biological characteristic or
other factors, over which the individual has no control are known as achieved status. This type of
status is generally found in an open system of stratification. It came into existence as a result of some
degree of purposive action and choice. Lecturer, doctor, engineer are example of achieved status. When
a society allows its members to change their status according to their talents and efforts it came under
this achieved status category.
Ascribed Status: Statuses which are relatively fixed and individual can do little to
change, it is known as ascribed status. This status cannot be changed during the life span of an
individual is ascribed in nature. Society has its own rules to ascribe status to different people.
Generally three factors are important in being ascribed status in society i.e. age, sex and
kinship.
9.4 Summary
Status is a position in the society. Each status has defined modes of behavior having rights
and duties assigned to it. A status is in reference to other status. Statuses interact in the
society. A person may hold various statuses at the same time or at different times. Society
lays down statuses. Social statuses are governed by norms. Those statuses which are based on
traits waitperson is born with or born with are called ascribed status. Individuals do not have
much control over the ascribed status.
9.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define social status and discus its characteristics.
2. What is status in sociology?
3. What is achived status?
4. Role is the dynamic aspect of status, Explain.
5. What is ascribed status?
9.6 Key Words
Ascribed Status: the social status a person is assigned at birth.
Achieved Status: the social Status acquired on the basis of merit, skills, knowledge,
abilities and soon.

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9.7 Study Guide
1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology? New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan: Macmillan and
co. LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society: The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York: Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-10 Roles

Structure
10.1 Learning Objectives
10.2Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
10.3Roles
10.3.1 Meaning.
10.3.2 Definitions.
10.3.3 Characteristics.
10.3.4 Related concepts
10.4Summary
10.5Self Assessment Questions
10.6Key Words
10.7Study Guide

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10.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the learner will be able to:
 Know the Meaning of roles
 Perceive the characteristics of roles

10.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Role is the behaviour expected of one who holds a particular status or position. Role is closely
associated with status. Roles provide means for accomplishing certain tasks. The concept of role
implies a set of expectations. Human behaviour is regulated and organized by social roles. Learning
roles involves learning the norms of the culture. As an aspect of culture roles provide an important
part of the guidelines necessary for an ordered society. Originally, the word ‘role’ refers to ‘roll’ on
which an actor’s part was written. Accordingly, role consists of behaviour expected of an individual in
community. Role is a relational term. One plays a role in relation to another. There cannot be a
teacher without a student. Hence role represents reciprocal relations among individuals and involves a
series of rights and duties. Each status in a society is accompanied by a number of norms which define
an individual occupying a particular status expected to act. This group norm is known as role. For
example, status of teacher is accompanied by the role of teacher. Playing or performing roles involves
social relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role in relation to other roles. Role is a
dynamic aspect of status.

10.3 Roles
Role is a basic concept of sociology. It is a structural unit of society. It is a universal feature of the
society. As a Science, Sociology is mainly concerned with the study of society. In order to study
society sociology tries to understand concept like role. Every member of society performs some roles.
Performing or playing roles involves social relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role in
relation to other roles. Sociology lays stress on the interactions and relationships of human beings.
Human relationships, interactions and role playing or role performance take place in society. Hence
understanding society requires the understanding of roles. Shakespeare’s classic description of the
world as a stage in which each individual play different roles shows the importance of roles in
society. In society every person is assigned different tasks to perform which makes up his role.

10.3.1 Meaning.
If you give a look at society you find that individuals differ in attributes like age, sex, colour and

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occupations. Individuals perform different functions in society. Some are laborers other are scientists, some
are professors others are engineers while others are doctor, leaders, solders etc. The society is based on
division of labour in which every person is assigned a specific task to perform which makes up his role.
Role is the behaviour expected of one who holds a particular status or position. Role is closely associated
with status. Roles provide means for accomplishing certain tasks. The concept of role implies a set of
expectations. Human behaviour is regulated and organized by social roles. Learning roles involves learning
the norms of the culture. As an aspect of culture roles provide an important part of the guidelines necessary
for an ordered society. Originally, the word ‘role’ refers to ‘roll’ on which an actor’s part was written.
Accordingly, role consists of behaviour expected of an individual in community. Role is a relational term.
One plays a role in relation to another. There cannot be a teacher without a student. Hence role represents
reciprocal relations among individuals and involves a series of rights and duties. Each status in a society is
accompanied by a number of norms which define an individual occupying a particular status expected to
act. This group norm is known as role. For example, status of teacher is accompanied by the role of
teacher. Playing or performing roles involves social relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role
in relation to other roles. Role is a dynamic aspect of status.
10.3.2 Definitions.
1. According to K. Davis Role is the manner in which a person actually carries out the
requirement of his position”.
2. According to ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved
behaviour patterns; consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position
in a group”.
3. According to G.A.Lundberg, “A social role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an
individual in a certain group or situation”.
4. According to Morris Ginsberg, status is a position and a role is the manner in which that
position is supposed to be filled. In other words role is the functional aspect of a status”.
5. According to Linton, “Role is a dynamic aspect of status”.
Thus, role is a set of expectations which is expected from an individual in society. Smooth
running of society depends on efficient and consistent performance of roles. Successful role
performance requires possession of attitudes to such role. Role represents reciprocal relations among
individuals.
10.3.3 Characteristics.
Role has following characteristics.
1. Role is the structural unit of society.
2. Role is always associated with status or position.

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 3. Role is relational in nature.
4. Roles regulate and organize human behaviour.
5. Roles provide guidelines and directives to an ordered society.
6. Role implies a set of expectations.
7. Roles involves a series of rights and duties.
8. Role is dynamic.
9. Role is functional.
10.3.4 Related concepts
Understanding of roles requires the understanding of some related concepts. Some such concepts
are as follows:

1. Role Set: Role set refers to variety of roles associated with a single status. For example, status
of a principal involves a number of roles i.e. his role in relation to student, staff, teacher etc.
2. Role Playing : Role playing refers to the performance of role by an individual related to his
status.
3. Role Taking : Role taking means learning of role. It means taking the role of the other. In the
process of socialization an individual learns a number of role. It means responding by placing
oneself imaginatively in the role of the other person in order to regulate one’s own
behaviour Exa- a boy facing an interview for his selection as lecturer.
4. Role Conflict : Role conflict refers to the contradictory demands within a role or competing
demands of two different roles. Different role expectations are known as role conflict. Exa.-
conflict of police officer between duty and arresting a friend.
5. Role Behavior : While role is the expected behaviour, role behavior is the actual behavior of
one who plays a role. Actual behavior may vary from expected behavior due to number of
reasons.
10.4 Summary
Role consists of the socially expected and approved behavior pattern to be performed by an
individual. Role set refers to the sum total of all roles which an individual occupying different
statuses play. Role conflict occurs when a person’s one role contradicts with others role/roles.
Every role and status is associated with some kind of award and punishment. The social role is as
significant as other social processes.

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10.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define role and discuss its characteristics.
2. What is role conflict?
3. What is status set?
4. What do you understand by role?
5. What is the relation between roles and rewards?
10.6 Key Words
Achieved roles: These are roles, which are gained by personal efforts, such as a General in the
army, Prime Minister in a democracy
Ascribed roles: In these types of roles, birth is the basic influence. For example, being born in a
certain caste will imply certain role behaviors e.g., a priest’s son will train to be a priest.

10.7 Study Guide

1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay : Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan : Macmillan and
co.LTD., 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York: Mc craw, 1946.

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 Unit-11 Culture

Structure
11.1 Learning Objectives
11.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
11.3 Culture
11.3.1 Meaning.
11.3.2 Definitions.
11.3.3 Characteristics.
11.3.4 Types.
11.3.5 Related concepts
11.4 Summary
11.5 Self Assessment Questions
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Study Guide

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11.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the learner will be able to,

 Comprehend the meaning, definition and features of culture.

 Know the types of culture.

11.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Culture is another important basic concept of sociology. The very existence of man is tied up to that of
society and culture. Man is a social animal at the same time is a cultural animal. Man is a culture
bearing animal. Understanding of human society requires the understanding of culture. Sociologists have
developed the two concepts i.e. culture and society in order to account for and explain the regularities
in human action and the essence of social life. It is culture which makes human and social life
meaningful. Human being is born and brought up in a cultural environment. It is culture which
distinguishes a man from animal. Every society possesses culture and humanness only develops in a
cultural framework. Man’s biological traits and requirements determine the form of culture. Physical
environment and settlements also influence individual’s culture. Human relationships and interactions
take place in society in a cultural framework. As an encompassing institution, society enfolds
within it various groups and their culture. Hence, understanding the meaning of culture is very vital to
the understanding of the nature of society.

11.3 Culture
Like society, culture is another important basic concept of sociology. The very existence of man is tied
up to that of society and culture. Man is a social animal at the same time is a cultural animal. Man is
a culture bearing animal. Understanding of human society requires the understanding of culture.
Sociologists have developed the two concepts i.e. culture and society in order to account for and
explain the regularities in human action and the essence of social life. It is culture which makes
human and social life meaningful. Human being is born and brought up in a cultural environment. It
is culture which distinguishes a man from animal. Every society possesses culture and humanness only
develops in a cultural framework. Man’s biological traits and requirements determine the form of
culture. Physical environment and settlements also influence individual’s culture. Human relationships
and interactions take place in society in a cultural framework. As an encompassing institution,
society enfolds within it various groups and their culture. Hence, understanding the meaning of
culture is very vital to the understanding of the nature of society.

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11.3.1 Meaning.
Like most sociological concepts, the word culture has both a popular and sociological meaning. The
th
term was first coined in the 18 century by English Anthropologist in Anthropology. Ordinarily
the term culture refers to those particular traits and behaviour systems that are regarded as
refinements such as art, poetry etc. In the most popular sense it means dance, literature and music.
In this sense cultural programs are organized. Here culture expresses refinement and good taste.
But this is a very narrow view of culture and anthropologist and sociologist do not understand culture
in this way.

But in a strict sociological sense, culture refers to acquired behaviors which are shared and transmitted.
Man’s all creations and learned behaviours are included within culture. The behaviour of a particular
individual is not culture but when most of the members of a group share it, it became part of culture.
Culture is manmade. It is a heritage in to which a child is born. Culture is a way of life, a mode
of thinking, acting and feeling. It also refers to the distinctive way of life of a group of people.
Culture refers to a set of rules and procedures along with a supporting set of ideas and values. Culture is
a learned behaviour which passes from one generation to another. Culture includes all that man has
acquired in the mental and intellectual sphere of norms and values which people hold. Culture is
acquired by man as a member of society and persists through tradition. Singing, dancing, talking,
eating etc. belong to the category of culture. Johnson points out that culture has two aspects i.e.
Explicit and implicit. The explicit aspect of culture consists of those aspects which bearers are fully
conscious (E.g. language). The implicit aspect of culture consists of those aspects of culture, which
bearers are not able to describe exactly. Tylor speaks about the social aspect of culture. Acquisition
of a particular way of life is known as culture. Thus, culture is a learned behaviour, a social heritage in
to which a child is born. It is an accumulation of folkways and mores. It is an organized system
of behaviour. Culture is superorganic and is a decision for living. There are four different dimensions of
culture. Hence, culture is a complex phenomenon. To understand this complex phenomenon, it is
necessary to analyze some of the definitions of culture.

11.3.2 Definitions.
Different sociologists and scholars have defined culture in different ways. Some such definitions are

1. According to well known anthropologist E.B. Tylor, “Culture is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law custom and any other capabilities acquired by
man as a member of society”.
2. According to Robert Redfield, culture is “an organized body of conventional understanding

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 manifest in art and artifact, which persisting through tradition, characterizes a human group”.
3. According to B. Malinowski, “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through
which he achieves his end”.
4. According to David Bidney, “culture is a product of agrofacts, (cultivation), artifacts
(industries), social facts and mental facts (language, religion art and so on).
5. Herskovit defines culture as “man made part of environment”.
6. MacIver and Page consider culture as a realm of styles, of values, of emotional attachments,
of intellectual adventures. It is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and
thinking in our everyday intercourse, in art, in iteraction, in reaction and enjoyment”.
7. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “culture is the sum total of human achievements materials as
well as non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically i.e. by tradition and
communication, vertically as well as horizontally”.
8. In the words of S. Koening, “culture is the sum total of man’s effort to adjust himself to his
environment and to improve his modes of living”.
9. According to Lundberg, “culture refers to “the social mechanisms of behaviour and to the
physical and symbolic products of these behaviour”.
10. Accprding to R.T. Lapiere, culture “is the embodiment in customs, tradition etc. of the
learning of a social group over the generation”.
11. According to Anderson and parker, “culture is the total content of the physico-social, bio-
social and psycho-social products man has produced and the socially created mechanisms
through which these social products operate”.
12. In the words of A.W. Green, culture is “the socially transmited system of idealized ways in
knowledge, practice and belief along with the artifacts that knowledge and practice produce
and maintain as they change in time”.
13. According to Robert Bierstedt, “culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we
think and do and have as members of society”.
14. According to A.F. Walter Paul, “culture is the totality of group ways of thought and
action duly accepted and followed by a group of people”.
Thus, from the above it is deduced that culture is used in a specific sense in sociology. In
sociology it denotes acquired behaviours which are shared by and transmitted among members of
society. In fact culture is part of common orientation of two or more people. It is an organized system
of norms and values of a society. Individual receives culture as a part of a social heritage and in turn
reshape the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding

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generations. Culture is a response to human needs and is an instrumental reality and an apparatus for
the satisfaction of the biologically derived needs.

11.3.3 Characteristics.

1. Culture is acquired: Culture is an acquired quality or behaviour. It is not biologically

inherited but learnt socially by individuals. In other words any behaviour or quality
which is socially acquired or learned is called culture. Behaviour’s learned through
socialization habits and thoughts are called culture. Human being learns or acquires
culture by living in group. He learns it from society through education.

2. Culture is Social: Culture is not individual but social in nature. As a social product
culture develops through social interaction which is shared by all. Without social interaction
or social relations it is very difficult and almost impossible to be cultured. Culture is
inclusive of the expectations of the members of the groups. It is created or originated in
society. Hence it is social.

3. Culture is Transmissive: Culture is transmitted from one generation to another. It passes

from parents to children and so on. This transmission is a continuous and spontaneous
process. It never remains constant. Man inherits or learns culture from his ancestors and
passes it to his successors. In this way culture constantly accumulate.

4. Culture fulfils some needs: Culture fulfills many social psychological, needs of
individuals. Culture is created and maintained because of different needs. It fulfils needs
of both society as well as individuals. For example, religion used to fulfill the solidarity
and integrative needs of society. Our need for food, clothing, shelter, name, fame,
status and position are fulfilled as per our cultural ways.

5. Culture is shared: Culture is not possessed by a single or a few individual. Culture is

shared by majority of individuals. Hence culture is collective in nature. For example
polytheism is our culture. It means majority of Indians believe in polytheism.
6. Culture is Idealistic: Culture is idealistic in nature. It embodies the ideals, values and
norms of the group. It sets ideal goals before individuals which are worth attaining. In
other words culture is the sum total of ideals and values of individuals in society.

7. Culture is accumulative: Culture is not created in one day or one year. It gradually
accumulates through centuries. Beliefs, art, morals, knowledge are gradually stored up

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 and became part of culture. Hence, culture is the social heritage.

8. Culture is adaptive: Culture possesses adaptive capacity. It is not static. It undergoes

changes. Different aspects of culture adapt with new environment or challenges posed by
social and physical environment. Adaptation refers to the process of adjustment. And
culture helps man in this process of adjustment.

9. Culture is Variable: Culture is variable and changeable. It varies and changes from
society to society. Each and every society has its own culture. It also varies within a
society from time to time. Ways of living of people of a particular society varies from time
to time.

10. Culture is Organized: Culture has an order or system. As Tylor says culture is a
‘complex whole’. It means different parts of culture are well organized into a cohesive
whole. Different parts of culture is organized in such a way that any change is one part
brings corresponding changes in other parts.

11. Culture is Communicative: Man makes and uses symbol. He also possesses capacity of
symbolic communication. Culture is based on symbol and it communicates through different
symbols. Common ideas and social heritage etc. are communicated from one generation
to another. In our society ‘red colour’ stands for danger. In Indian culture red colour
symbolizes danger. Hence, culture is communicative in nature.

12. Language is the chief vehicle of Culture: Culture is transmitted from one generation to
the next. It never remains static. This transmission became possible through language.
Culture is learned through language.

13. Culture is the total social heritage: We know culture is a social product. It is linked with
the past. Through transmission past continues to live in culture. It is shared by all.

11.3.4 Types.
Anthropologists and Sociologists have classified culture by using a number of concepts such as
abstract, concrete, and material, non-merterial, implicit, explicit, physical and non-physical.
However, famous sociologist W.F. Ogburn divides culture into two types such as material and
non-material.

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11.3.5 Related concepts
These are some important concepts which are related to culture. Some such concepts are
mentioned below:

1. Culture Trait and culture complex: The smallest and simplest unit of a culture is known as a
cultural trait. According to Hoebel “A reputedly irreducible unit of learned behavior pattern or
material product, the nail, the cardboard, the pen, the trousers etc. “Traits of non-material
culture are shaking hands. Saluting national flag etc. Each culture has thousands of traits.
When different traits of a particular culture come together they form a culture complex. It
is a cluster of related traits. The culture complex is intermediate between the trait and the
institution.
2. Culture and culture construct: This concept was given by Linton. When we see something
from our own eyes if that is culture, then whatever we write about the inside aspect of culture,
that is “culture construct”. Way of life of people is one thing and what we study and write
about it is another thing. First is reality later s culture construct.
3. Cultural Relativism: It is one of the important approaches in social anthropology. It helps
sociologists to look at others actions and behavior patterns rationally. Cultural relativism means
that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural setting. The cultural
relativism’s perspective studies and interprets a particular culture from participant’s view
of that culture. It forbids any prior assumption or preconceived notion in the study of any
culture. It is against any ethnocentric bias.
4. Cultural Revitalization: It refers to the process through which a society in decline reinterprets
symbols from its culture and revives the will of its members to survive. The new identity is
combination of old and new elements.
5. Counter culture: The term was of thinking and acting which are in opposition to the
prevailing norms and values of the society is known as counter culture.
6. Ethnocentrism: The term was used by summer in his book “folkways”. It is defined as “that
view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and all others are scaled
and rated with reference to it. “Ethnocentrism makes ‘our’ culture into a yardstick with
which to measure all other cultures as good or bad. Here one’s own culture is kept at
the centre. The members of that particular culture consider themselves superior to others.
7. Sub Culture : “Subculture is a system of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and life- styles
of a social group which is district from but related to the dominant culture of a society. “It
implies the existence of an identifiable dominant culture.

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 8. Ethos and Eidos of culture: This distinction of culture, proposed by A.L. Kroeber, shows two
different aspects of culture. Eidos is the formal appearance of a culture derived from its
constituents. It’s internal or core aspect is ethos. Ethos is the disposition of a culture which
determines its quality, its main themes and interests. According to Bateson, the first
consisting of the total emotional emphasis of a culture is called eidos. For example gradation
of different occupational group in the caste system can be seen as a manifestation of eidos of
a culture whereas the concept of purity and pollution is the ethos of the caste system.
9. Culture Determinism: It means culture determines everything; Leslie white is today the main
spokes man for culture determinism. According to culture determinist, culture is the Matrix
of everything else and is itself governed by its own laws of growth.

11.4 Summary
Culture is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in
human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of
the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region
or location.
11.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Culture is a complex whole; Discuss.
2. Language is the vehicle of culture, Explain.
3. What do you mean by culture?
4. Distinguish between material and non-material culture.
5. Explain the concept of cultural lag.

11.6 Key Words

 Culture: Culture is an organized system of norms and values held by people of a society. It is
the distinctive way of life of a group of people.

11.7 Study Guide

1. Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology? New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India 1965.
2. Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology, Bombay: Asia
publishing house, 1960.
3. Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
4. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan: Macmillan and

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 co. LTD. 1962.
5. MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan, 1928.
6. Davis, kingley, Human society: The Macmillan company, 1960.
7. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied publishers, Bombay, 1960.
8. Horton and Hont, sociology, MC graw Hill, New york, 1968.
9. MacIver, R.M., and Page, C.H., Society- An Introductory Analysis, London, Macmillan and co.
1959.
10. Lapiere, R.T., Sociology, New York : Mc craw, 1946.

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 Block-03 Socialization:

Unit-12 Socialization Stages Agents

Unit-13 Social Stratification- theories, Forms.
Unit-14 Social Mobility
Unit-15 Social Processes

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 Unit-12 Socialization Stages Agents

Structure
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
12.3 Socialization: An introduction
12.3.1 Meaning & Definition
12.3.2 Elements of socialization
12.3.3 Process of socialization
12.3.4 Stages of socialization
12.3.5 Agents of socialization
12.4 Summary
12.5 Self Assessment Questions
12.6 Key Words
12.7 Study Guide

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12.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit one will be able to

 Describe the meaning of socialization

 Understand stages and agents of socialization
 Understand meaning, forms and theories of stratification

12.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

This unit describes the meaning, definitions, stages and agencies of socialization. This unit also shifts
the focus from the study of socialization to social stratification and social mobility. It describes the
meaning, definitions and characteristics of social stratification. It also describes different forms and
theories of social stratification. Then this unit also shifts its focus from social stratification and
social mobility to social processes and describes meaning, definitions and elements of social
processes and its different forms.
12.3 Socialization: An introduction
Man is a social animal. At birth, an individual is a biological being. At the time of birth, the human
infant can neither speak nor walk nor recognize anything. As it grows, it recognizes others and
gradually learns to move, walk and talk. It can learn all these only through support of his fellow
being. His inner self is developed by the socio-cultural environment such as, parents, the family
and the kinship group and so on. Within these groups and socio-cultural environment that the
biological being is transformed into a social animal. He is gradually moulded into a social being and
learns social ways of acting and doing things. This process of learning and moulding that takes place
in a group situation or socio-cultural environment is called socialization. Development of the
individuals’ socio-cultural aspects through the process of gradual learning is called socialization.

12.3.1 Meaning & Definition

Socialization is a lifelong process which is comprehensive in nature. It begins at birth and ends in
death. It is a process of transformation of the human infant from a biological animal into a social
individual. It is a process of initiating the new born into the society. It prepares him to fit in the group
and to perform the social roles. Socialization makes him responsive to society. It moulds him into a
social being and his fulfillment in society. Through this process, individuals come to acquire the
quality of sociality. The process by which individual internalizes roles, values, personality types
and social skills from birth till old age is called socialization. The individuals’ self develops
through socialization. Through it individual becomes a social person and develops personality. The
cultural patterns of society or group get internalized in the child. Through socialization society wants to

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mould human infants according to its accepted structure. It develops a potential within individual to live
with others. The process of learning by interacting with others is referred to as socialization. This
process operated at two levels i.e. within the individual and other from outside.

1. According to Ogburn, “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to

conform to the norms of the group’.
2. According to A.W. Green, “Socialization is the process by which the child acquires a
cultural content, along with self hood and personality.”
3. According to Horton and Hunt, “Socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the
norms of his groups, so that a distinct self emerges, unique to this individual”.
4. According to H. T. Mazumdar, “Socialization is the process whereby original nature is
transformed into human nature and the individual into person”.
5. According to Gillin and Gillin, “By the term` socialization’ we mean the process by which
individual develops into a functioning member of the group according to its standards,
conforming to its modes, observing its traditions and adjusting himself to the social
situations”.
6. E.A. Ross defined socialization as “the development of we-feeling in associates and their
growth in capacity and will to act together”.

7. According to G.A. Lundberg, Socialization consists of the “complex processes of

interaction through which the individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and standards of
judgment that are necessary for his effective participation in social group and
communities”.
8. Rose and Glazer have defined socialization as the process of learning of beliefs, values,
patterns and social roles of society and culture’.

9. Goode holds that “Socialization includes all those processes through which an individual
internalizes social skills, roles, patterns, values and personality types from childhood till old
age”.
Thus, from the above definitions, it can be summed up that socialization is the
process of learning group habits, ideals and norms. The social order is maintained mainly by
socialization. But socialization should not be confused with maturation which refers to a physical and
chemical process of development over which man has little control. But socialization is a lifelong
process of learning.

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12.3.2 Elements of socialization
Socialization has the following elements.
1. A complex process of interaction.
2. A process of learning.
3. A process of internalization and reception.
4. A process of transformation.
5. A life-long process.
6. Role of parents.
7. Physical and psychological heritage of the individual.
8. Experience of the individual.
9. The environment in which individual is born.

12.3.3 Process of socialization

Socialization is a lifel ong process. It starts even long before the birth of a child. But direct
socialization begins only after birth of the child. Socialization is a learning process by which a new
born baby learns to conform to the norms of the group. Besides being a learning process it is a process of
internalization and reception. It is a process of moulding without which society could not exist. It
helps in maintaining social order. There are certain things like reflexes, instincts, urges and
capacities which help or limit the process of socialization. As a process of learning socialization have
four factors such as imitation, suggestion, identification and language. Imitation means copying action
of others. Through it the child learns social behavior. Hence, imitation is considered as an important
factor in the process of socialization. As a process, suggestion influences behavior. Through the
process of identification individual become sociable. As a medium of social intercourse, language
moulds personality of an individual.

12.3.4 Stages of socialization

Socialization is a continuous and life long process. The role of socialization is very important in
individual life as his self and personality develops through it. But it is said that socialization
process starts long before the birth of a child. The social and cultural circumstance preceding his birth
greatly influences his growth but direct socialization begins only after birth. After birth individual life
passes through different stages. During these different stages of his life individual comes into contact
with different people, groups and institutions. During this process of contacts at different stages
individual learns many things which helps him. However, these different stages of socialization are

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  Infant socialization: It is the first stage of socialization. After birth the infant first comes into
contact with the mother, then the father and then the other members of the family.
During infancy the infants’ socio-cultural environment is very limited. Generally up to the
age of three or four the infant world is limited to the family. Hence, during infancy stage
family is the main source of socialization. Here, the infant learns to utter word, learns to
work, eat and comes in contact with other family members. Gradually his self develops.
Here he comes to understand relationships with other members of family.
 Child Socialization: It is the second stage of socialization. During this stage, the infant
comes into contact with the members outside family and neighbors. He gradually disassociates
himself from parents and other family members. Then he got admitted to school and come
into contact with schoolmates and teachers and his behavior is greatly influenced by them up
to fifteen years. During this stage the child is also influenced by things what he learnt from
books and story books. Interaction with peers and teachers greatly influences his behavior.
 Adolescent Socialization: It is the third stage of socialization in the life of an individual.
During this stage school mates, friends, teachers, sports, books and means of recreation matter
the most to the child. This is true in case of school going children. But the process of
socialization differs in rural, urban and tribal areas. In tribal and rural areas life is very close
with nature from where the child learns many things about nature, seasons, folk traditions
etc. In tribal areas the adolescents learns a lot in course of their living in dormitories and
forest. Agents of socialization of this period differ from earlier period.
 Adult Socialization: It is the fourth stage of socialization process. After adolescent stage
the individual reaches at adulthood. An adult is a responsible person and do not depend
on others. An adult is associated with some other professions or trades. His circle of
friendship increases. During this stage an individual is greatly influenced by his
education, occupation, circle of friends etc. Because of this wider circle agents of
socialization are also more. This stage is very important as the adult adopts many roles.
12.3.5 Agents of socialization
No doubt, socialization is very important both for individual and society. The process is operative
throughout life incessantly. Socialization is an interactional process whereby a persons’ behavior is
modified to conform to expectations held by members of the groups to which he belongs. Its’
importance is well understood in the life of man. As socialization is an important matter in society,
hence it should not be left to mere chance rather should be managed through institutional
channels. Hence, it is very important to know who socializes individual. During different stages of

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his life the individual comes in to contact with different groups, institutions and individuals from
whom he learns a lot and socializes him. Some of the agents or agencies of socialization are mentioned
below.

1. The Family: Parents along with family play an important role in the process of
socialization. The child first comes into contact with parents and family. They are physically
and emotionally close to the child. He learns language and speech from parents and family.
Family teaches him societal morality. He learns many civic virtues from family. He learns
his first lesson in love, affection, cooperation, self-sacrifice and tolerance from family.
Family moulds his character, nature and personality. An individual is known by his
family. Family inculcates right attitude, beliefs and values among individuals. Family
continues to exercise influence on him throughout his life.
2. The School: It is the second important agency of socialization. During the age group of three
to five the child enters into school. Interaction with classmates and teachers in school is
very important in child socialization. In adolescent socialization stage also the school,
classmates, friends, sports and books matter more to the child. In the school the child gets his
education and learns many more which moulds his ideas, attitudes and personality.
Education is very vital in the process of socialization. A good school and its’ healthy
atmosphere plays an important role in making the child a good citizen. A well planned
school system and a good system of education can produce good socialized persons. It is
said that, the school laid the foundation of sociality in a person.

3. Peer Group: Next to family and the school, friends and peer groups are another important
agency of socialization. During different stages of his life an individual comes into contact
with different kinds of friends from whom he learns a lot. The relation between the
individual and his friends is one of equality and is based on mutual cooperation and
understanding. He learns from them many such things which he cannot learn from other
agencies. It is said that a person is known from the friends he keeps. This shows the
importance of friends and peers in one’s life.
4. Religion: Religion is another important authoritative agency of socialization. As an earliest
social institution religion has been influencing human life since long by imparting beliefs
and patterns of behavior. Religion plays an important role in the life of an individual. Religion
not only exercises control over individual behavior but also socializes him from the very
beginning. Religion socializes individuals as per the norms of society and by inculcating
different values. It continues to mould beliefs, attitudes and personality of individuals in

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 society. Religious sermons and preaching shape the ideas of individual in society and
develops philanthropic attitudes among people and thereby brings social cohesion and social
solidarity

5. The state: As an authoritarian agency of socialization the state not only makes laws for the
people but also guides their conduct and moulds their personality. It forces people to obey
laws and gives punishment to those who violates it. It socializes individual by prescribing
modes of behavior. State has the right to use legal force. State develops its’ education system
and thereby socializes the child.

12.4 Summary
Socialization is a continuous process. It begins at birth and continuous till death. Through this
process biological organization is converted into human being. The process through which an
individual learns and internalizes socio-cultural norms, values, beliefs, morals etc. is known as
socialization. Socialization process is intimately connected with culture. An individual learns
cultural system through the process of socialization. There are many types of socialization such
as primary socialization entire party socialization, adult socialization etc. Each phase of human
being is associated with different types of socialization. Individual phases through different
stages human life such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middle age and old age. Each stage
is linked various levels of socio-physical and cognitive development. Family, school,
neighborhood, environment religious etc. are the agents of socialization. Family plays a vital role
in socializing the child. The importance of socialization process is evident from the case studies
that the children born and brought up in isolation are unable to lead life a human being.
12.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define socialization and discuss its elements.
2. What do you mean by socialization? Explain different stages of socialization.
3. What is socialization? Discuss different agents of socialization.

12.6 Key Words

Socialization: The process of learning that takes place in a group situation is called
socialization. As a process it has two aspects. Firstly, individuals internalize the social values
and secondly, it develops his personality. It is a process of transformation of the human

infant from a biological animal into a social individual. It is a lifelong process.

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12.7 Study Guide
1. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.
3. MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan and
co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Unit-13 Social Stratification- Theories, Forms.

Structure
13.1 Learning Objectives
13.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
13.3 Social Stratification. An introduction
13.3.1 Origin of stratification
13.3.2 Meaning & Definition
13.3.3 Features of social stratification
13.3.4 Forms of stratification
13.3.5 Bases of stratification
13.3.6 Processes involved in stratification
13.3.7 Theories of stratification
13.4 Summary
13.5 Self Assessment Questions
13.6 Key Words
13.7 Study Guide

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13.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit one will be able to
 Understand the meaning and forms of stratification
 Know the theories of stratification

13.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Social stratification is an inherent character of all societies. It is found in all societies, ancient,
modern, simple or complex. That is why, famous American sociologist P.A. Sorokin is right when
he remarked that “An unstratified society with real equality among its members is a myth which has
never been realized in the history of mankind.” This shows that every society is stratified. Social
stratification has remained despite the revolutionary ideas of radicalism, equality, democracy
socialism and communism. A classless society is only an ideal. If you cast your look on the society
around you find that it is heterogeneous in nature. Everywhere society is divided into various classes,
economic, political, religious and social.
13.3 Social Stratification. An introduction
An Introduction: Social inequality is a universal phenomenon. In every society some people have a
greater share of valued resources like property, power etc. than others.

Patterns of unequal access to social resources are commonly called social inequality. It reflects innate
differences between individuals. It is not the outcome of natural differences between people but is
produced by the society in which they live. The members of society differ from one another in terms of
wealth, power and prestige.

It is socially created. Stratification, hierarchy, class divisions are notions used by sociologists and
anthropologist to describe social inequality. Social stratification is only one form of social
inequality. To describe inequalities sociologists speak of the existence of social stratification which can
be defined as structured inequalities between different groupings of people.

Social stratification is an inherent character of all societies. It is found in all societies, ancient,
modern, simple or complex. That is why, famous American sociologist

P.A. Sorokin is right when he remarked that “An unstratified society with real equality among its
members is a myth which has never been realized in the history of mankind.” This shows that every
society is stratified. Social stratification has remained despite the revolutionary ideas of radicalism,
equality, democracy socialism and communism. A classless society is only an ideal. If you cast your

124
look on the society around you find that it is heterogeneous in nature. Everywhere society is divided
into various classes, economic, political, religious and social.

13.3.1 Origin of stratification

The origin of social stratification is associated with the origin of human society. But the origin of
social stratification cannot be explained in terms of history. The existence or non- existence of the
stratification in early society cann ot be pin pointed. The differentiation, between classes existed as
early as the Indus valley society. Some sociologist opined that the term social stratification has come
into general sociological use only in 1940, being borrowed by analogy from the earth sciences. But
Cecil North, Gumplowicz and Oppenheimer opines that the origin of social stratification is to be found
in the conquest of one group by another. But for P.A. Sorokin, an American sociologist opines
that social stratification originated mainly due to inherited individual differences and differences in
environmental conditions. According to Spengler, stratification is founded upon scarcity or short
supply. It evolves from the allocation of scarce privileges and powers. Kingsley Davis opines that
social stratification originated due to its’ functional necessity. Some other sociologists opined that social
differences accompanied by cultural dissimilarity also lead tostratification. But social stratification as a
th
modern connotation has developed only during the 19 century.
13.3.2 Meaning & Definition
Stratification refers to the system of status differentiations in society. The term stratification has
been derived from the word ‘strata’ which means division. Hence, social stratification refers to
the social division. Social inequality is a regular and universal phenomenon. The members of
society differ from one another in terms of wealth, power and prestige. Social stratification is
only one form of social inequality. There is inequality among individuals and groups which
are the basic ingredients of the society as a whole. This inequality shows the division of society.
This unequal division of society is known as social stratification. Social stratification is
socially created. Social stratification refers to the existence of social groups which are ranked
one above the other, usually in terms of the amount of wealth, power and prestige possessed
by their members. They usually share similar life chances and life style which distinguish
them from the members of other social strata. The formation of higher and lower status and
inequality in regard to distribution of power and privileges may be regarded as social
stratification. Inequality is basic to stratification. To describe inequalities sociologists speak
of the existence of social stratification which can be defined as structured inequalities between
different groupings of people. In other words, the prestige or reverence attached to different
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positions becomes a part of the social order and that is social stratification. The term social
stratification includes the norms regarding social groups based on power, privileges and
reverence, high and low status and social inequality. Social stratification is the segmental
division of society into caste class and status groups. But the meaning of social stratification
may be better understood from the following definitions

1. According to Raymond. W. Murray, ‘social stratification is a horizontal division of society into

‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.’
2. In the words of P. Gisbert, “social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or
categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination.”

3. According to W.J. Goode, “stratification is a system through which resources and rewards are
distributed and handed down from generation to generation.”
4. According to Sutherland and Maxwell, “Stratification is the process of interaction or
differentiation which places some people higher than others.”

5. According to P.A. Sorokin, “Social stratification means the differentiation of a given population
into hierarchically superposed classes. It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower social
layer…..”

6. Superiority-equality or inferiority, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation.”

7. In the words of G.A. Lundberg, “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences
among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher.”

8. According to K. B. Mayer, Social stratification is a system of differentiation which includes a

hierarchy of social positions whose occupants are treated as superior, equal or inferior relative to
one another in socially important respects.”

9. According to MacIver and Page, “Social stratification implies three features; (1) a hierarchy of
status groups; (2) the recognition of the superior-inferior stratification; and (3) some degree of
permanence of the structure.”
13.3.3 Features of social stratification
Social stratification is a universal social phenomenon. Everywhere society is stratified into various
classes, social, economic, political and religious. Social stratification assumes the form of class
divisions in society. Stratification is identified through following features.

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 1. It is universal: Social stratification is a universal social phenomenon. It is found to exist in all
societies in one form or other. No society exists without a system of stratification. Everywhere
society is divided into various classes economic, social, political and religious. Member of a
simple society is stratified on the basis of bravery. Similarly, the member of the modern society is
stratified on the basis of income.
2. It is social: Social stratification is a social phenomenon because it is socially created. Under a
social stratification system socially created inequalities are more important than biological
inequalities. But sometimes biological inequalities take the form of social inequalities when the
members of society attach some meaning to the biological inequalities like age sex and colour.
3. It is ancient: Social stratification system is ancient. It has been existing from the very beginning
of human civilization. Of course, the basis and nature of ranking and rating of different groups was
not the same for all the times.
4. Hierarchy of status group: Under a stratification system different status groups are arranged
hierarchically. Social groups are ranked one above the other, usually in terms of the amount of
wealth, power and prestige.
5. Some degree of permanence of structure: Social stratification is defined as structured inequalities
between different groups. The structure of a stratification system seems to be more or less
permanent
6. It has different form: Social stratification has different forms. Some forms of social
stratification are ascribed such as age, sex, colour where as others are achieved based on skill,
education and income etc.
7. Life style and life chances: Common life style and life chances are result of stratification. Under a
stratification system, the members of the same stratum generally share similar life style and life
chances which distinguish them from the members of other strata.
8. There exists a relationship of superiority and subordination among the members of different
social strata under a stratification system.
9. Unequal distribution of power, privileges, prestige reward and resources and formation of social
ranks and groups on the above basis.

13.3.4 Forms of stratification

Social stratification has been analyzed by different scholars from different points of view.
Stratification structures may take different forms. Sociologist Max Weber distinguishes between class,
status and party. Similarly T.B. Bottomore has distinguished four types or forms of stratification such

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as slavery, Estate, Caste and Class. These forms are discussed below.
1. SLAVERY: Slavery is an age old institution. It represents an extreme form of inequality, in
which certain individuals are almost entirely without rights. It found to exist in ancient Greece,
th th
Rome and in the southern states of U.S.A. in the 18 and 19 centuries. But in its’ modified
form, slavery existed in almost all parts of the world. L.T. Hobhouse defined a slave as “a man
whom law and custom regard as the property of some other person.” Sometimes he is wholly
without rights. The masters’ power over his slave is unlimited. He has no political rights. The
idea of compulsory labour is always attached with a slave. Historically, slavery has existed in
almost all societies of the world in different periods of time. Sociologist T.B. Bottomore opines that
the basis of slavery is always economic. The master can make his slave work for as many hours
he wants. This is the motive behind the long sustenance of the institution. The system of slavery
gradually declined due to the advent of modernization and growth of the ideology of freedom,
equality and justice.

2. ESTATE: The estates were the features of medieval Europe. It developed as a part of
feudalism. It was the main basis of socio-economic structure and stratification in medieval
Europe. The people of a feudal society were divided into three groups such as (1) the first estate -
clergy (2) the second estate - the nobles and (3) the third estate- common people. Sociologist T.
B. Bottomore opined that estate had the following characteristics such as (1) Estate were legally
defined and each estate had a status based on its privileges and obligations.(2) Estates
represented a broad division of labour having definite functions i.e. the clergy to pray for all, the
nobles to defend all and the common people to provide food for all. (3) The feudal estates were
political groups. But the estate system declined due to the growth of industrialization in Europe.

3. CASTE: Caste is another important form of stratification. It is a closed form of stratification.

Caste is both a structural and cultural phenomenon. Caste system is one of the most important
forms of stratification system in India. The term caste has been derived from the Portuguese
word ‘casta’ which means breed, race or kind. Caste is an endogamous hereditary group based on
the notion of purity and pollution. An individual is born with fixed status which can not be
changed during his life time. It expresses a hierarchical relationship. Individual achievements
cannot change ones’ caste. People at the top of the hierarchy are given highest place and
people at the bottom of the hierarchy enjoy lowest status. Caste system is the basis of Hindu
social organization. Occupation and restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse are

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 associated with caste system. Social mobility is restricted within caste system. Hindu society was
divided into four varnas namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. While the Brahmins
enjoy top rank the Sudras enjoy lowest rank in the caste hierarchy. Varnas are found
throughout India but caste groups are local or regional. In the traditional Indian villages caste
system provided the mechanism for the exchange of goods and services through Jajmani system
which is an expression of interdependence among castes.

4. CLASS: Class is another important modern form of stratification. Its’ basis is economic. It is an
open system of stratification. Classes are characteristics of industrial societies. Class is a
factual structure without any religious or legal sanction. Classes are groups who are ranked on
the basis of specific criteria. They are social groups which occupy specific position in a given
society. A class is made up of people of similar social status who regard one another as social
equals. Each class is a subculture, with a set of attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviour norms
which differ from those of other classes. Classes are stratified according to their relation to the
factors of production and acquisition of goods. Classes are distinguished on the basis of a distinct
life style. Class status is determined by property, achievement and skill of an individual. Persons
engaged in similar occupation, having equal economic status and similar life style belong to the
same class. Members of a class have common economic interests and class consciousness.
Thus, a social class consists of those groups of people who share similar opportunities, similar life
style, and similar economic status in society and live in similar class situation. Marx defined class
in economic terms where as Max Weber consider class as a status group who share similar life
chances.
13.3.5 Bases of stratification
Social stratification is a social phenomenon. It is socially created. Stratification and social structure are
closely related. Stratification is based on the basis of the needs of a given society. Social stratification
is only one form of social inequality. Natural inequalities take the form of social inequalities when
the members of society assign some meaning to them. Age, colour, physical strength and sex are
natural bases of inequality. But different societies evaluate them differently. In some societies males
enjoy more respect than females whereas in other societies there is equality of sexes.
On the basis of some empirical studies, sociologists present three important bases of stratification i.e.
wealth, power and prestige. Wealth refers to material possession defined as valuable in particular
societies. Power refers to the degree to which individuals or groups can impose their will on others,
with or without their consent. Prestige relates to the amount of esteem or honour associated with
social positions, qualities of individuals and life style. The basis and essence of stratification consists

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in unequal distribution of rights and privileges and powers among the members of a society.

13.3.6 Processes involved in stratification

Social stratification is a universal process. Social inequality is inherent in it. Social stratification is
considered as the process of interaction or differentiation which places some people higher than
others. However, the system of stratification involves the following processes:

1. Differentiation: It involves differentiation of different social statuses on the basis of assigned

roles.
2. Evaluation: It has two aspects i.e. (a) prestige- honour and esteem (b) preferability which is
peoples’ preference of their social status.
3. Ranking: Ranking is a particular kind of comparison. It does not involve evaluative judgment of
what is good or bad.
4. Rewarding: On the basis of the above i.e. differentiation, ranking and evaluation different groups
with high and low social positions come into existence. In this process highly placed individuals
or groups enjoy some special privileges.

13.3.7 Theories of stratification

Theory is a set of related ideas. The theories of stratification are concerned with the inherent inequality
on which social order is based. Social stratification is an inherent character of all societies. Keeping
an eye on various dimensions of social stratification a number of explanations have been formulated
by sociologists which led to the development of different theories. The concept of social
stratification has been theoretically analyzed by different scholars. Besides, some present day
scholars have approached social stratification from a different angle. As a result we come across
mainly the following three theories of stratification. Besides, the elite theory of social stratification is
also there.

1. MARXIST THEORY OF STRATIFICATION: Karl Marx’s ideas of stratification are based

on social conflict. His theory is the product of industrial capitalism. Marx analyzed social
stratification from economic angle. He emphasized the basic importance of the individual or
the group in the economic structure. Marx holds that the system of stratification derives from the
relationships of social groups to the forces of production. It has three main elements such as
system of production, class structure and class struggle. He opines that class structure is the
main basis of social stratification. He explains the system in terms of class relations. He defines

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 class as a social group whose members share the same relationship to the forces of production.
He opines, criteria other than this relation are not important. He rejects income, occupations
and education etc. as the defining basis of a class. Marx opines that in all societies there
exists two major classes i.e. a ruling class and a subject class. The power of the ruling class
derives from its ownership and control of the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and
oppresses the subject class. As a result, there is a basic contradiction between these two classes
which can be resolved by the common ownership of the means of production. The various
institutions of society serve the interests of the ruling class.
Marx opined that western society has developed through four main epochs, primitive
communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist society. All the above societies, except
primitive communism, are divided into two major classes such as masters and slaves in ancient
society, lords and serfs in feudal society and capitalist and wage workers in capitalist society.
The masters, lords and capitalists have been exploiting the slaves, serfs and wage earners in
their respective epochs. Marx opines that classes emerge due to the existence of the institution
of private property and specialized division of labour.

Marxist theory of stratification can be understood through the system of production. The main
aim of production is profit. The relationships in the system of production create classes.
Marx’s ideas about social stratification can be understood by the relationships developed under
the system of production and classes. Social relationships and classes determine the individual
ideas and action. He cannot escape influence of class. The struggle between the capitalist and
wage earner class will give rise to an equalitarian system. The capitalist era differs from other
with regard to the exploitation of labour. Alienation, pauperization and polarization became the
defining feature of capitalist society which ultimately results in the establishment of classless
society due to the violent struggle of proletariat class.

But Marxist theory of social stratification has been subjected to several criticisms. He did
not provide an actual account of the structural differentiations in the modern society. His theory
also ignores a number of socio-cultural factors that are very important in the analysis of
stratification i.e. lineage, kinship and ethnicity. Marx stratified society into only two classes- the
bourgeois and proletariat but many other classes are existed in the society. He placed too much
emphasis on economic factors as determinant of class.
2. WEBER’S THEORY OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: German sociologist and philosopher
Max Weber was considered as the main critique of Karl Marx. Weber is critical of
economic determinism. Both studied the stratification in industrial capitalist societies. Like

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Marx, Weber also explains capitalism and class structure. His thought is greatly influenced by
Marx. In the course of analyzing Marx’s theory of stratification, Weber points out its
shortcomings and presents his own views as an alternative. But Weber differs from Marx in his
approach to social stratification. While Marx gave a unilateral model of stratification by
emphasizing the economic factors in the society, Weber also agreed with Marx on some points
relating to economic criteria of social stratification. However, Weber argues that social realities
are so complex that we can not reduce all the realities of society to economic interests. Weber
opined that unequal distribution of power is the basis of social stratification. Power has three aspects
i.e. economic, political and social. These three aspects are manifested in the form of class, status
and party. He further opines that these three orders are interrelated. The economic aspect refers
to the ways in which goods and services are distributed, whereas political order is concerned
with the ways in which power is distributed among the individuals and groups. The social order
includes the structure and process of distribution of social prestige. Social prestige is based on
mode of livelihood, birth, education, occupation and these are related to social status. In Weber’s
analysis, class is associated with the economic aspect; status with community and caste system;
and power with politics. In order to fully understand the concept of power, it is required to
understand its relationship with class and status. The concept of power is associated with both
class and status. Weber opines that power is the capacity to influence others.
Weber defines class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market economy
and by virtue of that fact receive similar economic rewards. A person’s class situation is basically
his market situation. Those who share a similar class situation also share a similar life chances.
Weber rejects dichotomous division of class as suggested by Marx. He identifies four important
classes in capitalist society:

(1) The propertied upper class

(2) The propertyless white collar workers
(3) The petty bourgeoisie
(4) The manual working class.

Weber recognizes the importance of criteria other than the ownership or non- ownership of
property in the formation of classes. He also rejects the Marxian view of polarization of classes
and the inevitability of proletarian revolution. He further opines that political power is not
necessarily derived from economic power. The economic power is only one possible basis for
political power. Other bases of power are status group and parties derived from social and
political order. These play important role in the system of social stratification.

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3. Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification: Besides Karl Marx and Max Weber, social
stratification has also been dealt with by functionalists such as Talcott Parsons, Kingsley
Davis, W.E. Moore, Tumin, Durkheim, R.K. Merton and many others. These scholars have
considered the functional importance of the role in society and gave their own ideas on social
stratification. Functionalists consider the system of stratification as a functional necessity of
society. They argue that if a system has to survive, there must be a mechanism to ensure
effective role allocation and role performance. The stratification system performs this function.
Functionalist gives stress on prestige dimension and opined that society has been stratified on the
basis of socially ascribed prestige attached to the occupational structure in social hierarchy. They
opine that the effective functioning of society depends on the successful performance of roles or
functions. There are many set of roles/ functions in society which require to be performed by
most able persons. Views of some of the functional theorists are discussed below.
Talcott Parsons: His contribution is unique in developing the structural functional theory.
Giving stress on the positive role of stratification, Parsons argue that social stratification is
derived from common values of society. Those who conform to the values of society are
ranked high and are rewarded properly. Different societies have different value systems; hence
we find difference in stratification system from one society to another. Since social
stratification is derived from the common values of society and it is essentially an expression
of shared values; it is considered as just and legitimate. The degree of respect society attaches to
certain individuals is coterminous with the degree of value and functional importance their
corresponding positions carry. Positions carrying the highest respect/ power are usually rare and
correspondingly there is always a high degree of competition among individuals to occupy
those positions. People are ranked higher to lower on the basis of the value society attaches to
their corresponding positions. The conflict between highly and lowly rewarded is checked by the
common value which justifies the unequal distribution of rewards. Parsons claims that it is
functional and inevitable aspect of society. Role of stratification is functional in managing social
order smoothly. Parsons believes that the functionalist theory of stratification is universal because
all societies have a system of evaluating the individual qualities and p e r f o r m a n c e . Besides the
f u n c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e p a r s o n s h a v e a l s o highlighted some other aspects of
social stratification. To him status groups are ranked in the society in accordance with the
possession, qualities and performances.

Kingsley Davis and W. E. Moore: Davis and Moore consider social stratification as natural
expression of the demands of society. They opine that effective role allocation and role

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 performance is done by the system of stratification in every society. That some positions of society
are functionally important which call for special skill and training. Some people are more
intelligent than others. The systems of stratification match the functionally important position to
the most intelligent person. They present two measures of the importance of a particular position.
The first is measured by the degree to which a position is functionally unique, there being no
other positions that can performs the same function satisfactorily. The second measure of
importance is the degree to which other positions are dependent on the one in question. They
further maintain that relative importance of functional positions and intelligent persons justifies the
unequal distribution of rewards. Besides, the system provides motivation to the other members
of society to work with all efficiency in anticipation of higher position and rewards.

MELVIN M. TUMIN: Tumin presents a critical reply to Davis and Moore’s view on social
stratification. His view can be summarized in the following:

1. How to measure the functional importance of a position is a matter of opinion that may differ
from person to person and from group to group.
2. He claims that power affects reward distribution rather than functional importance
3. It is not true to believe that only a few people have intelligence to perform the
functionally important roles.
4. The unequal distribution of rewards does not always motivate the talented person.
5. The system of stratification is not essentially integrative. It may be dysfunctional in case of
hostility and division among the members of society over the distribution of rewards.
The functionalist theory of stratification is open to many criticisms. First, its claim of universality
is questioned. Secondly, Marxist accused the functionalist theory for giving validity to social
inequality.

4. Elite Theory of Stratification: The main supporters of this theory of stratification are Pareto,
Mosca and C. Wright Mills. They treat social stratification as the social necessity that corresponds to the
social inequalities.
Vilfredo Pareto: Pareto talked about a three tier system of social stratification in which the governing
elites, non-governing elites and the masses constitute the upper, middle and lower stratum respectively.
He rejects any possibility of communist revolution and opined society is always divided between elites
and masses. Elites consist of individuals who have highest performance in their respective field.

Mosca: According to him, society has always been stratified into two group i.e. elites and masses.
The elites are the people who govern the masses. They are always less in number and enjoy all

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advantages of power and others are deprived of it.

C.Wright Mills: He rejects Marxist theory of stratification due to its too much emphasis on economic
factors. Mills opines, along with economic factors, political and military factors also play important
role in social stratification. For him, power is located in corporate heads, political leaders and
military chiefs.
13.4 Summary
Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on
socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social
status, or derived power. Social stratification is an inherent character of all societies. Keeping an eye
on various dimensions of social stratification a number of explanations have been formulated by
sociologists which led to the development of different theories.
13.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define social stratification and discuss its characteristics.
2. Explain the term social stratification and discuss its different forms.
3. Explain the functionalist theory of social stratification.
4. Write a short essay on Marxist theory of social stratification.
5. Explain Weberian theory of social stratification.
6. Write a short essay on Elite theory of stratification.

13.6 Key Words

Social stratification: Social stratification is only one form of social inequality. It is socially
created. Social stratification refers to the existence of social groups which are ranked one
above the other, usually in terms of amount of wealth, power and prestige their members
possess. It refers to the division of society into permanent groups or categories on the basis of
relationship of superiority and subordination.

13.7 Study Guide

1. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.
3. MacIver, R.M., and C.H.Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan and
co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Unit-14 Social Mobility

Structure
14.1 Learning Objectives
14.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
14.3 Social Mobility: An introduction:
14.3.1 Meaning & Definition
14.3.2 Features of social mobility
14.3.3 Types of social mobility.
14.4 Summary
14.5 Self Assessment Questions
14.6 Key Words
14.7 Study Guide

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14.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit one will be able to
 Know what is social mobility & its types
 Understand the features of social mobility
14.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
Social mobility involves change in social positions. Any change of position in society
experienced by an individual or group has its impact not only on the individual or the group, but
also on the society at large. Social mobility is favored by a number of factors such as city life and
rapid cultural change.
14.3 Social Mobility: An introduction:
The concept of social mobility is closely related with the concept of social stratification. The
nature of social stratification influences the nature of social mobility. It is observed that in a
closed system of stratification, social mobility is limited whereas in an open system of
stratification the scope for social mobility is wider. But both depend on the value system of a
given society. Social mobility involves change in social positions. Any change of position in
society experienced by an individual or group has its impact not only on the individual or the
group, but also on the society at large. Social mobility is favored by a number of factors such as
city life and rapid cultural change.

14.3.1 Meaning & Definition

Social mobility implies change from one social position to another. It refers to a movement of social
group or individuals from one social position to another. Mobility is not migration as it refers to
movement in geographical space. When individuals in a society continue to move up and down in
the status scale, this movement is called as social mobility. Mobility is achieved through life chances.
Social mobility is basically a feature of an open system of stratification. In a closed system of
stratification, the amount of mobility is very less and restricted. Mobility is not possible in a society
which exhibits rigid character. Dimensions of social mobility are many. Defining it, P.A. Sorokin
opines “Social mobility refers to the shift of position by an individual or social object or value.” Scope
of social mobility is limited. It is generally a short range movement. It involves change of social
status. It is a movement from one social position to another in terms of economic benefits, power and
prestige.
14.3.2 Features of social mobility
1. Social mobility involves change in social position.
2. Social mobility is natural but favoured by certain conditions.

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 3. Social mobility involves change in status.
4. Social mobility depends on the value system of a given society.
5. Social mobility is achieved through life chances.
6. It is closely related to social stratification.
7. Social mobility is inevitable because no society is immobile.
14.3.3 Types of social mobility.
Social mobility may be classified into following types:
1. Horizontal mobility: Horizontal mobility refers to change of occupation or job without status
change. It refers to a movement from one social position to another social position of equal
status. When a clerk of one department is appointed in another department or when a doctor
joins in an industrial house as a salaried professional by leaving his private practice, there is no
change in his social status, is an example of horizontal mobility.
2. Vertical mobility: Vertical mobility refers to movement in any one or all of the three areas of
social life i.e. class, occupation and power involving status change. It involves individual or
group movement either upward or downward in social hierarchy depending upon the
situation. It involves a movement which ensures enhancing or lowering of rank. A change in
income, a promotion or demotions are examples of vertical mobility.

3. Intra-generational mobility: Individuals’ own moving up or down in the social scale in the
course of their life time is usually called intra-generational mobility. This type of mobility
takes place within one generation. It is measured by comparing the occupational status of an
individual at two or more points of time. A clerk of a college becomes lecturer in that college is
an example of intra-generational mobility. It is also popularly known as career mobility.
4. Inter-generational mobility: This type of mobility refers to mobility between two or more
generations. It is measured by comparing the occupational status of sons with that of their father. It
means changes of status within family over two or more generation. In other words mobility across
the generation is called intergenerational mobility. Son of a farmer becomes a civil servant is an
example of this type of mobility.

5. Open system mobility: It refers to the free movement in the status scale. It does not recognize
any formal fixation of status. Under this system an individual is free to improve his status and
position. Here social mobility is encouraged. Example- American society.
6. Closed system mobility: Under this system, mobility is fixed by birth. Here chances of
mobility are limited. One cannot change one’s position. Example- caste system in Indian society.

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 7. Upward mobility: When people move up in the social status scale it is called as upward
mobility. Acquiring education, wealth and entering into an occupation is the major means of
moving up. R.H. Turner has suggested two ideal-typical normative patterns of upward mobility
such as contest and sponsored mobility.
(a) Contest mobility: It refers to mobility which occurs through open competition. It is a
system in which elite status is the prize in a open contest and is taken by the aspirants on
efforts.

(b) Sponsored mobility: It refers to upward shifts of status which occur due to the
decision of the ‘sponsor’ or member of the elite group into which the individual is
invited to join.

8. Downward mobility: When people move down in the social status scale it is called as
downward mobility. Anthony Giddens opined that, although downward mobility is less common
than upward mobility, it is still a widespread phenomenon.

14.4 Summary
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households or other categories of
people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to one's
current social location within a given society. When people move up in the social status scale it is
called as upward mobility. Acquiring education, wealth and entering into an occupation is the major
means of moving up.
14.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define social mobility and discuss its features and types.
2. What is social mobility?
3. Discuss the features of social mobility.

14.6 Key Words

Social mobility: Social mobility refers to the movement of social groups or individuals
from one social position to another position. It is basically a feature of an open society.
It depends mainly upon the value system of a given society.

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14.7 Study Guide
1. Johnson, H. M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.

3. MacIver, R. M., and C.H. Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan
and co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Unit-15 Social Processes

Structure
15.1 Learning Objectives
15.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
15.3 Social processes: An introduction
15.3.1 Meaning & Definitions
15.3.2 Elements of social process
15.3.3 Forms of social process
15.3.4 Cooperation
15.3.5 Accommodation
15.3.6 Assimilation
15.3.7 Competition
15.3.8 Conflict
15.4 Summary
15.5 Self Assessment Questions
15.6 Key Words
15.7 Study Guide

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15.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the learner will be able to,
 Understand what are social processes and its types.
 Know the forms of social processes.
15.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
A social process is a change that is consistent within a society over time. Social processes are
characterized by social interactions, which are social exchanges that occur between individuals
and groups in society. There are three main types of social processes, such as cooperation,
competition, and conflict.
15.3 Social processes: An introduction
As a socio-cultural being, man lives in society. Sociologists viewed society as a structure and as a
process. While the first is a static view of society the second is a dynamic view. Proper understanding
of society needs an understanding of both these aspects. Society is a process of living and a network of
social relationships. Man always lives in groups. Due to his gregarious nature, man establishes
different kinds of relationships around him. His nature and various needs compel him to live with his
fellow being. To fulfill his various needs, he performs many social activities and plays many roles
within society. While performing these activities and roles, he comes into contact with others. This
contact or relationships with others changes his action into interaction. This interaction is the basis of
social life. Society is rooted in interactions. Interaction is the basic ingredient of social relationships. As
members of society individuals are always engaged in some sort of actions and interactions in the
society. When actions of individual are influenced by the actions of other individuals, it is called social
interaction. In the words of Gist, “social interaction is the reciprocal influence human beings exert on
each other through interstimulation and response.”
Dawson and Gettys opine, “Social interaction is a process whereby men interpenetrate into the
minds of each other.” Thus, both society and culture are products of social interactions. The
system of social interaction is called social process
15.3.1 Meaning & Definitions
There exists a very close relationship between social interaction and social process. We cannot
understand one without the other. The fundamental ways in which people interact and establish social
relationship are called social process. The system of social interaction is called social process. It refers to
repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in social life. When social interaction through
repetition leads to a result it is called as social process. Social interaction normally occurs in the
form of cooperation, assimilation, competition and conflict. These forms of social interaction are

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called as social processes. Famous sociologist George Simmel viewed society as a social process.

1. According to MacIver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a
group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character.”
2. According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive forms of behaviour
which are commonly found in social life.”
3. According to Morris Ginsberg, “Social processes are the various modes of social interaction
between individuals and groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and
integration, development, arrest and decay.”
4. According to Gillin and Gillin, “By social process we mean those ways of interacting
which we can observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of
relationships of what happens when changes disturb already existing modes of life.”
15.3.2 Elements of social process
Social processes are very fundamental to human society without which it is almost impossible to
understand it. Society is considered as the expression of different social processes. In society
individuals continuously come in contact with one another. Social processes emerge from these
contacts. Hence, social processes go on continuously in society. Social process has the following
characteristics through which we can understand it better.

(a) Sequence of events

(b) Repetition of events
(C) Relationship between events
(d) Continuity of events
(e) Special social results.

15.3.3 Forms of social process

Sociologist has viewed society as the expression of different social processes. This shows that there
exist different types or forms of social processes in society. Different sociologists classified them into
different types or forms. Some sociologists classified them into two types such as (1) conjunctive
social process (2) disjunctive social process. American sociologist E.A. Ross had prepared a list of 38
kinds of social process. Von Wiese and H. Bucker classify it into 650 types. Blackmar and Gillin
classify social processes into six types. Park and Burgess classify it into four fundamental types
such as accommodation, assimilation, competition and conflict. But in spite of all these
classifications, social processes can broadly be classified into two types such as associative and

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dissociative. German sociologist George Simmel has first discussed about these two processes.
These various social processes are the forms of interaction. However, we will discuss major forms of
social processes under these two broad headings. But besides these two there are some general social
processes.

(A) Associative Social Processes: These processes are also called as the integrative or conjunctive
social processes. They contribute to the integration, stability, maintenance and progress of society.
Some important forms of associative process are cooperation, accommodation, assimilation,
adaptation, integration etc. They bring people together and encourage them to work unitedly.
(B) Dissociative Social Processes: These processes are also called as disintegrative or disjunctive
social processes. They sometimes contribute negatively to the functioning of society and may
hinder the growth and development of society. But their absence results in stagnation of
society. Some of these processes are competition, conflict, differentiation etc. They divide
individuals or groups.

(C) General Social Processes: Interaction, communication and socialization are considered as
general social processes of social life. It includes both associative and dissociative process of
social life.
However some of these social processes are discussed below.
15.3.4 Cooperation
Cooperation is one of the most important associative and a basic process of social life. The term
‘cooperation’ has been derived from two Latin words i.e. ‘co’ means together and ‘operari’ means
to work. Accordingly, cooperation means working together or joint activity for the achievement of
common goal or goals. It is a goal oriented social process. The very spirit of cooperation is at the
root of society. Society cannot exist or progress without it. Different needs of individuals inspire
them for mutual cooperation. Under this process individuals or groups work unitedly for the
fulfillment of common goals. Cooperation is defined as the continuous and common endeavor of
two or more persons to perform a task or reach a goal that is commonly cherished. It is found at
all stages of human life.

Definitions:
1. According to Fair Child, “cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups
combine their effort, in a more or less organized way, for the attainment of common
objective.”

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 2. According to Merrill and Eldrege, “cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two
or more persons work together to gain a common end.”
3. According to A.W.Green, Cooperation is” the continuous and common endeavour of two
or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.

ELEMENTS OF COOPERATION
It has the following elements.
1. Common end
2. Organized efforts
3. Reciprocity
4. The spirit of working together
5. Goal oriented conscious efforts.
6. Awareness about the consequences of cooperation
7. Sharing the reward
8. Division of labour
9. Universal process
10. Personal process.
Sociologist C.H.Cooley opined that common goal, rationality, self control and the capacity to
organize them are necessary elements of cooperation.

TYPES OF COOPERATION:
MacIver and Page classifies cooperation into two type’s i.e. direct and indirect cooperation.
Similarly A.W. Green classifies cooperation in to three types such as primary, secondary and
tertiary cooperation.

15.3.5 Accommodation
It is another fundamental associative social process in social life. It is fundamental in the sense that it
contributes to the stability of the social order. Accommodation is a process in which an adjustment is
achieved between hostile individuals and groups. It is infact, a sort of cooperation among people after
their conflict comes to an end. The end of conflict directs the way for accommodation. It is a
condition of mental and social understanding. Without accommodation society cannot maintain its

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balance. As a process it is a conscious effort on the part of the individuals or groups to minimize
conflict which lasts for a long time.

Definitions:
1. According to MacIver and Page, “Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man
attains a sense of harmony with his environment.”

2. Ogburn and Nimkoff opine that, “Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to
describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”

3. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Accommodation is the process by which competing and
conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the
difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or conflict.”

Characteristics:
1. Universal process
2. Continuous process.
3. It is a conscious and unconscious process.
4. End result of conflict
5. Mixture of love and hate
6. Contributes to the stability of society
7. An associative process

FORMS OF ACCOMMODATION:
Accommodation takes place in different ways and accordingly assumes different forms. Some of these
important forms or methods are

1. Yielding to coercion
2. Compromise
3. Tolerance
4. Arbitration
5. Conciliation

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 6. Conversion
7. Sublimation
8. Rationalization
15.3.6 Assimilation
It is an associative and integrative social process. It is defined as a process whereby attitudes of many
persons are united and thus develop into a united group. It is one form of social adjustment.
Assimilation comes after accommodation. Assimilation makes the dissimilar individuals or groups
similar. Through it individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals. Sometimes
assimilation is considered to be a process of cultural change in which one culture becomes as intimate
with another as to lose its individuality.

Definitions:

1. Ogburn and Nimkoff define assimilation as “the process whereby individuals or groups once
dissimilar become similar, that is, become identified in their interest and outlook.”
2. Hurton and Hunt opine that, “The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which
persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation.
3. Biesanz and Biesanz hold the view that, “Assimilation is the social process whereby
individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals.”
4. According to E.S.Bogardus, “Assimilation is a process whereby attitudes of many persons are
united and thus develop into a united group.”
From the above definitions it may be assumed that assimilation takes place when
individuals come into close contact with other culture in a slow and gradual manner. It
results in the promotion of cultural unity which leads to social integration.

Characteristics:
1. A slow and gradual process
2. An unconscious process
3. A two-way process
4. A universal process.
5. Found in multiple fields.
6. An associative and integrative process.
7. One form of social adjustment.

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15.3.7 Competition
Though, we are including competition in the dissociative social process, it may be associative also. It
is the context which defines competition associative or dissociative process. Competition is considered
as one of the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a contest among individuals or
groups to acquire something which has limited supply or not easily available. Here the competitor
forces their attention on the goal or the reward they are struggling to achieve but not on themselves.
They try to achieve the goal by methods other than force or fraud. Competition is defined as an
impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between individual and groups for satisfaction which,
because of their limited supply, all may not have. It does not involve violence because of its impersonal
nature. When the individuals or groups compete with each other, not on personal level but as members
of group, competition is impersonal. There is no competition for fresh air or sunshine which is free
gift of nature. MacIver and Page consider competition as an impersonal conflict between individuals
for attainment of objects that are limited in supply. Competition is considered as healthy and a
necessary social process. For this, competitive spirit is deliberately inculcated in order to produce a
result which is considered to be socially desirable.

1. According to Anderson and Parker, “competition is that form of social action in which we
strive against each other for the possession of or use of some limited material or non-
material good.”
2. According to Biesanz, “competition is the striving of two or more persons for some goal
which is limited so that all cannot share it.”
3. Park and Burgess define competition as “an interaction without social contact.”
4. E.S.Bogardus defines competition as “a contest to obtain something which does not exist
in quantity sufficient to meet the demand.”
5. H.P.Fairchild states that,” competition is the struggle for the use or possession of limited
goods.”
6. D.N.Majumdar says that,” competition is the impersonalized struggle among resembling
creatures for goods and services which are scarce or limited in quantity.”

FEATURES OF COMPETITION:
1. A dissociative or disintegrative process.
2. A universal process.
3. A continuous process.

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 4. An unconscious process.
5. An impersonal process.
6. Always governed by norms.
7. Determines status in a system of hierarchy.
8. Prevents undue concentration of power in an individual or group.
9. Stimulates efficiency in economy.

FORMS OF COMPETITION: As a universal process competition is found in all fields of social life.
In our day to day life we come across different forms or types of competitions. Some such forms are:

1. Social competition
2. Economic competition
3. Cultural competition
4. Racial competition
5. Political competition
6. Status competition
15.3.8 Conflict
As an antithesis of cooperation, conflict is an ever present dissociative process in human society.
Whenever a person or groups seek to achieve something or gain reward not by surpassing other
competitors but by preventing them from effective competition, conflict takes place. Conflict is a
process of seeking something by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is a competition in its
most hostile and personal form. When a competitive endeavor turns into a violent strife among
concerned individuals or groups to achieve the same goal, the competitive situation turns into a
conflict situation. It arises primarily from a clash of interests within groups. Conflict may also occur
without violence, for example-satyagraha of Gandhi. Conflict is defined as deliberate attempt to
oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others. It is a process which leads two or more
persons or groups to try to frustrate the attempts of their opponents to attain certain objectives.
1. Kingsley Davis defines conflict, “as modified forms of struggle.”
2. MacIver and Page state that, “social conflict included all activity in which men contest against
one another for any objective”.
3. According to A.W.Green, “conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the
will of another or others.”
5. According to Gillin and Gillin, “conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups

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 seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.”
6. Majumdar opines that, “conflict is an opposition or struggle involving an emotional
attitude of hostility as well as violent interference with autonomous choice.”
Thus, conflict is a process which leads two or more persons or group to try to frustrate the attempts of
their opponents to attain certain objectives. Conflicts are of different types such as national conflict,
political conflict, caste conflict, class conflict & racial conflict.

FEATURES OF CONFLICT:

1. A dissociative and disintegrative social process.

2. A universal process.
3. A conscious process.
4. A personal process.
5. An intermittent process.
6. Mainly violent in nature.
7. Conflict disregards social norms.
8. Conflict may lead to new consensus.
9. Conflict may bring solidarity in the group.
10. Conflict may lead to change of status of conflicting parties.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICT:

Conflict is found in many forms in all societies. Different sociologists have classified conflicts into
different forms. Some of these classifications are

1. MacIver and Page classify conflict into two types i.e. direct and indirect conflict.
2. Gillin and Gillin classify conflict into five types such as personal conflict, racial conflict,
political conflict, class conflict and international conflict.
3. George Simmel classifies conflict into four major forms such as war, feud, litigation and
conflict of impersonal ideals.

(C) GENERAL SOCIAL PROCESSES:

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Society is also considered as a process. In society, we found the existence of a number of social
processes. Interaction, communication and socialization are considered as general processes of social
life.

1. Interaction: Interaction is a universal feature of any social structure. It is considered as a

general social process because it includes both associative and dissociative process of social
life. Society is rooted in interactions. It is the basic ingredient of social relationships.
Various social processes are the forms of interaction. Action done in response to another
action is called interaction. When the actions of an individual or individuals are influenced
by the actions of other individual or individuals in a society and is in turn is exposed to
their action that is called social interaction. It refers to the entire range of social
relationships. It is the reciprocal influence mutually exerted by humans through their
stimulation and mutual response. It has four main aspects such as contact, communication,
form and structure. It takes place within a social structure. Social interaction involves two
or more persons who follow the logic of stimuli and response. Stimuli and response
operate within the framework of contact and communication between two or more persons.
2. Communication: Communication is the process of exchange of meaning among the
members of society with the aid of symbols and signs. Language is one of the most
important means of communication. Gestures, artistic forms and style of music, dance, drama
and painting form other means of communications. Without communication there can be
no contact. In communication an individual assesses the thoughts and feelings of another
person and his behaviour.
3. Socialization: Socialization is a lifelong process. It is a process in which biological
entity of an infant changes into a social entity. The new born infant is not aware of the
norms and values of society but in the process of socialization he learns the basic
aspects of social life. The process of learning that takes place in a group situation is
called socialization. Besides a process of learning it is also a process of reception and
internalization. Rose and Glazer have defined socialization as the “process of learning of
beliefs, values, patterns and social roles of society and culture.” Family, neighborhoods,
school and peer group are the important agency of socialization.
15.4 Summary

Social processes are associative and dissociative in nature. Those processes which contribute to
integration and stability of society are called associative processes. Those processes contribute

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negatively to the functioning of society and hinder the growth and developments of society are called as
dissociative processes. The term cooperation has been derived from the Latin words ‘co’ means
together and ‘operari’ means ‘to work’. Cooperation means working together or joint activity for the
achievement of common goal or goals. When adjustment is achieved between hostile individuals
or groups, we call it accommodation. It is a type of cooperation after conflict comes to an end.
Assimilation is one form of social adjustment. It makes dissimilar individuals or groups similar. It
comes after accommodation. Competition is a contest among individuals or groups to acquire
something which has limited supply. It is a form of social struggle. Conflict is a process which leads
two or more persons or groups to try to frustrate the attempts of their opponents to attain certain
objectives.
15.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define social process and discuss its elements.
2. What is social process and explain different forms of social process.
3. Define co-operation and discuss its features and types.
4. Define accommodation and discuss its features and methods.
5. Explain assimilation and discuss its features and methods.
6. Define competition and discuss its features and forms.
7. Define conflict and discuss its features and types.
15.6 Key Words

Social process:
The system of social interaction is called social process. The fundamental ways in which
people interact and establish social relationship are called social process. It refers to the
repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in social life.

Cooperation:
Cooperation means working together for the achievement of common goal or goals. It is a
continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or reach a
goal that is commonly cherished. It is a goal oriented social process.

Accommodation:
Accommodation is a process in which an adjustment is achieved between hostile individuals
and groups. It is a sort of cooperation among people after their conflict comes to an end.

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 It is a condition of psychological and social understanding.

Assimilation:
Assimilation is a form of social adjustment. It comes after accommodation. It is a process
whereby attitudes of many persons are united and thus develop into a united group.

Competition:
It is a contest among individuals or groups to acquire something which has limited
supply or not easily available.

Conflict:
Conflict is a process of seeking something by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is a
process which leads two or more persons or groups to try to frustrate the attempts of their
opponents to attain certain objectives.

15.7 Study Guide

1. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.
3. MacIver, R.M., and C.H.Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan and
co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Block-04 Social Change

Unit-16 Social Change - its associated concepts

Unit-17 Evolution
Unit-18 Progress
Unit-19 Development
Unit-20 Factors of Social Change

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 Unit-16 Social Change - its associated concepts

Structure
16.1 Learning Objectives
16.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
16.2.1 Social Change: An Introduction.
16.2.2 Meaning and Definition.
16.2.3 Nature or Characteristics of Social Change.
16.2.4 Associated Concepts of Social Change.
16.3 Summary
16.4 Self Assessment Questions
16.5 Key Words
16.6 Study Guide

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16.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the learner will be able to
 Know the meaning and definition of social change
 Understand the nature of social change

16.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

No society is static. It is ever changeable. Social change is inevitable. Society always tries to
maintain a continuous balance between change and continuity. It is important to understand change
both as a concept and a process.

16.3 Social Change: An Introduction.

Change is an essential law of nature and an empirical reality. Ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus
remarked that one can’t bath in the same river twice because in between these two baths both the water
in the river and the man taking bath get changed. Change is the unchanging and universal law of nature.
Human society also experiences it. The study of change is as old as human society itself. Men are both
the victims and beneficiaries of change. Sociology has its roots in the attempt to understand the
processes of social change. The nature of society is changeable. What is today shall be different from
what it would be tomorrow. As a fascinating subject change thrills everyone and so also the social
scientists. Founding fathers studies social change as a subject matter of sociology. Auguste Comte
opined that dynamics and statics are two features of society. Society tries to maintain a continuous
balance between change and statics. Hence any understanding of society requires the understanding
of social change. Society is an ever-changing phenomenon. It is always renewing and
accommodating itself to changing conditions. Every society primitive, agrarian or modern is in
continuous transformation. But the speed and tempo of change vary from society to society. Social
institutions and organizations change with the changes in human needs. It is inclusive of the
concepts of social evolution, progress and development. But recently, sociology and sociologists has
begun to pay more attention to the study of social change.

16.3.1 Meaning and Definition.

The word “change” means a difference, alteration, modification or replacement in anything over a
time period. Change refers to the amount of difference in condition of the object or phenomenon
between two points of time. Accordingly, social change refers to the observable differences in any
social phenomena over a specific period of time. Social change refers to changes taking place in
society. As society means a complex network of social relationships hence, social change would

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mean change in social relationships. Social change refers to alternations that occur in the social
structure and social relations. It means variations in any aspects of social processes, social patterns,
social interaction or social organization. It also refers to alternation in the structure and functions of
society. It refers to any kind of change in the behaviour of individual, group or society. Any difference
or modification or transformation in the established pattern of human interaction, interrelations and
standards of conduct refers to social change. Social change is a process in itself. It means change
in social behaviour, structure and cultural characteristics. It also refers to the changes in the
institutional and normative structure of society. Some sociologists opined that social change refers to
change in social structure not change of social structure as it is a rare occurrence where new forms
and structures replace old forms and structures. The change of structure is structural change in
which the whole structure passes through the process of change. Social change is wholly neutral. It
suggests no direction or quality and has no concern with value judgement.
Herbert Spencer tried to explain the process of social change through social
evolution. Emile Durkheim opined that social change is a consequence of the division of labour. Comte
and Hegel give stress on ideational and intellectual factors in analyzing social change. Karl Marx
gives stress on economic factors in analyzing social change. However, as an important social process
social change is defined by many sociologists. An analysis of their definitions helps us in
understanding social change better.

1. According to Alvin Toffler, “Change is the process through which future invades our life.”
2. According to M. D. Jenson, “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of
doing and thinking of people.”
3. According to S. Koening, “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life
patterns of people.”
4. According to Anderson and Parker, “Social change involves alterations in the structure and
functioning of societal forms or processes themselves.”
5. According to M.E. Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations in or
modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social
organization.”
6. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “Social change may be defined as a new fashion or mode,
either modifying or replacing the old, in the life of a people, or in the operation of a
society.”
7. K. Davis opined, “Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social
organization, that is, structure and functions of society.”

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 8. According to Gillin and Gillin , “Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of
life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions in cultural equipment,
composition of the population or ideologies and whether brought about diffusion or
inventions within the group.”
9. According to M.Ginsberg, “By social change I understand a change in social structure e.g.
the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its
organization.
Thus, it may be concluded that all the changes occurring in society are not social
change rather only those modifications which occurs in the life patterns of people are called
social change. It refers to variations of any aspects of social processes, social patterns, social
interactions or social organization. It mainly refers to the changes in the behaviour of group,
social structure and function and changes in cultural characteristics.
16.3.2 Nature or Characteristics of Social Change.
Social change is a very complex, complicated and vast process having many causes and
consequences. Hence it is very difficult to mention its nature or characteristics under some headings.
However, following are some of the characteristics of social change.

1. Social change is universal: It occurs in all societies and in all times. No society remains
completely static. Every society such as primitive, ancient, agrarian, industrial or modern is subject
to incessant change. Change also occurs in different aspects of society. Population increases and
decreases, technologies changes, ideals, values and life style changes, institutional structures and
functions also changes. Speed of change may vary from society to society but changes always
occur.
2. Social change is social in nature: Social change is social and not individual. Change in the life of
an individual or group of individual is not social change. Social change is the change which
occurs in the life of the entire society or community. Influences of these changes are felt on entire
society.
3. It occurs as a natural law: Change is the unchangeable law of nature. Social change may occur
either in natural course or as a result of planned programs. Every human being desire change
by nature. Their needs keep on changing. To fulfil these human needs social change becomes
necessary. Whether we want it or not change will occur. A.W. Green is right when he remarked
that “the enthusiastic response of change has become almost a way of life.”
4. Social change shows a certain reaction pattern. Different parts of society are interrelated.
Any change in any one of the parts has several impacts on different parts. A particular change

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 may have series of impacts like a chain. For example, women education brought a number of
changes in the family life, society, child health, stability of marriage, infant mortality, economic
development, etc.
5. Social change is both predictable and unpredictable: Social change involves some elements of
predictability and unpredictability. But social change is mainly unpredictable. It is also very
difficult to predict about the exact and accurate types or nature of social change. Social
changes do not occur according to any definite law. Besides, social change is unpredictable
due to the complex, multi causal and multi- dimensional nature of social phenomena.
W.E.Moore opined that as social changes are the product of plans and deliberate action it may be
predicted.
6. Speed of social change is not uniform: Even if social change is universal, its speed and rate is
not uniform in all society. It may also occur at different speed in a particular society at
different points of time. In some society it occurs very fast where as in other societies it is very
slow. Causes for this rapid and slow change vary from society to society. In urban areas the
speed of social change is faster in comparison to rural areas. Similarly, the speed of change in
modern period is faster than the ancient period.
7. Social change is associated with and affected by time: Defining social change Lundberg
opines that social change represents any observable difference in any social phenomena over a
period of time. With the change of time nature and speed of change also differs. This is due to the
changes in factors which cause social change. We observe changes in society at two different
points of time and compare them.
8. Social change is a process: Social change occurs continuously as a process. But it may be slow in
some time and speedier in other time. Whether we want it or do not want it, whether we plan
for it or do not plan for it change will occur in a definite manner.
9. Social change is caused by multiple factors: Social phenomena are very complex and
mutually interdependent. Any change in one part influence the rest. Social change is the result of
interaction of multiple factors. A particular factor may initiate change but it is always caused by
multiple factors. It is almost impossible to explain the complex phenomenon of social change with
the help of any single factor.
10. Social change is natural: Change is the unchangeable law of nature. By nature human beings
desire change. Human needs are ever changing. To satisfy these changing needs social change is
necessary. It occurs in natural course. We want it or not social change will occur.
11. Social change shows direction: Social change always shows a direction. It may occur either
in linear or cyclic pattern. Social change may be analyzed either in terms of ‘forward’,

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 ‘backward’ or ‘zigzag’. The direction of change varies from society to society and from one
aspect to other.
12. Social change may take the form of modification or replacement: Social change may be
understood either in the form of modifications or replacements. Modification of any physical
things or social relationships may be considered as social change. For example, the form and
structure of our chair and table has changed, the type of food we take has changed. Similarly,
modifications have occurred in our social relationships. The nature of family has changed from
joint to nuclear and the nature of relationship between husband and wife has changed from
authoritarian to equalitarian.
Social change may also occur in the form of replacement. This replacement occurs in both material
and non-material objects. Horses and bullock carts have been replaced by cycles and motor cars
which increase our mobility and facilitate speedy movement. Our ideas and attitudes about different
social issues and health care have also changed.

13. Social change is comparative: Social change is universal. We can observe social change only
through comparison. The amount of social change occurring in a society or in a social
phenomenon can be known by comparing past with the present. Here time is taken as the
yardstick. This also helps to know the direction of social change.
14. Social change involves shocks: Some social change may involve shock. It may result in
confusion and frustrations. Individuals take time to cope up with sudden social changes. Sometimes
these adaptations cause a lot of dislocations and may create shock in human mind. It may bring
about the clash of values and ideals.
15. Social change may be planned or unplanned: No doubt, social change occurs as an
essential law; but, it may occur with or without any planning. For example, Govt. of India
trying to bring socio-economic changes in the country through five year planning. But social
change is mainly unplanned. Changes coming through natural calamities are the examples of
unplanned social changes.
16. Social change may be qualitative, quantitative or transitory: W. E. Moore opined that
social change is more qualitative in nature. But it can also be quantitative and transitory.
Change in the modes of socialization, social control, values, roles, etc. are the examples of
qualitative change. These changes cannot be put in quantitative terms. But changes in
population, per-capita income, increase or decrease in number of family units are examples
of quantitative changes. But changes in fads and fashions are the examples of transitory
social changes. These types of changes come up suddenly and disappear soon without
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 lasting any impact on the society. Lapiere opines, “It is the qualitative rather quantitative
changes that are of primary significance in social change.”
16.3.3 Associated Concepts of Social Change.
Change and stability are two features of a social system. Social system develops from the process
of establishing a balance between these two. Change is the unchangeable law of nature. Society is not
an exception to this universal law. The nature of society is changeable. Social institutions,
structures and organizations change with the changes in human needs. Social change is a social
reality and is very vital for the understanding of the society. From the very origin of sociology, social
change has been the main theme of sociological study. Early sociologists have given their own
pattern of change and have studied it from their own view point and from the trends of their time.
During the course of their study and analysis they have frequently used concepts like evolution,
revolution, progress, development and change. Sociologists have used these concepts almost
interchangeably and as a result of which these concepts were confused with each other. Sometimes
these concepts were combined to a single concept. Even though these concepts were interlinked and used
interchangeably they have their own specific meaning. As a result these concepts came to be
differentiated from each other. But at the same time it is also true that even if these concepts can be
differentiated from each other, they cannot be put to water-tight compartments. A clear cut distinction
between them is impossible. As those concepts have many common reference points, hence are used
synonymously.
16.4 Summary
Social change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in
social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Sustained at a larger scale, it may lead to
social transformation or societal transformation. Social change may be understood either in the
form of modifications or replacements. Modification of any physical things or social relationships may
be considered as social change. For example, the form and structure of our chair and table has changed,
the type of food we take has changed. Similarly, modifications have occurred in our social relationships.
16.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define social change and discuss its nature.
2. Explain social change and discuss the evolutionary interpretations of social change.
3. Discuss the social change is universal.

16.6 Key Words

Change: Change refers to the amount of difference in condition of the object or phenomenon between
two points of time.

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Social change: Social change refers to the observable differences in any social phenomena over a
specific period of time. It refers to alterations that occur in social structure, functions and social
relations.

16.7 Study Guide

1. Ogburn, W.F.: Social Change, New York, 1922.
2. Hegen, E.E. 1962; on the theory of social change.
3. Kuppuswamy B. 1993. Social Change in India. Delhi:Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4. M.N. 1995; Social Change in modern India, New Delhi, Orient Longman limited.
5. Nordas kag J.E. (Ed) 1960; Social Change, London: Mc graw Gill Book Co. Inc.
6. Sinha, R. 1975 – Social Change in Indian Society, Progressive Publishers, Bhopal.

Srinivas,

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 Unit-17 Evolution

Structure
17.1 Learning Objectives
17.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
17.3 Evolution – Meaning and Definitions.
17.3.1 Essentials of Evolution.
17.3.2 Biological Evolution.
17.3.3 Social Evolution.
17.3.4 Social Change and Social Evolution.
17.4 Summary
17.5 Self Assessment Questions
17.6 Key Words
17.7 Study Guide

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17.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit one will be able to-

 Describe the meaning of associated concepts of social change like evolution.

 Understand biological and social evolution.

17.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Evolution is a part of change. Social evolution is a process of directional social change, and
evolutionary theories attempt to describe and explain this process. Theories of social evolution
go back to the second half of the nineteenth century to Spencer, Morgan, Tylor, and Marx and
Engels.
17.3 Evolution – Meaning and Definitions.
The nineteenth century sociologists have analyzed social change in number of ways. The thought of
Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim is obviously influenced by evolutionistic
theories. The concept of ‘evolution’ came to be used in sociology under the influence of biological
studies. British sociologist Herbert Spencer has tried to explain the process of social change through
social evolution. Different evolutionists have described evolution in different ways. They have given
their own view on evolution to describe their own scheme of change. In the course of their analysis
they used the concept of evolution and change interchangeably.

Meaning and definition of evolution: The term ‘evolution’ has come from the Latin word ‘evolvere’
which means to unfold or unrolling. It refers to a process in which hidden or latent aspects reveal
themselves. It is a process of gradual transformations over a period of time. It is a slow, gradual and
cumulative process of change. Evolution is different from change in the sense that it involves both
continuity and direction of change.

MacIver and Page opines,”Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not merely in size but
at least in structure also.”

In the words of Nordskog, “When changes grow in connected order, out of earlier phases of change, the
process is called evolution.”

Thus, evolution refers to gradual changes in a given direction in which each stage depends on the
previous stage. This change occurs due to the forces operative within the phenomena. Changes due to
the impact of external factors cannot be called as evolution. The stages of evolution described by
different evolutionists are also different.

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17.3.1 Essentials of Evolution.
Evolution has the following characteristics.
1. Evolution means change which takes place over a period of time.
2. In the process of evolution different hidden aspects of the object get revealed.
3. During the period of evolution the object undergoes structural as well as functional
differentiation.

4. Spencer opines that the principle of biological evolution applies to all kinds of evolution.
5. With the upward movement of society social structure becomes complex and
heterogeneous.

6. Under the process of evolution the object with its changing aspects gets adapted to its
environment.

7. It is a continuous and unbreakable process.

8. Evolution is natural.
9. Evolution may be upward or downward in direction.
10. It is both a process of differentiation and integration.
11. With the growth in population and increasing social differentiation, society moves from simple to
complex.

17.3.2 Biological Evolution.

The concept of evolution comes to be used in sociology from biological studies. Famous biologist
Charles Darwin has developed the theory of biological evolution in his famous book “origin of
species” published in 1859. Biological evolution refers to that type of evolution which occurs in life
science. It consists in the emergence of new species of life from older species marked by higher
degree of complexity and heterogeneity. Darwin opines, animals came into being as a result of
the process of evolution. The theory of biological evolution has three important dimensions. All
organisms reproduce in excess number which resulted in competition for survival, Survival of the fittest
and differentiation- cum-integration.

17.3.3 Social Evolution.

Famous British sociologist Herbert Spencer coined the concept of social evolution. Spencer was greatly
th
influenced by Darwin’s theories of biological or organic evolution in the middle of the 19 century.

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He took the lead of applying Darwinian evolutionary principles to the study of social organisms. He
saw a parallel social evolution, with societies moving from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to
definite coherent heterogeneity. Spencer considers the process of evolution as a cosmic principle of
evolution. It is a gradual process of change. It is always considered to be progressive advancement.
Morris Ginsberg opines, “Social evolution is the process whereby new elements of culture can be
shown to arise from the old by a process of diversification.” Evolutionary school in Sociology and
Anthropology opines, social evolution follows a definite path in which different stages are included.
Simple to complex, indefinite to definite, incoherent to coherent and homogeneity to heterogeneity are
the basic assumptions of social evolution. Social evolution involves adjustment of various parts of
society. Social evolution is the result of the operation of forces within society. All human societies
must pass through same evolutionary stages.

The new evolutionary school analyzes the process of social evolution in terms of structural
differentiation and functional specialization. Structural differentiation is a consequence of
increasing size and need of structure. In social evolution new and ever newer circumstances and
problems are constantly appearing and in order to cope with them new associations and institutions
with specialized functions are evolved. Increasing differentiation and specialization require some sort
of integration. This integration is achieved through different mechanisms of society.

Different evolutionary scholars have analyzed the forms of society in terms of social evolution, Comte-
theological, metaphysical and positive stage. Durkheim – A progressive advancement from
mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. H. Maine- from status based society to contract based
society. F.Tonnies – from gemeinschaft to gessellschaft, MacIver strongly supported the principle of
social evolution and considers it as a reality.
17.3.4 Social Change and Social Evolution.
th
The 19 century sociologists have made frequent use of concepts like social change and social
evolution synonymously or interchangeably. But they have not been able to make a distinction between
them. No doubt both these concepts have different intellectual framework but they share some common
reference points. Both are natural and present facts of social life. Both are closely interrelated. Even at
times both these concepts were combined to a single concept. Social change is different from social
evolution in many respects but the difference between the two is not clear.

Social evolution always implies change but all social changes are not evolutionary. Social change
is an objective concept but the concept of social evolution has subjective overtones. The concept of
social change and social evolution refer to different states of society. The idea of social change

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refers to different stages of society like traditional, transitional and modern. Similarly, evolutionists
speak of different evolutionary stages like theological, metaphysical and positive (Comte), primitive,
feudal, capitalist and communist (Marx) and so on. Both the process has some consequential
effect. Social change results in modification or replacement of old by new ones where as social
evolution brings more differentiation and integration. Social change may be or may not be continuous but
evolution is continuous. Social change is a value neutral concept but social evolution is value loaded.
Both these processes show a chain reaction sequence. In both one cause produces a number of
effects and then effect and cause get intermixed to produce other new effects.
17.4 Summary
Social evolution is a process of directional change and evolutionary theories attempt to describe
and explain this process. Theories of social evolution go back to the second half of the nineteenth
century to Spencer, Morgan, Tylor, and Marx and Engels. Social evolution always implies change
but all social changes are not evolutionary. Social change is an objective concept but the concept of
social evolution has subjective overtones. The concept of social change and social evolution refer to
different states of society.
17.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Distinguish between social and biological evolution.

2. Define evolution and discuss its features.
3. Outline the relationship between change and evolution.
17.6 Key Words

1. Evolution: The term evolution has come from the Latin word ‘evolvere’ which means to
unfold or unrolling. Evolution is a process of gradual transformations over a period of time.
Under this process hidden aspects reveal themselves. It is a gradual change in a given direction.

2. Biological evolution: Biologist Charles Darwin has developed the concept in his book ‘origin of
species’ in1859. It refers to that type of evolution which occurs in life science. It consists in the
emergence of new species of life from older species marked by higher degree of complexity and
heterogeneity.

3. Social evolution: Sociologist Herbert Spencer has coined the concept of social evolution.
Social evolution is the process whereby new elements of culture can be shown to arise from the
old by a process of diversification. It involves adjustment of various parts of society. It is the
result of the operation of forces within society.

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 4. Social change and social evolution: Social change is an objective concept but the concept of
social evolution has subjective undertones. Both the concept refers to different states of society.
Social evolution always implies change but all social change are not evolutionary.
17.7 Study Guide
1. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.
3. MacIver, R.M., and C.H.Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan and
co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Unit-18 Progress

Structure
18.1 Learning Objectives
18.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
18.3 Progress
18.3.1 Meaning and Definitions.
18.3.2 Characteristics of Progress.
18.3.3 Progress and Change.
18.4 Summary
18.5 Self Assessment Questions
18.6 Key Words
18.7 Study Guide

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18.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the learner will be able to

 Describe the meaning and definition progress.

 Understand the characteristics of progress.

 Relate the linkage between change and progress

18.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Progress is the process of gradually improving or getting nearer to achieving or completing
something. The medical community continues to make progress in the fight against cancer. The
two sides made little if any progress towards agreement. Similarly, progress more often implies
to development, increase, growth, advances etc.
18.3 Progress
Social change is very closely related to concepts like progress, evolution, revolution and development.
In the earlier days sociologists used these interrelated concepts synonymously and interchangeably.
Later, when treated differently, these were treated as logically interrelated concepts. Though these
concepts are interrelated they have their specific meaning. The inter-confusion of these concepts was
affected by the works of many scholars. But these concepts are essentially different from each other.

18.3.1 Meaning and Definitions.

The word ‘progress’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘pro’ and ‘grade’ which means ‘forward’
and ‘walk’ respectively. Accordingly progress means walk forward in a desired direction. Progress is
considered as a voluntary process of social change. Any change or adaptation to an existing
environment that makes it easier for a person or group of person to live may be said to represent
progress. Progress means change in a desired direction. It implies conscious and purposive change
in the direction of social wellbeing. Progress is a movement in a search of worthwhile ends. Progress is
subjective and value loaded. It emphasizes moral development. Spencer considered progress as an
evolutionary development. Marx opined progress occurs through clash of opposing elements. Social
progress always moves forward in the desired direction of human civilization. Progress is judged
with reference to standards. But there is no universal standard of progress.

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff , ‘progress means change for the better and hence must imply a
value judgement.”

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According to MacIver, “By progress we imply not merely direction, but direction towards some final
goal, some destination determined ideally not simply by the objective consideration at work.”

According to Lumley, “progress is change, but it is change in a desired or approved direction, not
any direction.”
According to L.T.Hobhouse, “by social progress I mean the growth of social life in respect to
those qualities to which human beings attach value.”
18.3.2 Characteristics of Progress.
As a voluntary process of social change, progress may have the following
characteristics:
1. Progress is change: Every progress is a change but this change must be in a desired
direction not in any direction. It is a purposive change in the direction of social well- being.
2. Progress is social: When we speak of social progress we mean the progress of society as a whole.
Progress of any part of society cannot be regarded as social progress.
3. Progress is variable: Progress varies from society to society and from time to time. Because
it depends on social values and ideals. What is progress today may not be regarded as so
tomorrow.
4. Progress is subjective: Progress is not objective but subjective in nature. There is no
objective means to measure it. It differs from person to person, from society to society and from
time to time.
5. Progress is volitional: Progress requires desire and volition. Progress is the result of
conscious and purposive effort.
6. Progress involves both benefit and loss: Though progress means development in a direction
but it brings both benefit and loss for society and individual. In all kinds of progress a society
has to make a lot of sacrifice. It may be beneficial in one way and harmful in other way.
7. Progress has no limit and it has no universal standards.
8. Progress implies value judgment because progress means change for the better.

18.3.3 Progress and Change.

Progress and change are closely interrelated. Progress is defined as change in a desirable direction.
Progress implies conscious and purposive change in the direction of social well being. Every
progress is a change. It is change for the better. But every change is not progress. Change may be
for better or for worse. Change is certain whatever its nature may be but progress is uncertain.
Progress is always planned but change may be planned or unplanned.

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18.4 Summary
Progress is defined as change in a desirable direction. Progress implies conscious and purposive
change in the direction of social well being. Every progress is a change. It is change for the
better. But every change is not progress. Change may be for better or for worse. Change is certain
whatever its nature may be but progress is uncertain. Progress is always planned but change may be
planned or unplanned.

18.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define progress and discuss its characteristics.
2. What is progress?
3. Difference between progress and evolution.

18.6 Key Words

1. Progress: Progress means walk forward in a desired direction. Progress is a movement in
search of worthwhile ends. It is a voluntary process of social change. Any change or adaptation
to an existent environment that makes it easier for a person or group of person to live may be
said to represent progress.

2. Social progress: Social progress means the growth of social life in respect to those qualities to
which human beings attach value.

3. Progress and Change: Progress is change in a desirable direction. Every progress is a change
but every change is not a progress. Change is certain whatever its nature may be but progress is
uncertain.

18.7 Study Guide

1. Johnson, H.M., “Sociology”, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1960.
2. Gisbert, P., “Fundamentals of sociology”, orient Longman, Bombay.
3. MacIver, R.M., and C.H.Page, ‘sociology-an introductory analysis, London: Macmillan and
co. ltd., 1962.

4. Sachdeva, D.R and Vidya Bhusan, ‘An introduction to sociology’, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.
5. Tumin, M. ‘Social Stratification.’
6. Gupta, Dipankar, ‘Social Stratification’.

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 Unit-19 Development

Structure
19.1 Learning Objectives
19.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
19.3 Development – Meaning and Definitions.
19.3.1 Dimensions of Development.
19.3.2 Nature or Characteristics of Development.
19.3.3 Change and Development.
19.4 Summary
19.5 Self Assessment Questions
19.6 Key Words
19.7 Study Guide

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19.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit one will be able to-
 Describe the meaning of development.
 Understand the characteristics of development.
 Distinguish between change and development.

19.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

It is the overall improvement of economic, social, and political conditions. The concept of
development varies from region to region over time. It can be said that development is the
change in which a society is able to achieve social progress. The word development always
refers to some qualitative direction in something. It also defines the better and new things in
everything.
19.3 Development – Meaning and Definitions.

th
The 19 century sociologists have made frequent use of concepts like progress, evolution and
development. They use these concepts synonymously and interchangeably. Later when treated
differently, these were considered as interrelated concepts. Even if these concepts are interrelated they
have their specific meaning. When concepts like evolution and progress began to lose their popularity
th
towards the end of 19 century sociologists spoke in favour of another new concept named
development. But development has a long history. It came to be used in western social thought 2500
years before. In India its origin goes back to the days of Manu and Kautilya. The concept became
popular after Second World War and now it has became a buzzword. Development is natural and a
cherished goal of individuals, families, societies and nations world over.

Meaning and Definitions: Development is another aspect of change. It had its existence in the
thought of August Comte and Herbert Spencer. As per the lexicographical meaning the term
development means “a gradual unfolding, a fuller working out, or a gradual growth.” It means opening
up some latent thing. It implies a desirable change. Development is a highly subjective and value
loaded concept, hence no consensus is reached over its meaning. It is used differently in different
contexts. It is a multidimensional process. Development is usually defined in a national context. It
is an ongoing process. As a process it implies the engagement of individuals, communities and nations
in pursuit of their cherished goals over time. It is both evolutionary and revolutionary in nature.
Development is a strategy of planned social change in a direction which is considered as desirable
by the members of society. As what is desirable varies from society to society, from person to person

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and from time to time, it is impossible to think of a universally acceptable definition of development.

1. According to G. Myrdal, “development means improvement of the host of undesirable conditions

in the social system that has perpetuated a state of underdevelopment.”
2. According to Y. Singh, “development is a strategy of planned social change which is
considered desirable by the members of a society.”

19.3.1 Dimensions of Development.

In recent years the term development has become a buzzword and is claimed by almost all social
sciences. Hence we find a number of dimensions on the meanings of the concept. Due to its
subjective nature there cannot be a general agreement as to its meaning.

Economic Dimension: Development is rooted in economics. The economic dimension of

development emphasizes on economic variables such as increasing annual growth rate in GNP,
growth of per capita output, growth in aggregate income and employment, growth in GDP, growth in
labour force and technology.

Social Dimension: As a result of continuous debate on development, new dimensions of

development have come forth. The term economic development is replaced by social development and
human development. The term is very comprehensive covering improvement in the quality of life,
satisfaction of human needs. It aims to achieve a more humanistic society.

Psychological Dimension: It gives stress on the creation of self-reliance among individuals and
groups in identifying their problems and in solving them through community action. It emphasizes on
the development of motivation among people for working together to achieve larger societal goals.

19.3.2 Nature or Characteristics of Development.

1. Development is a complex and multidimensional process because it has economic, social and
psychological dimensions.
2. Development is a global process because under these process development ideas and
technology are diffused from the place of origin to the whole world.

3. Development i s a revolutionary process because it involves massive alternations amounting to

quick change of socio-economic structure.

4. Development is an evolutionary process because it takes generations to bring about

massive alternations in socio-economic structures.

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 5. Development is a systematic process. Under this process change occurs systematically.
Changes in one aspect result in corresponding changes in other aspect.
6. Development is a phased process as it occurs through definite phases.

7. Development is a continuous and inclusive process. The process continues incessantly. It

occurs in almost all fields. But it needs continuous efforts over a long period of time to
achieve the goals of development.

8. Development is a homogenizing process. As the development process continues all sorts of

inequalities between nations vanish. It leads the world society towards equality.

9. Development is an irreversible process. It always occurs in forward direction and never

moves backward. In some time s timely halt may occur but the process moves forward.

10. Development is a progressive process because it brings social well-being, comfort and is always
welcome. It makes society a better place for human living.

11. Development is a diffusive process. Once development occurs in any field at any place it gets
diffused throughout the world.

12. Development is a value-laden concept.

19.3.3 Change and Development.

There exists a very close relationship between development and change. No doubt they refer to different
states of society. They also differ from each other in many respects. All kinds of development is a
desirable change. Similarly all changes are not development. Only planned and desired changes are
called as development. Development brings change and is influenced by change. It is both a cause and
effect of change. Change is value neutral but development is value laden. Change is the basic content of
development.

19.4 Summary
No doubt they refer to different states of society. They also differ from each other in many
respects. All kinds of development is a desirable change. Similarly all changes are not
development. Only planned and desired changes are called as development. Development
brings change and is influenced by change. It is both a cause and effect ct of change. Change is
value neutral but development is value laden. Change is the basic content of development.

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19.5 Self Assessment Questions
1. Define development and discuss its nature
2. Discuss the dimensions of development.
3. What is development?

19.6 Key Words

1. Development: Development is a process of social change which is planned and desired by a

society. As a process it implies the engagement of individuals, communities and nations in
pursuit of their cherished goals over time. It is usually defined in a national context.

2. Change and development: All kinds of development are a change but all changes are not
development. Development brings change and is influenced by change. Change is the basic
content of development. Only planned and desired changes are called as development.

19.7 Study Guide

1. Ogburn, W.F.: Social Change, New York, 1922.
2. Hegen, E.E. 1962; on the theory of social change.
3. Kuppuswamy B. 1993. Social Change in India. Delhi:Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4. M.N. 1995; Social Change in modern India, New Delhi, Orient Longman limited.
5. Nordas kag J.E. (Ed) 1960; Social Change, London: Mc graw Gill Book Co. Inc.
6. Sinha, R. 1975 – Social Change in Indian Society, Progressive Publishers, Bhopal.

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 Unit-20 Factors of Social Change

Structure
20.1 Learning Objectives
20.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge
20.3 Factors of Social Change:
20.3.1 Demographic Factor.
20.3.2 Ideological Factor.
20.3.3 Cultural Factor.
20.3.4 Technological Factor.
20.3.5 Biological Factor.
20.3.6 Economic Factor.
20.4 Summary
20.5 Self Assessment Questions
20.6 Key Words
20.7 Study Guide

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20.1 Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the learner will be able to-

 Know the meaning of social change

 Discuss the various Factors of social change.
 Understand the economic factor of social change.
20.2 Introduction/ Assessment of Prior Knowledge

Social change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in
social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Sustained at a larger scale, it may lead to
social transformation or societal transformation. Social change is always based certain
unprecedented factors. And it is at the same time guided by natural laws. Therefore, social
change is universally seen and experienced.
20.3 Factors of Social Change:

As a universal and continuous process social change takes place in all societies and in all periods of
time. But here question arises why and how social change occurs. The word ‘why’ and ‘how’
represents the reasons, the causes or the factors which are responsible for social change. Social
change is a complex phenomenon and cannot be explained by any single factor. Sociologists opine that
social change is the result of interaction of multiple factors. Some of the important factors are discussed
below.

20.3.1 Demographic Factor.

Social change is multi-causal in nature. One of the most important factors of social change is
demographic factor. Demography plays an important role in the process of social change. The term
‘demography’ has been derived from two Greek words, ‘demos’ and ‘graphs’ meaning the ‘people’
and ‘to draw’ or write respectively. The lexicographical meaning of the term demography is the
scientific study of human population, primarily with respect to their size, structure and their
development. It is an universally accepted fact that changes in size, composition and distribution of
population brings changes in society.

In the study of social change demographic factors have been viewed from two different
perspectives .i.e. qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative aspect refers to physical potentialities,

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mental abilities etc. The quantitative aspect takes into account, the size, composition and density of
population that are determined by natural reproduction, migration and social mobility. The demographic
factor in its quantitative aspect has been playing the most decisive role in causing changes in society.
These aspects in their turn set in motion the other constituents like age-sex ratio and racial inter-
mixture which ultimately brings changes in marriage, family and social interrelationship. How
demographic factor brings changes in society can be known from the analysis of different theories.

1. Herbert Spencer opines that in the process of evolution, the phenomenon of integration
and differentiation started with simple quantitative growth both in population and structural elements
of society.

2. Emile Durkheim in his social evolution opines that the division of labour takes place
because of growth in the volume, the material density and the moral density of society. Here volume
refers to the number of individuals belonging to a particular collectivity. He considers population
growth as an important cause of social change.

3. T. R. Malthus, a famous English demographer and economist, published his first essay on
population in 1798 under the title “on the principle of population as it affects the future
improvement of society.” He opined that humanity is destined to suffer on account of its two sin.
One is insatiable sex desire leading to rapid reproduction and the next is limited capacity to produce
food. He further opined that the growth rate of population is more than the capacity of the earth to
produce food. Population growth occurs at a geometric rate 2, 4, 16, 256 …. Whereas food
production grows at arithmetic rate 2,4,8,16,32 …,.At the initial stage population growth may not seem
like a problem but later on it creates many problems. He suggested that this problem can be solved
through two kinds of checks like natural check and preventive check. Natural or positive checks
include natural calamities like flood, Tsunami, diseases, epidemics etc. Preventive checks include
moral restraints like celibacy, late marriage, and use of family planning methods. Thus, population
growth and steps to check population growth brings a number of changes in society. Similarly, steps to
increase food production also bring a number of changes in society.

4. Demographic transition theory also tries to explain the relationships between

population and social change like Malthusian theory. This theory considers population as a
resource and tries to explain the relationship between population growth and economic development.
This theory opines that changes in fertility and mortality rates occur due to economic
development. It mentions some distinct stages through which population passes which are known
as population cycle or theory of demographic transition. These stages are

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 * The high stationary stage characterized by high birth rates and high death rate.

* The early expanding stage with falling birth rate and rapidly declining death rate.

* The low stationary stage characterized by low birth rates and low mortality.
5. Sadler’s theory: Famous demographer Sadler opines that reproduction capacity decreases
among new generations due to better standard of living. This resulted in slow growth of population.
Social change is closely related to the growth and decline of population.

Besides the above theoretical explanation size, composition, density and migration of
population also brings changes in society in various ways.

1. Size of population: It refers to the total amount of population of a particular area at a specific
point of time. Size of population of a country plays an important role in bringing changes in
society. Both increase and decrease in the size of population of a country brings a variety of
changes. Increase in the size of population accelerates the process of economic development
whereas any decrease in the size of population slowed down the process of economic
development.

2. Composition of population: It refers to some measurable characteristics like sex and age
composition. Any variation in the ratio brings changes in society. Sex composition refers to the
ratio of male and female in the population. Whenever any changes occurs in the ratio of male and
female it brings varied changes in society. Increase in male population resulted in bride price,
polyandry etc. In the same way increase in female population resulted in polygamy, dowry etc.
Similarly, age composition of a population deeply influences the rate and speed of social
change. As per age composition normally there are four categories of population found to exist
in a country such as children, youth, aged and old. Whenever in a country’s population the
number of children and old people are more society became stable, conservative and slow. But
when the number of youth and aged population are more society became dynamic.
3. Density of population: It refers to the number of population in a square kilometer. Increase
and decrease in the density of population of a country brings a variety of changes in society.
4. Migration: It refers to the movement of people from one place to another within the political
boundary of a country or outside it. It is responsible for changes in the size and density of
population. Nature and amount of migration brings variety of changes in society. It influences
the socio-economic condition and culture of a country and thereby brings a number of changes in

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 society.
5. Population policy: It includes all efforts which are made by any government to control and
change the structure and composition of population. The norms or rules which help us to keep
population at a reasonable level are known as population policy. It includes all factors that affect
population. The nature of population policy of a country influences the socio-economic and
political conditions of a country and brings varieties of changes in society.

20.3.2 Ideological Factor.

Social change is a complex and complicated phenomenon. It is caused due to interaction of a number of
factors. Ideological factor is one of the important factors that are responsible for changes in society. It
is said that, “ideas rules the world.” No power is greater than the power of ideas. If we look towards
the annals of history there are thousands of instances how simple ideas have transform the whole text
and texture of society. That is why behind every invention, discovery, progress and development we
find a set of ideas or ideologies. Ideologies are found in all societies and they played an important role
initiating changes in society.

rd
The word ideology was introduced by French thinker Destutt De Tracy for the first time in 23 may
1797. Ideology refers to a set of beliefs or thoughts in a particular direction about a particular issue.
The word ‘ideology’ was brought into popular use by Napoleon. Ideologies are based on certain
basic assumptions and philosophies. Ideology is equal to ideas plus norms. It deals with the present
and is based on some realities. M. Haralambos opines that “the term ‘ideology’ refers to a set of ideas
which present a partial view of reality.” Anthony Giddens opines, ideology means shared ideas or
beliefs which serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Ideology may be conservative,
revolutionary or equalitarian. But we are all aware of the fact that how ideologies of liberty, equality and
fraternity preached by Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau influenced the political events of their
country.

Ideology played an important role in social change and social movements. It is with the help of
ideology leaders mobilize people. Nordskog explained the role of ideology in bringing about social
change with the help of different social movements which are mentioned below:

Liberalism: As an ideology liberalism originated from the political philosophy devoted to the freedom
of mankind. It propagates for the cause of freedom of individuals. As a deep- seated mental
attitude liberalism emphasizes on maximum liberty to individual and decries unreasonable

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encroachment of government on his free activities. As a social movement liberalism is associated
with development of democratic political forms and institutions primarily for political liberty.
Economically, it proclaimed for free enterprise, free trade and private property. Liberalism stands for
freedom, democracy, humanism and tolerance. In India it is identified with progress and development.

Collectivism: Collectivism refers to the voluntary efforts in which individuals work collectively
for social upliftment. It originated in contrast to the individual direction of economy and aimed
at collective welfare and transformation of the entire society. As a composite concept it embraces
several movements like socialism, communism, fascism, National Socialism and corporatism. It puts
emphasis on state interference, state control and state ownership of property. It gives stress on people’s
welfare.

Democracy: As an ideology democracy initiates a number of changes in society. It is a form of

government in which people rule themselves directly or through their representatives. It is government
by the people, for the people and of the people. At present it is the most popular form of government
all over the world. It gives stress on decentralization of power and welfare of people. Liberty, equality
and fraternity are spirits of democracy. A democratically set up government undertakes various
measures to bring changes in society in a planned manner.

Socialism: As an ideology, socialism brings a number of changes in society. It believes in

collective ownership of means of production and end of all sorts of exploitations. Defining socialism
G.D.H. Cole says, “Socialism is essentially a doctrine and a movement aiming at the collective
organization of the community in the interest of the mass of people by means of the common ownership
and collective control of the production and exchange.” There are different types of socialism such
as Marxian Socialism, Democratic Socialism, State Socialism, National Socialism, Syndicalism etc.
It also includes communism. It aims at planned change in society. Different types or forms of socialism
differ in their ideology and adopt different methods to achieve their goals. Some are revolutionary
whereas others are evolutionary. India adopted it as a state policy and as a result a number of changes
occur in society.

Capitalism: As a dominant ideology, capitalism brings a number of changes all over the world. It
is an economic system which acknowledges private ownership. It believes in the maximization of
profit, free enterprise and privatization. Capitalism encourages adoption of new technology which
accelerates the process of development of society which initiates changes in almost all aspects of
society.

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Nationalism: As an ideology or an ism, nationalism fosters the idea of nation state. It is a deep
psychological sentiment which strengthens the unity and solidarity of a given state or national group.
As a powerful force it generates patriotism and mass national consciousness. Defining nationalism
Perry and Perry say, “A set of beliefs about the superiority and differences of one’s own nation and
a defense of its interests above all others.” It is an integrating and unifying force. It originated in
th
the 15 century during the period of renaissance. Nationalism is strongly associates with the ideals of
political freedom. It became very popular during pre-independence in India and brought a number of
changes in the Indian Society.

From the above analysis of the ideologies, it is clear that they have played an important role in
bringing changes in different aspects of society.

20.3.3 Cultural Factor.

Social; change is multi-causal in nature. Among these multiple causes cultural factor is considered
as one of the most important causes of social change. It is needless to mention that society and culture
are inalienable and are closely related to each other. Hence, any cultural change involves social
change. Culture is the life blood or life forces of a society. Any change in culture brings necessary
changes in society. It also plays an important role in bringing changes in human relations. According to
E.B.Tylor, “Culture refers to that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art morals, law,
custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.” Culture denotes
acquired behaviour and the behaviour which is learnt are called as culture. Singing, dancing,
playing belong to the category of culture. Culture is a continuous, cumulative and progressive
process. Culture is symbolic in nature. Culture is social and is the very basis of social continuity. It
meets the recurring demand of mankind.

Culture plays a very vital role in social change. It is considered as an important source of social
change. Culture is dynamic in nature. It’s continuous, cumulative, transmissive and adaptive nature
signify the elements of dynamism within culture. Culture brings changes in society by changing itself.
Change in culture takes place by way of discovery, invention and diffusion. Besides, there are host
of other internal and external factors that interact upon the culture and cause changes within it. Several
sociologists have highlighted the determini9ng role of culture in bringing changes in society. Some of
these are given below:

1. Max Weber explained how ethics of protestant religion contributed to the development of
capitalism and thereby brings a number of changes in society.

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2. McClelland opined that some culture encourages among people “a need for achievement”
which accelerates economic development and thereby brings changes in society.
3. W.F. Ogburn, used the concept of ‘cultural lag’ to explain social change.
To examine the role of cultural factors in social change, it is necessary to discuss the
concept of ‘cultural lag’ in detail.

W.F. Ogburn introduced the concept of ‘cultural lag’ in his book ‘Social Change’
published in the year 1920. Ogburn distinguishes between two parts of culture i.e. material and
nonmaterial culture. By material culture he means those things which are tangible like tools,
utensils, machines, furniture’s etc. Non-material culture includes those things which are
intangible and experienced by people like religion, customs, values, trademark, behaviour
patterns etc. Ogburn opines, when changes occur in the material aspects, those in turn stimulate
changes in the non-material aspects. Non-material culture is very slow to respond to the rapid
inventions in material culture. When non-material culture fails to adjust to the rapid changes
in material culture it falls behind the material culture and the result is a lag between the two.
This lag between material and non-material aspects of culture is known as ‘cultural lag’.
Defining cultural lag Ogburn says ‘the strain that exists between two correlated parts of culture
that changes at unequal rates of speed may be interpreted as a lag in the part that is changing at
the slowest rate for the one lags behind the other.’ Changes occur rapidly in material culture to
which the non-material culture is to adjust itself when it cannot, a lag occurs which is called
as cultural lag. Citing various examples of cultural lag Ogburn says, people have changed the
methods of soil cultivation but not the method of their land ownership. People have changed their
housing pattern but not the life they lead within them.

Cultural lag is caused due to the fact that different elements of culture posses different
degrees of changeability. It is also caused due to man’s psychological dogmatism. Besides, the
inability of social institutions to adapt to the changes in the material culture also leads to cultural
lag.

CRITICISM: Ogburn’s theory of cultural lag has been accepted by some and criticised by
many sociologists. Some of the criticisms are:

1. Davis says the aspects of culture cannot be divided into material and non-material. Hence
the division is not scientific.
2. MacIver opines the term ‘lag’ is not an appropriate term to explain the imbalance the two
aspects of culture.

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 3. Sutherland and Woodward opine that Ogburn is guilty of oversimplifying the process of social
change.
However, it is acknowledged that there exists an intimate relationship between society and culture.
Both are closely inter-woven that all cultural change involves social change. Culture is dynamic in
nature. Culture itself is a force behind social change. Culture not only influences our social
relationships, beliefs and values but also the character of technological change. Several sociologists
have highlighted the determining role of culture effecting social change. Some of the important effects
are:

1. Culture decides the direction and speed of social change. Nature of culture decides the rate of
change. If culture is conservative the rate of social change becomes slow and if culture is
dynamic and adaptive then the rate of social change becomes speedier.
2. Culture determines the rate of economic growth and nature of economy. Max Weber in his
work ‘Sociology of Religion’ opined that the economy of a society is a product of the practical
ethics of that society.
3. Culture also decides the nature of technological change. Use of technology depends on
culture. Similarly our beliefs, values and ideals correspond to the changes in technology.
4. Learner opined the process of change and modernization depends on individual
characteristics which are the product of culture.

20.3.4 Technological Factor.

Among all the other factors of social change, the technological factor plays an important role in causing
changes in society. It is true, that from time immemorial technology has been effecting changes in
human society in innumerable ways. Technology has been the agent of social change in almost all
periods of history. Recent years have witnessed many startling examples of social changes caused
by technology. Life in the modern days is unthinkable without technology. It has become an
inevitable part of individual and social life. Technological innovations in various fields have changed
our individual and social life in myriad ways. Such technological innovations in various fields have
led Alvin Toffler to remark that “What is occurring now is bigger, deeper and more important than the
industrial revolution”. Due to the universal presence and wider uses in day-to-day social life the
present age is popularly known as “Age of Technology” or “Age of Machines”.

Technology ordinarily refers to applied science or application of scientific knowledge to meet the
human requirements. It may also refer to mechanization of production. But in the study of sociology,

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technology has a wider connotation. It implies an appropriate organization and systematic application
of invented scientific knowledge to cater to the needs of a society. Technology has three elements such
as tools, sources of energy and know-how.

How technology brings changes: W.F.Ogburn opines, “Technology changes society by changing our
environments to which we in turn adopt.” Technology brings changes by changing people’s thought and
vision towards life and universe. It changes our material environment and thereby changes occur in
customs and in social institutions. There always exists a close relationship between technology and
social organization. American scholar Thorstein Veblen analysed the role of technology in social
change and has developed his theory of leisure classes on the basis of technological development. He
opined social institutions change with the change in technology. Marx and Engels opine that use of
tools by the primitive people led to change in social organization which brought further changes in
technology and in turn brings changes in social organization and so on. Explaining how technology
brings changes in social relationships, Ogburn and Nimkoff mentioned about three types of influences
of technology such as dispersion, succession and convergence. Dispersion means multiple effects of
a technological invention. They have observed 150 kinds of changes of introduction of radio on
society. Succession means series of chain social effects of a single technological invention. It refers to
the influence of an invention on some institution and the sequence of influences it exerts on other
institutions. Convergence means effects of several inventions converge with one another and produce a
new change. For example, the grinder, gas stove have increased the leisure and comfort of housewives.
Similarly, MacIver and Page have mentioned about the role of technology in bringing changes in
society and opined spreads of mechanization brings number of changes in society. They have also
mentioned about the direct and indirect inevitable social consequences.

Technology changes society through new inventions and discoveries. Invention means new
ways of using existing knowledge. Invention of automobiles has far reaching impacts on our society.
Similarly, discovery of modern medicines changes our society in different ways. Every
technological advance changes our society. Besides these two, there are some technological factors
which are mainly responsible for social change. The role of technology in bringing changes in society
can be known from these factors:

1. Technological innovations: Different technological innovations in various fields have

brought about revolutionary changes in man’s ideas about life and universe. Natural
objects and disasters are no more a mysterious creation or viewed as divine curse. Man is
increasingly gaining control over them. These have brought several changes in society.

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 2. Changes in agricultural technology: Spectacular change in agricultural technology over the
years has brought several changes in society and more particularly in rural society. With the
invention of new agricultural tools, fertilisers, HYV seeds etc. agricultural production has
increased which accelerates the process of economic development. Surplus manpower is
engaged in other sectors which raises their standard of living. Green and White Revolutions
have changed the very text and texture of our society.
3. Changes in production technology: Changes in production technology has changed not only
our attitudes, beliefs and traditions but also changed our socio-economic life. A second
wave of change appeared in human society with the development of industrial technology.
Industrial mode of production has destroyed the traditional village and cottage industries.
Excess of production in various fields has increased the standard of living and leisure of
people. It has brought women from home to factory. Industrialization initiates number of
changes in almost all aspects of society. It has led to the growth of urban centres.
4. Changes in medical technology: New inventions and discoveries in medical fields have
brought about far reaching changes in society. It has lessened human pain and increased the life
span of people. Introduction of X-ray, Penicillin etc. have several impacts on society.
5. Changes in transport technology: Rapid changes in the modes of transportation have greatly
influenced our social, economic, cultural life and our social relationships. It has widened our
trade and commerce network and raised the income of people. Frequent movement of people
became possible which led to diffusion of cultural elements. It has changed the norms and
values of people and has broken down the regional barriers.
6. Changes in communication technology: Changes in communication technology have far
reaching influence on our socio-economic life and on human relationships. Developments
of telephone, internet, T.V., radio, newspaper etc. have changed the life style of people.
Happenings in one part of the globe affect the other part. The whole world is getting smaller
day by day. Easy communication accelerated the volume of our trade and commerce and
strengthened our religious and caste unity. At the same time it also helps in secularizing our
society. Communication technology has greatly influenced our education, entertainment and
politics.
Effects of technology: Technology has several effects on society. Every device technological or
otherwise, whether originating within a society or borrowed from outside, obviously set up a network
of effects. Changes in technology have resulted in some fundamental changes in social structure and
social relations. Technological change has the following impacts.

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 1. The changes in technology have changed the whole gamut of social life.
2. It has changed the structure and functions of caste. The ascribed status has been replaced by
achieved status. There is no restriction on food, drink and social intercourse. People are no more
following their caste occupations.
3. Technology has changed the size, structure and functions of family. It has reduced
burden on women. Head of family loose its control on members.
4. The institution of marriage has been undergoing tremendous changes due to the impact of
technology. It is becoming more and more unstable and the rate of divorce is increasing
rapidly.
5. It has greatly influencing our religious beliefs and practices. People are becoming more and
more secular, rational and scientific in their outlook.
6. It has also brought a number of changes in the functions of state. It has increased the size
and power of bureaucracy. Technology has altered man’s economic life in many ways.
20.3.5 Biological Factor.

Social change is a complex process and is caused by multiple factors. All factors of social change are
closely related to each other. But at the same time each individual factor brings change in society in its
own way. Accordingly, biological factor plays an important role in the causation of social change.
Ordinarily, biological factors refer to those which are concerned with the genetic constitution of the
human beings. Biological factors include both human beings and non-human beings such as animals,
birds, herbs, insects, plants etc. Human beings use animals, birds, plants and herbs according to the
direction of his culture. At the same time, human beings protect themselves from different harmful
elements. If there is increase or decrease of these animals, birds, plants etc. it will bring a number of
changes in human society. Rapid decline of useful animals, birds and plants will also create a number
of problems in human society and influences social change. Similarly, rapid increase or decrease of
population also brings a number of changes in society. Different biological process like human
procreation, fertility and mortality also influence the rate of changes in society. Size, density,
migration, immigration etc bring a number of changes in society. Rapid population growth
influences our environment, causes poverty, food shortages and multiple health problems and thereby
brings changes in society. Migration accelerates the process of urbanization. Urbanization creates
multiple problems like slum, pollution, crime etc. Increasing urbanization and declining number of
useful animals and birds affects our environment.
Besides, the nature and quality of human beings in a society influences the rate of social change.
Sociologist like Pareto opines that the biological evolution of mankind brings social changes. Elites

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in a society are determined by inherited biological instincts. Composition of population also
influences social change. Both age and sex composition is very closely related to social change.
Number of population in the productive age group deeply influences the rate and speed of social
change. If the number of child and ageing population increases, a country faces a number of
economic problems. If the number of ageing population decreases, the youth may be deprived of
wisdom and experience which resulted in slow change. The process of natural selection and social
selection also affects the rate and speed of social change. Natural selection works through twin
alternatives like adaptation and annihilation. Here man is required to adapt to natural environment.
But in social selection the forces created within human society and operating through human
relationships creates situations that deeply affect the reproduction process and survival rates of
population.
20.3.6 Economic Factor.

Like all other factors, economic factor also plays an important role in influencing the quantity and
direction of social change. From ancient time man’s attention has been focussed on economy as an
important part of our social life. But only during modern times economic factor is considered as an
important factor of social change. Karl Marx believed that social change occurs mainly due to
economic factors. Marx held that to fulfil his various needs man has to produce. For production man
enters into relation with others. According to Marx the mode of production is the basic factor in the
historical evolution of human society. Mode of production has two aspects i.e. forces of production
and the relation of production. These two constitute the economic structure of the society which
determines the general character of social, political and other aspects. Marx opines at certain stages of
development the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of
production. Change in the economic sub-structure leads to the changes in the whole super-structure.
Production system based on land or agricultural production system gave rise to feudal system
characterised by landlords and serfs. Similarly, industrial production system gave birth to the
social system based on capitalist and working classes and urban communities.

Thorstein Veblen opined that social and cultural institutions are determined by economic factors. For
him, the conflict between the two opposing forces i.e. between the industry and the business is at
the root of social change. Class conflict is due to the conflict of interest between those who work in a
socially productive way and those who constitute leisure class. Amongst all, economists have
acknowledged that every society passes through different economic stages of development along with
corresponding social changes.

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Besides, economic motives of people, economic policy and measures, economic boom and depression
contribute to changes in society. Green revolution and white revolution has brought about both
positive and negative changes in society. With the changes in economic variables changes also
occur in other variables in society. Thus, economic factors do play an important role in bringing
changes in society.

20.4 Summary
It also describes different factors of social change like demographic, cultural, technological,
ideological, biological and economic. The unit began by defining and clarifying terms like social
change and its nature, evolution, revolution, progress and development. Then, discussion on
different factors of social change was made. While describing social change and its associated
concepts, interrelationships and linkages between these concepts were also discussed. It is
mentioned that development is a planned social change and all change is not development.
Development is a value loaded term while change is not necessarily and it is considered by many as
value neutral. Different dimensions of development were also discussed.

20.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the demographic factor of social change.
2. Discuss the technological factor of social change.
3. Explain how cultural factor is responsible for social change.
4. Discuss the ideological factor of social change.
5. Discuss the economic factor of social change.
6. Discuss the biological factor of social change.

20.6 Key Words

1. Demography: The term demography has been derived from the Greek words, ‘Demos and
‘graphs’ meaning the ‘people and ‘to draw’ or write respectively. It is the scientific study
of human population primarily with respect to their size, structure and their development.

2. Composition of population: It refers to some measurable characteristics like age and sex
composition.

3. Density of population: It refers to the number of population in a square kilometre.

4. Population policy: The norms or rules which help us to keep population at a reasonable

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 level are known as population policy.

5. Ideology: Ideology refers to a set of beliefs or thoughts in a particular direction about a

particular issue. It is equal to ideas plus norms.

6. Liberalism: As an ideology liberalism propagates for the cause of freedom of individuals. It

emphasizes on maximum liberty to individual and decries unreasonable encroachment of
government on his free activities.

7. Collectivism: It refers to the voluntary efforts in which individuals work collectively for social
upliftment.
8. Socialism: As an ideology socialism believes in collective ownership of means of production
and end of all sorts of exploitations.

9. Capitalism: As an economic system it acknowledges private ownership and believes in

maximization of profit, free enterprise and privatisation.

10. Nationalism: As an ideology nationalism fosters the idea of nation state. It is a deep
psychological sentiment which strengthens the unity and solidarity of a given state or national
group.

11. Culture: Culture refers to that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.

12. Cultural lag: W.F.Ogburn introduced the concept of ‘cultural lag’ in his book ‘social change’.
The lag between material and non-material aspects of culture is known as ‘cultural lag’.

13. Technology: It refers to application of scientific knowledge to the day to day life.

20.7 Study Guide

1. Ogburn, W.F.: Social Change, New York, 1922.

2. Hegen, E.E. 1962; on the theory of social change.
3. Kuppuswamy B. 1993. Social Change in India. Delhi:Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4. M.N. 1995; Social Change in modern India, New Delhi, Orient Longman limited.
5. Nordas kag J.E. (Ed) 1960; Social Change, London: Mc graw Gill Book Co. Inc.
Sinha, R. 1975 – Social Change in Indian Society, Progressive Publishers, Bhopal.

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