Unit 1

Ancient India was home to much religious tradition, each with its own distinct beliefs practices and cultural significance.

Hinduism: world’s oldest religions and roots in ancient Indian culture. Have range of beliefs rituals and texts such as
Ramayana and Mahabharata being central to its teachings. It emphasizes concepts such as dharma (duty), karma (action
and its consequences) and moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation).

Buddhism: founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as Buddha, Buddhism emerged in ancient India
around the 6th century BCE. It focuses on the four noble truths- the nature of suffering, its cause, cessation, and the path to
liberation (the eightfold path). Buddhism rejects the caste system and emphasizes principles such as compassion, non-
violence and mindfulness.

Jainism: Jainism also originated in ancient India around the 6th century BCE, with its teachings attributed to Mahavira, a
contemporary of Buddha; Jainism stresses non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non-possession, and asceticism. Jains
believe in the concept of karma and seek liberation (mocha) from the cycle of birth and death through spiritual discipline
and ethical living.

Sikhism: Sikhism emerged in the late medieval period in the Punjab region of India, blending elements of Hinduism and
Islam. Founded by Guru Nanak dev ji in the 15th century, Sikhism emphasizes devotion to one god, equality of all human
beings, community service, and living a truthful and ethical life. The Sikh scripture, guru granth sahib, serves as the eternal
guru for Sikhs.

Pre Vedic religion in India - refers to the indigenous religious practices and beliefs that existed in the Indian subcontinent
prior to the advent of the Vedic civilization. It is a period of Indian history that predates the composition of the Vedas,
which are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.

Here are some key aspects of pre Vedic religion in India:

Indigenous practices: pre Vedic religion was characterized by indigenous practices and beliefs of the early inhabitants of
the Indian subcontinent. These practices were often rooted in animism, reverence of nature, worship of elemental forces
such as sun, moon, fire, earth and water.

Indus valley civilization: the prevedic period corresponds with the Indus valley civilization (3300 BCE - 1300 BCE), one of the
worlds earliest urban civilizations. Archaeological findings from sites like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa suggest a
sophisticated urban society with evidence of ritualistic practices, including figurines and seals that possibly represent
deities or religious symbols.

1. Proto- Shiva: Some scholars propose the existence of a proto- Shiva deity during this period, based on the discovery of a
seal with a figure in a yogic posture surrounded by animals, possibly representing an early form of Shiva or a similar deity
associated with asceticism and fertility.

2. Animal worship: evidence suggests that animal worship was prevalent in prevedic India, with certain animals like the bull
and the cow being revered as symbols of fertility and strength.

3. Burial Practices: Burial Practices were common during this period as evidenced by burial sites and funerary objects
discovered in archaeological excavations. These practices indicate a belief in an afterlife or ancestor worship.

4. Lack of Written Records: unlike the Vedic period, which saw the composition of the Vedas there are no written records
from the prevedic era. Our understandings of this period rely largely on archaeological findings, including artifacts,
inscriptions and archaeological sites.
With our knowledge of prevedic religion is limited, archaeological discoveries and comparative studies with other ancient
cultures provide valuable insights into the religious beliefs and practices of the early inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent.
The transition from the prevedic period to the Vedic period marked a significant shift in the religious and cultural practices,
leading to the emergence of the Vedic civilization and the development of early Hinduism.

Vedic and puranic traditions

The Vedic and puranic traditions are two significant streams of religious and philosophical thought in ancient and classical
Indian civilization. While they share some common elements, they also have distinct characteristics:

1. Vedic tradition:

the Vedic tradition is rooted in the Vedas, which are a collection of ancient sacred texts composed in Sanskrit between 1500
BCE and 500 BCE.

The Vedas are considered the oldest scripture of Hinduism and are divided into four main texts: the Rigveda, saved,
Yajurveda and atharveda.

The Vedic tradition is characterized by rituals, hymns and philosophical speculations focused on various deities such as Agni
fire, Indra thunder, varuna cosmic order and surya sun

Vedic rituals including fire sacrifices (yajnas) were performed by priests (Brahmins) according to precise instructions laid
out in the Vedas.

2. Puranic tradition

the puranic tradition encompasses a vast body of literature known as the puranas which were composed between 300 BCE
and 1500 CE

The puranas contain a mix of mythology, cosmology, genealogy, philosophy and religious teachings.

They are divided into two main categories: mahapuranas (major puranas) and upapuranas (minor puranas).

The puranic tradition emphasizes storytelling and the glorification of deities like Vishnu, Shiva and Devi often through
narratives of their exploits, relationships and incarnations unlike the Vedic tradition which primarily focuses on rituals and
hymns the puranic tradition places greater emphasis on devotion (bhakti) and ethical conduct (dharma). Despite their
differences the Vedic and puranic traditions are interconnected with the latte often incorporating and elaborating upon
themes and motifs found in the former. Over time these traditions continued to evolve, influencing various aspects of the
Indian culture, religion and philosophy

Vedic religion also known as the religion of the Vedas refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the ancient indo Aryans
as reflected in the Vedas the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. It is the precursor to what we now commonly refer to as
Hinduism. The Vedic period in ancient India is generally considered to have lasted from around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE.

Key features of Vedic religion include:

1. polytheism : the Vedic religion was polytheistic, meaning it involved the worship of multiple deities, chief among these
deities were gods such as indra ( god of thunder and war ) Agni ( god of fire ) varuna (god of the sky and water), surya (the
sun god), Vishnu (associated with preservation)

Rituals and sacrifices: rituals and sacrifices formed a central aspect of Vedic religious practice. These rituals were
conducted by priests and involved the offering of various substances into a sacred fire while reciting Vedic hymns.
Cosmic order (Rita): Vedic religion emphasized the concept of Rita, which represented the cosmic order and harmony.
Performing rituals correctly was believed to maintain this order and ensure prosperity and well being.

Social hierarchy: society in Vedic times was structured into Varna (castes), with priests (Brahmins) at the top of the social
hierarchy due to their role in performing rituals and interpreting the Vedas.

Philosophical speculations: though the primary focus was on rituals and sacrifices, the Vedas also contain philosophical
speculations about the nature of reality, the self (atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman).

Concepts of karma and rebirth: Vedic religion introduced the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and samsara
(the cycle of birth, death and rebirth) which later became central tenets of Hinduism.

Importance of poetry oral tradition: the Vedas were transmitted orally through generations, and they are written in poetic
form. Poetry played a significant role in expressing religious sentiments and philosophical ideas.

It’s important to note that while Vedic religion laid the foundation for Hinduism. It underwent significant transformation
and development over the centuries incorporating new beliefs practices and cultural influences. As a result, modern
Hinduism is diverse and encompasses a wide range of beliefs and practices beyond these found in the Vedas.

Religion in puranic period

During the puranic period in ancient India, religion was characterized by the development and proliferation of puranic
texts, which played a significant role in shaping religious beliefs practices and rituals. Here are some key aspects of religion
during the puranic period:

Puranas: the puranas a genre of ancient Indian texts, became prominent during this period. these texts contained
mythological narratives, cosmological theories, genealogies of gods and sages, descriptions of religious ritual, and moral
teachings. The puranas served as important religious scriptures and provided a framework for understanding Hindu
cosmology and mythology.

Trimurti concept: the puranic period saw the emergence of the Trimurti concept, which consists of three principal deities:
Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). These three deities were believed to represent the
cyclical processes of creation, preservation, and destruction in the universe.

Devotional practices: bhakti or devotion to a particular deity became a prominent aspect of religious life during the puranic
period. The puranas contained numerous stories of devotees expressing their love and devotion to various gods and
goddesses. Devotional practices such as temple worship, singings of hymns, and recitation of prayers became popular
means of expressing devotion.

karma and reincarnation: the concepts of karma and reincarnation remained central tenets of religious belief during the
puranic period. Individuals were believed to be bound by the cycle of birth, death and rebirth with their actions determining
their future destiny.

Social and moral values: the puranic texts emphasized the importance of dharma and moral values in individuals and social
life. They provided guidance on ethical behavior, social responsibilities and the pursuit of virtue.

Overall religion during the puranic period was characterized by a rich tapestry of mythological narratives, devotional
practices, ritualistic worship, and moral teachings all of which continue to influence Hindu religious thought and practice of
this day.
Buddhism and Jainism are two ancient Indian religious traditions that emerged around the same time as offshoots of the
prevailing Vedic culture. While they share certain similarities and historical contexts, they also have distinct teachings,
practices and philosophical perspectives:

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama who later came to be known as the Buddha (the enlighten one) Buddhism originated in
the 6th century BCE in the northeastern region of ancient India (present-day Nepal).

The core teachings of Buddhism are summarized in the four noble truth and the noble eightfold path. these teachings
emphasize the nature of suffering (dacha), its causes, the possibility of its cessation, and the path to achieve liberation
(nirvana) buddhism rejects the authority of the vedas and the caste system prevalent in ancient indian society.

the buddha;s teachings emphasize the middle way between extremes, advocating for ethical conduct, mental cultivation,
and insight meditation.

buddhism spread widely across asia, leading to diverse school of thought and practices such as Theravada, Mahayana and
Vajrayana.

Jainism

Jainism was founded by Mahavira (vardhamana), who livedin the 6th century Bce, around the same time as the buddha.

Jainism emphasizes non violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non stealing, celibacy, and non possession as the fundamental
ethical principles.

Jainism rejectrs the authority of the vedas and the caste system. it also emphasizes the idea of karma and the cycle of
rebirths (samasara).

centeral to jain teachings is the pursuit of spiritual purification through ascetic practices such as fasting meditation and
austerities.

Jainism is divided into two main sects : digambara (sky-clad) and svetambara (white-clad), with differences in practices,
beliefs and monastic code while buddhism and Jainism share commonalities such as their rejection of Vedic authority and
emphasis on ethical conduct, they diverge in their philosophical frame works, approaches to liberation and practices. both
traditions have had a significant impact on indian culture, philosophy, and spirituality as well as on the broader religious
landscape of asia. buddhism is a diverse religion with various schools of thought and beliefs can vary among its followers.
however, some fundamental principles are generally share among Buddhists. It's important to note that interpretations
and practices may differ baserd on cultura, regional and individual factors. here are some key beliefs in Buddhism:

1. the four noble truth :

dukkha (suffering): life is filled with suffering and dissatisfaction.

samudaya (cause of suffering): the cause of suffering is desire and attachment.

nirodha (cessation of suffering): it is possible to end sufferingby eliminating desire.

magga (path to the cessation of suffering): following the eightfold path leads to the end of suffering.

2. eightfold path:

right understanding

right intention
right speech

right action

right livelihood

right effort

right mindfulness

right concentration

3. impermanence (anicca): all things are impermanent, and attachment to them leads to suffering.

4. no self (anatta)- there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul

5. karma: actions have consequences, and individuals are responsible for trheir own actions.

6. reincarnation and samsara : the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, known as samsara continues until and attains
enlightment ( nirvana)

7. nirvana : the ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana, a state of liberation from the cycle of suffering and rebirth.

8. compassion (metta): cultivating compassion and loving kindness towards all beings is a centeral practice.

9. meditation: mindfulness and meditation are essential practices in buddhism for developing awareness and
concentration.

10. the three jewels (triple gem):

a) buddha : the enlightened one who discovered the path to liberation.

b) dharma : the teachings of the buddha.

c) sangha : the community of buddhist practioners.

its important to recognize that different buddhist traditions, such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, may
emphasize certain aspects of these beliefs differently. additionally, cultural influences play a significant role in the
interpretation and expression of buddhist beliefs.

Jainism

Jainism is an ancient indian religion that emphasizes non violence (ahimsa), self-discipline, and spiritual liberation. its core
beliefs are encapsulated in threemain principles known as the three jewels:

1. right faith (samyak darshan): this involves having faith in the teachings of Jainism, including the concepts of karma,
reincarnation, and the path to spiritual liberation.

2. right knowledge (samyak jnana): this entails acquiring true knowledge and understanding about the nature of reality,
the self, and the universe. it involves seeking enlightment through study, meditation, and contemplation.

3. right conduct (samyak charitra): this refers to living a morally upright and ethical life, guided by principles such as non
violence, truthfulness, non stealing, chastity, and non possessiveness. Jainism places great emphasis on practicing non
violence not only in actions but also in thoughts and words.

other key beliefs and practices in Jainism include:

Karma: Jains believe in the concept of Karma, Which holds that one's actions have consequences that affect future
experiences. By engaging in virtuous actions and avoiding harmful ones, individuals can accumulate positive karma and
eventually attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death (moksha).

Reincarnation (samsara): jains believe in the cycle of birth death and rebirth (samsara). they believe that the soul (jiva)
reincarnates into various life forms based on its karma until it achieves liberation.

Asceticism : some jains, particularly monks and nuns, practice asceticism as a means of purifying the sould and reducing
the accumulation of karma. this may involve practices such as fasting, meditation, and renunciation of worldly attachents.

anekantavada (non- absolutism): Jainism teaches the principle of anekantavada, which emphasizes the idea that truth is
multifaceted and cannot be fully captured by any singhle perspective. therefore, jains are encouraged to be open minded
and tolerant diverse viewpoints.

nirvana or moksha: the ultimate goal in Jainism is to attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death and achieve a state
of eternal bliss known as nirvana or moksha.

these beliefs and practices form the foundation of Jainism a religion that continues to influence the lives of millions of
people, primarily in India but also in other parts of the world.

Unit 2

1. Bhakti traditions: Saguna; Nirguna

Bhakti emphasizes a personal devotion for one god. Bhakti traditions, originating in India, are paths of spiritual devotion,
emphasizing a personal relationship with the divine. "Bhakti" translates to "devotion" or "loving surrender" in Sanskrit.
These traditions have had a profound influence on Indian spirituality, culture, and society, and they continue to be
practiced by millions worldwide

Key features of Bhakti traditions include: भक्ति परं पराओं की प्रमुख विशेषताओं में शावमल हैं :

1. Devotion to a Personal Deity: Bhakti emphasizes devotion to a personal deity or multiple deities, such as Vishnu, Shiva,
Krishna, Rama, Durga, or others depending on the tradition. Devotees establish a deeply personal relationship with their
chosen deity through prayer, rituals, and worship. एक व्यक्तिगत दे िता की भक्तििः भक्ति परं परा के आधार पर एक व्यक्तिगत दे िता
या विष्णु, वशि, कृष्ण, राम, दु गाा , या अन्य जैसे कई दे िताओं की भक्ति पर जोर दे ती है । भि प्रार्ाना, अनुष्ठान और पू जा के माध्यम से
अपने चुने हुए दे िता के सार् गहरा व्यक्तिगत संबंध स्र्ावपत करते हैं ।

2. Emotional Expression: Bhakti encourages the expression of deep

emotional love and devotion towards the divine. This expression can take various forms, including singing hymns (bhajans),
chanting mantras,

3. Inclusivity: Bhakti traditions often promote inclusivity and tolerance,

welcoming people from all walks of life regardless of caste, creed, or social status. They emphasize that sincere devotion is
the most important aspect of spiritual practice.

4. Guru-Disciple Relationship: The guidance of a spiritual teacher (guru) is considered essential in Bhakti traditions. The
guru provides instruction, support, and spiritual guidance to the disciple on their path of devotion
5. Scriptural Texts: Bhakti traditions draw upon a rich corpus of sacred texts, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad
Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and various Puranas. These texts contain teachings, stories, and philosophical insights that
inspire and guide devotees in their spiritual practice.

6. Surrender and Grace: Bhakti emphasizes the concept of surrendering one's ego and will to the divine, trusting in the
grace and mercy of the chosen deity. This surrender is seen as the path to spiritual liberation (moksha) and inner peace.

7. Service (Seva): Service to others, especially to the community and those in need, is often considered an integral part of
Bhakti practice. Through selfless service (seva), devotees express their devotion to the divine by serving humanity.

Some of the prominent Bhakti traditions in India include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Sikhism. Each of these
traditions has its own unique practices, rituals, and theological perspectives, but they all share the common thread of
devotion to the divine. Throughout history, Bhakti movements have played a significant role in spiritual revival, social
reform, and cultural expression in India and beyond.

THE BHAKTI TRADITION

In medieval India it was caste structures that governed the lives of men and the networks of relations that they could enter
into. The structure of social divisions that arose thus was, as mentioned, a rigid, inflexible and unequal one that created
extremes of inequality, privileges and disprivileges between men and social groups. Although this was extremely unfair
system, little could be done or said against it as it was supported by Hindu religious ideology, particularly the notions of
high and pure birth and occupation as against the low and impure. In other words, Hinduism was as much a social system
as it was a religion, and provided an ideological framework on the basis of which Hindu society arose.

In other words. Hinduism was both religion and social framework and governed the lives of Hindus. To be a Hindu meant
that one's life was governed by factors such as being born in a caste, being subject to ones' actions or karma, to be a part
of Brahman and aim at achieving moksha or Liberation of ones soul or salvation. Further, it must be remembered that
Hinduism was not a revealed religion that had just a single text. With every phase in the development of Hinduism came
new scriptures and texts. Thus we have the Veda, the Upnishad, the Purana and the Bhagavad Gita. Even though we have
stressed that the caste system was a system that formed the basis of life in Hindu India and was rigid and unchangeable,
there nevertheless occurred many anti-caste movements in the course of the development of the religion. Buddhism and
Jainism in the 6th century B.C. that spoke up against caste divisions and social inequality. This struggle was carried forward
and saw its culmination in the rise of the medieval movement of bhakti or selfless devotion to a single God.

Hinduism was greatly criticised and faced many movements against it. Of these, the bhakti movement has great
significance. This is so because even though the bhahti movement was against some of the tenets of Hinduism,
muchofwhat is a part of Hinduism in later ages developed as an outcome of the bhakti tradition. This tradition was
widespread, in fact from North to South India.

Paths and Pillars of Bhakti

From a modern historical standpoint the development of bhakti is the coming together of considerably earlier theistic
tendencies in three major religious traditions of ancient India:

i) the sacrificial cult of the invading Aryans and the recitation of the Brahmana priests that become the foundation of the
Vedas;

the practice of bodily mortification and groups known as Sramanas probably continuing traditions of earlier inhabitants of
India but soon adapted by some of the Aiyans; and

iii) the pre Aiyan cults of spirits and village goddesses inhabiting trees and rocks and protecting special people or special
groups.
Those who worship Vishnu as the Supreme diety are known as Vaishnavas; likewise those who accord the Supreme place to
Shiva are known as Saivas; and those who are devotees of the Goddess of Power are known as Saktas. Each sect is
subdivided into lineages of teachers and teachings. The major forms of bhakti are divided according to the various mood of
the devotees. Raw emotion Or bhava is transformed in drama to a refined mood or rasa. Each combination of bhava or
rasa uses a particular human relationship, or devotional stances such as servant to master or child to parent or fried to
friend, parent to child and beloved to lover. While bhakti stresses passionate attachment it is in striking contrast with Yoga
which stresses detachment. Yet many forms of bhakti do talk of detachment such as that taught in the Bhagavad Gita. The
bhakti movements stand religiously between the extreme ascetic paths and popular Hindu religiosity. Bhakti generally
shares the ascetic concern for moksa-release from finite existence and realization of transcendent beatitude. What is
primary is communion with the lord.

Bhakti shares with popular Hinduism the basic ritual of puja, worship of the diety in image form with fruit, flower and
vegetables which are returned afterworship as prasada that is material substance filled with the Lord's grace. Suchpuja
may take place in the home shrine or local temple.

It is this last path of devotion that forms the basis of a religious tradition that survives and proliferates today even across
international boundaries. The basic teaching of this tradition was the idea of 'loving devotion' by concentrating upon the
image of a single God and without any thought for oneself, as being the way of liberation of ones soul. Any God could be
the focus of one's devotion. This god was then seen as ones personal God or ishta deva. Ishta deva is a deity that the
worshipper chooses as a personal diety and accords it personal devotion.

In the context of Bhakti traditions, "Saguna" and "Nirguna" refer to different philosophical approaches to understanding
the divine.

1. Saguna Bhakti: सगु ण भक्तििः

Definition: Saguna Bhakti focuses on devotion to a personal deity with attributes or qualities. In this approach, the divine is
conceived of as having specific forms, characteristics, and qualities.

Examples: Devotion to deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna,

Rama, or the goddess Durga exemplifies Saguna Bhakti. Each deity is believed to possess distinct attributes, powers, and
qualities that devotees can relate to and worship.

Practices: Saguna Bhakti practices often involve rituals, prayers, hymns, and worship ceremonies directed towards the
chosen deity's image or form. Devotees cultivate a personal relationship with the divine through these practices, expressing
love, devotion, and reverence.

2. Nirguna Bhakti: वनगुा ण भक्तििः

Definition: Nirguna Bhakti emphasizes devotion to the divine without attributes or qualities. In this approach, the ultimate
reality is considered formless, beyond human comprehension, and transcendent of all qualities

Examples: Nirguna Bhakti is often associated with mystical traditions and philosophical movements that emphasize the
formless aspect of the divine. It can be found in the teachings of saints and poets like Kabir, Ravidas, and Meera, who
focused on experiencing the divine through inner contemplation and spiritual realization rather than external forms or
rituals.

Practices: Nirguna Bhakti practices may involve meditation, introspection, and contemplation aimed at realizing the
formless essence of the divine within oneself. Devotees seek to transcend the limitations of the material world and
experience a profound sense of unity with the ultimate reality.
Both Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti are valid paths within the broader spectrum of Bhakti traditions, offering devotees
different approaches to expressing their love and devotion to the divine. Some practitioners may resonate more with the
idea of a personal deity with specific attributes, while others may be drawn to the concept of a formless, attributeless
ultimate reality. Ultimately, both paths share the common goal of fostering a deep and intimate connection with the
divine.

2. Sufi traditions: Development of Chishtiyya and Suhrawardiyya

Sufism, aims at the personal experience of the unity of God. Sufism began around the 8th century with Saints such as
Hadrat Habib Ajami (AD 738). Some scholars feel that Sufism is not against the Islami law. In fact the process IS of Sufism is
closely interwoven in the Islami law. Sufism can be explained from the viewpoint of three basic religious attitudes found in
the Quran. These are the attitudes of Islam, Iman and Ihsan.

The attitude of Islam is that of submission to the will of Allah and the teachings of the Quran. Iman designates a further
penetration into the religion and strong faith in its teachings. Ihsan is the highest stage of spiritual ascent. These are the
three stages of religiosity in Islam.

SUFISM

The influence of Islem on the Indian subcontinent, we have the role of the Sufi movement in India. Islam as a world religion
confronted Hinduism in full force rather than getting absorbed into it. Historically, we find that the beginning of late 10th
century there were Muslim invasions. This is the time when Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the Indian subcontinent 17 times.

In early 16th century, the Moghuls invaded India. It was in the later half of the 17 century that the Hindus launched a
counter offensive. It was particularly in the struggle by the Maratha King Shivaji, that the moral power of Hinduism
received impetus and the bhakti tradition resurged at a response to the impact of Islam. The Indian tradition tried to find a
response within its own spiritual condition since the Muslim ruler discriminated against Hindu who were their subjects.
Further, with tis contact between the two different social and cultural traditions, interaction and synthesis began
particularly on the level of social custom, tradition and practice of the Hindus and the Muslims. At the same time we find
that the Islamic, mystic and ecstatic, tradition of Sufism greatly inferenced the bhakti saints.

What is Sufism? सूफीिाद क्या है ?

In the beginning Sufism developed in Mesopotamia, Arabia, Iran and modern Afghanistan. It was formalized by the end of
the 8th century. Right from the beginning there was a hiatus between the ulemas and the mystics. The latter claimed to be
delving into the interior of religion, which depended on the heart. The Sufi and bhakti traditions are characterized by
adherence to religious text, governmental authority and opposed to external ritualism of prayer. The Sufis aim for a direct
relationship with God and thus their basic features incorporate strands from various sources including Hinduism.

As a consequence of the 12th century Mongal invasion many Sufis took shélter in India, especially in Multan, Punjab, and
Sindh. One of the greatest Sufi mystics Samana Jalaluddin Runii (1207-1273) was very influenced by Indian folklore and
even wrote a poem dedicated to the flute of Krishna. He founded the Maulavi Sufi order in which music and dance were
spiritual methods. Soami ji Maharaj founder of the Radha Soami sect was much influenced by Rumi who he often quoted in
his discourses. Guru Nanak too was inspired by Rumi. Rumi and Baba Farid's compositions (1173-1265) have been included
in the Granth Sahib together with those of Kabir.

Guru Nanak was called guru of the Hindus and pir of the Mussalmans. By the end of the 16th century the Bhakti movement
had covered the entire north India resulting in an intermingling of Hindu, mysticism with Sufism

Sufis were also against external ritualism in religion. Prayers and fasting were held to be inferior to works of charity. And
Jihad not external war but a fight against the lower self of man. Some Sufis like Shah Abdul Latif and Sachal Sarmast called
" upon people to "strike the Mullahs".
In Bengal the influence of Chaitanya was felt on a popular level, specially on the Baul movement. Muslim Bauls followed
the Sufi tradition and Hindu Bauls the Vaishnavite.

Sufi literature of Rumi and Hafiz (d. 1389) influenced Raja Rammohan Roy and Devendranath Tagore, and Rabindranath
Tagore. Thus we see that there was a commingling of the Bhakti and Sufi movements.

Sufism, specialises in the spiritual dimension of Islam. It believes in revelation as a source of contact with the sacred and
attempts to get a personal experience of the unity of God. This leads to a realization that God alone is to bé adored. This i s
basic to Sufism. While orthodox priests of Islam feel that this desire to merge in the unity of God is anti-Islam the Sufis do
not feel this is so. In fact they feel it is closely related to Islamic doctrine. The two are interdependent. Airanalogy given to
clarify th'e relationship is that of the kernel of the walnut and the shell. Neither can possibly do without the other.

Sufism can be explained through three basic religious attitudes of सूफीिाद को तीन बु वनयादी धावमाक दृविकोणों के माध्यम से
समझाया जा सकता है

1) Islam इस्लाम

2) Iman ईमान

3) Ihsan इहसान

Islam is the attitude of submission to the will of Allah. इस्लाम अल्लाह की इच्छा के प्रवत समपा ण का दृविकोण है ।

Iman designates a firm faith in the teachings of the Islam. ईमान इस्लाम की वशक्षाओं में दृढ़ विश्वास को दशाा ता है ।

Ihsan is to adore Allah though one may not see him. Sufism is the spiritual progress of a devotee from the initial stage of
Islam to the ultimate stage of Ihsan

As Islam in India, it came to enfold in its cloak, the system of monasticism anda defined way of community life. The Sufi
mystic however was in no way forced to live a defined and organised life. By the 9th century, these Sufis who had come to
form a brotherhood and a definite way of community life, also began wearinga particular kind of coarse woollen garment
known as sufi and thus came to be called sufis. Suifis, though Muslim, are considered to be pantheistic mystics. This was a
basic difl'erence with orthodox Islam but in common with the bhakti school of the Hindus.

The Sufis followed the Quran, and sought to reveal their purpose in life through their sayings, actions and the path that
they followed. This path was often shared by different mystics and came to be called tariqah or sufism. The path of
'unselfishness' through either renouncing the world and ones possessions and desires or by adopting an attitude of
patience, humility and charity, towards God, were essential to being a sufi. The sufis also had a special method of their own
for producing the state of mind in which they would have revelations. They called this dhikr.

The Spread of Sufism in India भारत में सूफीिाद का प्रसार

Sufism mainly flowed into Indian from Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Iran. We have accounts of the various saints of different
orders spreading Sufi teachings in different parts of India: To name a few, we haye the well-known Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti
who had established himself in Ajmer and Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya whose teachings and followers spread all over India.

As far as the spread of Sufism in India is concerned, its character changed to adapt to the Hindu environment. Thus, the
metaphysical aspect was avoided and personal instruction of disciples was undertaken. Not all Sufis however took disciples.
Those who did were called Shaikhs. The Shaikh besides being a teacher was regarded as a protector, friend, companion and
benefactor or Wali. The teacher was also believed to possess supernatural powers or Karamah. The Shaikh or pir was
regarded as the spiritual guide of the disciple or murid. We find that most of the people who came to the Sufi saints,
desired to use their spiritual powers to cure an illness or fulfil a wish. Even today we find that of the many devotees who
may visit the resting place of a pir, i.e. his dargah, come there to seek the fulfilment of a wish or a blessing. There were as
mentioned earlier four main orders among the Sufis. Each of these we find different from the other in the emphasis of its
teachings and the extent to which it spread in India. All four orders however regarded the Shariah as the spiritual guide. All
four believed that a Sufi should have no wordily possessions. Each order had over time found devout disciples who in turn
had reached the stature of being capable of having their own disciples and were known as Khalifahs. These Khalifahs
played imported roles in the spread of their order's teachings.

Of the four orders, the Suhrawardis, were the most orthodox and played a leading role in the spread of Sufism in the North-
West of India. They believed that to be able to perform their functions better, they had to maintain good relations with the
political authority of the time.

Of these orders, it is however the Chisti Sufis who are best known. They spread all over the country and their principal
Shaikh Nizamuddin, settled in Delhi and gave the order its expansive character. The Chistis consistently maintained that the
political authority was an influence to be avoided. By the time Nizamuddin died in 1325 and his successor Nasiruddin took
over, in 1356, a spiritual empire had began to form. It reached its peak in the personality of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. By
this time-the Chisti order had spread to Bihar and Bengal and had an even older order in Rajasthan that began with Khwaja
Muinuddin Chisti in Ajmer in the 1190s. The expansion of this order into the Deccan was carried out by Shaikh Gesu-daraz.

The Chishtiyya, or Chishti, order is one of the major Sufi orders (tariqas) within Islam, known for its emphasis on love,
devotion, and service to humanity. Here are some key points about the Chishtiyya order:

1. *Founding and Origin*: The Chishtiyya order was founded by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, also known as Khwaja Gharib
Nawaz, in the 12th century CE. Born in Chisht, Afghanistan, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti later settled in Ajmer, India, where
he established the Chishtiyya order.

2. *Teachings and Principles*: The Chishtiyya order emphasizes love for God and all of God's creation. Its teachings revolve
around the concept of selflessness, humility, and service to humanity. Sufis of the Chishtiyya order believe in the
purification of the heart through practices such as dhikr (remembrance of God), meditation, and spiritual exercises. *

3. *Inclusivity and Tolerance*: The Chishtiyya order is known for its inclusive approach to spirituality. Its saints and
followers have historically welcomed people from all walks of life, regardless of caste, creed, or religion. This inclusivity
contributed to the syncretic nature of Sufism in India, where Chishtiyya saints often interacted with Hindus, Sikhs, and
people of other faiths. *

4. *Sufi Practices*: The Chishtiyya order employs various spiritual practices to help seekers attain closeness to God. These
practices may include recitation of poetry (especially by the famous Sufi poet Amir Khusrau), sama (spiritual music and
dance), and serving the needy and marginalized members of society.

5. *Prominent Saints and Shrines*: The Chishtiyya order has produced many renowned saints and spiritual leaders
throughout its history. Some of the most notable include Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya of
Delhi, Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar of Punjab, and Sheikh Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri. The shrines of these saints
continue to be visited by millions of pilgrims seeking blessings and spiritual solace. **

6. *Impact and Legacy*: The Chishtiyya order had a profound influence on the cultural, social, and religious fabric of
medieval India. Its emphasis on love, tolerance, and devotion helped bridge cultural divides and contributed to the spread
of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. *

Overall, the Chishtiyya order remains one of the most influential and widely respected Sufi orders in the Islamic world,
known for its message of love, peace, and spiritual enlightenment.

The Suhrawardiyya, or Suhrawardi order, is a prominent Sufi order within Islam, known for its emphasis on spiritual
illumination and philosophical insights. Here are some key points about the Suhrawardiyya order :
1. *Founding and Origin*: The Suhrawardiyya order was founded by Sheikh Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century
CE. Sheikh Suhrawardi was born in Iran and later traveled ext extensively, studying various mystical and philosophical
traditions before establishing his own Sufi order. *

2. Teachings and Principles**: The Suhrawardiyya order places a strong emphasis on spiritual illumination (ishraq) and
mystical knowledge (ma'rifah). Its teachings draw from both Sufism and Islamic philosophy, particularly influenced by
Neoplatonism. The order teaches that spiritual enlightenment can be attained through direct experience of divine reality.
**

3. Philosophical Orientation*: Unlike some other Sufi orders that focus primarily on love and devotion, the Suhrawardiyya
order incorporates philosophical inquiry and intellectual contemplation into its spiritual practices. It integrates elements of
Greek philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism, into its worldview

4. Spiritual Practices**: The Suhrawardiyya order employs various spiritual practices aimed at attaining spiritual
illumination and union with the Divine. These practices may include meditation, contemplation, recitation of sacred texts,
and exercises designed to awaken higher states of consciousness

5. *Spread and Influence*: The Suhrawardiyya order spread across various regions of the Islamic world, including Persia,
Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. It attracted followers from diverse backgrounds, including scholars, mystics, and
intellectuals, who were drawn to its philosophical depth and spiritual insights.

6. Prominent Figures**: Sheikh Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, the founder of the Suhrawardiyya order, is considered one of the
most important figures in Islamic mysticism and philosophy. His writings, including works such as "The Philosophy of
Illumination" (Hikmat al-Ishraq), continue to be studied and revered by scholars and seekers.

7. *Legacy*: The Suhrawardiyya order left a lasting legacy in the history of Islamic mysticism and philosophy. It contributed
to the development of mystical thought and philosophical inquiry within the Islamic tradition, influencing later Sufi
movements and thinkers

Overall, the Suhrawardiyya order occupies a unique position within Sufism, blending mystical spirituality with philosophical
contemplation and leaving an indelible mark on the intellectual and spiritual landscape of the Islamic world.

3. Emergence of Sikhism

Sikhism emerged in the Indian subcontinent during the late 15th century. It was founded by Guru Nanak Dev Ji, who was
born in 1469 in the village of Talwandi, which is now in present- day Pakistan. Guru Nanak, the first of the Sikh Gurus,
preached a message of equality, love, and devotion to one God.

Key factors contributing to the emergence of Sikhism include: वसख धमा के उद्भि में योगदान दे ने िाले प्रमुख कारकों में शावमल हैं :

1. Spiritual and Social Context: Sikhism emerged in a time of significant spiritual and social upheaval in the Indian
subcontinent. The prevailing religious atmosphere was marked by the influence of Hinduism and Islam, with conflicts and
tensions between the two communities. Guru Nanak sought to bridge these divides and establish a path of unity and
tolerance.

2. Teachings of Guru Nanak: Guru Nanak emphasized the importance of devotion to one God (Ik Onkar), rejected the caste
system, and advocated for equality among all human beings regardless of caste, creed, or gender. He traveled extensively,
engaging in spiritual discussions and spreading his message of compassion and righteousness.
3. . Formation of Sikh Community (Sangat): Guru Nanak attracted a following of disciples (Sikhs), who were drawn to his
teachings and way of life. He established the concept of Sangat, which refers to the gathering of Sikhs for worship,
community service, and fellowship. This laid the foundation for the Sikh community to grow and evolve over time.

4. Succession of Sikh Gurus: Following Guru Nanak's passing, a line of nine successive Gurus led the Sikh community over
the next two centuries. Each Guru contributed to the development and expansion of Sikhism, imparting spiritual guidance
and organizational structure.

5. Compilation of Sikh Scriptures: The Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, plays a central role in Sikhism. It contains the
writings of Sikh Gurus as well as compositions by saints and poets from different religious backgrounds. The compilation of
Guru Granth Sahib by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, the fifth Sikh Guru, helped to consolidate Sikh teachings and provide a
foundational text for the Sikh faith.

6. Military and Political Struggles: Sikhism also faced challenges from external 6 forces. The early Sikh Gurus encountered
opposition from the ruling Mughal Empire due to their message of equality and their refusal to conform to the religious
norms of the time. This led to conflicts and martyrdoms, which further solidified Sikh identity and resilience.

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent in the late 15th century. It was founded by
Guru Nanak Dev Ji and subsequently developed by a line of ten successive Sikh Gurus, with Guru Gobind Singh Ji being the
last human Guru and the one who established the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs. Here are some key
aspects of Sikhism:

1.*Belief in One God*: Sikhs believe in one formless God, known as Waheguru or Ik Onkar, who is omnipresent and
omnipotent. God is regarded as the creator of the universe and the source of all existence

2. *Guru Granth Sahib*: The Guru Granth Sahib is the central religious scripture of Sikhism, considered the eternal Guru by
Sikhs. It contains the writings of Sikh Gurus, as well as compositions by other saints and poets from different religious
backgrounds. Sikhs regard it with utmost reverence and respect, and it serves as a guide for spiritual and moral living. *

3. *The Three Pillars*: Sikhism is often described in terms of the three pillars:

- Naam Japna: The practice of meditating on the name of God and maintaining a constant awareness of God's presence.

Kirat Karni: The principle of honest living and earning a livelihood through hard work and integrity.

Vand Chakna: The concept of sharing with others and contributing to the welfare of society through acts of charity and
selfless service (Seva)

4. *Equality and Social Justice*: Sikhism emphasizes the equality of all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed, race, or
gender. It rejects the notion of discrimination and advocates for social justice and humanitarian values. The langar
(community kitchen) in Sikh gurdwaras, where free meals are served to all, regardless of background, exemplifies this
principle.

5. *Five Ks*: Sikhs who have taken Amrit, a baptism ceremony, are expected to adhere to the Five Ks, which are symbols of
their faith:

Kesh (uncut hair): Represents the natural appearance as created by God.

- Kangha (wooden comb): Symbolizes cleanliness and discipline.

- Kara (steel bracelet): Signifies a commitment to morality and faithfulness.

- Kirpan (sword): Represents the duty to defend the oppressed and uphold justice.
- Kachera (undergarment): Symbolizes modesty and self-restraint.

6. *Gurdwara*: Gurdwara is the place of worship for Sikhs, where they gather for congregational prayers, hymn singing,
and spiritual discourse. It also serves as a community center for various social and religious activities.

7. ** Universal Message**: While Sikhism emerged in the Indian subcontinent, its teachings emphasize universal principles
that are relevant to people of all backgrounds. Sikhs are encouraged to engage in selfless service, promote justice, and
cultivate a loving relationship with God.

Overall, Sikhism is a vibrant and inclusive faith that emphasizes devotion, morality, and service to humanity. It has a rich
cultural heritage and continues to have a profound impact on the lives of millions of people around the world.

Unit 3

Vaishnavism

It is focused on worshiping of Vishnu. Vaishnavites lead a way of life promoting differentiated monotheism, which gives
importance to Lord Vishnu and His ten incarnations.

Its beliefs and practices, especially the concepts of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga, are based largely on the Upanishads, and
associated with the Vedas and Puranic texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, and the Padma, Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas.

Awareness, recognition, and growth of the belief have significantly increased outside of India in recent years. The Gaudiya
Vaishnava branch of the tradition has significantly increased the awareness of Vaishnavism internationally, since the mid-
1900s, largely through the activities and geographical expansion of the Hare Krishna movement founded by A. C.
Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in New York City in 1966.

Shaivism

Shaivism reveres the god Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver,
destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that Devotees of Shiva wear Sacred ash as a sectarian mark on their foreheads and
other parts of their bodies with reverence. The Sanskrit words bhasma and vibhuti can both be translated as "sacred ash".

Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, including non-dualist
(abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedäbheda) perspectives.

Shaktism

Shaktism focuses focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi- the Hindu Divine Mother - as the absolute, ultimate Godhead.
Shaktism regards Devi as the Supreme Brahman itself. with all other forms of divinity, female or male, considered being
merely her diverse manifestations.

In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However. Shaktas focus most or all worship on
Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine.

Shaktism is practiced throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond, in numerous forms. both Tantric and non-Tantric;
however, its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula (lit., family of Sri), strongest in South India, and the
Kalikula (family of Kali). which prevails in northern and eastern India

In the early medieval period, the religious traditions of Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism evolved significantly, each
developing distinct approaches and practices. Here's an overview of these approaches during that time:

Shaivism
Shaivism focuses on the worship of Shiva as the supreme deity. During the early medieval period, several key developments
shaped its practices and theology:

Temple Worship and Iconography: The construction of grand temples dedicated to Shiva became prominent. Temples such
as the ones at Ellora, Elephanta, and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram reflect the architectural and artistic
advancements of this period. These temples served as important centers for religious activities and community gatherings.

Philosophical Texts and Literature: The early medieval period saw the composition of significant Shaiva texts, including the
Agamas and Tantras, which outlined rituals, liturgies, and philosophical teachings. The Shaiva Siddhanta, a major
philosophical school, also gained prominence during this time, emphasizing a dualistic approach where the soul and God
are distinct but can unite through divine grace.

Bhakti Movement: The rise of the Bhakti movement led to the spread of devotional worship (bhakti) towards Shiva. Poet-
saints like the Nayanars from Tamil Nadu composed hymns and poems expressing deep devotion and love for Shiva,
making the practice of Shaivism more accessible to the common people.

Shaktism

Shaktism centers on the worship of Shakti or the Divine Mother in her various forms. During the early medieval period,
Shaktism developed distinct approaches:

Tantric Practices: Shaktism was closely associated with Tantrism, emphasizing rituals, mantras, and yantras (mystical
diagrams). Tantric texts such as the Devi Mahatmya (part of the Markandeya Purana) became central, glorifying the power
and exploits of the Goddess.

Temples and Pilgrimage: Temples dedicated to various forms of the Goddess, such as Kali, Durga, and Parvati, were
constructed. These temples became pilgrimage sites, attracting devotees who sought the blessings of the Divine Mother for
protection, fertility, and prosperity.

Local Cults and Folk Traditions: Shaktism absorbed and integrated local cults and folk traditions, which worshipped various
forms of the Goddess. This syncretism helped in the widespread acceptance and popularity of Shaktism across different
regions.

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism is dedicated to the worship of Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Rama and Krishna. During the early
medieval period, Vaishnavism saw several important developments:

Bhakti Movement: Similar to Shaivism, the Bhakti movement played a crucial role in Vaishnavism. Poet-saints like the
Alvars in Tamil Nadu composed devotional hymns and songs praising Vishnu and his avatars, fostering a personal and
emotional connection with the deity.

Temples and Iconography: Grand temples dedicated to Vishnu, such as the ones at Srirangam, Tirupati, and Puri, were
constructed. These temples became major pilgrimage centers, promoting the spread of Vaishnavism across India.

Philosophical Schools: The early medieval period saw the development of significant Vaishnava philosophical schools. The
Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy of Ramanuja emphasized the personal nature of God and the
importance of devotional surrender (prapatti) to Vishnu. Other schools, such as Madhvacharya's Dvaita (dualism), further
enriched Vaishnavite philosophy.

Epic Literature and Puranas: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata, along with Vaishnava Puranas like the Vishnu Purana
and the Bhagavata Purana, played a vital role in propagating the stories, teachings, and ideals of Vaishnavism. These texts
reinforced the divine nature of Vishnu and his avatars, influencing religious practices and beliefs.
Overall, the early medieval period was a time of rich religious development and expression for Shaivism, Shaktism, and
Vaishnavism, each contributing to the diverse and vibrant tapestry of Hindu spirituality and practice.

Islamization in early medieval India refers to the process by which Islam spread and became established in the Indian
subcontinent. This period, roughly spanning from the 7th to the 13th centuries, saw a variety of approaches through which
Islam gained a foothold in the region. Here are some key factors and approaches that contributed to this process:

1. Trade and Commerce

Arab Traders: Arab traders were among the first Muslims to arrive in India, particularly along the western coast in regions
like Kerala, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. These traders established commercial relations and settled in port cities, facilitating
cultural exchanges and introducing Islam to local populations.

Economic Integration: The involvement of Muslim traders in the local economy helped in establishing strong trading
communities. These communities built mosques, served as centers of learning, and played a significant role in spreading
Islamic teachings.

2. Conquests and Political Establishments

Early Invasions: The early incursions by Muslim armies, such as those led by Muhammad bin Qasim in Sindh in the early 8th
century, marked the beginning of political Islam in India. These conquests established Muslim rule in certain regions and set
the stage for further Islamic expansion.

Delhi Sultanate: The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century by figures like Qutb-ud-din Aibak and
Iltutmish marked a significant milestone in the Islamization process. The Sultanate consolidated Muslim political power in
northern India and facilitated the spread of Islamic culture and institutions.

3. Sufi Missionaries

Sufi Orders: Sufi saints and missionaries played a crucial role in the spread of Islam in India. Sufi orders (tariqas) like the
Chishti, Suhrawardi, and Qadiri established a presence in various parts of India. Their inclusive approach, emphasis on
spirituality, and engagement with local traditions attracted many converts.

Khanqahs and Dargahs: Sufi khanqahs (monastic complexes) and dargahs (shrines) became important centers of religious
and social life. They provided spiritual guidance, social services, and a sense of community, drawing people to Islam.

4. Syncretism and Cultural Integration

Adaptation to Local Cultures: Islam in India often adapted to local cultural contexts. This syncretism made Islam more
accessible to the local populace. Sufi practices, in particular, integrated elements of Indian spirituality, making it appealing
to a broader audience.

Patronage of Arts and Learning: Muslim rulers and elites patronized arts, literature, and education, contributing to a rich
cultural synthesis. The construction of iconic architectural structures like mosques, madrasas, and tombs also showcased
the Islamic influence on Indian culture.

5. Intermarriage and Social Integration

Intermarriage: Marriages between Muslim settlers and local populations facilitated the integration of Islam into Indian
society. These familial ties helped in spreading Islamic beliefs and practices within local communities.
Social Integration: Muslims became an integral part of the socio-economic fabric of India. As they settled and integrated
into various aspects of society, their religious practices and cultural norms began to influence the broader social landscape.

6. Conversion through Social and Economic Incentives

Social Mobility: Conversion to Islam sometimes offered social and economic benefits, including access to new opportunities
and networks. This was particularly appealing to lower-caste Hindus and marginalized groups seeking social mobility.

Political and Economic Incentives: The establishment of Muslim rule often came with economic incentives for conversion,
such as tax reliefs and administrative positions. These incentives encouraged some local populations to embrace Islam.

Conclusion

The Islamization of India in the early medieval period was a multifaceted process influenced by trade, conquests, Sufi
missionary activities, cultural integration, and social dynamics. This period laid the foundations for the rich and diverse
Islamic heritage that is an integral part of India's cultural mosaic today.