Essence of Indian Traditional Knowledge (BNC-502/602)

Unit-03
Content

Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian Philosophy,
Shankaracharya, Various Philosophical Doctrines , Other Heterodox Sects, Bhakti
Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious reform movement of 19th century, Modern
religious practices.
Important Questions
1. Define modern religious practices.
2. What is the basic principle of Jainism? Also discuss the vrats.
3. Give an account of contribution made by Guru Nanak in Bhakti movement.
4. Compare teachings of Buddhism and Jainism.
5. Analyze the significance of Ram Krishna mission and satya sodhak samaj.
6. Appraise the different features of Bhakti movement.
7. Evaluate the role of sufi movements in promoting a sense of unity among diverse
communities in India.
8. Explain the philosophical differences between the six systems of Indian philoospy
and their approach to understanding reality.

PRE-VEDIC AND VEDIC RELIGION

The religious beliefs and practices of ancient India evolved significantly over time, especially
from the Pre-Vedic period to the Vedic period. Understanding the Pre-Vedic and Vedic religions
helps in tracing the development of Indian spiritual and philosophical thought. While both
periods are rooted in early Indian culture, they differ in their gods, rituals, social structure, and
philosophical outlook.

Pre-Vedic Religion

The Pre-Vedic religion refers to the religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 –
1300 BCE), which preceded the arrival of the Indo-Aryans and the composition of the Vedas.
Since the Indus script remains undeciphered, our understanding of Pre-Vedic religion is based on
archaeological evidence.

Key Features:

1. Polytheism and Nature Worship:

o The people worshipped several gods and goddesses, many associated with nature
such as earth, water, and fertility.
o The most prominent deity appears to be a Mother Goddess, symbolizing fertility.
o A male deity resembling Pasupati (Lord of Animals), possibly an early form of
Shiva, is depicted in seals.

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 2. Worship of Animals and Trees:
o Animals like bulls were considered sacred, and some trees like the peepal and
banyan may have been objects of worship.
3. Absence of Temples:
o There is no evidence of temples or elaborate places of worship, suggesting that
rituals were likely conducted in open spaces or homes.
4. Burial and Ritual Practices:
o The people practiced burial of the dead, sometimes with grave goods, indicating a
belief in life after death.
5. No Clear Evidence of Sacrificial Rites:
o Unlike the later Vedic religion, there is no conclusive evidence of animal or fire
sacrifices in the Pre-Vedic period.

Vedic Religion

The Vedic religion emerged with the arrival of the Indo-Aryans around 1500 BCE. It is based on
the Vedas – the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism – particularly the Rigveda, which is the earliest
of the four Vedas.

Key Features:

1. Polytheism with Emphasis on Devas:

o The Vedic religion was also polytheistic, but its pantheon consisted of celestial
gods such as Indra (god of thunder and war), Agni (fire god), Varuna (cosmic
order), Soma, Surya (sun), and others.
o Gods were personifications of natural elements and forces.
2. Fire Worship and Yajnas (Sacrifices):
o A central feature of the Vedic religion was the yajna or sacrificial ritual, often
conducted in fire altars.
o Agni was the messenger between gods and humans, carrying offerings to the
deities.
3. Priestly Class and Rituals:
o The rituals were performed by Brahmins (priests) who recited mantras from the
Vedas.
o Religious life became centered around correct performance of rituals and chanting
of Vedic hymns.
4. Concept of Rta and Dharma:
o Rta was the concept of cosmic order and truth, later evolving into Dharma, a
foundational concept in Hindu philosophy.
o Maintaining rta through rituals and moral living was considered essential.
5. Social Order:
o The Vedic religion was closely tied to the emerging varna system (social
hierarchy): Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and
Shudras (laborers).
o The duties of each class were religiously prescribed.
6. Transition to Philosophical Thought:

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 o By the end of the later Vedic period (around 1000–500 BCE), religious thought
began shifting toward Upanishadic philosophy, focusing more on internal
spirituality, meditation, and the search for Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman
(soul).

Comparison Between Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion

Feature Pre-Vedic Religion Vedic Religion

Time Period Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE) Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE)
Sources Archaeological findings Vedic scriptures (Rigveda, etc.)
Main Deities Mother Goddess, Proto-Shiva, nature spirits Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya
Fire sacrifices (yajnas), chanting
Rituals Possibly fertility rites, burials
mantras
Priesthood No clear evidence Brahmins had major religious role
Four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur,
Scriptures No written texts deciphered
Atharva
Concept of Anthropomorphic gods, cosmic
Nature and fertility deities
God principles
Rta, Karma, Dharma, Moksha
Philosophy Life after death, animism
(later)

The transition from Pre-Vedic to Vedic religion marks a significant shift in Indian religious life
from symbolic, fertility-centered worship to organized rituals based on sacred texts. The Pre-
Vedic religion laid some of the cultural and religious groundwork, but it was the Vedic religion
that profoundly shaped the spiritual and social fabric of ancient India. Over time, the Vedic
religion evolved further into Classical Hinduism, incorporating philosophical concepts and
devotional elements that continue to influence Indian society and thought today.

BUDDHISM

Introduction

Buddhism is one of the major world religions and philosophical systems that originated in India
over 2,500 years ago. Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the
Buddha (meaning "The Enlightened One"), Buddhism has spread across Asia and the world,
influencing millions with its teachings on compassion, mindfulness, and the nature of existence.

Life of Gautama Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama was born in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) around the 6th century BCE into
a royal family. Despite being surrounded by luxury, he was deeply troubled by the suffering he
saw outside the palace: old age, sickness, and death. At the age of 29, he renounced his royal life
and went in search of truth and spiritual enlightenment.
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After years of intense meditation and ascetic practices, he attained enlightenment under the
Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. From that moment on, he became the Buddha and began teaching the
path to liberation from suffering.

Core Teachings or Principle of Buddhism

Buddhism is based on a few fundamental teachings:

1. The Four Noble Truths

The foundation of all Buddhist teachings lies in the Four Noble Truths. These truths explain the
nature of suffering and the path to overcome it.

1. Dukkha (Truth of Suffering) Life is full of suffering and dissatisfaction — birth, aging,
sickness, and death are all forms of suffering.
2. Samudaya (Truth of the Cause of Suffering) The cause of suffering is desire, craving,
and attachment. When we want things or cling to them, we experience pain when we
don’t get them or lose them.
3. Nirodha (Truth of the End of Suffering) It is possible to end suffering by eliminating
desire and attachment. This leads to nirvana, a state of liberation.
4. Magga (Truth of the Path to End Suffering) There is a path to end suffering — the
Noble Eightfold Path.

2. The Noble Eightfold Path

This path is a guide to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing a person from
suffering and achieving enlightenment. It has eight parts:

1. Right View – Understanding the world and the Four Noble Truths correctly.
2. Right Intention – Having good thoughts, free from anger and selfishness.
3. Right Speech – Speaking truthfully, kindly, and helpfully.
4. Right Action – Behaving morally and not harming others.
5. Right Livelihood – Earning a living in a way that does not cause harm.
6. Right Effort – Making an effort to develop good thoughts and actions.
7. Right Mindfulness – Being aware of the present moment and one's thoughts and actions.
8. Right Concentration – Developing deep focus through meditation.

3. The Three Universal Truths

These are basic characteristics of existence, according to Buddhism:

1. Anicca (Impermanence) – Everything in life is temporary and constantly changing.

2. Dukkha (Suffering) – Life involves suffering and dissatisfaction.
3. Anatta (Non-Self) – There is no permanent self or soul; what we call "self" is just a
combination of changing parts.

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Concept of Karma and Rebirth

Buddhism teaches that all actions (karma) have consequences, which may not be immediate but
can affect future rebirths. The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is known as samsara. The
ultimate goal is to break free from this cycle and attain nirvana, a state of perfect peace and
liberation.

Major Branches of Buddhism

Over time, Buddhism split into different schools and traditions, the main ones being:

 Theravada Buddhism: Also known as the "Teaching of the Elders", mainly practiced in
Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia. It emphasizes monastic life and
meditation.
 Mahayana Buddhism: Found in countries like China, Japan, and Korea, this school
believes in the path of the Bodhisattva—a person who seeks enlightenment not just for
themselves but for all beings.
 Vajrayana Buddhism: Practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, it incorporates rituals,
mantras, and mystical practices.

Buddhist Symbols and Practices

 The Wheel of Dharma (Dharmachakra) represents the Buddha’s teachings.

 The Lotus Flower symbolizes purity and spiritual awakening.
 Meditation is a central practice in Buddhism, promoting mindfulness and concentration.

Buddhists also observe festivals such as Vesak, which celebrates the birth, enlightenment, and
death of the Buddha.

Impact of Buddhism

Buddhism has had a profound impact on art, architecture, literature, and culture, particularly in
Asia. Its teachings have inspired millions to lead ethical and compassionate lives. In recent
times, Buddhist practices like mindfulness and meditation have gained popularity worldwide for
promoting mental well-being.

Buddhism is more than a religion; it is a way of life that teaches individuals to understand the
nature of suffering and the path to peace and enlightenment. With its emphasis on compassion,
mindfulness, and self-discipline, Buddhism continues to be a source of guidance for people
across the world seeking inner peace and spiritual growth.

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JAINISM

Introduction

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, originating in India around the 6th century
BCE. It emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth, non-possessiveness, and spiritual purity.
Jainism teaches the path of liberation through ethical living, self-discipline, and deep meditation.
It is a religion that promotes peace, compassion, and harmony with all living beings.

Founder of Jainism

Although Jainism has existed for thousands of years, it was reorganized and spread by Lord
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara (spiritual teacher), who lived in the 6th century BCE. He was
born as Vardhamana in a royal family in Bihar. At the age of 30, he renounced his worldly life
in search of spiritual truth and enlightenment. After 12 years of deep meditation and austerity, he
attained Kevala Jnana (infinite knowledge) and became known as Mahavira or “the Great
Hero.”

Tirthankaras in Jainism

Jains believe in 24 Tirthankaras, who are enlightened beings that have shown the path to
liberation. The first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva, and the last was Mahavira. Each
Tirthankara is considered a perfect soul who has conquered all passions and attained liberation.

Core Principles of Jainism

The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around five main vows and several philosophical
beliefs:

1. The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)

These are mainly observed by monks and nuns, but lay followers practice them in a milder form
(Anuvratas):

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): Never harm any living being, not even the smallest insect.
2. Satya (Truthfulness): Always speak the truth and avoid lies.
3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Never take anything that is not given willingly.
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity): Control of desires and, for monks, complete
celibacy.
5. Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Letting go of material possessions and attachments.

2. Three Jewels (Ratnatraya)

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Jain philosophy is based on the Three Jewels, also known as the Triratna:

 Right Faith (Samyak Darshana) – Having faith in truth and the teachings of
enlightened souls.
 Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana) – Understanding the universe and spiritual truths
properly.
 Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra) – Living a moral life and following the path of non-
violence and self-discipline.

Belief in Karma and Liberation

Jainism believes in karma, which refers to the consequences of one's actions. Unlike in other
religions, in Jainism, karma is seen as a form of subtle matter that sticks to the soul due to
desires, anger, pride, and greed. Only by following the right path can a soul purify itself and
attain moksha (liberation).

Jains also believe in reincarnation or rebirth. The ultimate goal is to free the soul from the
cycle of birth and death (samsara) and reach moksha, a state of eternal bliss and freedom.

Sacred Texts and Symbols

Jain scriptures are known as the Agamas, which contain the teachings of Mahavira. The most
important symbols in Jainism include:

 The Jain Emblem: Represents the universe and the goal of liberation.
 The Swastika: Symbolizes the four states of existence (heavenly beings, human beings,
animals/plants, and hellish beings).
 The Hand with a Wheel: Represents non-violence and the cycle of reincarnation.

Sects of Jainism

There are two main sects in Jainism:

1. Digambaras: Monks do not wear clothes, symbolizing complete renunciation. They

believe that women must be reborn as men to attain liberation.
2. Svetambaras: Monks wear white clothes. They believe that women can also achieve
liberation.

Both sects follow the same core principles but differ in practices and interpretations.

Jain Practices and Festivals

Jains practice daily meditation, fasting, charity, and rituals. They also follow a strict
vegetarian diet to avoid harming any living being.

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Important Jain festivals include:

 Paryushana: A time for self-purification, fasting, and forgiveness.

 Mahavir Jayanti: Celebrated as the birth anniversary of Lord Mahavira.
 Diwali: For Jains, Diwali marks the day Mahavira attained nirvana.

Jainism and Non-Violence

Jainism has deeply influenced Indian culture and the principle of ahimsa has inspired many great
leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, in their struggles for peace and justice. Jain monks and
followers go to great lengths to avoid harming even the tiniest creatures, and this extreme form
of non-violence makes Jainism unique.

Jainism is a deeply spiritual religion that emphasizes non-violence, truth, simplicity, and self-
control. It teaches us to live in harmony with nature, respect all forms of life, and seek liberation
through right knowledge, faith, and conduct. Though not a widely followed religion globally,
Jainism has made significant contributions to Indian philosophy, ethics, and culture.

SIX SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

Indian philosophy is one of the oldest philosophical traditions in the world. It is deeply rooted in
spiritual and metaphysical inquiry, aiming to understand the nature of existence, the self, and the
ultimate reality. Indian philosophy is broadly divided into two categories:

1. Astika (Orthodox) – Systems that accept the authority of the Vedas.

2. Nastika (Heterodox) – Systems that reject the authority of the Vedas (e.g., Buddhism,
Jainism, and Charvaka).

Among the Astika schools, there are six classical systems of Indian philosophy, also known as
the "Shad Darshanas". These systems are:

1. Nyaya
2. Vaisheshika
3. Sankhya
4. Yoga
5. Purva Mimamsa
6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta)

Each system has its own methodology and goals, but all aim to understand truth, liberation, and
the ultimate nature of reality.

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1. Nyaya (Logic and Reasoning)

 Founder: Sage Gautama

 Focus: Logic, reasoning, and epistemology (the study of knowledge)

The Nyaya system emphasizes the use of logic and critical thinking to understand reality. It
identifies four valid sources of knowledge (pramanas):

1. Perception (Pratyaksha)
2. Inference (Anumana)
3. Comparison (Upamana)
4. Verbal Testimony (Shabda)

Nyaya holds that by using logical reasoning, one can remove ignorance (avidya), which is the
cause of suffering, and attain liberation (moksha).

2. Vaisheshika (Atomism and Metaphysics)

 Founder: Sage Kanada

 Focus: Analysis of matter and metaphysical categories

Vaisheshika philosophy is known for its atomistic theory of the universe. It teaches that all
material things are made of atoms (anu), and the universe operates according to natural laws.

Vaisheshika divides reality into seven categories (Padarthas):

1. Substance (Dravya)
2. Quality (Guna)
3. Action (Karma)
4. Generality (Samanya)
5. Particularity (Vishesha)
6. Inherence (Samavaya)
7. Non-existence (Abhava)

It complements the Nyaya system by focusing more on the physical world.

3. Sankhya (Dualism and Enumeration)

 Founder: Sage Kapila

 Focus: Cosmology and dualism of matter and consciousness

Sankhya is a dualistic system that explains the universe through two eternal realities:

1. Purusha (consciousness or soul)

2. Prakriti (matter or nature)

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It believes that all experiences result from the interaction of these two principles. Liberation is
achieved when Purusha realizes its separateness from Prakriti and becomes free from the cycle of
birth and death.

Sankhya does not emphasize rituals or God but focuses on knowledge and discrimination
between the real and unreal.

4. Yoga (Practical Discipline and Meditation)

 Founder: Sage Patanjali

 Text: Yoga Sutras
 Focus: Discipline of the mind and body

Yoga is closely linked to the Sankhya system but adds the element of practical discipline. It aims
to control the mind and body through physical and mental practices.

The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) are:

1. Yama – Moral restraints

2. Niyama – Personal discipline
3. Asana – Physical postures
4. Pranayama – Breath control
5. Pratyahara – Withdrawal of senses
6. Dharana – Concentration
7. Dhyana – Meditation
8. Samadhi – Absorption into the self

Through these steps, one achieves self-realization and liberation.

5. Purva Mimamsa (Ritualistic Philosophy)

 Founder: Sage Jaimini

 Focus: Vedic rituals and duties (karma)

Purva Mimamsa emphasizes the performance of Vedic rituals (yajnas) as the primary way to
attain dharma (righteousness) and spiritual merit.

It upholds the eternity and authority of the Vedas and believes that following prescribed duties
leads to spiritual upliftment. Unlike other systems, it does not focus on liberation (moksha) as the
main goal but stresses ritual action (karma) for the welfare of the individual and society.

6. Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (Spiritual Knowledge)

 Key Thinkers: Badarayana, Adi Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Madhvacharya

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  Text: Brahma Sutras, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita
 Focus: Nature of Brahman (supreme reality) and the soul

Vedanta means "the end of the Vedas" and focuses on knowledge (Jnana) as the path to
liberation. It teaches that the ultimate reality is Brahman, and the individual soul (Atman) is
either one with or distinct from Brahman, depending on the interpretation.

Three major schools of Vedanta are:

1. Advaita (Non-dualism) – Brahman and Atman are one (Adi Shankaracharya)

2. Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) – Atman is a part of Brahman (Ramanuja)
3. Dvaita (Dualism) – Atman and Brahman are separate (Madhvacharya)

Vedanta emphasizes self-inquiry, devotion, and meditation to realize the supreme truth.

The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy represent different paths to understanding truth, self, and
liberation. While they vary in methods and beliefs, all six share a common goal: to free the soul
from suffering and help it attain moksha or liberation. These systems continue to influence
Indian thought, spirituality, and culture to this day, offering profound insights into human nature
and the universe.

ADI SHANKARACHARYA: A GREAT PHILOSOPHER AND SPIRITUAL LEADER

Introduction

Adi Shankaracharya, also known simply as Shankaracharya, was one of the greatest philosophers
and spiritual leaders in Indian history. He lived during the 8th century CE and played a crucial
role in reviving and spreading the ancient Indian spiritual tradition of Vedanta. He is best known
for establishing the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), which teaches that the soul
(Atman) and the Supreme Reality (Brahman) are one and the same.

Shankaracharya’s teachings have had a deep and lasting influence on Indian philosophy, religion,
and culture.

Early Life

 Birthplace: Kalady, Kerala, India

 Born: Around 788 CE (though dates may vary among scholars)
 Parents: Shivaguru and Aryamba

Shankaracharya was born into a Brahmin family. From a very young age, he showed signs of
great intelligence, spiritual inclination, and a strong desire for knowledge. His father died when
he was young, and his mother raised him with devotion and care.

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At the age of eight, Shankara renounced worldly life and became a sannyasi (monk). He traveled
across India in search of spiritual truth and a guru. Eventually, he became the disciple of
Govindapada, who was a student of Gaudapada, a famous Vedanta teacher.

Teachings and Philosophy

Shankaracharya is most famous for his interpretation of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and
Brahma Sutras. He explained these sacred texts using the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta.

1. Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism)

 Advaita means "not two" — it teaches that there is no real difference between the
individual soul (Atman) and the Supreme Reality (Brahman).
 According to Shankaracharya, the entire world is an illusion (Maya), and the only reality
is Brahman, which is formless, changeless, and eternal.
 The goal of human life is to realize this truth — that Atman is Brahman — and attain
moksha (liberation) from the cycle of birth and death.

2. Role of Knowledge (Jnana Yoga)

Shankaracharya believed that true knowledge (Jnana) is the only path to liberation. This
knowledge comes from self-inquiry, meditation, and studying the scriptures under a qualified
teacher.

Major Contributions

1. Commentaries (Bhashyas)

Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on major Hindu scriptures, making complex ideas easy to
understand. These include:

 Brahma Sutra Bhashya

 Bhagavad Gita Bhashya
 Commentaries on the Upanishads

These works laid the foundation for the Advaita school of philosophy and are still studied today.

2. Prakaranas (Independent Works)

He also composed many independent philosophical texts such as:

 Vivekachudamani (Crest-Jewel of Discrimination)

 Atma Bodha (Self-Knowledge)
 Upadesa Sahasri (Thousand Teachings)

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3. Stotras (Hymns)

Shankaracharya wrote many devotional hymns to different gods and goddesses, including:

 Bhaja Govindam
 Soundarya Lahari
 Kanakadhara Stotra

These hymns express deep devotion and are still sung by devotees today.

Establishment of Mathas (Monasteries)

To spread his teachings and maintain the spiritual tradition, Shankaracharya established four
main mathas (monastic centers) in the four corners of India:

1. Sringeri Matha (South – Karnataka)

2. Dwarka Matha (West – Gujarat)
3. Puri Matha (East – Odisha)
4. Jyotirmath / Joshimath (North – Uttarakhand)

Each matha was assigned to one of his main disciples and continues to function to this day as a
center of spiritual learning and guidance.

Debates and Spiritual Tours

Shankaracharya traveled extensively across India, engaging in philosophical debates with

scholars of other schools of thought. Through reason and discussion, he revived the Vedic
tradition and challenged unscientific or superstitious beliefs. His debates with followers of
Buddhism, Jainism, and other Hindu sects helped restore the popularity of Sanatana Dharma
(Hinduism).

Death and Legacy

Shankaracharya attained Mahasamadhi (a yogi’s conscious exit from the body) at the young age
of 32, possibly at Kedarnath in the Himalayas (according to many beliefs). Despite his short life,
he made an extraordinary impact on Indian philosophy and spirituality.

His teachings continue to inspire spiritual seekers around the world. The tradition of
Shankaracharyas (heads of the mathas) has been passed on through generations, preserving and
spreading his message of unity, truth, and self-realization.

Adi Shankaracharya was not only a brilliant philosopher but also a great teacher, poet, and
reformer. Through his teachings of Advaita Vedanta, he showed that the essence of all beings is

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one and the same. His vision of unity, peace, and self-realization remains a guiding light in the
modern world. His life proves that deep knowledge, spiritual strength, and compassion can bring
great transformation in society.

VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES

Introduction

Ancient India was a land of deep philosophical inquiry and spiritual exploration. Indian
philosophy is one of the oldest in the world and includes a wide range of systems and doctrines
that attempt to answer fundamental questions about life, the self, the universe, and ultimate
reality. These doctrines emerged from centuries of intellectual debate, meditation, and scriptural
interpretation.

Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two main categories:

1. Astika (Orthodox) – Schools that accept the authority of the Vedas

2. Nāstika (Heterodox) – Schools that reject Vedic authority

Let us explore the major philosophical doctrines under these two categories.

A. Astika Schools (Vedic or Orthodox Systems)

These schools accept the authority of the Vedas and are collectively known as the Shad
Darshanas (Six Systems of Indian Philosophy).

1. Nyaya (Logic and Reasoning)

 Founded by Gautama
 Focuses on logic, epistemology (study of knowledge), and reasoning
 Identifies four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and verbal
testimony
 Aims to remove ignorance and attain liberation through correct knowledge

2. Vaisheshika (Atomism and Metaphysics)

 Founded by Kanada
 Focuses on categorizing reality and understanding the physical world
 Believes in atomism — the idea that everything is made of tiny indivisible particles
(atoms)
 Emphasizes natural laws and causes

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3. Sankhya (Dualism)

 Founded by Kapila
 A dualistic system that believes in two eternal realities: Purusha (consciousness) and
Prakriti (matter)
 Liberation is achieved through the separation of Purusha from Prakriti
 One of the oldest Indian philosophies

4. Yoga (Discipline and Meditation)

 Systematized by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras

 Focuses on mental and physical discipline through the Ashtanga Yoga (Eight Limbs)
 Includes ethical rules, physical postures, breathing control, and meditation
 Goal is liberation through control of the mind

5. Purva Mimamsa (Ritualism)

 Founded by Jaimini
 Focuses on ritual actions and duties as prescribed in the Vedas
 Emphasizes Dharma and the performance of Yajnas (sacrifices)
 Does not focus much on liberation but on righteous living

6. Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (Spiritual Knowledge)

 Based on the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita

 Focuses on Brahman (Supreme Reality) and Atman (soul)
 Key interpretations include:
o Advaita (Non-dualism) – by Shankaracharya
o Vishishtadvaita (Qualified non-dualism) – by Ramanuja
o Dvaita (Dualism) – by Madhvacharya
 Goal is Moksha (liberation) through self-realization

B. Nastika Schools (Non-Vedic or Heterodox Systems)

These systems do not accept the authority of the Vedas. They often rely on rational thinking,
ethical behavior, and personal experience.

1. Buddhism

 Founded by Gautama Buddha

 Rejects the caste system and Vedic rituals
 Teaches the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
 Emphasizes the concept of Anatta (no-self) and Nirvana (liberation from suffering)
 Believes in Karma and rebirth, but not a permanent soul

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2. Jainism

 Founded by Mahavira
 Also rejects the authority of the Vedas
 Believes in soul (jiva) and non-soul (ajiva)
 Emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and asceticism
 Aims for liberation of the soul from karmic bondage

3. Charvaka (Materialism)

 Also called Lokayata

 A materialistic and atheistic philosophy
 Believes only in direct perception as a source of knowledge
 Rejects the soul, God, rebirth, and afterlife
 Encourages enjoyment of life in the present

Other Philosophical Traditions

Apart from the main schools mentioned above, there were several other traditions that
contributed to the rich philosophical heritage of India:

1. Ajivika

 Founded by Makkhali Gosala

 Believed in niyati (fate or determinism)
 Denied free will and emphasized destiny
 Had a strict ascetic lifestyle

2. Sautrantika and Vaibhashika

 Sub-schools of Buddhist philosophy

 Differed in their interpretations of reality and perception

3. Bhakti Movements

 Though not formal philosophical systems, the Bhakti movements across India
emphasized devotion to a personal God as a path to liberation.
 Saints like Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Chaitanya spread this message through
poetry and songs.

Ancient Indian philosophical doctrines present a diverse and profound set of ideas about life,
consciousness, the universe, and liberation. Whether based on the authority of the Vedas or not,
each system contributed to the development of Indian thought. These philosophies emphasize
ethics, self-discipline, reasoning, and spiritual growth. They continue to influence not just Indian
society but also philosophical thought around the world today.

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Other Heterodox Sects in India

India has long been a cradle of philosophical and religious thought, with a diversity of doctrines
and schools emerging throughout history. While the Vedic tradition gave rise to orthodox
systems (Astika), several non-Vedic or heterodox traditions (Nastika) also developed,
challenging the authority of the Vedas and offering alternative spiritual and philosophical paths.
While Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka are the most well-known heterodox sects, other
heterodox sects also played a significant role in the spiritual and philosophical evolution of
India. These lesser-known sects emerged as reform movements or alternative worldviews that
questioned ritualism, caste hierarchies, and the role of priests. Below is an overview of some of
these important sects:

1. Ajivika Sect

Founder: Makkhali Gosala (6th century BCE), a contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama
Buddha.
Core Beliefs:

 The Ajivikas believed in absolute determinism (Niyati). According to them, every event
is preordained and beyond human control.
 They rejected free will and emphasized that liberation could only be achieved when the
cycle of birth and death naturally ended.
 The soul, they believed, passed through a fixed series of transmigrations.
 Ajivikas denied the efficacy of karma and personal effort.

Practices:

 They lived a strict ascetic lifestyle.

 Nudity was common among Ajivika monks, similar to the Digambara Jains.

Decline:

 The sect gradually declined by the 14th century CE.

 Lack of textual preservation and persecution by orthodox forces led to their
disappearance.

2. Charvaka (Lokayata) School

Founder: Brihaspati (mythically attributed)

Core Beliefs:

 Charvakas were materialists and atheists, rejecting the Vedas, the afterlife, and the
existence of the soul or God.

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  They believed only in direct perception (pratyaksha) as the source of valid knowledge.
 They dismissed ritual sacrifices, asceticism, and religious doctrines as deceit by priests to
exploit common people.

Philosophy:

 “Eat, drink, and be merry” was the essence of Charvaka philosophy.

 Emphasis was on pleasure and happiness in this life, as death is final.

Decline:

 Faced criticism and decline due to lack of patronage and written texts.
 Many of their doctrines survive only through critiques written by their opponents.

3. Ajnana (Skeptics)

Beliefs:

 The Ajnana school was a group of skeptics who believed that knowledge is impossible
to attain with certainty.
 They argued that since truth is uncertain and unknowable, the path to salvation or
liberation is futile.

Viewpoint:

 They refrained from philosophical debate, claiming it was a waste of effort.

 Often regarded as nihilists, they questioned the value of logic and rational inquiry.

Significance:

 Though not widespread, their radical skepticism contributed to the intellectual diversity
of ancient Indian thought.

4. Kapalika and Kalamukha Sects

These were Shaivite sects that developed outside the mainstream Vedic Shaivism.

Kapalika:

 Derived from the word "kapala" meaning skull.

 Followers carried skulls and engaged in tantric and extreme ascetic practices.
 Worshipped Lord Shiva in his Bhairava form.
 Lived in cremation grounds and indulged in ritualistic practices often considered taboo.

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Kalamukha:

 Similar in nature to Kapalikas but more temple-based and less extreme.

 Practiced rituals and were prominent in the Deccan region during the early medieval
period.

Decline:

 Eventually absorbed into mainstream Shaivism or suppressed due to their esoteric and
controversial practices.

5. Pasupata Sect

Founder: Lakulisha (2nd century CE)

Beliefs and Practices:

 One of the earliest Shaivite sects, focusing on Pasupati (Shiva as the Lord of Beasts).
 Emphasized asceticism, yoga, and meditation.
 Sought liberation through devotion and rigorous self-discipline.

Unique Features:

 Believed in mimicking the behavior of animals or madmen as a way of detachment from

societal norms.
 Eventually gave rise to other Shaivite sects like the Siddhanta.

Significance of Other Heterodox Sects

 These sects broadened the spectrum of philosophical inquiry in India.

 They challenged the Brahmanical orthodoxy, bringing social reform, particularly
concerning caste and ritualism.
 Their emphasis on rationality, empiricism, or asceticism influenced major traditions
like Buddhism and Jainism.
 While most of these sects did not survive into the modern era, their ideas left a lasting
impact on Indian intellectual history.

The heterodox sects in India represent a rich and diverse tradition of alternative philosophies
and belief systems that arose in response to the dominant Vedic paradigm. Whether it was
through skepticism, materialism, determinism, or extreme asceticism, these sects offered unique
insights into the human condition and the quest for truth. Though many of them have faded into
obscurity, their legacy endures in the form of intellectual freedom, philosophical diversity, and
the spirit of questioning that characterizes Indian thought.

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BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bhakti Movement was a spiritual and social reform movement that emerged in South India
around the 7th century and gradually spread to North India between the 13th and 17th centuries.
It emphasized devotion (Bhakti) to a personal god, bypassing rigid caste rules, rituals, and
priestly dominance. The movement brought about a major transformation in Indian religious and
social life, with saints from various backgrounds promoting love, unity, and equality.

Meaning of Bhakti

The word “Bhakti” is derived from the Sanskrit root “bhaj”, which means to worship or adore. In
religious terms, it implies loving devotion to God. The Bhakti Movement encouraged individuals
to establish a direct emotional connection with the divine, without relying on rituals, caste
hierarchies, or priests.

Historical Background

During medieval India, religious practices were largely dominated by rituals, idol worship, and a
rigid caste system. At the same time, Islam was spreading in India with its concept of
monotheism and equality of all believers. These conditions created a fertile ground for the
growth of the Bhakti Movement, which sought to reform religion and society.

Main Features of the Bhakti Movement

1. Devotion over Rituals: Bhakti or pure love for God was seen as the true path to
salvation.
2. God is One: Saints preached monotheism—worship of one universal God.
3. Rejection of Caste: The movement opposed the caste system and untouchability.
4. Use of Vernacular Languages: Saints composed hymns and poems in local languages,
making religion accessible to the masses.
5. Equality for All: The movement emphasized spiritual equality irrespective of caste,
creed, or gender.
6. Personal Relationship with God: No need for priests or intermediaries.

Two Major Traditions of Bhakti

1. Saguna Bhakti (God with form): Worship of gods like Rama, Krishna, Shiva, etc.
2. Nirguna Bhakti (God without form): Worship of the formless, infinite, and
omnipresent God.

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Prominent Bhakti Saints and Their Contributions:

Ramanuja: Biography and Contributions

Introduction

Ramanuja (c. 1017 – 1137 AD) was one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in
the history of Indian thought. He was the chief proponent of the Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-
dualism) school of Vedanta. As a saint and reformer, he played a key role in shaping the Bhakti
Movement, especially in South India, and strongly advocated the principles of devotion (bhakti),
social equality, and universal salvation.

Biography of Ramanuja

Birth and Early Life

 Born: Around 1017 AD in Sriperumbudur, near modern-day Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

 Caste: Born into a Tamil Brahmin family.
 Early education: Ramanuja was a brilliant student and studied the Vedas, Upanishads,
and Brahma Sutras under the scholar Yadava Prakasha, who followed the Advaita
Vedanta philosophy of Shankaracharya.

Spiritual Transformation

 Ramanuja often disagreed with his teacher's interpretation of scriptures, particularly on

the concept of absolute non-dualism (Advaita) which denied the reality of the material
world and individuality of the soul.
 He left Yadava Prakasha and later became a disciple of Yamunacharya, the head of the
Sri Vaishnava sect, though they never met personally.
 Under the guidance of Periya Nambi, a disciple of Yamunacharya, Ramanuja embraced
the Sri Vaishnavism tradition and dedicated his life to spreading the philosophy of
devotion to Lord Vishnu.

Philosophy and Teachings

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-Dualism)

 Ramanuja's central philosophical idea is Vishishtadvaita, which means:

o Brahman (God) is one, but not devoid of attributes.
o The universe and individual souls are real, but depend on Brahman.
o God is both immanent and transcendent.

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 o He emphasized personal devotion to a saguna (with form) God, especially Lord
Vishnu or Narayana.

Bhakti as the Path to Liberation

 Ramanuja emphasized bhakti (devotion) over mere intellectual knowledge.

 He believed that salvation is attainable for all through sincere devotion and surrender to
God (prapatti).

Contributions to Religion and Society

1. Religious Reform

 Ramanuja challenged Shankaracharya’s Advaita philosophy, which considered the world

and individual souls as illusions.
 He made religion more accessible by promoting the idea that God has a form and
qualities, and that devotion is a personal relationship with God.

2. Promotion of Bhakti Movement

 Ramanuja was among the first spiritual leaders to promote Bhakti Yoga as the most
effective way to attain moksha (liberation).
 He laid the foundation for the Sri Vaishnava tradition, which emphasized the worship of
Vishnu through love, prayer, and service.

3. Advocate of Social Equality

 He was against caste-based discrimination and believed that all devotees are equal before
God, regardless of their birth.
 He allowed non-Brahmins and lower castes to participate in temple rituals and spiritual
practices.
 He appointed non-Brahmins as temple priests in some cases, a revolutionary act at that
time.

4. Language and Accessibility

 He promoted the use of Tamil in religious texts and rituals, instead of only Sanskrit, thus
making religious knowledge accessible to the common people.
 He supported and preserved the devotional hymns of the Alvars (Vaishnava poet-saints),
composing commentaries that linked them to Vedantic thought.

5. Institutional Contributions

 Ramanuja established the organization of temple worship, codifying rituals and roles.
 He is credited with reviving and reforming the temple practices at Srirangam, one of the
most important Vaishnavite temples in India.

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  He traveled extensively to spread the message of bhakti, influencing many regions like
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and beyond.

Important Works of Ramanuja

1. Sri Bhashya – His commentary on the Brahma Sutras, presenting his Vishishtadvaita
philosophy.
2. Vedartha Sangraha – A summary of the essence of the Vedas according to his
philosophy.
3. Bhagavad Gita Bhashya – Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
4. Gadya Trayam – A collection of three prose hymns expressing complete surrender to
God.

Legacy of Ramanuja

 Ramanuja’s teachings laid a strong foundation for the Bhakti Movement in India.
 He was a visionary reformer who promoted a spiritual democracy, centuries ahead of his
time.
 His philosophy continues to be followed by millions of Sri Vaishnavas around the world.
 He remains a symbol of religious inclusiveness, compassion, and spiritual freedom.

Alvars and Nyanars

The Alvars and Nayanars were early South Indian poet-saints who played a crucial role in the
Bhakti movement, particularly between the 6th and 9th centuries CE. Their devotional hymns in
Tamil laid the foundation for emotional, personal worship in Hinduism and helped in the spread
of Vaishnavism and Shaivism respectively.

Alvars (Vaishnavite Saints)

Who were the Alvars?

 Devotees of Lord Vishnu.

 There are 12 Alvars, including one female saint (Andal).
 They composed “Divya Prabandham”, a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses in praise of
Vishnu and his incarnations (Rama, Krishna, etc.).
 Their poetry emphasized love, surrender (prapatti), and devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu.

Notable Alvars and Their Contributions:

Andal

 The only female Alvar.

 Composed Thiruppavai and Nachiyar Tirumozhi.
 Considered an incarnation of Bhudevi (Goddess Earth).

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  Her deep devotion to Krishna made her a symbol of divine love.

Nammalvar

 Most prominent among the Alvars.

 Composed Tiruvaymoli, often called the Tamil Veda.
 His poetry is highly philosophical and devotional.

Periyalvar

 Adopted father of Andal.

 Composed hymns imagining himself as the foster mother of baby Krishna.

Thirumangai Alvar

 A reformed bandit and warrior.

 Composed elaborate hymns with rich descriptions of Vishnu temples.

Nayanars (Shaivite Saints)

Who were the Nayanars?

 Devotees of Lord Shiva.

 There are 63 Nayanars, many of whom came from varied castes and backgrounds.
 Their poems were compiled as Tirumurai, the Tamil Shaiva canon.
 Advocated absolute devotion to Shiva and rejected caste-based discrimination.

Notable Nayanars and Their Contributions:

Appar (Tirunavukkarasar)

 Converted from Jainism to Shaivism.

 Wrote hymns highlighting Shiva’s grace and power.
 Known for physically cleaning temples as an act of devotion.

Sundarar

 Composed Tiruttondar-Tokai, listing the names of 63 Nayanars.

 Had a personal, friendly relationship with Shiva in his songs.

Manikkavasagar

 Though not officially one of the 63, he's a revered Tamil Shaivite poet.
 Wrote Tiruvasagam, filled with mystic devotion to Shiva.

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Thirugnana Sambandar

 A child prodigy and poet.

 Defended Shaivism against Jain influence.
 His hymns are still sung in South Indian temples.

Overall Contribution of Alvars & Nayanars

 Brought religion to the common people through local language (Tamil).

 Rejected rituals, caste discrimination, and promoted devotion and humility.
 Their hymns form the basis of temple rituals in Tamil Nadu.
 Played a key role in the revival of Hinduism in South India during times of religious
competition.

Kabir: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Birth: Around 1440 CE (exact date unknown), likely in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
 Background: Raised by a Muslim weaver family (Julaha caste). He is said to have been
adopted after being found as an infant near a lake or temple.
 Influence: Though born in a Muslim household, he was deeply influenced by
Ramananda, a Hindu saint.
 Death: Around 1518 CE in Maghar, Uttar Pradesh.

Kabir’s life challenged both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies, and he created a path of devotion
that emphasized unity of God and inner spiritual experience over ritual or scripture.

Philosophy & Teachings

Kabir’s philosophy blended Hindu Bhakti and Islamic Sufi ideas. Key elements include:

 God is one, beyond form or name (nirguna Brahman).

 Rejected idol worship, temple rituals, caste system, and religious hypocrisy.
 Emphasized Naam Simran (remembrance of God's name).
 Taught that true devotion is internal and does not require rituals or pilgrimage.
 Believed that Ram and Rahim are two names of the same formless God.
 Supported equality, universal brotherhood, and simple living.

Literary Works

 His poems are known as "Kabir ke Dohe" (couplets), written in Hindi with a mix of
Bhojpuri, Avadhi, and Persian.
 His verses were compiled in:
o Bijak (by Kabirpanthi followers)
o Kabir Granthavali

25
 o Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh scripture, where 541 of his verses are included)

Example of a famous Doha (couplet):

"Bura jo dekhan main chala, bura na milaya koi;

Jo man khoja apna, mujhse bura na koi."
(When I went looking for evil, I found none;
When I looked inside myself, I realized I was the worst one.)

Contribution to Society and Religion

 Unified Hindus and Muslims through his message of universal devotion.

 Criticized both Hindu pundits and Muslim maulvis for blind ritualism.
 Influenced many future religious and spiritual movements, including Sikhism.
 Inspired the formation of the Kabir Panth, a religious sect that still exists today.
 Spread vernacular spirituality, making spiritual ideas accessible to the masses.

Legacy

 A symbol of harmony, simplicity, and truth.

 Regarded as one of the greatest poets and reformers of medieval India.
 Kabir Jayanti is celebrated every year (on the full moon day of Jyeshtha month).

Sant Ravidas: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Born: Around 1450 CE (exact date uncertain)

 Place: Seer Govardhanpur, near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
 Caste: Born into a Dalit (Chamar) family of leather workers, considered untouchables in
the caste hierarchy
 Religion: Deeply spiritual, yet rejected caste and religious orthodoxy
 Death: Around 1520 CE

Ravidas is known for his humility, compassion, and unshakable faith in one formless God
(Nirguna Bhakti). Despite facing social discrimination, he became a revered saint-poet whose
influence spread widely.

Philosophy & Teachings

 Believed in Bhakti (devotion) to one formless, omnipresent God.

 Emphasized equality of all human beings, regardless of caste, creed, or gender.
 Denounced rituals, idol worship, and religious hypocrisy.
 Preached that inner purity, humility, and compassion are the true paths to God.
 Strongly opposed caste-based discrimination and untouchability.

26
  Advocated for a casteless society where people live in harmony.

Famous concept: “Begampura” — a city with no sorrow or suffering, symbolizing a utopian,

egalitarian society.

Literary Contributions

 His poems are known as "Padas" or "Sabads", written in Hindi mixed with local dialects.
 Around 41 verses of Ravidas are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of
Sikhism.
 His verses speak of universal love, liberation, and inner realization.

Famous Quote (Pada)

"मन चं गा तो कठौती मं गं गा"

(If your mind is pure, then even a vessel of dirty water is as sacred as the Ganges.)

This line reflects Ravidas’s belief that inner purity is more important than external rituals or
places of pilgrimage.

Impact & Legacy

 Greatly influenced Sikhism, Kabir, Meera Bai, and other Bhakti poets.
 His followers are known as Ravidassia, and he is worshipped across North India,
especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
 His teachings laid the foundation for social reform movements against casteism.
 Sant Ravidas Jayanti, his birth anniversary, is celebrated widely.

Tulsidas: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Full Name: Goswami Tulsidas

 Born: Circa 1532 CE, in Rajapur (near Chitrakoot), Uttar Pradesh
 Birth Name: Ram Bola
 Caste: Sarayuparin Brahmin
 Spiritual Guru: Narayana Das or Ramakrishna Paramhansa (varied accounts)
 Death: Around 1623 CE, in Varanasi

Tulsidas is best known for making the story of Lord Rama accessible to the common people by
writing in Awadhi, a regional dialect of Hindi.

Major Works

27
Tulsidas’s writings are devotional, moral, and spiritual, deeply rooted in Rama Bhakti (devotion
to Lord Rama).

Main Contributions:

Work Language Significance

Epic retelling of the Ramayana in a language common people

Ramcharitmanas Awadhi
could understand.

Vinay Patrika Braj Collection of prayers and supplications to various deities.

40 verses in praise of Lord Hanuman; immensely popular even

Hanuman Chalisa Awadhi
today.

Kavitavali,
Awadhi/Braj Poems expressing devotion and philosophical insights.
Dohavali

Gitavali Awadhi Hymns in praise of Lord Rama’s virtues and life.

Philosophy and Teachings

 Deeply rooted in Rama Bhakti (Saguna Bhakti — devotion to a deity with form).
 Emphasized:
o Righteous living (Dharma)
o Service (Seva)
o Compassion and humility
o Detachment from ego and worldly desires
 Strongly upheld moral values, respect for parents, truth, and devotion to God.
 Believed salvation is possible through Bhakti alone, not by birth or caste.

Famous Quote from Ramcharitmanas

“राम नाम बिनु गे हूँ न राखउँ”

(Without the name of Rama, I will not even keep grains in my house.)

“परबहत सररस धरम नबहं भाई, पर पीड़ा सम नबहं अधमाई।”

*(There is no religion like doing good to others, and no sin like hurting others.)

Contribution to Society

28
 Area Contribution

Literature Elevated vernacular Hindi through devotional poetry.

Religion Strengthened Rama Bhakti and temple culture.

Social Impact Took spiritual teachings to the common man, bypassing Sanskrit elite.

Cultural His works united people across regions and castes through a shared devotional
Unity identity.

Legacy

 The Ramcharitmanas is still recited in temples and homes across India.

 Hanuman Chalisa is among the most chanted devotional hymns in India.
 His writings influenced later Bhakti poets and even freedom fighters during the
independence movement.
 Temples and cultural centers (like Tulsi Ghat in Varanasi) are named in his honor.

Surdas: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Born: Around 1478 CE

 Birthplace: Believed to be Sihi village, near Delhi or Agra (debated)
 Condition: Said to be blind from birth
 Caste: Some sources say Brahmin, others say from a lower caste
 Guru: Vallabhacharya, founder of the Pushti Marg sect
 Death: Around 1583 CE

Surdas spent much of his life in Vrindavan, where he composed devotional songs praising Lord
Krishna, especially his childhood form.

Literary Contributions

Main Works:

1. Sursagar (Ocean of Sur) – His most famous work; contains thousands of poems on Lord
Krishna’s life, especially his childhood (Bal Leelas).
2. Sahitya Lahari – Philosophical poems on devotion and divine love.
3. Sur Saravali – A description of Krishna's Raas Leela and festivals like Holi.

His poetry is written in Braj Bhasha, a dialect of Hindi, and is considered a literary treasure of
Indian devotional literature.

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Philosophy & Teachings

 Advocated Saguna Bhakti – worship of God in personal form (especially Krishna).

 Emphasized selfless love (prema bhakti) for God over rituals or caste.
 His poems expressed:
o Motherly love (Yashoda’s affection)
o Divine playfulness of Krishna
o Longing and devotion of Radha and the gopis
 Believed that true devotion is accessible to all, regardless of caste, status, or gender.

Famous Verse

"मै नाही माखन खायो"

(I did not eat the butter, mother!)

This verse humorously captures Krishna’s innocence and mischief, a recurring theme in Surdas's
poetry.

Contributions to Indian Culture

Area Contribution

Literature Elevated Braj Bhasha as a poetic language

Religion Deepened Krishna Bhakti tradition, especially child-Krishna devotion

Music His verses are widely sung as bhajans and in classical music

Social Reform Helped break caste barriers by showing God's love is for all

Legacy

 Revered as a "Mahakavi" (great poet) in Hindi literature.

 His works continue to inspire music, dance, drama, and temple traditions.
 Celebrated in Vrindavan and across India during Krishna festivals like Janmashtami.

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Meerabai: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Born: Around 1498 CE

 Place: Kudki, near Merta, Rajasthan
 Caste: Rajput (royal family of Merta)
 Married to: Rana Bhojraj Singh of Mewar (Udaipur)
 Religion: Deeply spiritual, devoted to Lord Krishna (Giridhar Gopal)
 Death: Around 1547 CE, believed to have merged with Krishna at Dwarka

From childhood, Meera saw Lord Krishna as her husband and supreme love. Despite her royal
background, she renounced palace life and devoted herself entirely to Bhakti.

Literary Contributions

Meerabai composed hundreds of bhajans (devotional poems/songs) in:

 Rajasthani
 Braj Bhasha
 Hindi

Her songs are full of love, longing, surrender, and spiritual ecstasy for Krishna.

Themes of Her Bhajans:

 Unwavering love and devotion to Krishna

 Detachment from worldly pleasures
 Pain of separation from the divine (Viraha)
 Criticism of social norms and caste/gender roles

Famous Meera Bhajan

"पायो जी मंने राम रतन धन पायो"

(I have found the priceless treasure of Lord’s name)

"मे रे तो बगरधर गोपाल, दूसरो न कोई"

(Giridhar Gopal is mine, I belong to none else)

These lines show her complete surrender to Lord Krishna and her fearless renunciation of social
expectations.

Contributions to Society & Bhakti Movement

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 Aspect Contribution

Spiritual Promoted Saguna Bhakti (worship of God in form, Krishna)

Literary Composed devotional poetry still sung today

Social Broke barriers of gender, caste, and royal duties to follow her devotion

Cultural Helped spread Krishna Bhakti in North and Western India

Symbol of Courage, devotion, and feminine spiritual power

Challenges Faced

 Criticized and even persecuted by her royal in-laws for singing and dancing in temples.
 Refused to follow sati, and left the palace to live among saints and pilgrims.
 Spent her final years in pilgrimage towns like Vrindavan and Dwarka.

Legacy

 Considered one of the greatest women mystic poets of India.

 Her bhajans are still sung in temples and homes across India.
 A symbol of divine love, female strength, and spiritual freedom.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji: Biography and Contribution

Biography

 Born: 15 April 1469 CE

 Place: Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan)
 Parents: Mehta Kalu (father), Tripta Devi (mother)
 Spiritual Mentor: Born with divine wisdom, had a deep spiritual quest from childhood
 Occupation: Worked as a storekeeper and later became a spiritual teacher and reformer
 Death: 22 September 1539 CE, at Kartarpur (Pakistan)

Guru Nanak traveled widely across India, Arabia, Persia, and Tibet these journeys are known as
Udasis to spread the message of truth, unity, and equality.

Teachings & Philosophy

Guru Nanak's philosophy emphasized:

 One God (Ek Onkar) who is formless, timeless, and beyond religion
 Equality of all humans—no caste, no gender discrimination

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  Service (Seva) and hard work (Kirat Karni)
 Honest living and sharing with others (Vand Chakko)
 Remembering God (Naam Japna) always in your heart

Key Principles of Sikhism founded by Guru Nanak

Principle Meaning

Naam Japna Chant and remember God’s name always

Kirat Karni Earn honestly through hard work

Vand Chakna Share with the needy and live as a community

Major Contributions

Literary

 Composed 974 hymns, compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib (Sikh holy scripture)
 Wrote in Punjabi, Hindi, Persian, and Sanskrit
 Key compositions: Japji Sahib, Asa di Var, and Sidh Gosht

Religious & Social

 Founded Sikhism – a path of devotion, equality, and ethical living

 Opposed:
o Idol worship
o Rituals
o Superstition
o Caste discrimination
 Started community kitchens (Langar) to serve all, regardless of status
 Established Kartarpur as the first Sikh commune

Famous Quote by Guru Nanak

"Ik Onkar Satnam"

(There is only one God, and His name is Truth)

“Na koi Hindu, na Musalman”

(There is no Hindu, no Muslim – we are all children of one God)

Legacy

 Founder of Sikhism, a global religion with millions of followers

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  Gurdwaras (Sikh temples) worldwide serve free food (Langar) and spiritual support
 Guru Granth Sahib, containing his hymns, is the central religious scripture of Sikhs
 Celebrated through Guru Nanak Jayanti (Gurpurab) across the world

Impact of the Bhakti Movement

Religious Impact

 Made religion accessible to all.

 Reduced Brahminical control over religious practices.
 Encouraged monotheism and inner spirituality.

Social Impact

 Weakened the caste system and promoted social equality.

 Improved the status of women and marginalized communities.
 Promoted Hindu-Muslim harmony.

Cultural and Literary Impact

 Enriched regional languages and folk literature.

 Inspired music, poetry, and art.
 Created a strong foundation for Indian devotional culture.

The Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement represents the mystical dimension of Islam that emphasizes inner purity,
divine love, and a personal connection with God. Originating in the early centuries of Islam,
Sufism became a powerful spiritual and cultural force across the Islamic world, especially in
South Asia. It played a crucial role not only in spreading Islam but also in promoting values like
tolerance, brotherhood, and unity. The Sufi saints, also known as Sufis or mystics, contributed
immensely to religious, social, and cultural life through their teachings, poetry, and humanitarian
efforts.

Origins and Philosophy of the Sufi Movement

Sufism traces its roots to the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, who emphasized love
for God (Ishq-e-Haqiqi), self-discipline, and compassion. The word "Sufi" is derived from "suf,"
meaning wool, referring to the simple woolen garments worn by early Sufis as a symbol of
renunciation of worldly pleasures.

The central philosophy of Sufism is based on:

 Love and devotion to God above ritualistic practice.

 Spiritual journey through self-purification, meditation (zikr), and the guidance of a
spiritual master (pir or murshid).

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  Service to humanity, seeing all creation as a reflection of the Divine.

Sufis believed that true knowledge comes from spiritual experience, not just religious texts. They
formed Silsilas (orders), such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Naqshbandi, which became
centers of spiritual and social activity.

Sufi Movement in India

Sufism arrived in India between the 11th and 12th centuries, primarily through wandering saints
and missionaries. These saints preached in the local languages, lived simple lives, and stayed
close to the common people, which helped bridge religious and cultural divides.

Major Sufi Orders in India:

1. Chishti Order – Focused on love, tolerance, and openness. Popular in North India.
2. Suhrawardi Order – More orthodox, but still emphasized spiritual purity.
3. Qadiri Order – Known for its deep mystical practices and strong presence in the Deccan.
4. Naqshbandi Order – Emphasized silent meditation and was closer to Islamic orthodoxy.

Notable Sufi Saints and Their Contributions

1. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1141–1236)

 Founder of the Chishti Order in India, settled in Ajmer.

 Emphasized love for the poor, humility, and service to mankind.
 His teachings attracted both Muslims and Hindus.
 His dargah (shrine) in Ajmer Sharif remains a major pilgrimage site.

2. Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganjshakar) (1175–1266)

 Based in Punjab, he spread Sufism in North India.

 His verses in Punjabi were later included in the Sikh holy book, Guru Granth Sahib.
 He taught self-discipline, detachment, and compassion.

3. Nizamuddin Auliya (1238–1325)

 Disciple of Baba Farid and a prominent saint of the Chishti order.

 Lived in Delhi, known as "Mehboob-e-Ilahi" (Beloved of God).
 Promoted love and harmony during times of political instability.
 Encouraged Amir Khusrau, a famous poet and musician, who enriched Indian music and
literature.

4. Amir Khusrau (1253–1325)

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  A disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
 Known as the "Parrot of India" (Tuti-e-Hind).
 Introduced Persian elements into Indian music and is credited with the invention of
qawwali and tarana.
 His literary and musical contributions had a lasting impact on Indian culture.

5. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182–1262)

 A leading figure of the Suhrawardi order in Multan (now in Pakistan).

 Known for balancing spirituality with social and political involvement.
 Established a madrasa that became a major center for Islamic learning.

6. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624)

 A major figure of the Naqshbandi order.

 Emphasized Sharia and orthodox practices.
 Tried to reform and purify Islamic practices from what he saw as excessive mysticism or
external influences.

Cultural Contributions of the Sufi Saints

 Language and Literature: Sufi saints composed poetry in local languages like Punjabi,
Hindi, and Urdu, which made spiritual messages accessible to the masses.
 Music and Dance: Sufi traditions introduced devotional music (qawwali) and dance
(sama) as expressions of divine love.
 Architecture: Sufi shrines (dargahs) became centers of art and architecture, attracting
devotees from all backgrounds.
 Social Harmony: Sufi saints promoted unity across caste and religion, which helped
reduce communal tensions and fostered a spirit of brotherhood.

Legacy of the Sufi Movement

The legacy of the Sufi movement continues today. Dargahs across the Indian subcontinent attract
people from different religions who come to seek blessings, healing, and peace. The teachings of
Sufi saints—based on love, simplicity, and service—remain relevant in a world often divided by
religion, politics, and materialism.

The Sufi movement was not only a religious and spiritual revival but also a social and cultural
transformation. By promoting universal values of love, tolerance, and devotion, the Sufi saints
won the hearts of millions. Their contribution to Indian society and culture is immense, and their
message continues to inspire people in their quest for peace and spiritual fulfillment.

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Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th Century – Leaders and Significance

The 19th century in India was a time of social awakening and intellectual reform. With the
arrival of the British and the spread of Western education and values, many Indians began to
question outdated customs, superstitions, and unjust social practices. This gave rise to a number
of socio-religious reform movements that aimed to purify society, reinterpret religious texts, and
promote human dignity.

These reformers were deeply rooted in Indian culture and spirituality but were also influenced by
modern rationalism, science, and human rights.

Causes of the Reform Movements

 Western education and Enlightenment ideas

 British rule and social criticism by missionaries
 Evils like sati, child marriage, casteism, and untouchability
 Desire to revive Indian religions in a purified form
 Role of printing press and vernacular newspapers

The Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th Century in India were crucial in
challenging social evils, uplifting marginalized communities, and modernizing the traditional
social structure. Below is a detailed look at the leaders, their philosophy, and their significance
and impact.

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833)

Founder of the Brahmo Samaj

Biography:

 Born: 1772, Radhanagar, Bengal.

 Known as the Father of Modern India, Ram Mohan Roy was a prominent social and
religious reformer.
 He studied Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam and worked towards reconciling traditional
Indian culture with modern Western ideas.

Philosophy:

 Monotheism: Advocated for the belief in one God and opposed idol worship.
 Rejection of Superstitions: Criticized superstitions, rituals, and blind faith in traditional
practices.
 Human Rights: Advocated for the equality of women and the abolition of social evils like
Sati, child marriage, and untouchability.

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Significance and Impact:

 Played a key role in the abolition of Sati (1829) through his campaigns, influencing the
British Government.
 Founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, promoting a reformed Hinduism that aligned with
rational thought and moral living.
 His ideas influenced later reform movements, including the work of Swami Vivekananda
and Rabindranath Tagore.

2. Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824–1883)

Founder of the Arya Samaj

Biography:

 Born: 1824, Tankara, Gujarat.

 A former Hindu ascetic, Dayanand Saraswati was influenced by the Vedic scriptures and
became a strong advocate for reform within Hinduism.
 He is best known for his famous slogan, "Go Back to the Vedas."

Philosophy:

 Vedic Revivalism: Advocated for a return to the Vedas, rejecting later developments in
Hinduism like idol worship, caste discrimination, and superstitions.
 Monotheism: Believed in one God and rejected the caste system.
 Social Reform: Supported widow remarriage, female education, and abolition of caste
discrimination.

Significance and Impact:

 Founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, which became a major force for social and religious
reform in India.
 His teachings inspired later reformers such as Lala Lajpat Rai and Bhagat Singh.
 The Arya Samaj promoted education and social justice, setting up schools and advocating
for the empowerment of women and untouchables.

3. Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902)

Founder of the Ramakrishna Mission

Biography:

 Born: 1863, Kolkata, India.

 A disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Vivekananda is best known for his spiritual
teachings and his call for national renewal based on Indian culture and Vedantic
principles.

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  He gained global fame for his speech at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago
(1893).

Philosophy:

 Universal Religion: Advocated that all religions lead to the same ultimate truth and called
for the unity of all religions.
 Practical Vedanta: Believed in applying spiritual knowledge for human welfare, stressing
that selfless service and spirituality should guide one's actions.
 Empowerment of Youth: Emphasized the importance of youth empowerment, self-
reliance, and national pride.

Significance and Impact:

 Founded the Ramakrishna Mission (1897) to spread his philosophy and to provide social
service, including establishing schools, hospitals, and orphanages.
 His World Parliament of Religions speech in 1893 brought Indian spirituality to a global
audience.
 His ideas inspired the Indian Renaissance and Nationalist Movement, influencing leaders
like Mahatma Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose.

4. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)

Founder of the Aligarh Movement

Biography:

 Born: 1817, Delhi, India.

 A reformist and social leader, Syed Ahmad Khan promoted modern education among
Muslims and played a key role in the Muslim Renaissance in India.

Philosophy:

 Education as Empowerment: Advocated for Western-style education combined with

Islamic values.
 Social Reform: Opposed the orthodox views within Muslim society and promoted
rationalism and scientific thinking.
 Nationalism: Emphasized the need for social harmony between Hindus and Muslims.

Significance and Impact:

 Founded the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) in 1875, which became the intellectual
hub for Muslim reform and educational progress.
 His ideas laid the foundation for Muslim modernization and national integration, despite
facing resistance from traditional Muslim clergy.

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  Played a significant role in shaping Muslim identity and fostering mutual understanding
between Hindus and Muslims in colonial India.

5. Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890)

Founder of the Satya Shodhak Samaj

Biography:

 Born: 1827, Pune, Maharashtra.

 Phule was a social reformer who dedicated his life to the upliftment of lower castes and
women.

Philosophy:

 Anti-Casteism: Phule was a fierce critic of the Brahminical order and the caste system
that oppressed lower castes and untouchables.
 Women’s Empowerment: Advocated for education for girls and widow remarriage.
 Social Equality: He believed in a society based on social justice, where everyone could
have access to education, irrespective of caste or gender.

Significance and Impact:

 Founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873, aiming to educate and uplift the lower castes
and to challenge the dominance of the Brahmin class.
 His work on the education of women and opposition to child marriage paved the way for
later reforms.
 Influenced leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Dalit movement.

6. Annie Besant (1847–1933)

Leader of the Theosophical Society (Indian Branch)

Biography:

 Born: 1847, London, England.

 Besant was a British social reformer who became deeply involved in the Indian freedom
movement and education. She later became the leader of the Indian branch of the
Theosophical Society.

Philosophy:

 Universal Brotherhood: Advocated for a universal religion that emphasizes spirituality,

brotherhood, and the equality of all human beings.

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  Indian Culture: Promoted Indian spirituality and sought to revive Indian culture through
the teachings of Vedanta.
 Women’s Rights: Advocated for women’s education and participation in social and
political affairs.

Significance and Impact:

 Played a major role in the Indian freedom movement and in the Home Rule Movement.
 Helped in the revival of Indian culture and philosophy, and was a key figure in women's
empowerment through education.
 Her efforts helped the Theosophical Society grow as a global movement, influencing
Indian nationalist thought.

The Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th century were critical in transforming Indian
society and paving the way for modern India. Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami
Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Jyotirao Phule, and Annie
Besant had a profound influence on social justice, religious reform, and education.

Their philosophies focused on reconciliation between tradition and modernity, empowerment of

marginalized groups, and promotion of rational thought and scientific inquiry. The significance
and impact of these movements can be seen in their contribution to Indian nationalism, religious
unity, and social equality, laying the foundation for the freedom struggle and the modern,
inclusive society India strives for today.

Modern Religious Practices

Modern religious practices encompass a wide range of beliefs, rituals, and traditions adapted to
contemporary life. While many religions are rooted in ancient scriptures and practices, modern
societies have witnessed transformations in how individuals and communities express their faith.
These changes reflect cultural shifts, technological advancements, globalization, and increasing
interfaith dialogue.

1. Adaptation to Contemporary Life

One of the most noticeable aspects of modern religious practices is their adaptation to modern
lifestyles. Traditional rituals that once required the presence of a physical congregation are now
often conducted virtually through live-streamed services or social media. Many religious
organizations offer online sermons, prayer meetings, and digital scriptures to reach adherents
across the globe. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many places of worship
transitioned to virtual services, showing the flexibility of religious practice in the digital age.

2. Interfaith Dialogue and Pluralism

In the modern era, religious pluralism and interfaith dialogue have become more common.
People are increasingly exposed to different cultures and religions, leading to more

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understanding and tolerance. Interfaith events, discussions, and collaborative projects are held to
promote harmony and resolve conflicts. These efforts contribute to peace-building and mutual
respect in multicultural societies.

3. Social and Political Engagement

Modern religious groups often engage actively in social and political issues. Religious leaders
and institutions may advocate for human rights, social justice, environmental protection, and
poverty alleviation. Movements such as liberation theology in Christianity or eco-spirituality in
various traditions highlight the evolving role of religion in addressing contemporary global
challenges.

4. Youth Participation and Modern Values

Younger generations are reshaping religious practices by blending traditional beliefs with
modern values like equality, inclusivity, and personal autonomy. Many youth-focused religious
groups emphasize community service, mental health, and spiritual exploration over rigid dogma.
Some religious institutions have started to revise their interpretations of scriptures to align with
evolving views on gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and racial justice.

5. Use of Technology and Media

Technology plays a major role in modern religious practices. Mobile apps offer daily prayers,
meditation guides, and religious education. Social media platforms are used by religious leaders
to reach followers and spread messages. Virtual reality and AI are even being explored for
immersive religious experiences and virtual pilgrimage tours, such as a digital simulation of the
Hajj or a virtual tour of the Vatican.

6. Globalization and Cultural Exchange

The interconnectedness of the modern world has led to the blending and sharing of religious
traditions. Practices such as yoga, meditation, and mindfulness—originating in Hinduism and
Buddhism—have been adopted globally, often in secular or adapted forms. This cultural
exchange enriches religious diversity but also raises questions about authenticity and cultural
appropriation.

7. Individualized Spirituality

Many modern individuals identify as "spiritual but not religious," seeking personal spiritual
growth outside of formal institutions. This trend reflects a shift towards individualized
spirituality, where practices like meditation, nature worship, and self-reflection are tailored to
personal beliefs rather than traditional doctrines. This form of spirituality is often eclectic,
drawing from multiple religious or philosophical traditions.

8. Challenges and Criticisms

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Despite these positive developments, modern religious practices face challenges. The rise of
secularism and skepticism has led to declining attendance in traditional religious institutions in
some regions. At the same time, religious extremism and intolerance continue to pose threats to
peace and coexistence. Balancing tradition with modernity remains a complex task for many
religious communities.

Modern religious practices are a dynamic and evolving part of human society. While they retain
the essence of ancient beliefs, they are continually shaped by the demands and values of the
modern world. From embracing technology to promoting social change, religion today is more
diverse, accessible, and relevant than ever before. Understanding these transformations is crucial
to appreciating the role of religion in the 21st century.

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