Nutrition

• Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses

food to support its life. It provides organisms with nutrients, which can be metabolized to
create energy and chemical structures. Failure to obtain sufficient nutrients causes
malnutrition.
• Helps in disease prevention and health promotion. It also attempts to clarify the
strong relationships between nutrition and the prevention of chronic disease and the
important influence of nutrient deficiencies and excesses.

• Food is used for celebrations of all aspects of life and therefore can serve as
“comfort foods,” especially at emotionally stressful times. In the current rushed
environment, the availability, convenience, and economy of food often sway personal
choices. Individuals select foods for a variety of reasons but the diet ingested over time can
make important contributions to health.

According to the American Heart Association (AHA):

• “There are dietary and other lifestyle practices that all individuals can safely follow
throughout the lifespan as a foundation for achieving and maintaining cardiovascular and
overall health.”

• “Healthy dietary practices are based on one's overall pattern of food intake over an
extended period of time and not on the intake of a single meal.”
• “The guidelines form a framework within which specific dietary recommendations
can be made for individuals based on their health status, dietary preferences, and cultural
background.”

Nutritional Assessment

Dietary Assessment
• The 24- to 72-hour dietary recall has also been a useful tool in evaluating normal
habits, intakes, and evidence of possible deficiencies in the diet. An ongoing record or a
checklist that is possibly completed at mealtime may be one of the better methods of
completing a dietary recall.
• Limited memory, cognitive impairment, increased time to complete the recall, and
other difficulties created by health problems may make it difficult to obtain representative
information without multiple sampling.

Biochemical Assessment of Nutritional Status

• Serum prealbumin has a half-life of 2 days and is more sensitive than albumin in
evaluating nutritional changes. Improved nutritional intake can increase prealbumin levels
by approximately 10 mg/L/day.
• A decrease may indicate inadequate nutritional support, poor response, and a poor
prognosis.

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• Low levels of insulin-like growth factor 1, another very sensitive indicator of
nutritional change, is associated with increased morbidity. Evidence does not support the
use of either serum prealbumin or insulin-like growth factor 1 as a single marker of
nutritional status.

Nutrition Screening of Older Adults

• Nutritional screening of seniors has gained in popularity as an effort to identify
individuals who are at risk and need further intervention. The Nutrition Screening
Initiative, a project of the American Academy of Family Physicians, American Dietetic
Association, and the National Council on Aging, provides a “Determine Your Nutrition
Health” checklist.

• The National Screening Initiative is targeted for identification of elderly individuals

who are at nutritional risk. Using the mnemonic D-E-T-E-R-M-I-N-E, it provides a list of
warning signs for malnutrition that should be addressed
• D = disease
• E = Eating poorly
• T= Tooth loss/ mouth pain
• E = Economic hardships
• R = reduced social contact
• M = Multiple medicines
• I = Involuntary weight loss or gain
• N = Needs assistance in self care
• E = Elderly, age above 80

Subjective Global Assessment

• The Subjective Global Assessment of Nutritional Status does not employ objective
biochemical and anthropometric measurements. It is a screening tool that requires clinical
judgment to interpret information collected by interviews and observations. The instrument
correlates well with other more objective measures and is cost effective.

The Importance of Nutrition Counseling

• A clinician's advice on nutrition is of great importance in helping patients to modify
dietary practices. This chapter provides detailed guidance, but the science of healthy living
needs to be made practical for patients. Short and useful recommendations can be as
simple as: (a) do not crash diet, (b) eat real foods, (c) watch your portion size, and (d)
eat breakfast. Eating breakfast is a caloric plus in that it increases the metabolic rate and
can provide nutrients needed for the day.

• Adopting a healthy diet can be simple but is not always easy. Patients can easily
become discouraged when they attempt to change too many eating habits at once.
Clinicians can advocate small steps, perhaps through a “nutrition prescription” of adding
one fruit or vegetable today or changing to 1% milk. Remind patients that healthy living
is not defined by just one meal or 1 day but the accumulation of small changes;
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• these changes become habits over time. Behavior modification can begin with
modest steps, such as not bringing foods home that are too tempting or replacing them
with better choices. “Choose/do not choose” lists are often excellent tools to change
behavior. The short but essential admonition to watch portions and be active can sum up
basic first steps to meeting healthy nutrition goals.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans

• In 2005, the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), along with
Health Canada, released the sixth in a series of reports on dietary reference values for the
intake of macronutrients and energy (U.S. Dietary Guidelines). This report established
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for carbohydrates, fiber, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein,
amino acids, energy, and physical activity, replacing older recommended dietary
allowances (RDAs) last updated in 1989.
• The DRIs are based on relationships between nutrient intake, chronic disease, and
health status. The new dietary guidelines, which provide evidence-based nutritional
guidance for ages 2 years and older, have the goals of inspiring individuals to seek more
information about healthy eating, communicating scientifically accurate but understandable
information, and guiding federal policy and programs.

• Public confusion around nutrition is fostered by terms commonly used in

commercials and food labels (e.g., whole grain, organic, fat-free, no trans-fats, all natural,
rich in fiber, low glycemic index, lowers cholesterol). The guidelines make 41 key
recommendations, 23 for the general public and 18 for special populations.

• Clinicians should refer to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 Toolkit for
Health Professionals (http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/toolkit/), which
compiles the latest evidence-based nutrition and physical activity recommendations.

Food Groups to Encourage

• A key theme in the guidelines is the consumption of adequate nutrients within caloric
needs. This should be accomplished by consuming a variety of nutrient-dense foods and
beverages within and among the basic food groups while choosing foods that limit intake of
saturated and trans-fat, cholesterol, added sugars, salt, and alcohol.

• Diets should emphasize a variety of fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains,
staying within one's energy needs. Five servings of fruits and vegetables per day is
recommended. Patients should consume 3 oz (100 ml) equivalents of whole grains daily
(at least half whole grains and the rest should be enriched)

• and three cups (3x236.5mL) per day of fat-free, low-fat, or equivalent milk
products. Children aged 2–8 years should consume two cups of fat-free or low-fat milk or
equivalent milk products per day. Other key recommendations include consuming two
servings of fish per week (approximately 8 oz (8x28,3 g) total) to help reduce risks from
cardiovascular disease, reducing the intake of sugars especially through sweetened
beverages, and consuming less
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• than 2,300 mg of sodium with an increase in foods rich in potassium. See
Figure for an example of how to accomplish all of this within the limits of a 2,000-cal diet.

Carbohydrates
• Patients should consume 130 g/day of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates should
provide 50–60% of total daily calories and should emphasize complex carbohydrates that
include dietary fiber (see subsequent text). The intake of refined carbohydrates and sugars
should be limited to reduce the risk of caries.

• Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly carbohydrates enter the blood

stream and then elevate blood sugar levels. In general, most refined foods in the United
States have a high glycemic index, whereas nonstarchy vegetables, fruits, and legumes
seem to have a lower glycemic index.

• Although some hypothesize that long-term consumption of high-glycemic index

foods may increase the risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease, others argue that the
index is studied primarily under artificial laboratory conditions and does not accurately
portray the mixed meals that most individuals consume.

• The American Diabetes Association states that there is insufficient evidence to use
glycemic index in the management of diabetes. Clinicians should at least be aware of the
glycemic index of certain foods, and that it may cause spikes in blood sugar levels,
especially among patients with diabetes www.glycemicindex.com

Fiber

• Individuals older than 4 years should consume at least 25 g of fiber each day,
yet 50% of women consume fewer than 13 g a day and 50% of men consume fewer
than 17 g a day. Fiber includes two main types: soluble and insoluble. Insoluble fiber, an
important aid in normal bowel function, is provided in high concentrations in whole wheat
breads, wheat cereals, wheat bran, rye, rice, barley, cabbage, beets, carrots, Brussels
sprouts, turnips, cauliflower, and apple skins.

• Sources of soluble fiber include oat bran, oatmeal, beans, peas, rice bran,
barley, citrus fruits, apple pulp, psyllium, carrots, strawberries, peaches with skin,
and apples with skin. Most fiber-rich foods contain a mixture of both soluble and insoluble
fibers.

• Fiber, especially insoluble fiber, helps promote bowel regularity. Individuals should
start slowly and gradually increase their fiber intake over time, while also making sure to
increase their intake of fluids. Foods high in fiber tend to be lower in total calories,
saturated fat, and cholesterol. Fiber may also help to curb appetite and can be an
important adjunct to weight management plans.

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 Fats

• Total fat intake should not exceed 20–30% of total calories, and saturated fats
should contribute less than 10% of calories. Trans-unsaturated fatty acids should be
avoided and emphasize polyunsaturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids such
as those found in fish, nuts, and vegetable oils (canola, olive oil, and the fat in peanut
butter).

• For meats, poultry, dried beans, milk or milk products, the varieties should be
selected that are low-fat or fat-free, with a limited intake of fats and oils high in saturated or
trans-fatty acids. Reducing fat intake is a basic principle of weight control, but
overrestriction of dietary fat to less than 20% of caloric intake may compromise the overall
quality of the diet. Patients should consume less than 300 mg/day of cholesterol.

Heart-Healthy Dietary Practices

• To help control blood pressure, the AHA recommends a diet that limits intake of
sodium (see subsequent text) and alcohol (no more than two drinks per day for men and
one drink per day for women) and maintenance of a daily pattern that emphasizes fruits,
vegetables, and low-fat dairy products. Recommendations also emphasize the need for
normal body weight and physical activity.

• To achieve and maintain a desirable blood cholesterol and lipoprotein profile,

patients should limit intake of saturated fatty acids, trans-unsaturated fatty acids, and
cholesterol. Dietary factors that lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cho lesterol and raise
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) include

• intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, soluble fiber, soy
protein, and Omega-3 fatty acids. Nondietary measures to control serum lipids include the
interrelated tasks of aerobic exercise and weight loss.

Triglycerides

• Factors that increase triglyceride levels include excess body weight, reduced
physical activity; increased intake of sugar and refined carbohydrates, particularly in the
setting of insulin resistance and glucose intolerance; and increased alcohol intake. High
triglycerides are often associated with low HDL cholesterol, obesity, diabetes, and high
blood pressure.
Sodium and Potassium

• Sodium intake should be limited to less than 2,300 mg (approximately one teaspoon
of salt)/day. This can be accomplished by choosing and preparing foods with little salt and
at the same time consuming potassium rich foods such as fruits and vegetables.

• The AHA recommends limiting sodium intake to approximately 1.5 g/day for those
with or without hypertension. The reduction of salt intake is most effective in lowering blood

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pressure in older individuals and in those with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney
disease.

• The AHA recommends eating eight to ten servings of fruits and vegetables daily to
increase potassium intake, which effectively reduces blood pressure in both normotensive
and hypertensive individuals.

• Specifically, the AHA recommends the use of the Dietary Approaches to Stop
Hypertension (DASH) diet, which emphasizes fruits, vegetables and low-fat dairy products
and no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day. It includes whole-grain products, fish,
poultry, nuts, and reduced intake of red meat, sweets, and sugar containing beverages.

• The DASH diet contains higher amounts of magnesium, potassium, calcium, protein,
and fiber as compared to the average American diet. Owing to its relatively high content of
potassium, phosphorus, and protein, the DASH diet is not recommended for those
individuals with chronic kidney disease, that is, an estimated glomerular filtration rate lower
than 60 mL/minute/1.73 m2. (www.nhlbi.nih.gov).

Alcoholic Beverages

• For those who choose to drink alcoholic beverages, the U.S. Dietary Guidelines
2005 recommend to do so sensibly and in moderation, defined as the consumption of up to
one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men.

• A standard drink is considered to be 12 oz of beer,1.5 oz of distilled spirit, or 5 oz of

wine. Alcohol should not be consumed by some individuals, including pregnant women,
and should be avoided by individuals engaging in activities that require attention, skill, or
coordination (7). Further information is available at
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/FAQs/General-English/default.htm.

• There is a dose–response relationship between alcohol and blood pressure,

especially in people drinking more than two drinks daily. Meta-analysis has shown that
consuming less alcohol reduces both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Moderating
alcohol intake may lower blood pressure by an average of 2–4 mm of mercury.

Calcium and Vitamin D

• The National Osteoporosis Foundation estimated in 2004 that 10 million Americans
had osteoporosis (80% are women) and 34 million more were estimated to have low bone
mass. Risk factors that can be altered include inadequate intake of calcium and vitamin D,
as well as inadequate weight-bearing exercise and excessive consumption of alcohol.
• Weight-bearing exercises done on a regular basis, working against gravity,
contribute to the development of a higher peak bone mass and may reduce the risk of falls
because of increased strength in muscle, bone, and balance.
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 Magnesium

• Magnesium is a required cofactor for several essential metabolic reactions

including those that involve adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate.
Magnesium consumption may improve bone density and reduce fracture rates.
Hypermagnesemia can also contribute to chronic constipation. Foods high in magnesium
include beans, broccoli, mackerel, nuts and seeds, okra, oyster scallops, soy milk,
spinach, tofu, whole grain and fortified breads, and cereals.

Iron

• Iron plays an important role in hemoglobin synthesis and in supporting immune

responses. The current RDA, 8 mg/day, is generally met in the diets of healthy populations.
Inadequacies may occur in certain high-risk subgroups. Anemia, the most common
hematologic disorder, is usually caused by inadequate iron intake. If patients do not
consume sufficient iron from good food sources, the clinician can prescribe iron sulfate
(325 mg three times daily).

• For persons with poor digestive-tract iron absorption due to low gastric acidity,
serum iron levels can drop if dietary sources are mainly “nonheme” iron (from vegetables
and fruits). Heme iron derives from animal products (meat, fish, and poultry); its absorption
does not require stomach acid and is therefore unaffected by higher gastric pH. Although
heme iron is more readily absorbed, nonheme iron contributes the larger portion of
available iron in the average diet.

• Zinc intake declines with age and among those who avoid meats. Some evidence
suggests that zinc improves immune function and, in the elderly, reduces pressure ulcers.
After 50 years of age, the RDA for zinc is 8 mg for women and 11 mg for men, but most
persons older than 70 years have inadequate intake. High-dose zinc supplementation can
induce copper deficiency and suppress the immune system. Unless an individual is being
monitored closely for copper status, doses of zinc supplements should be 40–50 mg/day.

Nutritional Supplements
• A large proportion of persons in the United States use vitamins and other nutrient
supplements. For example, in 1997, approximately 12% of the population used herbal
medications. When patients report current medications to their clinician, they often do not
mention the use of such supplements.

• A vitamin/mineral supplement that does not exceed 100% of the DRI for any
components may be helpful if an individual is on a very low-calorie weight loss diet; elderly
and not eating as much as needed; a strict vegetarian; or does not consume milk, cheese,
or yogurt.

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• Overuse of multivitamin and mineral preparations is a policy concern. For example,
excessive vitamin A intake can increase the risk of hip fractures, and high iron intake can
aggravate hemochromatosis. Large amounts of folate can mask vitamin B12 deficiency.
• Supplementation of single nutrients can sometimes have adverse effects on the
absorption and utilization of other nutrients. Treatment with beta-carotene, vitamin A, and
vitamin E may increase mortality. 124-Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is being marketed
as the “fountain of youth” but is generating concern regarding its metabolism to sex
steroids in target tissues (brain, bone, adipose, and skin).

• Until 2007, vitamins, herbal medications, and other nutritional supplements are
regulated under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. This law
exempted these products from the safety and efficacy requirements and regulation of
marketing claims that prescription and over-the-counter drugs must fulfill.

• Some herbals have been adulterated with heavy metals, pesticides, and even
conventional drugs. Since herbal medications cannot be patented, manufacturers are
discouraged from performing the costly type of research to assure efficacy and safety as is
done for manufactured pharmaceuticals.

• In 2007, the FDA established a final rule requiring “good manufacturing practices”
for dietary supplements to ensure that supplements contain what is on the label and no
contaminants or impurities. The rule requires manufacturers to evaluate the identity,
strength, purity, and composition of the supplements.

• Clinicians should advise patients to avoid taking “mega” doses of supplements and
to use products that provide no more than 100% of the daily value of all the vitamins. They
should check for the United States Pharmacopeia symbol on the product label, indicating
that the product contains the advertised amount of the nutrient and will dissolve in 60
minutes. Patients should also be aware that many supplements now have added herbs,
enzymes, or amino acids that may interfere with medications such as anticoagulants.
• Botanicals such as garlic, ginseng, inositol, nicotinate, and onions may have
fibrinolytic properties. Botanicals with coagulant properties include agrimony, mistletoe,
goldenseal, and yarrow. Botanicals containing salicylate or that have antiplatelet properties
include aloe gel, black cohosh, onion, dandelion, feverfew, wintergreen, ginseng, licorice,
and garlic.

• Botanicals containing coumarins with potential anticoagulant effects include anise

seed, meadow sweet, dandelion, fenugreek, horseradish, licorice, celery, parsley, and
red/sweet clover.

Prepregnancy and Pregnancy

• Nutritional status before and during pregnancy can affect the health of the mother,
the growth and development of the fetus, and the risk of birth defects and future health in
the parturient. Risk factors that may be apparent before pregnancy include poor eating
habits and an increased need for nutrients (a special concern with adolescent mothers),

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and a history of three or more pregnancies in the last 2 years (especially miscarriages)
or of poor obstetrical outcomes. Overweight and obese mothers are at higher risk for
gestational diabetes and its complications (e.g., macrosomia);

• The clinician should be alert for the “food faddist”: individuals who have made diet
modifications for chronic disease, have a BMI less than 20 or greater than 25 kg/m2, or
have low hemoglobin/hematocrit concentrations.

• Nutritional issues of concern during pregnancy include poor intake of energy and
important nutrients (especially magnesium, zinc, calcium, iron, vitamin A, vitamin D, iodine,
and magnesium) and those on a poorly managed vegetarian diet. As noted in the
preceding text, pregnant women should also avoid alcoholic beverages.
• In 1990, the IOM published weight gain recommendations for pregnancy based on
prepregnancy BMI.

• Folic acid supplementation is important before and during pregnancy to reduce

the risk of neural tube and other birth defects. The dose is 400 mg/day of folic acid in
addition to the folate provided through foods. Because many pregnancies are unplanned, it
is recommended that women of reproductive age increase the folic acid content of their
diet, “just in case.” Preexisting chronic diseases such as diabetes increase the risk of birth
defects, especially those involving the heart and central nervous system. Vegan
vegetarians will most likely need a vitamin B12 supplement and perhaps zinc, calcium,
and vitamin D. Women with phenylketonuria must resume a low-protein amino acid
modified diet during pregnancy.

Breastfeeding
• Breastfeeding is strongly endorsed by the world's health and scientific community.
Benefits for children include fewer infectious illnesses (e.g., diarrhea, otitis media, and
respiratory tract infections), higher scores on cognitive and intelligence tests, and lower
incidence of sudden infant death syndrome, juvenile onset diabetes, asthma, and eczema.
There is some evidence that breastfed infants are at lower risk of childhood obesity and
dental disease.

• The breastfeeding mother benefits from a greater feeling of bonding with the child, a
reduced risk of postpartum bleeding, more rapid uterine involution, an earlier return to
prepregnancy weight, and earlier resumption of the menstrual cycle with decreased
menstrual blood loss and anemia.
• The U.S. Breastfeeding Committee recommends exclusive breastfeeding for at least
the first few weeks of life. Breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life with gradual
introduction of solid foods after 6 months is preferred.

• The AAP recommends delaying the introduction of solid food until 4–6 months of
age and avoiding cow's milk until after 12 months of age.

Infancy and Childhood

• Rapid growth and development of infants and children provide a higher turnover of
nutrients and a unique set of nutrient needs for growth and development. Caloric needs
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during childhood are approximately 100 kcal/kg and gradually decrease to approximately
55 kcal/kg by the teen years.

• Fat should account for 30–35% of the child's diet. Assuming a proper growth rate,
high fat foods can be replaced with lower fat foods after 2 years of age. Calcium and
phosphorus intake should be similar to assure optimum bone formation and density.
Calcium sources that children often prefer include milk, yogurt, cheeses, and calcium
fortified juices. Exposure to sunlight and intake of vitamin D food sources are encouraged.

• Water, milk, and 100% fruit and vegetable juices are preferred fluids; parents should
introduce vegetable juices before fruit juices to keep children from acquiring preferences
for sweets. Parents should discourage overconsumption of juices to avoid displacing
other foods that are more energy and nutrient dense. Artificially sweetened
beverages should be avoided. Children can obtain appropriate dietary fiber by
consuming fruits, vegetables, and whole grain breads and cereals

Adolescence

• Accelerated growth during adolescence may result in nutritional deficiencies with

resultant loss of height, osteoporosis, and delayed maturation. Inappropriate food choices,
poorly selected vegetarian diets, food faddism, and dieting to lose weight can easily lead to
health complications. Nutritional concerns also include inadequate intake of: (a) protein
(recommendations for males are 45–60 g daily; for females 44–46 g daily) (b) calcium, (c)
iron, and (d) vitamins A, C, and D.

• As with other age-groups, adolescents should be encouraged to consume a wide

variety of foods, including five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. Vegetarians should
be encouraged to consume adequate sources of vitamin B12, riboflavin, zinc, iron, calcium,
protein, and energy.
• Obsession with weight or dieting should be discouraged. Regular meal patterns that
include breakfast and no skipping of meals should be encouraged. The teen years are a
critical time for evaluation of eating habits and the tendency toward eating disorders.

Older Adults
• The goals of good nutrition in the elderly are to maintain adequate weight and
appetite and to avert complications from nutrition-related disorders (e.g., osteoporosis,
fractures, anemias, obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and cancers). Older individuals are
the largest demographic group at disproportionate risk for nutritional deficiencies,
inadequate diet, and malnutrition.

• The Nutrition Screening Initiative reports that 24% of elderly individuals are at high
risk of suboptimal nutrition whereas 38% are at moderate risk. Malnutrition affects 5–10%
of independently living older individuals, 30–60% of those institutionalized, and 35–65% of
hospitalized patients.

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• Poor nutritional status may often go unrecognized until pronounced changes are
evident. Unintended weight loss, in particular, may herald a terminal downward spiral if
weight loss is not identified and addressed.
• Nutritional deficiencies occur among older adults because of physical health
problems, medications, poverty, ignorance, food anxieties, depression, grief, and dementia.

• Food information labels that are difficult to read or interpret can contribute to
inappropriate food purchases. The elderly are also susceptible to the misleading claims of
advertisers, and many unnecessarily use nutritional supplements and other
over-the-counter therapies, which can be costly and may lead to adverse effects.

• Seniors' diets also reflect their environment and social support system: who shops
and cooks, finances, the number of meals per day, and where they are eaten. Social
isolation, lack of family support, loss of a significant other or caregiver, and the decreased
mobility that results from physical disabilities or from social isolation can lessen the
availability of foods. The elderly at high risk are most often dependent on others for care,
and this dependency may result in the potential for abuse.

• Home visits and direct conversations with caregivers often provide a different picture
of the ability to care for the patient than that reported in the office visit. Physical activity,
especially resistance training, is an important objective to maintain lean body mass and
muscle tone and to help constipation.

• Changes in the basal metabolic rate associated with aging reduce the need for
calories by as much as 10% at ages 50–70 years and by 20–25% thereafter. Nonetheless,
seniors who consume less than 1,500 cal/day are likely to develop poor nutritional status
unless closely supervised. Because their caloric needs diminish but nutrient requirements
do not, older adults are in greater need of high nutrient density in their diets.

• Nutrition is affected further by the complications of chronic illness. Dysphasia, slow

eating, low protein intake, and anorexia (often accompanying depression) can also
compromise nutrition. Of those 75 years and older, two-thirds are edentulous. The elderly
often have decreased salivation and absorption accompanied with changes in taste and
smell acuity.

• Older patients are at high risk of adverse food–drug interactions. Seniors often take
multiple medications (engaging in “polypharmacy”) for multiple chronic medical conditions.
It is estimated that more than 30% of all prescription drugs are taken by older

• Food interactions can further potentiate these drug effects. Drugs may also reduce
appetite, taste, or smell. Polypharmacy, depression, and underlying medical illnesses may
produce a situation very similar to “failure to thrive” in infants. When assessing nutritional
status, clinicians should therefore be careful to obtain an accurate drug history.

• They should also ask about vitamin, mineral, and other dietary supplements, which
are widely used by seniors as a form of “nutritional insurance” and perceived by them as
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safe. Clinicians should consider potential interactions between these supplements and
prescribed medications.

• The American Dietetic Association holds that liberalization of the diet prescription
can enhance the quality of life and nutritional status of older residents in long-term care. An
unacceptable or unpalatable diet can lead to lessened food and fluid intake. It may not be
advantageous to initiate a medically or self-imposed restrictive nutrition prescription if it
may suppress appetite and cause substantial, unintentional weight loss.

• Foods offered to the elderly may often need enhancements to achieve proper
consistency and to accommodate their taste acuity.
• Clinicians should monitor older patients for both laxative and alcohol abuse and for
major changes in body weight, as well as the maintenance of adequate hydration.

• Fluid intake is essential for good health, especially for seniors who consume large
amounts of protein, use laxatives or diuretics, or live in warm climates. Dehydration is one
of the most common causes of fluid and electrolyte imbalances in the elderly. Many elderly
have a reduced fluid intake which may arise from a decreased thirst sensation, limited
access to water, or limited water conservation by kidneys.

• Conversely, excessive water consumption may result in dilutional hyponatremia

(water intoxication) and increased nocturia. Generally, fluid intake of 30–35 mL/kg of actual
body weight and a minimum of 1,500 mL/day or 1.0–1.5 mL/kcal of food intake is
adequate. In addition to water and other beverages (e.g., coffee, tea), fluids may derive
from soups, vegetables, and fruits.

Selected Special Approaches to Healthy Eating

• The Mediterranean Diet
• The “Mediterranean” type diet includes an increased amount of vegetables,
legumes, fruits, and cereals (mostly unrefined); a low to moderate intake of dairy
products; a moderate to high intake of fish; a meal pattern characteristically low in
saturated fats and high in unsaturated fats (olive oil); relatively low meat intake; and
moderate intake of ethanol, usually in the form of wine.

• Such dietary patterns—emphasizing plant foods and unsaturated fats—are

associated with a lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease and longer life
expectancy. The Mediterranean Diet also utilizes foods high in Omega-3 fatty acids,
specifically eicosadienoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, which confer cardioprotective
effects. See Table for food sources of Omega-3 fatty acids.

Vegetarianism
• Vegetarian diets are plant-based diets that emphasize eating fruits, vegetables,
legumes, seeds, and nuts. There are three major categories of vegetarianism, as follows:
• Vegan—a very strict vegetarian food pattern (“pure” vegetarianism)
• Lacto—a vegetarian food pattern that includes milk and milk products
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• Lacto-ovo—a vegetarian food pattern that includes milk and eggs as well

• Carefully planned and monitored vegetarian diets can be healthful. Such diets may
reduce the risk of obesity, coronary heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, diverticular
disease, and constipation. Potential complications of a vegetarian diet include
iron-deficiency anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, and vitamin D deficiency or rickets. Intake
of Omega-3 fatty acids, essential amino acids, and calcium may be compromised.

Food Labels

• A new general guide to calories has been provided by the U.S. Dietary Guidelines to
aid consumers. Food labels indicate that 40 cal is considered low consumption, 100 cal is
moderate, and 400 cal is high, all based on a 2,000-cal diet. The new food label
recommendations offer consumers advice on which nutrients to increase and which to limit.
The label is also helpful in indicating whether a product is a good source of nutrients.
Office and Clinic Organization

• The practice should display patient education materials and/or posters that may
stimulate questions about healthy diets. These materials should be readily available to
reinforce discussions and provide an opportunity for the patient to learn more at a later
time. The reception area is an excellent place to educate patients.

• Clinics that do not have the services of a registered dietitian or licensed nutritionist
should develop a referral system so that patients can obtain the help they need to meet the
dietary goals recommended by the clinician. Internet access to appropriate nutritional
resources can also be provided in the reception area, or a listing of useful websites can be
supplied to patients.

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 Weight Management

Obesity, Overweight, and Health

• “Obesity has been steadily increasing in the United States for the past 3 decades. At
present almost 65% of the population is overweight or obese, with the prevalence higher
for minority populations. Obesity now is present in 31% of the population and overweight in
34%.

• Approximately 1% of the adult population is moving into the obese category (body
mass index >30 kg/m2) every year. A similar increase is being seen among children and
adolescents. This pattern is not confined to the United States, but is also occurring
throughout the world, in both developed and less developed countries.”

• Obesity is associated with several risk factors and diseases. These include insulin
resistance, glucose intolerance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia,
coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, and certain kinds of cancer, as well as earlier
mortality. This has led to increasing costs.

• Obesity has been reported to be responsible for 5.5% to 7.8% of all health care
costs, to lead to a loss of productivity by days lost from work, and to cause a great number
of disabilities. These disabilities are expensive both financially and with respect to quality of
life.”

• “The change in weight of the U.S. population has occurred without changes in the
gene pool, suggesting that the root cause of the epidemic is change in lifestyle and
environment rather than a biological genetic change in the population. This does not imply
that genes are not important. Between 30% and 40% of the variance of weight is genetic.
There is clearly a gene-environment interaction, with some individuals being more sensitive
than others to the “toxic” environment we now experience.

• Obesity also increases the risk of developing a number of the possible complications
of pregnancy, and is associated with gout and osteoarthritis (the latter through simple
excess mechanical wear on the joints). As well, obesity can make simply moving about
more difficult, and it can lead to negative self-image and depression. It can also confer the
consequences of the unfortunate prejudice against overweight and obese people that,
along with the obesity epidemic itself, is all too common in U.S. society.

• The definitions of “overweight” and “obesity” in current use (2006) were established
by the World Health Organization in 1997. As noted an adult is “overweight” if the body
mass index (BMI) is 25–29.9 kg/m2. Mild or class I obesity is defined as a BMI of 30–34.9
kg/m2, moderate or class II obesity as a BMI of 35–39.9 kg/m2, and extreme, morbid, or
class III obesity as a BMI of 40 kg/m2 or more.

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• These definitions have superseded their predecessors. “Overweight” formerly
referred to any weight above that considered to be in the normal range by age, sex, and
height. “Obesity” formerly referred to excess body fat, regardless of weight. The BMI is
considered an indirect measure of body fatness.

• Research on the relationship of body composition and fat distribution suggests that
visceral body fat percentage may be a better predictor of poor health than weight or
percentage of body fat alone. The most common way to measure visceral fat in clinical
practice is the waist circumference, but measurements of waist circumference vary with
the examiner and are frequently inaccurate. According to current guidelines, a waist
circumference of at least 35 in. (88 cm) in women and 40 in. (102 cm) in men is associated
with increased cardiovascular risk.

Overweight and Obesity as Social Constructs

• Regardless of the various medically defined categories, most people think of obesity
as a matter of self-perception as well as of weight, height, and body fat ratios: that is, how
one looks, feels, and thinks about one's body image. American society stresses thinness
for women

• Therefore, a 5-ft 7-in. tall woman weighing 125 lb, even if described by most
observers as “attractive” may think of herself as “fat” if she carries some excess adipose
tissue on, say, the lateral aspects of her thighs. In evaluating a patient for obesity, it is
important to bear in mind not only what the tables say about the subject, but also what the
patient has to say about it.

• Given societal norms, certain patients will set their goals for weight loss not on the
basis of health or other physical needs, but rather on the basis of perceived societal or
other interpersonal demands. The clinician should recognize that patients who find it
difficult if not impossible to lose weight for metabolic reasons may well experience serious
conflict created by societally determined weight/fat desiderata

• There may well be a need to clarify whether the patients' goal concerns weight per
se as a risk factor, or physical appearance (e.g., the fact that they do not resemble a
fashion model despite being of normal weight), or body image (a mental construct that is
often distorted even when the weight and appearance are excellent in the eyes of others).
Knowing what the patient perceives as “the problem” is important for a variety of reasons.
• The first is to correct self-misperceptions, for example, the anorexic patient who
thinks her 85-lb body is obese.

• The second is to clarify the reasons, health promoting or otherwise, why one might
engage in a weight-loss program. For example, one can achieve physical health benefits
through weight loss (risk reduction). One can also achieve psychological benefits both from
simply accomplishing the often difficult task of losing weight and from improving one's looks
and feeling better.

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• The third is to ensure that the patient is setting a sensible weight loss target, an
achievable BMI goal. Therefore, the clinician may be well advised to focus first not on
weight loss but rather on self-acceptance, healthy eating for its own sake, and regular
exercise for its own sake Benefits and Risks of Weight/Fat Loss.

• In terms of physical health, the benefit of weight/fat loss is the reduction or

elimination of risks associated with obesity. Modest weight loss, even of 5% of initial body
weight, can significantly improve many comorbid conditions. As noted, the overweight
person who manages to lose weight will often feel better physically

• and psychologically, will look better to self and others, will be more able to engage in
regular physical activity, and will have dealt with the personal social negatives of being
obese. But the attempt to lose excess weight and fat carries certain risks as well, primarily
fear of failure and fear of success.

• Fear of failure often inhibits the initiation of weight loss, especially for persons who
have experienced “yo-yo dieting” (see “Starvation Response and ‘Yo-Yo’ Dieting” on pages
212–213). Weight-loss therapists report that, for some patients, a major risk of success in
weight loss concerns sexuality and relationships with the opposite sex. Many persons with
adult-onset obesity report that their sex life has diminished or disappeared entirely over
time

• Weight loss may bring increased anxiety over the prospect of becoming sexually
active once again. There are also medical risks from extreme weight loss measures, from
related eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, and from becoming too thin, but
these complications of weight loss are rare.

Mechanisms for Saving Energy

• When individuals consume food energy (calories) beyond their immediate needs,
the body stores much of the excess as body fat. Body fat, other than that which plays a
protective, cushioning function, serves mainly to store potential energy. A certain
level of stored energy is healthy. But for many people, the storage capacity and the
amount stored are both well above any potential need other than in the case of
famine.

• That person is overweight or obese. Nevertheless, given the place that obesity
occupies in our culture as well as its importance as a health risk, it can be helpful to share
with patients the concept that excess body fat is nothing more than stored potential energy.

Metabolism versus Social Constructs

• Although our culture often uses moralistic terms to refer to overeating/overweight
(e.g., “I was bad; I ate too much,” “I feel guilty for eating that hot fudge sundae”), obesity is
obviously not caused by wickedness. Neither is overeating nor underexercising a sin.
However, although the fact that overweight has nothing to do with immorality may seem
obvious to the clinician, prevailing social attitudes toward overweight may make the
distinction less obvious to patients.
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• There is indeed a view in society that overeating, although not a sin or a sign of
wickedness, is a sign of weakness or of lack of self-discipline, or is a reaction to unmet
emotional needs. In this context, it is useful to review the metabolic origins of excess body
fat. A formulation like “excess body fat is simply tomorrow's meal you ate 2 years ago”
might prove to be helpful.

Dietary Fat is Calorie Rich

• Patients should also be given two other relevant facts about fat metabolism. First, a
gram of dietary fat contains approximately 9 cal of potential energy, whereas a gram of
protein or carbohydrate contains only about 4. (This is one reason why low-fat eating is
helpful for both weight loss and desired-weight maintenance.)

• Second, because of the energy requirements for internal carbohydrate and protein
conversion to fat, excess calories presented to the body in the form of dietary fat are stored
as body fat with much less extra energy expenditure than are excess carbohydrate or
protein calories: approximately 3% of dietary fat calories are metabolized in the conversion
to body fat; approximately 33% of carbohydrate or protein calories are metabolized to
convert them to body fat.

• Beginning with the so-called Scarsdale Diet that was popularized in the mid-1970s,
certain weight-loss advocates have recommended some variation of a low-carbohydrate
(“low carb”) or ketogenic diet emphasizing high intake of protein and fat. The current
prototype is the “Atkins Diet”; low “glycemic index” diets such as the South Beach and
“Zone” Diets have also become popular. Such eating plans have been found to achieve
greater weight loss over the first 6 months of dieting as compared with the traditional diet
recommended in this chapter (and in), which limits fat and calorie intake and encourages
moderate protein and proportionally higher carbohydrate intake

• Initially, low-carb diets tend to suppress the appetite better and can improve
triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. However, they are ultimately no more
effective than low-fat diets in achieving weight loss after 1 year of treatment.

• Unlike low fat diets, low glycemic index and ketogenic diets appear ineffective in
reducing, and may even increase, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. These
diets are quite difficult to sustain long term, and the dropout rates observed in these trials
were quite high. Owing to these concerns and the lack of data regarding long-term safety,
the authors choose not to advocate low-carb diets.

The Starvation Response and “Yo-Yo” Dieting

• A critical metabolic factor in weight gain, especially relevant to our weight reduction,
diet-conscious culture, is a phenomenon called the starvation response. Like the fat
energy storage system, it is a mechanism to enhance the survival of the individual and
species. If a person experiences a sudden decrease in caloric intake, the resting metabolic
rate (RMR, the measure of energy required to maintain organ system function) will
start to decrease, probably within 24–36 hours.

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• During the course of species development, this process was originally designed to
conserve energy. The RMR, which is normally approximately 75 cal/hour, can in the first
instance drop to 60 cal/hour. A second exposure to sudden caloric deficit can lower RMR
further to approximately 50 cal/hour. In some people, the RMR may drop to as low as
35–40 cal/hour.

• The starvation response can be elicited by sudden calorie restriction dieting.

Unfortunately, the metabolic system responds the same way to intentional caloric deficit as
it does to externally induced deficits. The metabolic system cannot recognize that the
immediate caloric deficit in this instance does not indicate that food might be in short
supply for quite some time.

• Therefore, when the person finishes with a particular diet designed for short-term
weight loss with no long-term healthy eating component and returns to his or her prediet
eating pattern (as often happens), there is no available built-in “second signal” to stimulate
an immediate return to normal RMR.

• Usually, the sudden calorie restriction diets described in the lay literature contain
little information about lifelong healthy eating and how to go about establishing that pattern.
Many dieters using these methods lose some weight and then return to their normal eating
pattern.

• If a person with a lowered RMR resumes normal eating without increasing energy
expenditure, they will consume calories in excess of metabolic need. Most of the excess
calories will be stored as body fat, and body weight will increase again. That outcome may
well induce the person to try losing weight once more.

• If the same sudden calorie-restriction dieting approach is followed, perhaps just

formulated differently, the RMR may be further depressed. And again, even if some weight
is lost on subsequent tries, unless the person has managed to change his or her regular
eating pattern, the diet often produces immediate, sometimes significant, weight loss,
followed by slow, but steady weight regain.

• This dieting-induced pattern is called yo-yo dieting.(After a number of such

cycles, the RMR may be depressed to the point that the next episode of calorie restriction
dieting has no effect on body weight at all, as well as having no further effect on an already
greatly depressed RMR.)

• There is one known mechanism by which a depressed RMR can be raised,

however: engaging in regular exercise. Muscle requires more energy for maintenance of its
basal functions than does fat. Regular exercise raises the RMR by gradually creating new
muscle mass.

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• For patients averse to regular exercise, this will be a “good news/bad news”
message, but they should be encouraged to use this method to raise their RMR, if they feel
that they can manage it.

Pathways to Overweight
• It was formerly thought that body weight/fat proportion was simply the result of the
interplay of caloric intake and caloric expenditure. According to this model, weight loss was
simply a matter of taking in fewer calories than were required to satisfy a person's energy
needs. It is now known that the process is not quite so simple as that described by the old
“calories in/calories out” formula.

• Because this interplay exists, it is now apparent that there is more than a single
pathway—overeating—to overweight/obesity. In addition to the relatively rare organic
disease causes of overweight, such as hypothyroidism, the following four principal
dietary/metabolic pathways to overweight have been hypothesized

Adult-onset overeating: high-calorie overweight

• Childhood-onset overeating, arising from familial eating patterns (which may result
in a high or normal caloric intake in adult life): familial overweight
• Dieting-induced, lowered RMR, with low caloric intake: dieting-induced low calorie
overweight (DI-LCO)
• Genetically-determined, lowered RMR, with low caloric intake: genetic predisposition
low calorie overweight (similar in outcome to DI-LCO)

• Although observational data support this theoretical construct, the epidemiology of

the pathways to overweight, other than the genetically determined one, has not been
studied with any rigor. Therefore, in the overweight/obese population, the distribution of the
causes of overweight/obesity among the postulated four pathways is not known.

• Nevertheless, assuming that the pathways construct is correct, one of the first steps
in helping patients find a successful long-term weight reduction plan is to determine which
pathway led to overweight in the first place.

Achieving Success in Weight Loss

• Weight loss success is measured not just by how much weight and body fat
decrease, but by the extent to which one remains at or near the target weight/body fat level
after the loss has occurred. Further, success is determined by whether that goal can be
achieved without permanently “going on a diet.”

• One of the keys to success is for the patient to understand that permanent weight
loss is usually achieved not just by reducing caloric intake for a finite period of time, but

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also by changing one's whole way of eating, and, often, how energy is expended. As noted
by Blair and Church.

• “[T]he majority of studies show that regular physical activity has health benefits at
any weight, and for those who want or need to lose weight, physical activity is a critical
component of long-term weight management. Consequently, physical activity promotion
should be a foundation of clinical therapy and public health policy, whether to promote
health or weight control.”

• To achieve permanent weight loss, a program must help the person to make
permanent changes in eating habits and activity patterns. It must make normal, healthy
eating part of the person's life from the beginning of the program, not something added on
in a maintenance program after the weight is lost. Carefully defining “success” in a manner
that fits the patient can help him or her deal with both the fear of failure and the fear of
success.
Weight Loss/Management Program Development
Approaches to Healthy Weight Management
• There are numerous approaches to weight management and weight loss (see
“Resources—Patient Education” at the end of this chapter). The healthy ones all revolve in
one way or another around healthy eating and regular exercise. The program
recommendations made in the balance of this chapter, based on experience and
observation, constitute just one of a number of healthy protocols that can achieve the
desired outcome.

Is Weight/Fat Loss Possible?

• Before discussing with the patient the details of a program for weight loss, it is often
necessary to deal with the question, is weight loss possible? In contrast with the situation
faced, for example, when counseling patients about regular exercise, few patients need to
be convinced of the benefits of weight loss or that they ought to try to lose weight if they
are overweight.

• In fact, of the approximately 65% of the population who are either overweight or
obese, at any one time an estimated 50% are trying to lose weight. For many, the big
question is “can I succeed?”
• It is well known that organized weight loss programs have long-term success rates
of only 5–20%. Less well-recognized are the results of at least

• two early studies of self-directed weight loss regimens that showed a success rate
of 60–75%. It stands to reason that self-directed regimens might work best, at least for
those patients who are equipped to undertake them. Therefore, success is certainly
possible. But patients have to get on the correct pathway for themselves (dealt with in the
balance of this chapter) if the chance is to be a reasonable one.

• At the same time that the possibility of success is being considered, it should also
be recognized that a variety of physiologic, metabolic, and psychological factors make it
very difficult if not impossible for certain overweight persons to lose weight.
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• It is important for these people to strive for self-acceptance (and for society to
increase its tolerance of overweight people). Furthermore, for some patients for whom
weight reduction to the “normal” range is not possible, partial weight reduction is a
worthwhile goal.

• Such goals should be considered with the patient, including a determination of

whether achieving them will provide self-acceptance. For some patients, striving to live a
healthier lifestyle—healthful eating and exercise—without necessarily losing weight may be
the appropriate goal

The “Four Pathways Up/Three Pathways Down” Model

• According to the Pathways hypothesis, depending upon which pathway a particular
patient followed in gaining weight, he/she will have to accomplish one or more of the
following in order to lose weight: reduce total caloric intake; lower the amount of dietary fat
(both to reduce the ease with which the body can convert excess calories to body fat and
to lower caloric intake); and engage in regular exercise (both to consume excess calories
stored in body fat and to raise the RMR).

• Three possible pathways to weight reduction can also be postulated

• For high-calorie overweight, reducing caloric intake is obligatory and regular
exercise is desirable.
• For normal calorie overweight, caloric intake reduction and regular exercise are both
equally important.

• For dieting-induced or genetically predisposed LCO, regular exercise is obligatory

and low-fat eating is desirable (not only to lower caloric intake but also to maintain lean
body mass as weight is lost and to establish a lifelong pattern of healthy eating).

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