Insect Pests and Diseases

in Indonesian Forests
An assessment
of the major threats,
research efforts
and literature

K.S.S. Nair (Editor)

 Insect Pests and Diseases
in Indonesian Forests

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MAJOR THREATS,

RESEARCH EFFORTS AND LITERATURE

Editor
K.S.S. Nair

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 © 2000 by Center for International Forestry Research
All rights reserved. Published in December 2000
Printed by SMT Grafika Desa Putera, Indonesia

Cover photos by Levania Santoso

ISBN 979-8764-52-8

Nair, K.S.S. (ed.). 2000. Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian forests:
an assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature.
Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia. 101p.

Published by
Center for International Forestry Research
Bogor, Indonesia
P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100
E-mail: cifor@cgiar.org
Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org

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 Contents

Acknowledgements vi
Abstract vii

1. Introduction
K.S.S. Nair
1.1. Background 1
1.2. Objectives 1
1.3. Methodology 2
1.4. Presentation 2

2. The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair
2.1. A time of change 3
2.2. Forest types, area and policies 3
2.3. Forest concession right and plantation development 4
2.4. Plantation trends-areas and species 6
2.5. Forest plantations in perspective 8

3. General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests

and Plantations in Indonesia
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
3.1. Natural forests 11
3.2. Plantations 12
3.3. Comparison between plantations and natural forests 12

4. Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
4.1. Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp. 15
4.2. Agathis dammara 19
4.3. Alstonia spp. 20
4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba 20
4.5. Azadirachta excelsa 21
4.6. Dalbergia spp. 21
4.7. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarps) 22

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 4.8. Dyera spp. 24
4.9. Eucalyptus spp. 24
4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri 26
4.11. Gmelina arborea 26
4.12. Gonystylus bancanus 27
4.13. Koompassia species 28
4.14. Maesopsis eminii 28
4.15. Mangrove species 28
4.16. Melaleuca cajuputi 29
4.17. Ochroma pyramidale 30
4.18. Octomeles sumatrana 30
4.19. Paraserianthes falcataria 31
4.20. Peronema canescens 33
4.21. Pinus merkusii 33
4.22. Schleichera oleosa 35
4.23. Swietenia macrophylla 35
4.24. Tectona grandis 37

5. General Conclusions
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
5.1. Summary of present problems and future threats 39
5.2. The research scenario 43
5.3. Outlook for future 44

Literature Cited 45

6. Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases

L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair
6.1. Insect Pests 57
6.2. Diseases 70
6.3. Bibliography Indexes 79

Indexes 87

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 List of Tables
Table 2.1. Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus 4
Table 2.2. Forest plantations in Java in 1995 6
Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia 6
Table 2.4 Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to 1998-99 7
Table 2.5. Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands 7
Table 2.6. Species and area planted by some HTI companies 7
Table 2.7. Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources 8
Table 4.1. Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 16
Table 4.2. Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia 17
Table 4.3. Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia 23
Table 4.4. Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia 23
Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia 25
Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia 25
Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia 29
Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 32
Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia 32
Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia 34
Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia 35
Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia 37
Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing
plantation species 40
Table 5.2. Summary of pest and disease problems for
new plantation species 41

List of Figures
Figure 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and
the species planted in each province 9

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 Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. E.A. Husaeni and Prof. Gunarwan Suratmo of Bogor Agricultural University;
Prof. Ahmad Sultoni, Mr. Subyanto and Ms. Sri Rahayu of Gadjah Mada University;
Dr. Daddy Ruhiyat, Mr. Encep Iskandar and Mr. CH. Soeyamto of Mulawarman University;
Ms. Mieke Suharti and Mr. Erdy Santoso of Forestry and Estate Crops Research and
Development Agency (FERDA); and Dr. John Poulsen of CIFOR for helpful discussions.
We are grateful to all of them for enriching this study by sharing information and their
personal experience. We also thank Dr. Ken MacDicken, Director of Research, CIFOR and
Dr. J.W. Turnbull, whose editorial comments helped to improve the presentation. We received
useful information on pests and diseases from Mr. S.S. Maurits and Mr. S.N. Sunaryo of
PT Surya Hutani Jaya; and Mr. Canesio Munoz, Mr. Cheah Leong Chew and
Mr. Lee Foo Wah of PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper. Representatives of several
plantation companies helped this study by providing statistics on plantations as well as
information on pests and diseases. We thank all of them.

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 Abstract

Major pests and diseases of natural and planted junghuhniana, mangroves, etc., but plantations of teak,
Indonesian forests have been reviewed, threats assessed pine, mahogany and Paraserianthes falcataria etc., are
and a bibliography compiled. Indonesia has about 96 damaged by pests every year. In natural forests high
million hectares of natural forests, dominated by host density appears to be a predisposing factor for pest
dipterocarps, and 4 million ha of forest plantations. build-up. Serious pests occur on Tectona grandis, Pinus
About half the plantations are in Java, consisting of merkusii, Paraserianthes falcataria and Swietenia
long-established species including Tectona grandis, macrophylla, with the most damaging being the
Pinus merkusii, Agathis dammara, Swietenia Paraserianthes trunk borer, Xystrocera festiva. Disease
macrophylla, Dalbergia latifolia and Melaleuca problems are less significant than pests in the natural
cajuputi, and half in Sumatra and Kalimantan, mainly forests and no major disease outbreak has occurred in
fast growing pulpwood species. Major plantation plantations, although many fungal diseases are prevalent
species are: Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Acacia in nurseries. No major pest or disease has been recorded
mangium, Agathis dammara, Paraserianthes falcataria, on the minor plantation species, but their history is too
Swietenia macrophylla, Gmelina arborea, mangrove short and planted areas too small to draw reliable
species, Eucalyptus spp., Dalbergia spp., Melaleuca conclusions on their susceptibility. There are indications
cajuputi and Azadirachta excelsa. Only small-scale of impending problems, e.g. root rot in Eucalyptus spp.
plantations exist for the other species reviewed, viz., and root and stem rot in Acacia mangium. There is also
Alstonia spp., Anthocephalus sp., Dipterocarpaceae, the risk of new pests in Acacia mangium, Gmelina
Dyera spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Gonystylus arborea, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. Research
bancanus, Koompassia spp., Maesopsis eminii, capacity in Indonesia is inadequate to meet the existing
Ochroma pyramidale, Octomeles sumatrana, Peronema and future challenges and more collaboration between
canescens and Schleichera oleosa. Occasional and Government, universities and plantation companies is
unpredictable insect outbreaks have occurred in natural needed for pest and disease surveillance and research in
stands of Pinus merkusii, Plaquium sp., Casuarina the rapidly expanding forest plantations.

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 Chapter 1

Introduction
K.S.S. Nair

1.1. Background
mangium, Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and
Indonesia is a ‘forest country’. In 1993, the Paraserianthes falcataria are planted.
Indonesian Ministry of Forestry estimated (MoF 1993)
that about three-quarters of the 193 million hectares Replacement of natural mixed forests over vast areas,
(ha) of the land area, i.e., about 144 million ha, are with plantations, raises several important questions.
covered by forest. FAO estimates in 1996 showed the Apart from the uncertainty in sustainability of
forest area to be 96.2 million ha, i.e., about half of the production over successive short rotations and the
land area, and there has been further reduction in environmental impact (loss of biodiversity, soil
forested land since then (Fox et al. 2000). This trend compaction, disturbance to water balance, etc.),
of deforestation has been continuing for some time. outbreaks of serious pests and diseases may be a major
Shifting agriculture by indigenous communities and threat. Devastating outbreaks of the psyllid,
logging by forest concessionaires have created about Heteropsylla cubana in plantations of Leucaena
30 million ha of secondary forests in the outer islands, leucocephala in South and Southeast Asia, conifer
particularly Sumatra and Kalimantan. These are often aphids in plantations in East Africa and eucalypt leaf
further degraded into grasslands. Apart from the early diseases are only recent history. What is the risk of
planting of nearly 2 million ha of teak, pine, mahogany, such new pest and disease outbreaks, in the rapidly
agathis and other species in Java for industrial expanding forest plantations in Indonesia?
purposes, planting programmes to rehabilitate
degraded lands were initiated in the 1970s. In the This study is an attempt to assess the present pest
1980s, the Government initiated an ambitious and disease situation in Indonesian forests, particularly,
programme of Industrial Forest Plantations (Hutan in forest plantations, and evaluate the future risks.
Tanaman Industri, or HTI). Under this programme,
intended to meet the raw material demands of forest-
based industries, ‘Concession’ areas were granted to 1.2. Objectives
both foreign and national companies, and incentives
were offered, e.g. capital in the form of Government The specific objectives were:
equity, interest free loans, etc., in order to promote
plantation development. Although the Government i. to prepare a bibliography of pests and diseases lit-
target (MoF 1993) of 6.2 million ha of industrial forest erature pertaining to Indonesian forests, including
plantations by year 2000 was not reached, it is informal publications (grey literature), like consult-
estimated that at least 4 million ha have been planted ant reports and student theses;
(including plantations in Java) (see Chapter 2). In the ii. to interpret the literature and summarise the main
outer islands, fast growing species such as Acacia findings, and

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 2 Introduction

iii. to derive general conclusions on the impact of University. In addition, there was correspondence with
pests and diseases, and make informed judgment representatives of several plantation companies to elicit
on the future risks. information on pest and disease outbreaks.

1.3. Methodology 1.4. Presentation

Information was gathered from published and grey The results of the study are presented in five chapters.
literature, field visits and discussions with Indonesian Chapter 2 presents an overview of the state of the
entomologists and pathologists. The TREECD forest and plantation trends in Indonesia and Chapter
database published by the Commonwealth Agricultural 3 a general comparison of the pest and disease
Bureau International (1939-1998(4)) was screened for problems in natural forests and plantations. In Chapter
abstracts of formal publications. Most relevant 4, the insect pests and diseases of major plantation
publications were in the Indonesian language (Bahasa species in Indonesia are discussed in detail by tree
Indonesia) and many in conference proceedings, species. This sets the background for Chapter 5 in
student theses and departmental and consultant which general conclusions are drawn on the impacts
reports. Full text of most of the relevant publications, of pests and diseases, the current status of research
both in English and Bahasa Indonesia, was read to on the subject and constraints to research and
extract information. management of pests and diseases. Based on the
available information and the personal experience of
Field visits were made to plantations of Tectona the authors, an assessment is made of the future
grandis, Paraserianthes falcataria and other species threats of pest and disease outbreaks in plantations.
in Java, and of Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea Suggestions are made to meet the challenges.
and Eucalyptus spp. in East Kalimantan. Discussions
were held with specialist scientists at CIFOR, FERDA In addition to the cited references, there is a separate
(Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development bibliography of published and grey literature for insect
Agency of Indonesia), IPB (Bogor Agricultural pests and diseases, which includes documents in
University), Gadjah Mada University and Mulawarman English, Bahasa Indonesia and Dutch.

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 Chapter 2

The State of the Forest

and Plantation Trends
C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair

2.1. A time of change deforestation during 1972–1990 was about 840 000
ha per year (Sumahadi et al. 1997). As noted earlier,
Indonesian forests are in a state of transition. The in 1996 FAO estimated forest area as 96.2 million
traditional low-level exploitation of forests by ha, and there has been further reduction since then
indigenous communities has been supplemented, over (Fox et al. 2000). Most Government sources
the past 30 years, by increased logging operations for continue to give higher figures with estimates of
selected timbers which has led to degradation of foests 92-124 million ha in many publications. Often there
over large areas. Presently, there is large-scale is confusion between land area classified as forest in
replacement of degraded natural forests with short Government records and the land area actually
rotation industrial tree crops, raised and managed by covered by forest. Since most forest policy decisions
commercial companies. Estate crops such as rubber of Government have been made on the basis of the
and oil palm have also replaced part of the natural older figures, it is difficult to use more recent figures
forests. What drives these changes is not the in the following discussion.
Indonesian consumer demands, but the rapidly rising
international demand for engineered wood products, The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia
e.g. medium density fibre board and pulp and paper; dictates that all forests of the country are to be
and rubber and palm oil. governed by the State and there are a number of
Acts and Rules that set principles and guidelines for
their management. In 1984, the Government
2.2. Forest types, area and policies classified the forests into five categories, based on
land-use preference established by a consensus of
Nature has endowed the country with a rich variety of provincial Government agencies (Handadhari 1997,
tropical forests. Dominated by dipterocarps, these Gautam et al. 2000). Data in Table 2.1 show about 49
include the monsoon forests, hill rainforests, lowland million ha reserved for conservation purposes (first and
rainforests, peat-swamp forests, swamp forests, littoral second categories), 34 million ha for production and
forests and mangrove forests (Handadhari 1997). about 30 million ha for limited production. About 30
Forest area statistics given by different authors are million ha are designated as convertible forest area for
often conflicting. In addition to degradation due to long-term non-forestry uses. The areas assigned to each
shifting agriculture and selective logging, since the category are only estimates, as all lands not otherwise
1970s, large areas have been converted to agricultural identified with existing agricultural or urban land uses
land, estates and human settlements. Estimates based in records available to provincial offices at that time
on remote sensed data, show that the forest area of were designated as forests (Gautam et al. 2000).
Indonesia is about 124 million ha and the rate of The estimates were often contended and adjustments

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 4 The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

Table 2.1. Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus

Category Purpose1 Area2 (million ha) % Area

Nature Reserve and Conservation, including wildlife, 18.8 13

Recreation forest national parks and tourism

Protection forest Watershed protection 30.3 21

Production forest Selective timber harvesting 33.9 24

Limited production forest Harvest restricted to protect 30.5 21

environment

Convertible forest Conversion for estate crops, 30.5 21

smallholdings, future agricultural
use, etc.

Total - 144.0 100

vide Gautam et al. (2000); 2Area in 1984

1

Source: Handadhari (1997)

were made. Due to this, the area figures given by been given the responsibility for management of about
various authors in the above categories often differ 3 million ha of State-owned forests. The mandate
(e.g. see Leech et al. 1996; MoFEC 1999). includes planning, management, exploitation and
protection of all forests in Java and Madura, except
The 64 million ha of production forest (including the nature reserves and parks. Thus, Perum Perhutani
30 million ha of limited production forest) is a massive manages about 1 million ha of naturalised teak forests
resource for wood production. Ensuring the that have been planted and managed since the Dutch
sustainability of production in these forests, and colonial times (1870s), in addition to nearly another
arresting forest conversion within the set limit of million hectares of plantations of Pinus, Agathis,
about 30 million ha are the main challenges of Dalbergia spp. and other species were raised later.
Indonesian forestry today. The basic principles to Teak plantation are managed in Java under the taungya
guide sound forest management have been identified system, in which local farmers are permitted to plant
as national interest, sustainability of yield, multi- food crops between rows of forest trees during the
sectoral benefits, equality and justice for all provinces initial years of tree growth.
and peoples within the country, social participation,
and encouragement of agroforestry and smallholder In 1967, Forest Concession Right (Hak Pengusahaan
forestry. However, there are constraints putting these Hutan, or HPH) was granted to private and State-owned
principles into practice, which have been identified enterprises, to exploit natural forests in the outer
as conflict of interest among development sectors islands. In the “production” and “limited production”
and the irresponsible attitude of forest forests, besides exploiting the timber, forest
concessionaires (see MoF 1993; Handadhari 1997). concessionaires were required to undertake
rehabilitation planting in the logged area. There was a
rapid increase in the number of concessionaires, from
2.3. Forest concession right and 64 in 1970, with a concession area of 7.8 million ha to
plantation development 462 in 1979, with a concession area of about 50 million
ha (MoF 1993). Simultaneously, shifting agriculture
Management of Indonesian forests has traditionally by indigenous communities and excessive logging by
been vested with forest concessionaires. In Java, a the concessionaires created vast areas of degraded,
Government-owned company, Perum Perhutani, has secondary forests, which were often converted into

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 C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 5

unproductive grassland, dominated by Imperata forests, creates its own problems. Although it brings
cylindrica. Such lands were estimated at about 30 in the much-needed investment and expertise, the
million ha (Supriana and Natawiria 1987a) and short-term financial interests of the investors rather
intensive efforts were made to reforest them. As many than long term ecological, economic and social
native tree species were suppressed by the grass, the prosperity of the country are likely to be given
exotic Acacia mangium emerged as a promising precedence. Liberal government incentives to promote
species for afforestation of such lands. In 1980, in forest-based industries have led to large-scale clearing
order to meet the increasing raw material demand of of productive secondary forest, in some cases to
forest industries, the Government of Indonesia procure land tenure rather than to produce an
initiated a programme to develop industrial forest economic crop, and to deprivation of local people of
plantations (HTI). This was justified by the anticipated their traditional rights on the land (Turnbull et al.
pressure on natural forest resources and the need to 1998). There is fear of long-term ecological
rehabilitate denuded areas. The Government assisted deterioration caused by over-logging and inadequate
the concessionaires by providing capital in the form regeneration efforts in natural forests, and
of Government equity amounting to 14% and interest- inappropriate management practices in plantation
free loan up to 32.5% of the plantation cost (MoF areas. Although the policies and prescriptions are
1993). The period of concession was 35 years, plus adequate, there are problems in implementation at all
one rotation length of the tree species planted, with levels, and a large number of forest concessionaires
provision for further extension. Concession areas who are managing natural forest areas, are not
were granted to foreign and Indonesian entrepreneurs. implementing the prescribed forest management
The Government set a target of about 6 million ha of systems correctly (Djakaria et al. 1997). It is public
HTI by the year 2000. knowledge that the forest concession system has been
plagued by political patronage. Rules and regulations
The Government also initiated a Forest Village have been grossly violated. Concessions and
Development Programme, with social benefit conversion rights were often granted in areas set aside
schemes adapted to local conditions and for conservation. Such patronage has often led to
requirements, in an attempt to encourage the native conflicts between local communities, logging
shifting cultivators to become settled farmers. The concessionaires, plantation companies,
settled manpower was also expected to assist in transmigrants and other state-sponsored activities
the development of HTI and the forest (Gautam et al. 2000). It has been alleged that some
concessionaires were assigned the responsibility for plantation companies, particularly those engaged in
implementation of the Forest Village Development oil palm cultivation, clandestinely abet the devastating
Programme. Other forest development programmes forest fires that have erupted almost every summer
included transmigration settlements, in which people in recent years, for easy clearance of natural growth
from densely populated areas were translocated to for raising plantations. Given the vastness of the
the sparsely populated outer islands, with benefits forest area, monitoring to ensure compliance with
such as housing, land for agriculture, etc. They the prescriptions is difficult. In many cases,
were also expected to provide the labour force for concession rights have been revoked due to poor
development of HTI. In addition, several schemes performance but significant damage has already been
were introduced to encourage agroforestry on done. The magnitude of the problem can be judged
forest and non-forest land and for development of from the fact that after 20 years, the concession
smallholder forestry. rights of only 96 out of the 359 HPH companies
were renewed (Gautam et al. 2000). This means that
Involvement of a large number of plantation a large proportion of the allotted area was not
companies in the management of state-owned managed properly.

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 6 The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

2.4. Plantation trends – areas and oil from the leaves and Schleichera oleosa for cultivation
species of lac. There is currently an expansion of Paraserianthes
falcataria plantations by smallholders throughout Java.
Indonesia has a long plantation history, starting with Among the major plantation species, only Melaleuca
teak (Tectona grandis) cultivation. Believed to have cajuputi and the mangroves Rhizophora spp. are strictly
been introduced to Java some 400 - 600 years ago native to Java. Teak (Tectona grandis), mahogany
(Phengklai et al. 1993), teak has been planted (Swietenia macrophylla) and rosewood (Dalbergia
systematically since the 1870s and in 1995 there were latifolia) are exotic to Indonesia, although teak is
about 1 million ha of well-managed plantations, in Java naturalised. Other species have been introduced to Java
and the adjacent island of Madura (Perum Perhutani from other parts of Indonesia where they occur naturally.
1995). Table 2.2 shows the areas of major tree species
planted in Java managed by the Government-owned Plantation forestry in the outer islands began in the 1970s,
company, Perum Perhutani. with attempts to afforest the extensive Imperata
cylindrica grasslands, particularly in Sumatra and
Table 2.2. Forest plantations in Java in 1995 Kalimantan. Opening up of HPH to foreign investors in
Species Area (ha) 1967, with the issuance of Foreign Investment Law (UU
Tectona grandis 1 066 532 PMA) in forestry sector, accelerated the expansion of
Pinus merkusii 583 974 plantations. By 1989, 565 units of HPH holders operated
Agathis dammara 66 013 in about 58 million ha of forest land (MoF 1993: Fact Sheet
Swietenia macrophylla 54 383 No. 12). Apart from rehabilitation planting carried out by
Dalbergia latifolia 25 502 these companies in the logged areas, over 7 million ha
Melaleuca cajuputi 11 848 have been allotted (Table 2.3), to about 100 companies for
Paraserianthes falcataria 6 064 raising HTI. About 67% of the allotted HTI area is for
Schleichera oleosa 3 732 pulpwood production, 23% for sawlog production and
Rhizophora spp. 49 662 10% for transmigration settlements (Table 2.4). The area
Others 89 063 allotted to individual companies ranges from about 4000
Total 1 956 775
ha to 300 000 ha.
Source: Perum Perhutani (1995)
In the outer islands, over 60% of the geographical
Pine (Pinus merkusii) plantations comprise the second area consists of ‘forest land’. Forest land is land that
largest area, about 0.6 million ha, after teak. Native to the has been legally defined as forest land and is not
northern part of Sumatra, this species is primarily utilised synonymous with ‘land under forest cover’ for which
for resin tapping in Java and yields a general-purpose there are no reliable data. Of the forest land, nearly
timber, although it was originally planted for pulpwood 7% has been allotted for HTI and by 1998-99 about
production. Agathis dammara is also tapped for resin. 22% of the allotted area (about 1.6 million ha) has
Melaleuca cajuputi is planted for extraction of essential been utilised by the concessionaires (Table 2.3). It is

Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia

Region Geographical Forest Area allotted Area planted up

area (ha) area (ha) for HTI (ha) to 98-99 (ha)

Sumatra 47 050 873 23 877 500 2 525 486 888 354

Kalimantan 54 824 700 35 745 200 3 129 781 802 505
Sulawesi 19 227 076 11 473 400 187 146 27 931
Irian Jaya 41 066 000 30 611 800 1 389 200 0
Nusa Tenggara 6 744 235 2 732 400 55 074 5 945
Moluccas 8 572 800 4 201 600 74 568 33 264
Total 178 485 684 108 641 900 7 361 255 1 757 999

Source: Statistik Pengusahaan Hutan 1998/1999, Dirjen Pengusahaan Hutan Produksi, Dephutbun (1999); Geographical area and
forest area from MoFEC (1999); HTI area and planted area from Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC

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 C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 7

estimated that the planted area may have reached at summarised in Table 2.6. The overriding dominance
least 2 million ha by year 2000. No information is of Acacia mangium and the relative importance of
available on the extent of area cleared of forest but other pulpwood species are highlighted by this data.
apparently it is much more than the area planted.
Table 2.5. Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands

Table 2.4. Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to Pulpwood Timber or plywood
1998-99 species species

Category Area allotted Area planted Acacia mangium Alstonia sp.

up to 98/99 Other Acacia spp. Anthocephalus sp.
(million ha) Eucalyptus spp. Azadirachta excelsa
Gmelina arborea Dyera sp.
Pulp 4.94 (67%) 1.04 (64%) Paraserianthes falcataria Eusideroxylon zwageri
Construction wood 1.65 (23%) 0.32 (20%) Gonystylus bancanus
Transmigration 0.76 (10%) 0.26 (16%) Koompasia sp.
Total 7.34 (100%) 1.63 (100%) Maesopsis eminii
Ochroma pyramidale
Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC
Octomeles sumatrana
Peronema canescens
The 1998 Government reorganisation of the Ministries Pinus merkusii
of Forestry and Agriculture to bring estate crops under Shorea spp.
the purview of the new MoFEC is indicative of a Tectona grandis
change in the Government’s strategy. There is strong
interest among private investors for diverting forest
land for oil palm cultivation, encouraged by the Table 2.6. Species and area planted by some HTI companies
Government’s incentives for investment in oil palm. Species Area (ha) Percentage
The Government has also granted permission to state-
owned forestry companies to convert 30% of their Acacia mangium 443 535 64.2
concession areas within production forest boundaries Other Acacia spp. 24 023 3.5
to oil palm. It is estimated that currently 330 000 ha of Paraserianthes falcataria 48 401 7.0
forest land is being converted annually to oil palm Gmelina arborea 47 790 6.7
plantations (Gautam et al. 2000). These policy changes Eucalyptus spp. 29 821 4.3
are still evolving and are likely to impact significantly Azadirachta excelsa 18 463 2.7
Hevea braziliensis 8 293 1.2
on the future forest plantation scenario.
Peronema canescens 4 963 0.7
Octomeles sumatrana 4 456 0.7
The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and
Dipterocarps 2 977 0.4
the species planted in each province, including the
Tectona grandis 1 966 0.3
three provinces in Java, is shown in Fig.2. Unlike in
Maesopsis eminii 282 >0.1
Java (Table 2.2), detailed information on the species
Swietenia macrophylla 244 >0.1
planted and the area under each is not available for
Miscellaneous species 55 213 8.0
other regions. However, most area in the outer islands
is used for pulpwood species (Table 2.4), mainly, Total 690 528 100.0
Acacia mangium. The main species planted are listed
Source: Data supplied by 28 responding Companies under Adindo
in Table 2.5. Twenty-eight of the 42 companies from
Hutani Lestari, Barito Timber Pacific, Hutrindo, Indah Kiat, Korindo,
whom we requested information provided details; the Musi Hutan Persada, Raja Garuda Mas, Sumalindo and Uniseraya
species and area planted by these companies are Groups.

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 8 The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

2.5. Forest plantations in perspective and management, and the increasing rate of
conversion of forest land into oil palm estates.
The total extent of forest plantations in Indonesia is
about 4 million ha including 2 million ha in Java and The Government expects plantation-grown wood to
about 2 million ha in the outer islands. Plantations in satisfy much of the future wood demand by increasing
the outer islands are poised for huge expansion – from the area of plantations and improving plantation
2.0 million ha to 7.4 million ha in the coming years productivity. At present, the mean annual increment of
(see Table 2.3). Based on current trends, much of this most plantations of fast growing tree species in
will consist of Acacia mangium, followed by Gmelina Indonesia is 15-25 m3 ha-1, and efforts are under way
arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Eucalyptus spp. to increase the productivity through use of genetically
Indigenous timber species will constitute a small improved planting stock, including hybrids, and nutrient
proportion – about 20%. Although there is concern management (Natadiwirya 1998; Tiarks et al. 1999).
among environmental groups about such expansion Projections by the Ministry of Forestry of future wood
of industrial plantations of a few species, the fact production indicates almost a doubling of the present
remains that these plantations account for only about wood production by 2018-19. This will be
10%of the total extent of Indonesian forests (9.4 accomplished by an increase of 52 million m3 of annual
million ha out of 96.2 million ha). What is of greater wood production from plantations, while there will be
concern is the degradation of the natural forest in the a decrease of 3.23 million m3 of annual wood production
rest of the 64 million ha of production forests entrusted from natural forests (Table 2.7). Plantation forestry in
to private and quasi-Government enterprises for logging Indonesia has to meet this challenge.

Table 2.7. Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources

Year Natural Plantation forest Community Total

forest forest
For For construction
pulpwood timber

million m3

1999 - 2000 34.79 15.52 1.70 1.49 53.50

2018 - 2019 31.56 42.58 26.73 2.86 103.73

Difference -3.23 +27.06 +25.03 +1.37 +50.23

Source: Natadiwirya (1998)

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MAP
Figure. 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province

NORTH SUMATRA RIAU CENTRAL KALIMANTAN EAST KALIMANTAN

- Acacia mangium - Acacia mangium - Acacia mangium - Acacia mangium
- other Acacia spp. - other Acacia spp. WEST KALIMANTAN - Anthocephalus spp. - Eucalyptus spp.
- Anthocephalus spp. - Anthocephalus spp. - Acacia mangium - Dyera spp. - Eusideroxylon zwageri
- Azadirachta excelsa - Azadirachta excelsa - Alstonia spp. - Gmelina arborea - Gmelina arborea
- Duabanga moluccana D.I. ACEH - Gmelina arborea - Eucalyptus spp. - Koompassia spp. - Paraserianthes falcataria
- Eucalyptus spp. - Acacia mangium - Maesopsis eminii - Gmelina arborea - Ochroma spp. - Peronema canescens

9
- Gmelina arborea - Eucalyptus spp. - Octomeles sumatrana - Paraserianthes falcataria - Paraserianthes falcataria - Shorea spp.
- Maesopsis eminii - Paraserianthes falcataria - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Peronema canescens - Swietenia macrophylla
- Paraserianthes falcataria - Pinus merkusii - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp. - Shorea spp. - Tectona grandis
- Peronema canescens
- Pinus merkusii
- Swietenia macrophylla
CENTRAL SULAWESI
- Ochroma spp.
- Paraserianthes falcataria
WEST SUMATRA
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria D.I.ACEH

NORTH MOLLUCAS
SUMATRA
JAMBI EAST - Acacia mangium
KALIMANTAN - Gmelina arborea
- Acacia mangium RIAU - Paraserianthes falcataria
WEST
- other Acacia spp. KALIMANTAN CENTRAL
WEST
- Dyera spp. SULAWESI
SUMATRA
- Eucalyptus spp. JAMBI CENTRAL
- Gmelina arborea KALIMANTAN MOLLUCAS
SOUTH SOUTH
- Gonystylus bancanus KALIMANTAN
SOUTH KALIMANTAN
- Paraserianthes falcataria SUMATRA SOUTHEAST
SOUTH SULAWESI - Acacia mangium
- Peronema canescens - Eucalyptus spp.
LAMPUNG SULAWESI
- Shorea spp. - Eusideroxylon zwageri
WEST CENTRAL - Gmelina arborea
C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair

JAVA JAVA - Paraserianthes falcataria

SOUTH SUMATRA EAST JAVA - Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
- Acacia mangium EAST
NUSA TENGGARA - Tectona grandis
- Alstonia spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Shorea spp.

2/22/01, 10:35 AM
EAST NUSA TENGGARA
- Paraserianthes falcataria
LAMPUNG WEST JAVA CENTRAL JAVA EAST JAVA SOUTH SULAWESI SOUTHEAST SULAWESI - Tectona grandis
- Acacia mangium - Acacia mangium - Agathis spp. - Agathis spp. - Gmelina arborea - Acacia mangium
- Gmelina arborea - Agathis spp. - Dalbergia spp. - Melaleuca cajuputi - Paraserianthes falcataria - Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria - mangrove species - mangrove species - Paraserianthes falcataria - Swietenia macrophylla
- Shorea spp. - Pinus merkusii - Melaleuca cajuputi - Pinus merkusii - Tectona grandis
- Shorea spp. - Pinus Merkusii - Schleichera oleosa
- Swietenia macrophylla - Swietenia macrophylla - Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis - Tectona grandis - Tectona grandis

Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC

9
 Chapter 3

General Scenario of Pests

and Diseases in Natural Forests
and Plantations in Indonesia
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

Conventional wisdom suggests that natural stands of 1924, 1933, and 1934-38, causing defoliation over
tropical forests, characterised by high species large areas. The 1934-38 outbreak continued over a
diversity, are free of pests and diseases. Tropical four-year period, during which repeated defoliation
forests are often quoted as examples that demonstrate occurred, month after month. The damage was more
the strong correlation between diversity and stability, serious on poorer sites. Another pine pest was a larger
in relation to pest and disease outbreaks. However, a bagworm, Eumeta (Clania) variegata, a well-known
critical study of the literature shows that there is more polyphagous insect, but its outbreaks were less
discussion than data on this relationship (Nair et al. frequent. The third pest was also a lepidopteran
1986). Plantations, on the other hand, characterised (Geometridae) defoliator, Milionia basalis. Repeated
by even-aged stands of the same tree species are outbreaks of this insect have been recorded, smaller
generally believed to be pest and disease prone. There outbreaks developing simultaneously in different places
is enough data to support this generalisation, although all over the pine stands. Our knowledge about these
monocultures of some species may be pest or disease early outbreaks of pine insects was due to regular
free. An overview of the general situation in natural observations made by the resin and turpentine industry.
forests and plantations in Indonesia is given below. No systematic observations are available for later
periods, although outbreaks of other pests have been
recorded in pine plantations.
3.1. Natural forests
Occasional severe outbreaks of the caterpillar Voracia
Published information on pests and diseases in natural casuariniphaga (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae) occur
forests of Indonesia is scarce. Kalshoven (1953) in natural stands of Casuarina junghuhniana growing
recorded some of the early instances of insect pest on mountain ridges and peaks in East Java. In an
outbreaks, the highlights of which are given below. outbreak in February 1938 on Mt Lawu, 800 ha were
Natural stands of Pinus merkusii, Casuarina totally stripped. Outbreaks of the caterpillar, Ophiusa
junghuhniana (syn. C. montana), Palaquium sp., serva (Noctuidae) have been recorded on Palaquium
Actinophora fragrans and mangroves have suffered sp., which often constitutes 50% or more of the crop
occasional pest outbreaks. Outbreaks of three species in some primary forests in South Sumatra. On the
of insects are on record in pine stands, which cover mangrove, Sonneratia acida, in an estuary at the Barito
an area of about 100 000 ha in North Sumatra, mainly River in Southeast Kalimantan, a caterpillar
in stands subjected to resin tapping. An undetermined provisionally identified as Lymantria galinara
species of the genus, Pteroma (a small bagworm (Lymantriidae) caused defoliation of all trees on one
belonging to the lepidopteran family Psychidae), has occasion. More recently there was a near total
been the most serious. Severe outbreaks occurred in defoliation of a mangrove species, Excoecaria

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 12 General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia

agallocha (Whitten and Damanik 1986) This was the pests have not been recognised as serious.
caused by the caterpillar, Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Mahogany plantations suffer severely from the shoot
Achaea janata) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and covered borer, Hypsipyla robusta, which has been a factor
about 500-1000 ha of forest south of Belawan in North limiting plantation establishment. Paraserianthes
Sumatra, where the tree occurs essentially as single- falcataria is killed by the stem borer, Xystrocera festiva.
species stands. Shoot borers damage pine plantations in Sumatra, but
these insects have not been encountered in pine
In lowland forests in Java, outbreak of a small plantations in Java. Other species have suffered no
woodborer, Agrilus kalshoveni (Coleoptera, major pest damage.
Buprestidae) caused large-scale mortality of scattered
trees of all sizes of Actinophora fragrans (Tiliaceae), Diseases have not become a serious threat in any of
in 1926-28. the plantations in Java, although many fungal diseases
have been noted in nurseries.
In a recent study in Wanariset and Bukit Soeharto
forest area in East Kalimantan, Rahayu et al. (1998) It is concluded that some tree species are susceptible
recorded damage to Shorea spp. by leaf feeding to pest damage in plantations but others are not.
caterpillars. Three diseases were also recorded: Diseases have made much less impact, except in
prolepsis (excessive proliferation of shoot tissue nurseries. Pests and diseases of each tree species are
caused by a bacterium, resulting in stunted growth), discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
leaf spot (leaf blight) and stem canker induced by
fungi. However, these pests and diseases were of
minor importance. Seed pests are known to make a
significant impact in natural dipterocarp forests. Larvae
3.3. Comparison between
of some small moths and curculionid beetles attack plantations and natural
the fruits on the tree and on the ground (Elouard 1998, forests
Natawiria et al. 1986) and feed on the cotyledons so
preventing seed germination. Curran and Leighton A comparison of the pest and disease problems in
(1991) observed the 1996 seed crop of about 100 000 plantations with those in natural forests indicates that
seeds ha-1 was entirely destroyed by insects in the pests have a greater impact in plantations. However,
lowland forest of West Kalimantan. The well-known pest outbreaks have also occurred in natural forests.
phenomenon of mass fruiting of dipterocarps is Most of these outbreaks have been recorded in tree
thought to be a strategy to escape complete seed species that occur gregariously, like in a monoculture
destruction by satiating the seed pests (Janzen 1974). plantation. Examples are Pinus merkusii, Casuarina
junghuhniana, Palaquium sp., and Excoecaria
agallocha. A high host density appears to be a key
3.2. Plantations factor promoting pest outbreaks. Most insects that
have acquired pest status are ubiquitous components
More data are available on pests and diseases of of the normal insect fauna that are present in low
plantation trees than for native forests. However, as numbers in natural forests. They become pests when
most plantations in the outer islands are still young, a high host density as in plantations or other factors
plantation experience is limited to species planted in cause a large increase in insect populations.
Java. These include teak, pine, mahogany, rosewood,
and species of Melaleuca, Paraserianthes, Schleichera Many species that are grown in plantations in Indonesia
and Rhizophora. Teak plantations have suffered are exotic. Some of them have also suffered damage
chronic damage from the defoliator, Hyblaea puera, from pests and diseases, as discussed in the next
throughout the plantations in Java. In some locations, chapter. By definition, indigenous species are those
the termite Neotermes tectonae that infests the trunk that occur as part of the natural vegetation within the
and branches of living teak trees has caused economic geographic boundaries of a country. In the case of
damage. However, because the trees are not killed, Indonesia, which has 17 500 islands extending across

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 13

5100 km from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Indonesia as a whole. Designating a species as
Ocean, between 50 N and 110 S latitude and 940 – exotic is a matter of definition. If instead of the
141 0 E longitude (Whitten et al. 1996), and the political boundary of the country, we accept a
Wallace’s line separating a small eastern part, the narrower spatial scale like the major island groups
conventional definition of indigenous species has little and their surroundings as the spatial unit to define
relevance. For instance, the natural distribution of indigenous and exotic species, most plantation
Pinus merkusii is limited to northern Sumatra and that species in Indonesia will have to be treated as exotic.
of Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria to A comparison between indigenous and exotic species
some small areas of the eastern islands, and therefore is best made after a detailed consideration of pests
it is not appropriate to consider them as indigenous to and diseases in plantations.

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 Chapter 4

Insect Pests and Diseases

of Major Plantation Species
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

In this Chapter, the pests and diseases of 24 forest trees, West Java, Aceh, North Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South
including pulpwood and timber species, planted in Sumatra, Lampung, West Kalimantan, Central
Indonesia are discussed. The species are based on Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan and
information supplied by plantation companies and include Moluccas (see Fig. 2.1). Ten companies had planted
some species planted only on an experimental scale, so 426 000 ha of A. mangium by 1996 (Turnbull et al.
there is little information on their pests and diseases. 1998). PT Musi Hutan Persada has reported that
90% of its 200 000 ha of forest plantations in South
A brief introductory paragraph gives general Sumatra is A. mangium (Siregar et al. 1999). Second
information on the species, including its natural rotation plantations exist in some areas.
distribution, planting locations within Indonesia (see
also Fig. 2.1) and uses. This is followed by a brief Acacia mangium is native to three small islands in the
description of the damage caused by the main insect Moluccas and parts of Irian Jaya in eastern Indonesia
pests and diseases. Then information is provided on (Pinyopusarerk et al. 1993).
pests and diseases in neighbouring countries and a
critical look at the threat posed by the pests and Insect pests
diseases in Indonesia. There is little published information on the pests of
A. mangium in Indonesia. The following data (Table 4.1)
have been assembled from a variety of sources,
4.1. Acacia mangium and other including unpublished reports and information obtained
Acacia spp. from companies through visits and correspondence.

Indonesian common name: Akasia Nursery seedlings of A. mangium are attacked by a

number of insects including plant bugs,
Plantation forestry in Indonesia is dominated by grasshoppers and bagworms, causing variable
Acacia mangium due largely to its ability to compete damage. A subterranean termite, Coptotermes
with grasses in the unproductive Imperata curvignathus (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae), which eats
cylindrica grasslands. Large-scale planting began into the taproot and stem is reported to kill 10-50% of
in 1986 under the Industrial Plantation Scheme and saplings in plantations in Central Sumatra in their first
there has been a massive expansion of the area since year (Wylie et al.1998). In Malaysia, this insect infests
then (Turnbull et al. 1998). Now there are at least even older trees (Chew 1987). Control should be
500 000 ha of A. mangium, mostly in Sumatra and possible by using appropriate prophylactic insecticidal
Kalimantan. It has been planted in the provinces of treatment (Varma and Nair 1997).

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 16 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Table 4.1. Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Notes

Root-feeding Coptotermes curvignathus Termite Causes death of saplings

(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae)

Leaf-feeding Pteroma plagiophleps and Bagworms

other bagworms
(Lepidoptera, Psychidae)

Unidentified caterpillar Caterpillar Plusia On young saplings

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)

Valanga nigricornis Grasshopper

(Orthoptera, Acrididae)

Sap-sucking Helopeltis theivora and Mosquito bug On young saplings

other Helopeltis spp.
(Hemiptera, Miridae)

Twig-boring Xylosandrus sp. and Pinhole borers Attacked small branches

Xyleborus fornicatus often dry up and break
(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)

Trunk-boring Xytrocera festiva Stem borer

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)

The leaf-feeding bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps has as, tea, cacao, cinchona, cashew and neem. Localised
been recorded in many plantations. It is a polyphagous damage by Helopeltis sp. to A. mangium has been
caterpillar, which is generally a minor pest on most of its reported from Malaysia (Hamid 1987) and Philippines
hosts although localised outbreaks have occurred in (Luego 1990) and it regularly causes severe damage in 6-
Paraserianthes falcataria and some other hosts (Nair and 18-month-old plantations in North and Central Sumatra
Mathew 1992). Other unidentified bagworms are (Wylie et al. 1998). The principal species is H. theivora,
commonly seen on A. mangium but all are minor leaf- but H. fasciaticollis and H. sumatranus have also been
feeders. The grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis, also a recorded (Wylie personal communication). Feeding by
polyphagous leaf-feeder, is often seen in A. mangium Helopeltis spp. causes necrotic spots on the leaves and
plantations in fairly large numbers. It appears sporadically often dieback of tender shoots. Shoot dieback is probably
and eats even the shoot tips. In teak plantations in Java, caused by injection of toxic saliva or pathogenic
it causes recognisable damage periodically but has not organisms in the feeding process. Some companies have
become a serious pest. It is particularly active in the border applied urea to boost the growth of attacked saplings
zone between forests and open ground (Hutacharern and in rare cases insecticides like deltamethrin have been
1993). Locusta sp., with similar feeding habits, occurs less used. More systematic observations are needed to assess
frequently. Other leaf feeding insects are also occasional the quantitative impact and some plantation companies
minor pests. Caterpillars of an unidentified moth, are doing this. In cashew plantations in Kerala, India,
tentatively called, ‘Plusia’, feeds on the leaves (phyllodes) damage by H. theivora is most serious during the flushing
of young saplings (PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper, and flowering season, causing the top layer of the crown
personal communication). to dry out and necessitating regular prophylactic
insecticidal sprays to prevent yield loss.
The sap-sucking bug Helopeltis spp. is the principal pest
in plantations in Sumatra. These are well-known pests of Pinhole borers, Xyleborus fornicatus and Xylosandrus
several horticultural and tree crops in the tropics, such sp., attack small branches which often dry up and

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 17

break off at the point of attack (Hardi and Intari 1990; threat of widespread occurrence of heart rot
Riyantoko 1998; Zulfiyah 1998). Usually the intensity disease of A. mangium in Malaysia, detailed studies
of attack is low and is not a threat to plantations. The were carried out on diseases of acacias in the region,
borer Xystrocera festiva, primarily a pest of including Indonesia, and excellent reviews written
Paraserianthes falcataria, attacks A. mangium in (Old 1998; Old et al. 2000).
agroforestry plantations in East Java and in industrial
plantations in South Sumatra where up to 11% of trees Four major categories of diseases have been recognised
have been infested (Matsumoto 1994). It is unlikely to – foliar diseases, stem canker, heart rot and root rots
become a major pest of Acacia as the life cycle is annual (Table 4.2). Among the foliar diseases, leaf rust caused
and the attacked trees generally survive. A related by a fungus distorts the growing points in nursery plants
species, X. globosa, occurs on Albizia spp. and and young plantations. This has caused concern,
A. mangium in Malaysia. Matsumoto (1994) recorded particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, as there is no
this species on A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and effective control method. An epidemic leading to
Paraserianthes falcataria in East Java and South premature leaf shedding occurred in 15-month-old trees
Sumatra but the larvae of X. globosa feed less in South Kalimantan. The fungus is similar to
gregariously than X. festiva and had a much lower Atelocauda digitata which is common in northern
population level. Australia and affects nursery stock and trees of a wide
range of age classes. There is considerable variation
Diseases between provenances in susceptibility which suggests
In general, Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia potential for selecting resistant genotypes (Old 1998).
have suffered little from diseases. Following the Other leaf diseases (Table 4.2) are of minor importance.

Table 4.2. Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia

Disease Causative agent Notes

Foliar diseases
Rust (Near) Atelocauda digitata
Powdery mildew Oidium spp.
Black mildew Meliola spp.
Leaf spot Cercospora, Pestalotiopsis and
Collectotrichum spp.

Stem cankers
Pink disease Corticium salmonicolor < 2% of 5-year old trees were affected
in Sumatra

Black canker Pytophthora palmivora Present in older plantations in Sumatra

and Java

Cytospora sp. Minor

Hypoxylon mammatum Minor

Heart rot Phellinus noxius

Rigidoporus hypobrunneus
Tinctoporellus epimiltinus

Root rots
Red root rot Ganoderma philipii
(syn. G. pseudoferreum)

White root rot Rigidoporus microporus

(syn. Leptoporus lignosus)
(syn. Fomes lignosus)

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 18 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Among the stem canker diseases, pink disease caused borer, Sternocera spp.; the bostrychid twig borer,
by Corticium salmonicolor, a basidiomycete fungus Sinoxylon sp.; and the cossid stem borer, Zeuzera
infecting a wide range of hosts in high rainfall areas in coffeae. Among the seven serious pests recognised
the tropics, is common in Indonesia and is most by Wylie et al. (1998) for Indonesia, only the termite,
prevalent in denser stands (Zulfiah and Gales 1997). C. curvignathus, was in Hutacharern’s list .
It causes necrosis of the bark tissue on small stems,
and branches, often leading to their breakage. Heart We rate the sap-sucking bug, Helopeltis sp., as
rot, caused by a complex of Phellinus noxius and other potentially the most serious pest, based on current
unidentified basidiomycete fungi entering through knowledge of pest incidence in A. mangium plantations
wounds, occurs in East Kalimantan (Lee and Sikin in Indonesia and the insect’s habits and past history in
1999). However, the proportion of infected trees is other crops. Two species of Helopeltis are reported
small compared to some plantations in Malaysia. In to occur in forest plantations in Indonesia - H. antonii
Malaysia, more than 50% of trees have been infected in Eucalyptus spp. (Rahardjo 1992) and H. theivora
in some places, but the wood volume damaged was in Eucalyptus spp. and A. mangium (Hardi 1993;
small. It is not considered to be a major problem when Wylie et al. 1998). In addition, H. fasciaticollis and
the end use is pulpwood rather than timber (Old et al. H. sumatranus have been identified recently from
2000). The hybrid, A. mangium x A. auriculiformis, A. mangium. Both H. theivora and H. antonii are
is resistant to heart rot, as is A. auriculiformis (Ito serious pests of cashew in India. Helopeltis spp. have
and Nanis 1997). White root rot, caused by acquired pest status on various tree crops in Australia,
Rigidoporus microporus (syn. Fomes lignosus), has China (Hainan Island), Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
been recorded in plantations in Jambi and South Thailand and some countries in Africa. Many species
Sumatra. The red root rot, Ganoderma philipii, of Helopeltis occur in Indonesia on a variety of crops
formerly C. pseudoferreum, has been isolated from an and severe outbreaks occurred in the 1960s on tea in
A. mangium plantation in Yogyakarta. North Sumatra before the advent of modern
insecticides (Kalshoven 1981). Difficulty in controlling
Threat Assessment them, other than through repeated chemical sprays,
In making an assessment of threat, the problems adds to the seriousness of the problem. It is already
experienced in neighbouring countries must also be recognised as serious in young plantations in Sumatra.
taken into consideration. For insect pests, Wylie et al. It was not found in a plantation examined by one of
(1998) have reviewed the problems and listed 22 us (K.S.S.N.) in East Kalimantan, but it could build
species as main pests in the region covering Australia, up there as it already occurs in adjacent Sarawak (East
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. These Malaysia). Careful monitoring of Helopeltis spp. as a
pests can be categorised into five groups - leaf feeders potentially serious pest of A. mangium is
(7 spp.), root or stem feeding termites (5 spp.), trunk recommended.
borers (4 spp.), twig borers (4 spp.), and sapsuckers
(2 spp.). Seven important pests in Indonesia were Root-feeding termites are the next most serious threat,
identified in an assessment made in May 1997 (Wylie during the establishment stage of the crop, as
et al. 1998). They were a root feeding termite (1 sp.), experienced in Sumatra, but they can be controlled
a twig borer (1 sp.), leaf feeders (4 spp.) and a sap effectively using insecticidal spot treatment.
sucker (1 sp.). In order of importance they are:
Coptotermes curvignathus (root-feeding termite), The risk of new pests emerging over time cannot be
Xylosandrus sp. (stem-boring scolytid beetle), Pteroma ignored. In 1992 a new pest, Spirama retorta
plagiophleps (leaf-feeding bagworm), unidentified (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), attacked 800 ha of a 1-year-
caterpillar (leaf-feeding), Valanga nigricornis (leaf- old A. mangium plantation in Peninsular Malaysia
feeding grasshopper), Locusta sp. (leaf feeding), and (Sajap et al. 1997b). Little was known about this insect
Helopeltis theivora (sap-sucking bug). In a global which had been recorded on Albizia lebbek in India
review, Hutacharern (1993) considered there were (Beeson 1941) and on an unknown host in Thailand
only four serious pests of A. mangium. These were (Hutacharern and Tubtim 1995). It has been recorded
the termite, C. curvignathus; the buprestid root collar recently on A. mearnsii in China (Wang et al. 1998).

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 19

Another new noctuid pest, Ericeia sp., has damaged X. globosa also attack A. auriculiformis but the
A. mangium in Malaysia (Sajap et al. 1997a). The incidence is rare. In general, these Acacia species have
unidentified caterpillar, ‘Plusia’, found in young no major pest problems, although occasional leaf
plantations in Sumatra is also a noctuid. The feeding by polyphagous insects is common.
lepidopteran family, Noctuidae, contains several well-
known pests with outbreak potential. They include Among diseases, rust occurs on A. auriculiformis
Achaea janata, Helicoverpa armigera (Heliothis and pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) in
armigera), Plecoptera reflexa, Prodenia litura and A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa plantations (Hadi
Selepa celtis. Therefore, there is a high risk of and Nuhamura 1997). Canker caused by unknown
emergence of new noctuid pests on A. mangium. agents has been noted in all the three species. Root
rot caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum has been
Old (1998) reviewed the risks of diseases in Indonesia reported on A. auriculiformis (Widyastuti et al. 1998b).
and the neighbouring countries. Foliar rust, root rots Acacia auriculiformis is resistant to heart rot and except
and heart rot are potentially dangerous. However, there for this disease the risk rating for these other acacias is
are indications of presence of genotypes resistant to the same as for A. mangium.
the rust and heart rot. Avoiding wounds to the stem
also reduces the risk of heart rot. The heart rot problem
may be the result of mismatching of the tree species 4.2. Agathis dammara
with the sites (Arentz 1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). In
its natural habitat A. mangium grows in areas with a Indonesian common name: Damar
seasonal dry period. It has been hypothesised that
absence of a dry period may hinder the self-pruning Agathis dammara (Lambert) Rich (syn.
ability of branches, permitting the development of entry A. loranthifolia) is a conifer native to Indonesia and
points for decay fungi into the main stem through the occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the Moluccas. It also
dying branches. The situation needs monitoring. The occurs in the Philippines. Agathis borneensis Warb.
A. auriculiformis x A. mangium hybrid may prove occurs in Sumatra and Borneo, and Peninsular
resistant to heart rot. Root rot appears to be potentially Malaysia; some authors treat it as synonymous with
more damaging, as the pathogens spread by root A. dammara. About 66 000 ha of A. dammara
contact between diseased and healthy trees. Old et al. plantations have been established in the provinces of
(2000) have concluded that planting successive Central and East Java, particularly in mountainous
rotations of acacias on the same site will provide areas, over the past few decades (Perum Perhutani
conditions favourable for the build-up of root rot 1995). It provides a general-purpose timber and is
diseases; particularly if there is no post-harvest burn tapped for resin (copal).
as the inoculum may build-up in the slash. Careful
monitoring of root rot diseases is also necessary as Insect pests
there is no practical means of control. No major insect pest problem has occurred on
A. dammara, in Indonesia. Two unidentified beetles
Other Acacia species have been recorded from seeds (Zethner et al. 1996).
After A. mangium, A. auriculiformis is the most
widely planted acacia in industrial plantations, Diseases
followed by A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa (syn. In nurseries, damping off caused by species of
A. perigrina from Papua New Guinea). Acacia Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium has been caused
auriculiformis seedlings in nurseries are attacked by up to 90% mortality of seedlings (Suharti et al. 1991)
the stem boring scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus but effective fungicidal control methods are available.
compactus. It has been reported from Java, Sumatra, In nurseries and young plantations, rust caused by
Kalimantan, and Sulawesi (Intari and Santoso 1990; Aecidium fragiformae has been noted (Hadi et al.
Natawiria 1990). Related scolytid and bostrychid 1996). It causes reddish brown raised lesions on the
borers have also been noted on Acacia spp. in Malaysia leaves. Although it may cause some growth
and Thailand. The stem borers Xystrocera festiva and retardation, it is not considered a serious problem.

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 20 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) can occur in 4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba

young plantations (Suharti 1983), particularly when
the canopy closes and the humidity increases. Indonesian common name: Jabon
Thinning reduces the incidence of disease by lowering
humidity.
Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. (syn.
A. chinensis auct.non (Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp.;
Threat assessment
Neolamarckia cadamba ((Roxb.) Bosser) (Rubiaceae)
Outside Indonesia, decay of mature trees has been
is a fast growing, medium- to large tree. Some authors
recorded in the Philippines and moths (Agathiphaga
prefer to use the new generic name, Neolamarckia. It
spp.) can destroy the seeds (Bowen and Whitmore
has a light coloured wood used for plywood, light
1980) but A. dammara has been grown successfully
construction and pulping. Another species of the genus,
in Java for many years and there is no major threat of
A. macrophyllus, occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the
pests and diseases.
Moluccas (Smits et al. 1993).

Anthocephalus cadamba is planted mainly in HTI

4.3. Alstonia species plantations in North Sumatra, Riau and Central
Kalimantan. It is also planted in Java to replace poor
Indonesian common name: Pulai teak plantations after harvest.

Two species of Alstonia (Apocynaceae) are of Insect Pests

commercial importance in Indonesia (Whitten et al. White grubs (larvae of some groups of beetles) feeding
1996). Alstonia scholaris is common in drier areas on the roots damage 1-2-year-old trees planted under
and A. spatulata in swamps. Alstonia scholaris is taungya system in Java (Intari and Natawiria 1973).
mainly planted, particularly in West Kalimantan, and Selander (1990) reported heavy defoliation of
yields good pulp and plywood timber. experimental plantations of A. cadamba in South
Kalimantan by an unidentified caterpillar and Ngatiman
Insect pests and Tangketasik (1987) recorded some unidentified
No information is available on pests in Indonesia, insects (presumably, caterpillars) in plantations in East
except that the freshly felled logs are attacked by Kalimantan. Suratmo (1987) refers to Margaronia sp.
pinhole borers of the families Scolytidae and (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) as a defoliator of A. cadamba.
Platypodidae (Sukartana 1996). Suratmo (1996) observed that plantations raised in small
areas have been seriously attacked by an undetermined
Diseases defoliator, which has prevented further planting of this
No diseases have been reported. otherwise promising fast growing species.

Threat assessment Diseases

A few insect pests have been reported on living trees No diseases have been reported on A. cadamba in
outside Indonesia. In Guangxi, China, the psyllid, Indonesia.
Pseudophacopteron alstonium (Homoptera) produces
galls on the leaf (Yang and Li 1983). In India, Threat assessment
caterpillars of a pyralid moth, Glyphodes bicolor have In India, a longhorn beetle, Batocera numitor
been recorded (Beeson 1941) and in Kerala an (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) bores into the base of the
unidentified Glyphodes sp. which feeds in folded leaves stem of unhealthy trees; and a caterpillar, Margaronia
causes sporadic damage to isolated trees under semi- hilaralis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) skeletonises leaves
natural conditions (K.S.S. Nair unpublished). While (Beeson 1941). Other polyphagous, leaf feeding,
there is no indication of threat from diseases, the caterpillars have also been noted in India, but no serious
plantation history of A. scholaris is too short to draw pest situation has developed. Leaf feeding caterpillars
a similar conclusion for insect pests. are potential threats but the plantation history is too
short to make informed judgment. The main diseases

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 21

reported outside Indonesia are on nursery seedlings There are over 25 000 ha of Dalbergia plantations in
and include damping-off by Fusarium and Pythium Java, mostly in Central Java, but the proportion of
spp. in Malaysia (Chin 1995) and leaf blight by each species is not available.
Rhizoctonia in India (Mehrotra 1993). Apart from
nursery diseases, which can be controlled by Insect Pests
appropriate nursery practices and fungicides, there Prawirohatmodjo et al. (1993) observed that various
appears to be no major threat of diseases. insects such as leaf miners, defoliators and stem borers
cause minor damage to Dalbergia trees in Java, but
details are not available. Root feeding by the termites,
4.5. Azadirachta excelsa Macrotermes gilvus and Odontotermes grandiceps
occurs but damage is negligible (Intari et al. 1995).
Indonesian common name: Nimba, Nimbo
Diseases
There is a high rate of mortality of nursery seedlings
Azadirachta excelsa (Meliaceae) is native to Southeast
caused by damping-off fungi. In 1973, about 300 ha of
Asia. Its valuable timber is used for light construction
a 15-year-old D. latifolia plantation in East Java was
and veneering. Plantations of A. excelsa have been
severely damaged by a disease characterised by inrolling
established in Sumatra.
of young leaves and discoloration of older leaves,
followed by red streaks on the outer layers of sapwood,
Insect pests
finally resulting in the death of the trees (Suharti and
No information is available on pests of A. excelsa in
Hadi 1974). The disease was attributed to Fusarium
Indonesia.
solani. Root rot caused by Ganoderma sp. resulted in
the death of trees in plantations and along roadsides in
Diseases
Yogyakarta (Widyastuti and Sumardi 1998).
No information is available.
Threat assessment
4.5.3. Threat assessment Several insect pests of Dalbergia spp. have been
Four species of thrips (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) and recorded outside Indonesia. In India, Pakistan and
a moth caterpillar, Loboschiza vulnerata (Lepidoptera, Nepal they include root-feeding termites, lepidopteran
Tortricidae) have caused minor damage to A. excelsa defoliators, curculionid defoliators, leaf miners and
plantations in Malaysia (Intachat 1997). The tea- tree hoppers. Of these, the defoliator, Plecoptera
mosquito bug, Helopeltis antonii (Heteroptera, reflexa (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) has caused regular
Myriidae) has attacked tender shoots of the related defoliation in plantations in northern India and Pakistan.
species, A. indica (neem) in India. Azadirachta excelsa Epidemics of the leaf miner, Leucoptera sphenograpta,
leaves contain insecticidal and insect repellent have occurred occasionally in nurseries in India and
chemicals, as in neem, and is resistant to most insects. Pakistan. As this insect outbreaks took place in
There is no indication of a threat by pests and diseases. northern latitudes with cooler climates, they are
unlikely to be a threat in Indonesia.

4.6. Dalbergia spp. A large number of diseases, including damping-off, root

rot and leaf blight of nursery seedlings; and leaf and
Indonesian common names: Sonokeling twig rust, root rot, stem canker and leaf spot of older
(D. latifolia), Sonosissoo (D. sisso) plants caused by a variety of fungi have been reported
on D. sissoo in India. Some of these have also been
Dalbergia latifolia and D. sissoo (Leguminosae) have recorded on D. latifolia. A wilt disease, similar to that
been raised in plantations in Indonesia. Both species reported by Suharti and Hadi (1974) on D. latifolia in
yield construction and specialty timber and D. latifolia Indonesia (see above), damaged D. sissoo in India
(Indian rosewood) is highly prized for furniture and (ICFRE 1995). Trees aged 15-25 years were
decorative veneers. susceptible. It was concluded that the soil borne

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 22 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

fungus, Fusarium solani, invades the root system, plantations. There will be about 500 ha of plantations in
destroys the root hairs, the finer rootlets and the West Java and Sumatra (Riau and Jambi), mostly S.
bacterial nodules, and travels a short distance along leprosula and S. selanica.
the stem, clogging vessels and tissues in the sapwood
(which develops pinkish brown stain) and stopping Insect pests
the flow of sap to the crown and finally causing the Major insect pests recorded on dipterocarps are listed in
tree to die. Although this appears to be a serious Table 4.3. Various species of weevils (Coleoptera) and
disease, no incidence of this disease has been reported small moths (Lepidoptera) attack the seeds when the
in Indonesia since the first episode in 1973. As fruits are on the tree and after they are shed (Curran and
Dalbergia ssp.have been grown successfully in Leighton 1991). They damage 40-90% of seeds of
Indonesia for a long time, more critical study is several Shorea spp., Dipterocarpus cornutus and Hopea
needed on the differential susceptibility of D. sissoo odorata (Natawiria et al. 1986). Nursery seedlings of
and D. latifolia to F. solani wilt. Shorea leprosula and S. parviflora in East Kalimantan
are killed by gall forming mites (Rahayu et al. 1998). In
Sumatra, a sap-sucking bug, Mucanum sp. (Hemiptera,
4.7. Dipterocarpaceae Pentatomidae) kills Shorea javanica seedlings in nurseries
(Dipterocarps) (Intari 1996) and the sap-sucking cicada, Lawana
candida, is an occasional pest of 7- to 9-year-old S.
Indonesian common names: Meranti, Balau, leprosula in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998).
Sengkawang, etc. Unidentified bagworms and other caterpillars have caused
serious damage to 5-7-year-old trees of several Shorea
Natural forests in Indonesia are dominated by spp. in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998). The
dipterocarps but they have not received much attention polyphagous caterpillar Calliteara cerigoides is a serious
as plantation species. Apart from experimental plantings defoliator of dipterocarps in Indonesia (Messer et al. 1992,
in West Java since the 1950s, most planting has been Matsumoto 1994). The species attacked include Shorea
enrichment planting of logged-over forests using leprosula, S. pinanga, S. selanica, S. stenoptera, Hopea
wildlings. There is renewed interest in dipterocarps and mengrawan and H. odorata. Some defoliated saplings of
plantations are being established, mainly in the provinces H. mengrawan succumbed to the damage. Minor leaf
of West, Central, East and South Kalimantan, South damage by caterpillars and scarabaeid beetles has been
Sumatra and Jambi (see Fig. 2.1). In addition, Perum noticed in plantations of S. leprosula and S. selanica in
Perhutani intends to use them to replace poor pine West Java (K.S.S. Nair, unpublished observations).
plantations in West Java. Termites attack living dipterocarps and may cause death
of trees (Nuhamara 1977; Elouard 1998).
The species planted are mainly Shorea and
Dipterocarpus spp. The genus Shorea consists of many Diseases
species commercially grouped on wood characteristics Several fungi, including Cylindrocarpon sp. and
into red meranti, white meranti, yellow meranti, balau Curvularia sp. attack dipterocarp seeds and reduce
and red balau. Most Shorea spp. have been tried in germinability. Seedlings and saplings suffer leaf spots,
experimental plantations and the relatively fast-growing root and collar rots, defoliation, and darkening of root
S. leprosula, S. selanica, S. javanica, S. smithiana and and twig bark, caused by a variety of fungi, notably,
S. parviflora are receiving more attention. The rates Fusarium spp. (Table 4.4). Information on fungi on
of growth of these species differ between regions but dipterocarps in Indonesia and the diseases they cause
S. leprosula grows faster in most places. In cooperation is available in Elouard (1991, 1998). Gall formation on
with Japanese plantation companies (Japan is the main shoots of seedlings and saplings of Shorea spp. is
importer of Indonesian dipterocarp timber), FERDA attributed to the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens
(Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan and an insectvector is
Agency of Indonesia) and some universities have suspected (Elouard 1998). Recently, Rahayu et al.
compared the performance of Shorea spp. seedlings (1998) noted a similar disease resulting in abnormal
and rooted cuttings and established experimental tissue proliferation (prolepsis) and stunting of Shorea

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 23

Table 4.3. Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Tree species Notes

Seed damage Nanophyes shoreae weevil Shorea spp.

(Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Hopea odorata

Alcidodes dipterocarpi weevil Shorea smithiana and

(Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Dipterocarpus cornutus

Unidentified pyralid (Lepidoptera) moth larva Shorea spp.

Sap sucking Mucanum sp. plant bug Shorea javanica On seedlings in

(Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) nurseries

Lawana candida cicada Shorea leprosula Occasional pest on

(Homoptera, Cicadidae) older plants

Leaf feeding Calliteara cerigoides hairy caterpillar Several species of Shorea Serious pest
(Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) and Hopea

Unidentified bagworm bagworm Shorea smithiana

Unidentified beetles scarabaeid Shorea spp.

(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) beetles

Table 4.4. Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia

Type of damage Causative agent Species affected

Flower destruction and seed abortion Curvularia harveyi Shorea pinanga

Necrosis/decay of seeds Cylindrocarpon destructens (Nectria radiocola) Shorea pinanga

Complex of bacteria and fungi several

Leaf spots, root and collar rot, bark Fusarium spp. Shorea spp.
necrosis and defoliation of seedlings

Leaf spot and defoliation in saplings Asterina, Capnodium, Cercospora, Many

Collectotrichum and Pestalotia

Gall formation on shoots of seedlings Agrobacterium tumefaciens Shorea spp.

and saplings

Heart rot of trees - S. javanica

assamica and S. lamellata seedlings in East Kalimantan. dipterocarps. The hairy caterpillar, Calliteara cerigoides
They also found leaf spots, leaf blight and stem cankers has been consistently associated with experimental
on saplings of Shorea spp., but the damage was not dipterocarp plantings but there is no serious pest
serious. There is heart rot in about 10% of Shorea problem in about 11 000 ha of Shorea johorensis,
javanica tapped for resin in Sumatra (Elouard 1991). S. leprosula and S. parviflora plantations of PT. Kiani
Hutani Lestari in East Kalimantan (Suhendi and
Threat assessment Sembiring 1998). Except for Helopeltis clavifer
Insects in Indonesian dipterocarp plantations are (Hemiptera, Miridae) damage to seedlings, there has
polyphagous and none seems to be specially adapted to been no major pest problem in Malaysia where

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 24 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

dipterocarps have been planted for a longer period. An 4.9. Eucalyptus spp.
exception is Shorea robusta (sal) in India, where
devastating outbreaks of a borer, Hoplocerambyx Indonesian common names: Empupu, Leda,
spinicornis (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) have Ekaliptus
occurred periodically in northern latitudes (Roonwal
1978). There was a large outbreak of a hairy
As in many tropical countries, Eucalyptus spp.
caterpillar in over 12 000 ha of natural peat swamp
(Myrtaceae) have been planted over large areas in
forest of Shorea albida in Sarawak and Brunei during
Indonesia for pulpwood production. The main species
the 1950s (Anderson 1961). This may be an
planted are E. deglupta and E. urophylla, which are
exceptional situation but details are sketchy. While
native to Indonesia although their natural distribution
there is no indication of any serious emerging pest
is in the eastern islands. Many other species have been
problem in dipterocarps, the situation needs
tried in small-scale experimental plantations, notably,
monitoring. In general, the resin present in
E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. pellita, E. tereticornis
dipterocarps may afford protection against insects.
and E. torelliana. Most plantations are in Sumatra
Diseases do not seem to be a major threat.
(Aceh, North Sumatra, Jambi) and Kalimantan (West,
East and South Kalimantan).
4.8. Dyera spp. Insect pests
In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings may be attacked by
Indonesian common name: Jelutung
several insects, including a pyralid leaf roller (probably
Archips micaceana), the jassid bug, Kolla bataviae, the
At least three species of Dyera (Apocynaceae): curculionid shoot borer, Alcides sp. and the tea-
D. costulata, D. polyphylla and D. lowii occur in mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. (Table 4.5) (Hardi 1993;
Indonesia (Whitten et al. 1987; Kessler and Sidiyasa Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998). Generally, they have
1994). In Kalimantan, D. costulata and D. polyphylla not posed a major threat, and chemical control methods
occur in lowland swamp forests and they have been have been tested (Hardi 1993). Transplanted saplings
tapped for latex and their soft timber used for are attacked, particularly during the field establishment
manufacturing plywood, toys, boards, etc. phase, by species of subterranean termites that often
Plantations of Dyera spp. are being established South cause substantial mortality unless prophylactic chemical
Kalimantan and Jambi provinces. protection is given (Intari and Natawiria 1976; Selander
1990; Santoso and Hardi 1991). Older plants are
Insect pests attacked by Helopeltis spp., which cause dieback of
No information is available. young shoots and are a serious pest in North Sumatra
where up to 57% of trees may be infested (Hardi and
Diseases Intari 1990). Saplings are attacked by Zeuzera coffeae
No information is available except for the occurrence (Lepidoptera, Cossidae), which bore into the stem and
of sapstain fungi on freshly cut logs (Martono 1989). often cause it to break; Suratmo (1996) reported that
12-30% of saplings might be infested in Sumatra and
Threat assessment Kalimantan. Recently, an unidentified borer killed 1000
Little information is available from other countries. ha of 2-3-year-old E. deglupta plantation of PT. Hutan
In Malaysia, where there are trial plantations of Kusuma (Soepangkat 1998). Most probably, this
D. costulata (Appanah and Weinland 1993), seeds damage was caused by the varicose borer, Agrilus
were damaged by ants (Duncan 1977) but no major sexsignatus (Coleoptera, Buprestidae) which devastated
pests recorded. The timber is susceptible to damage some plantations in the Philippines in the 1970s.
by powder-post beetles. It appears that there is no Eucalyptus deglupta trees weakened by other
major threat of pests and diseases for plantations of causes and the Papua New Guinea provenances
Dyera spp. Perhaps the latex affords protection as it are very susceptible to this borer whose density in
does in most other Apocyanaceae. attacked plants has reached 37 larvae m-2 of wood
surface in the Philippines (Braza 1988, 1992).

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 25

Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia

Category Scientific name Common name Notes

Nursery pests Helopeltis spp. Tea mosquito bug

(Hemiptera, Miridae)

Unidentified Leaf roller

(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)

Alcides sp. Shoot borer

(Coleoptera, Curculionidae)

On young transplants Several species (Termitidae) Subterranean termites Causes plant mortality

Saplings Helopeltis spp. Tea-mosquito bug Causes die-back of

(Hemiptera, Miridae) shoots

Zeuzera coffeae Red borer

(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)

Unidentified borer (probably Agrilus Only on weakened trees,

sp., Coleoptera, Buprestidae) causes heavy mortality

In general, there are no major pest problems in older plantation had stem canker (Nectria sp.) and nearly
eucalypt plantations. 5% were killed (Suharti and Santoso 1995).

Diseases Threat assessment

In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings are susceptible to Pests are not a major constraint to eucalypt
damping-off by Pythium and Fusarium spp. (Sitepu plantations. Nursery pests, and termites that attack
and Suharti 1998). The diseases can be managed by the out-planted saplings during plantation
appropriate nursery techniques (controlling soil establishment stage, can be effectively managed.
quality, water regime and crowding of seedlings) and,
when necessary by fungicides. Older seedlings and Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia
saplings are affected by leaf spot diseases caused
Disease Causative agent Notes
by several fungi (Table 4.6). Stem canker of saplings
caused by Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) has Damping-off Pythium sp., In nurseries
occurred in North Sumatra but little information is Fusarium sp.
available on its severity and extent of incidence.
Leaf spot Pestalotia sp., On seedlings
Death of older trees caused by root rot has often Curvularia sp., and saplings
been noted and the associated pathogens were Mycosphaerella spp.
Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Botryodiplodia
sp. (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). In a 7-year-old Leaf blight Cylindrocladium On saplings
multiseptatum
plantation of E. urophylla examined by one of us
(K.S.S.N.) at Sebulu, East Kalimantan, several trees Kirramyces On saplings
in patches were found dead due to root disease. In destructens
future plantings in this area E. urophylla is being
Pink disease Corticium On saplings
replaced with E. pellita which is less susceptible to
salmonicolor
diseases (S.S. Maurits personal communication).
Stem canker was also observed on some trees. Stem Root rot Phytophthora sp., On older trees
canker on Eucalyptus has been attributed to Nectria Botryodiplodia sp.
sp. (Nazif and Suharti 1990) and in Riau, Sumatra,
Stem canker Nectria sp. On older trees
52% of 5-year-old trees in a 10 ha E. urophylla

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 26 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Experience with extensive eucalypt plantations outside Diseases

Indonesia is similar. The buprestid borer, Agrilus No disease of the living tree is on record.
sexsignatus, which affected some plantations in the
Philippines, was restricted to plantations growing on Threat assessment
poor sites and a particular provenance. Two serious Although there is very little plantation experience with
pests of eucalypts of Australian origin, Phoracantha this species, available information suggests that there
(borer) and Gonipterus (defoliator), were accidentally is no threat of pests and diseases.
introduced into some eucalypt growing countries in
Africa and the Mediterranean where they spread rapidly
causing economic damage. Therefore, vigilance is 4.11. Gmelina arborea
necessary against accidental introduction of these pests.

Nursery diseases can be kept in check by using Indonesian common name: Gmelina
fungicides and appropriate nursery management
techniques. However, root disease affecting older trees Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) is exotic to
is a serious problem which is likely to be aggravated in Indonesia, although the related G. moluccana occurs
the future because inoculum build up will occur over naturally in the Moluccas (Yap et al. 1993). It is a
successive short rotations and there is no effective control relatively fast growing species, which produces a
method. Root isolation by trenching around diseased trees lightweight hardwood suitable for construction,
is practised but is costly and not fully effective. carving, etc. It also yields good quality pulp. There
Phytophthora sp. is one of the causative agents identified. are large-scale plantations in Sumatra (Riau, West
Phytophthora cinnamomi is a serious and widespread Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra and Lampung),
pathogen of E. marginata (jarrah) forests in Australia, Kalimantan (West, Central, South and East
with a wide host range (Keane et al. 2000). There is Kalimantan) and the Moluccas (Fig. 2.1). Small
urgent need for an in-depth study of the fungi associated plantations have been raised in Java.
with root rot of eucalypts in Indonesia and to screen
Eucalyptus species and provenances for resistance to Insect pests
root rot. Leaf diseases, e.g. Cylindrocladium spp., have No major insect pests have been found on G. arborea
been a serious problem in humid tropical environments plantations in Indonesia, although there are minor pests.
in parts of Asia, but while some have been recorded in One of the insects consistently associated with it is a
Indonesia, e.g. Macrophoma sp., they are not yet carpenter worm, Prionoxystus sp. (Lepidoptera,
considered a potential threat. Cossidae). The larva bores into the stem of saplings,
feeds from within and weakens the tree. In East
Kalimantan, 5-70% of saplings may be infested
4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri (Ngatiman and Tangketasik 1987) and it also occurs in
Java and Sumatra. Injecting the larval tunnel with
Indonesian common name: Ulin lubricant oil and plugging the hole was effective for
control (Pramono et al. 1998). One of us (K.S.S.N.)
Eusideroxlon zwageri (Lauraceae), also called ironwood, observed at Sebulu, East Kalimantan about 80% of
is a highly valued indigenous timber species in Indonesia. saplings stumped to produce multiple shoots in a clonal
It is a monotypic species distributed in Sumatra, multiplication area, were infested by this borer. The
Kalimantan and some adjacent islands (Kostermans et infestation is conspicuous because the larval frass
al. 1993). It is one of the heaviest and highly durable accumulates on the ground, at the base of the plant.
timbers and has a variety of uses. In Sumatra and However, the damage is not serious. Multiple infestations
Kalimantan it is traditionally used for roof shingles. may weaken the saplings, but they are not killed, and
Plantations are being established in South Kalimantan. the insect does not build up in large numbers because it
passes through only one generation per year. Shoot
Insect pests cuttings kept in the nursery for rooting were attacked
There are no records of pests on the living tree, but by an unidentified borer, possibly, Alcidodes ludificator
seeds are damaged by insects (Kostermans et al. (syn. Alcides gmelinae) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae).
1993). The wood is highly resistant to termite attack. This small curculionid beetle bores into the young green

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 27

shoots of G. arborea in India and Myanmar (Beeson common minor pests in Indonesia are the cossid borer,
1941). In a review paper, Suratmo (1996) listed Prionoxystus sp., attacking saplings and the unidentified
Alcidodes ludificator and Apion argulicolle (Coleoptera, curculionid borer attacking green shoots in the nursery.
Curculionidae) as pests of G. arborea in Indonesia. He In clonal multiplication orchards and high value
also listed Xyleborus fornicatus (Coleoptera, plantations, where attention can be given to individual
Scolytidae), Selepa celtis (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and plants, Prionoxystus sp. can be controlled by injecting
Calopepla leayana (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) among a suitable insecticide solution to the larval tunnel or by
pests of G. arborea and observed that in 2-3-year-old pricking the larva using a wire probe. The curculionid
trees 100% defoliation has been recorded. However, borer in nurseries can also be controlled by using
Sitepu and Suharti (1998) have listed only Prionoxystus insecticides. Except for nursery diseases, for which
sp. as a pest of G. arborea. Other insects recorded effective control measures are available, there is no
include the well-known teak beehole borer, Xyleutes threat of diseases for G. arborea.
ceramicus (Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998).

Diseases 4.12. Gonystylus bancanus

In nurseries, damping off caused by Pythium,
Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia spp. is common Indonesian common name: Ramin
(Rahayu 1999). Anthracnose disease characterised by
sudden death of seedlings, caused by Colletotrichum Gonystylus bancanus (Thymelaeceae) is the most
sp., has been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). popular of the several species of Gonystylus endemic
Root rot disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. has to the Malesian region. It is a characteristic associate
affected young plantations in South Kalimantan, Jambi of the dipterocarp forests in the lowland swamps in
and Sumatra (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). Sumatra and Kalimantan and is highly prized for its
Ganoderma sp. has been isolated from the roots of smooth whitish timber suitable for a variety of light
dead trees of G. arborea in the campus of Gajah Mada construction, including cabinets (Soerianegara et al.
University in Yogyakarta. 1993). In addition to enrichment planting in logged
over forests, industrial plantations of G. bancanus are
Threat assessment
being established in Jambi province in Sumatra.
Gmelina arborea has several serious pests in countries
where it is native. The most damaging is the beetle
Pests
defoliator, C. leayana. Suratmo (1996) lists it as a pest
No information is available on pests of G. bancanus,
of G. arborea in Indonesia but no details are available
except that freshly felled timber is susceptible to
and other reviewers do not mention it. Since this is a
pinhole borers.
potentially dangerous pest which has become a limiting
factor for large-scale cultivation of G. arborea in its
Diseases
native range, more investigation is needed on the
A disease of unknown etiology, affecting the
occurrence and severity of this pest in Indonesia. Other
serious pests of G. arborea outside Indonesia include heartwood of G. bancanus and G. macrophyllus, is
the sap-sucking bug, Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera, known to produce ‘garrowood’, a highly valued
Tingidae) which builds up in outbreak proportions in resinous product used in perfumery (Sumadiwangsa
young plantations, causing defoliation and shoot die- 1997). Although garrowood produced by Aquilaria
back in India (Beeson 1941; Nair and Mathew 1988); spp. is the most highly prized, Gonystylus also shows
the defoliator, Ozola minor (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) potential. Except for this ‘beneficial disease’, no other
in the Philippines (Yemane 1990); and the stem borer, disease is known.
Glena indiana (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) in Thailand
(Hutacharern 1990). None of these has been reported Threat assessment
in Indonesia. At present, there are no major pest Gonystylus bancanus appears to be free of pests and
problems in G. arborea plantations in Indonesia. This is diseases, but the plantation history is too short to
a similar situation to Brazil and some African countries become complacent. Continued monitoring is
where G. arborea has been planted as an exotic. Two necessary.

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 28 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.13. Koompassia species Threat assessment

In Uganda, a canker, caused by Fusarium solani was
Indonesian common name: Kempas described in young trees growing stunted in poor soil
(Schabel and Latiff 1993). There is no threat of pests
The leguminous Koompassia spp. are characteristic and diseases to this species that has been grown
associates of dipterocarp forests in the lowlands and successfully for a long time in agroforestry systems
lower hills. The three Indonesian species are in Java.
Koompassia excelsa and K. malaccensis in Sumatra
and Kalimantan and K. grandiflora in Irian Jaya. The
dominant Koompassia trees in the upper storey are 4.15. Mangrove species
well known for sustaining the combs of the wild
honeybee, Apis dorsata. The timber is durable and is Indonesian common name: Mangrove
used for a variety of purposes, including railway
sleepers, flooring and furniture. Koompassia spp. in Natural mangrove forests are common along the very
natural forests are now protected from cutting and long Indonesian coastline. Plantations have been raised
the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops is mainly to restore the natural vegetation in heavily
encouraging the forest concessionaires to raise degraded areas, to prevent coastal erosion, to facilitate
plantations of these species. Plantations have been coastal fisheries and to protect swamps. The
established in Central Kalimantan. commonly planted species are in the genera Avicennia,
Bruguiera, Rhizophora and Sonneratia. Large
Insect pests plantations have been raised only in Java, while local
No information is available on pests of the living tree. people have undertaken small-scale planting in Bali and
other places. Nearly 50 000 ha of plantations of
Diseases Rhizophora spp. have been established in West and
No information is available on diseases of the living Central Java (Perum Perhutani 1995).
tree.
Insect pests
Threat assessment The most common pests of mangroves in Indonesia
Koompassia spp. appear to be free of pests and diseases are scale insects that attach themselves to the shoots
but the plantation history is too short to draw valid and feed on the plant sap, often causing the leaves to
conclusions. wilt. Two species have been recorded: Chionaspis
sp. (Intari 1997) and Aulacaspis marina (Takagi and
Williams 1998) (Table 4.7). The stem borer, Zeuzera
4.14. Maesopsis eminii conferta (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) and the twig borer,
Xyleborus sp. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) occur and in
Indonesian common name: Kayu afrika, Misopsis combination often infest nearly 50% of stems of
Avicennia spp. (Hardi 1997). Other pests, noted
Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae), a native of tropical occasionally, include an unidentified leaf-feeding
Africa, was introduced into Java in 1920s and grown beetle, which damaged up to 80% of 3-month-old
in home gardens. It has a light, general-purpose timber. seedlings (Intari 1986) and the bagworms,
Plantations have been raised in Sumatra. Acanthopsyche sp. (Intari 1982) and Pteroma
plagiophleps (Sitepu and Suharti 1998). A notable,
Insect pests non-insect pest is the crab, Sesarma sp. that cuts off
No insect pests have been recorded. the tops of seedlings in the nursery and new
outplantings, often causing considerable mortality
Diseases (Intari 1988).
No diseases have been recorded.

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 29

Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Tree species affected Notes

Sap sucking Chionaspis sp. Scale insect Rhizophora spp. and

(Homoptera, Coccoidea, Bruguiera gymnorhiza
Diaspididae)

Aulacaspis marina Scale insect Rhizophora spp.

(Homoptera, Coccoidea,
Diaspididae)

Leaf feeding Unidentified beetle Beetle Bruguiera spp. On seedlings

(Coleoptera)

Pteroma plagiophleps Bagworm Rhizophora spp.

(Lepidoptera,
Psychidae)

Acanthopsyche sp. Bagworm Bruguiera sp.

(Lepidoptera,
Psychidae)

Stem boring Zeuzera conferta Beehole borer Avicennia sp. and Stem borer
(Lepidoptera, Cossidae) Rhizophora spp.

Xyleborus spp. Scolytid borer Avicennia sp. and Twig borer

(Coleoptera, Scolytidae) Rhizophora spp.

Threat assessment 1996). These outbreaks are occasional events and

Among the insect pests in Indonesia, the borer, are not a threat to mangrove plantations, particularly
Z. conferta, has also been recognised as a pest of as the trees are not killed by defoliation.
mangroves in Bangladesh (Chowdhury 1996). Most
pests recorded affect the establishment stage and The only serious disease reported from the tropics is
have seriously threatened the cultivation of top death of Heritiera fomes over extensive areas of
mangroves. Rhizophora spp. have been grown the mangrove forests of Sunderbans in Bangladesh
successfully in Java for a long time. Defoliation (Rahman 1996), the etiology of which is not fully
during every summer, as occurs in Avicennia marina understood although some fungi and bacteria were
in Hong Kong (Anderson and Lee 1995), is rare. implicated. There is no threat of diseases to mangrove
There are occasional defoliator outbreaks in natural plantations in Indonesia.
stands of mangroves. In 1983, 500-1000 ha of an
almost pure stand of Excoecaria agallocha
(Euphorbiacae) was mass defoliated by caterpillars 4.16. Melaleuca cajuputi
of Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Achaea janata)
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in North Sumatra (Whitten Indonesian common name: Kayu putih
and Damanik 1986). Other such outbreaks include
mass defoliation of the same species by Achaea serva Melaleuca cajuputi, formerly known as M. leucodendron
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in central Queensland, (Myrtaceae) (Blake 1968; Turnbull 1986), is native to
Australia (McKillup and McKillup 1997); of Indonesia and planted in Java and Buru island in the
Avicennia alba by larvae of Cleora injectaria Moluccas, particularly in degraded areas. It yields
(Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in Thailand cajuput oil, which is distilled from the leaves. There
(Piyakarnchana 1981); and of A. marina by Hyblaea are about 11 800 ha of plantations in the three provinces
puera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in India (Anonymous of Java (Perum Perhutani 1995).

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 30 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Insect pests Threat assessment

Several species of subterranean termites are reported Pests of O. pyramidale, recorded outside Indonesia,
to attack young trees, up to 6 years old, often causing include a shoot borer, Anadasmus porinodus
mortality up to 80% (Intari 1979; Intari and (Lepidoptera, Stenomidae) in Costa Rica (Becker
Wiriadinata 1984). Insecticidal treatments have been 1974) and a leaf roller, Sylepta derogata (Lepidoptera,
standardised for control. Among non-insect pests, a Pyralidae), a common pest of malvaceous plants, in
mite causes leaf gall. Kerala, India (Mathew 1980). All the known pests,
including Z. coffeae in Indonesia, are polyphagous
Diseases insects and there is no major threat to plantations of
No disease has been encountered. O. pyramidale in Indonesia.

Threat assessment Diseases recorded outside Indonesia include a brown

Melaleuca cajuputi (as M. leucodendron) has been root rot in areas previously planted with cocoa in Papua
cultivated successfully in Indonesia for a long time. New Guinea, caused by Phellinus noxius (Dennis
Apart from the subterranean termites that can be 1992); a bark canker in Ecuador, with which the
controlled effectively by soil treatment with suitable hyphomycetes fungus Stilbella ecuadorensis was
insecticides, there is no major threat of pests and associated (Morgan et al. 1991); and a die-back in
diseases. The leaves contain chemical components Kerala, India with which the fungi, Calonectria
that act as a feeding repellent to some insects rigidiuscula and Fusarium moniliformae were
(Doskotch et al. 1980; Alonso et al. 1996). associated (Sharma et al. 1985). However, there is no
threat of disease in Indonesia where the tree has been
grown successfully for a considerable time.
4.17. Ochroma pyramidale
Indonesian common name: Balsa 4.18. Octomeles sumatrana
Ochroma pyramidale (syn. O. lagopus; O. Common name in Indonesia: Benuang
grandiflora) (Bombacaceae) has been planted in small
areas in Indonesia, particularly, Java. A typical Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae) occurs naturally
pioneering species native to Central and South America in Indonesia, except in Java and Nusa Tenggara
(Wiselius 1998), it has been planted mainly in degraded (Fundter et al. 1997). It is fast growing and produces
lands in Java and plantations are being established in a light timber which is used for indoor construction.
Central Kalimantan. Plantations are being raised in Sumatra under the HTI
scheme.
Insect pests
The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, Insect pests
Cossidae) has been reported in a plantation 1.5 years The leaves are attacked by a moth caterpillar,
old in Java (Wiselius 1998). This moth caterpillar is Characoma sp. (Fundter et al. 1997). No information
known to attack coffee, tea, cinchona and a few other is available on the seriousness of damage.
small trees. The larvae bore into woody stems and
branches and make a longitudinal tunnel along the pith, Diseases
often causing death of the distal part of the branch. In No diseases are known.
most species it has not been a serious threat. No other
pest has been noted on this species in Indonesia. Threat assessment
No reliable judgment can be made as the plantation
Diseases history is so short.
No disease of O. pyramidale has been reported from
Indonesia.

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 31

4.19. Paraserianthes falcataria estimated yield loss is about 12% if the trees are
harvested when 4 years old, and about 74% if
Indonesian common name: Sengon laut harvested after 8 years (Notoatmodjo 1963).

Paraserianthes falcataria (Leguminosae) is an Xystrocera festiva is currently controlled by cutting

exceptionally fast growing tree, native to the eastern and removing infested trees to prevent build up of the
islands of the Indonesian archipelago and New Guinea. beetle population. In Government-owned plantations,
It is widely planted in Indonesia, in industrial this is incorporated into the regular thinning operations
plantations in Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, carried out at 3, 4, 5 and 6 years of age, by removing
Nusa Tenggara and Moluccas (Fig. 2.1), and in infested trees first instead of systematic thinning to
smallholder plantations in Java. The rotation period is reduce competition between trees. This has reduced
usually 8 years. The area of large and small plantations the infestation rate to between 4-10% of trees,
has increased steadily over recent years. Wood from although this is not sufficient (Kasno and Husaeni
industrial plantations is used for pulp, whereas that 1998). They recommend an integrated control
from smallholder plantations has a variety of uses, strategy, involving, (1) a 3-monthly inspection, during
including chopsticks, packing cases and furniture for which early infestations are detected and the bark
local use. removed from the infested portion of the trunk to
expose and kill the early larvae, (2) annual thinning to
Insect pests remove infested trees, and (3) release of the egg
The major pests recorded on P. falcataria are listed in parasitoid, Anagyrus sp. These may prove helpful,
Table 4.8. The most notable is Xystrocera festiva although detecting early infestations on top portions
(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae), which is becoming more of the trunk is not practicable and release of egg
serious as the area planted to the host increases. First parasitoid is not likely to be cost-effective until rearing
reported in 1897 (Hardi et al. 1996), it is present in methods for the parasitoid are standardised and field
most areas where P. falcataria is grown in Indonesia, effectiveness of parasitoid release demonstrated.
although most reports are from Java and Sumatra. In Further research is also needed to standardise the
1990 it was not noted in trial plantations in South promising method of using green light to attract and
Kalimantan (Selander 1990) although Ngatiman and trap adult beetles (Husaeni et al. 1998).
Tangketasik (1987) detected it in East Kalimantan. The
severity of incidence appears to be higher in Java A small population of the related species, Xystrocera
where the host has been cultivated for a long period. globosa, has been found on P. falcataria (Matsumoto
It has several other hosts including Acacia spp., 1994). This pest is widespread and is known to attack
Pithecellobium sp., Samanea saman, and several leguminous tree species, particularly, if they
Enterolobium sp. Xystrocera festiva is one of the most are unhealthy (Beeson 1941).
studied forest insects in Indonesia and detailed
information is available on its biology and impact. Next in importance is the small bagworm, Pteroma
Matsumoto (1994) covers some aspects of its ecology plagiophleps (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) that defoliates
and Kasno and Husaeni (1998) present a summary of the tree. It is a sporadic pest, but some companies in
its present status, with emphasis on control. The beetle Sumatra, have reported severe infestations. These
lays eggs on fissures in the bark and the larvae initially usually occur repeatedly in endemic patches. The
feed underneath the bark, burrowing deeper into the female moths are wingless and dispersal is limited.
wood as they grow to maturity in about 4 months. The larvae live inside conical bags made out of the
The larvae are somewhat gregarious, with several host plant material, and feed on the leaves and bark in
present at each infestation site. Severe infestation large numbers. The leaves are skeletonised and
reduces the yield and quality of the wood, and often eventually shed. Repeated heavy infestations may result
leads to death of the tree. Infestation usually begins in tree dieback. A 5-year-old plantation in South
when the trees are 2-3 years old and the percentage Sumatra had a severe attack from 1994 to 1997
of infested trees increase with age. In East Java, the (Zulfiah 1998).

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 32 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Another sporadic pest is the yellow butterfly, Eurema plantations in South Kalimantan and Jambi, Sumatra
spp. (mainly E. blanda and to a lesser extent E. hecabe (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). Older trees are attacked
and others), whose caterpillars often build up in large by root rot fungi of the genera, Ganoderma (Widyastuti
numbers and cause locally widespread defoliation. et al. 2000) Ustulina and Rosellinia. Dieback due to
Severe defoliation occurs occasionally in Java, unknown reasons has been reported by some
Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi (Tikupadang et al. companies. Generally, root rot is a problem only in trees
1993; Irianto et al. 1997; Suhendi and Sembiring older than 10 years. Except for nursery diseases that
1998). Although heavy defoliation may cause dieback can be controlled, P. falcataria does not suffer from
of branches (Irianto et al. 1997), the infestation is any major disease.
usually transient and the damage not serious.

Other minor pests reported on P. falcataria include a

Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia
few species of scarabaeid beetles whose larvae feed
on the roots of saplings, the bark feeding caterpillar, Disease Causative agent Notes
Indarbela quadrinotata, the twig borer, Xylosandrus
morigerus (Tikupadang et al. 1993) (Table 4.8), and Damping-off Pythium sp. On seedlings
Phytophthora sp.
other polyphagous, occasional feeders.
Rhizoctonia sp.

Diseases Anthracnose Colletotrichum sp. On seedlings

Damping-off caused by Pythium, Phytophthora and disease
Rhizoctonia spp. is common in nurseries (Table 4.9). Root rot Botryodiplodia sp. On young trees
Anthracnose disease, characterised by sudden death of
the seedlings and caused by Colletotrichum sp., has Ganoderma sp. On older trees
been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). Root rot Ustulina sp.
Rosellinia sp.
disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. occurs in young

Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Notes

Trunk boring Xystrocera festiva Sengon borer Serious pest

(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) (albizia borer)

X. globosa - Minor pest

Leaf feeding Pteroma plagiophleps Small bagworm Occasionally serious;

(Lepidoptera, Psychidae) feeds also on bark
surface

Eurema blanda Yellow butterfly caterpillar Sporadic

(Lepidoptera, Pieridae)

Root feeding Several species White grubs On saplings

(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)

Bark feeding Indarbela quadrinotata Bark caterpillar

(Lepidoptera, Indarbelidae)

Twig boring Xylosandrus morigerus Scolytid beetle

(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 33

Threat Assessment comparable to teak, used for furniture and decorative

The borer X. festiva is a major threat to P. falcataria veneers. It is being planted extensively in Sumatra,
plantations in Indonesia. Regular surveillance and Kalimantan and West Java and it is also popular as a
removal of infested trees reduces the incidence of attack border tree in private holdings in Java. It is highly
but extension efforts to promote this method and further valued for construction timber because it grows faster
research to develop improved control techniques are than teak.
needed. It is a serious pest of P. falcataria plantations
in Malaysia but not in the rest of tropical Asia. The Insect Pests
bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps and the yellow An unidentified shoot-boring insect causes
butterfly, Eurema spp. are widespread pests with the deformation of young trees (Graaf et al. 1993). The
bagworm potentially capable of causing serious nymphs of an unidentified bug, Clovia sp.
damage in endemic patches of infestation. In Kerala, (Homoptera, Aphrophoridae) suck the sap of young
India, it caused dieback and death of trees in patches leaves, enclosed in a mass of froth on the underside
where repeated defoliation occurred (Nair and of the leaf, but damage is negligible (Matsumoto 1994).
Mathew 1992). Vigilance is necessary against this There has been moderate defoliation of P. canescens
insect, particularly because it infests many other tree by an unknown insect (Selander 1990).
species in Indonesia, facilitating build up to high
population levels. Appropriate management methods Diseases
need to be developed. The yellow butterfly is also Leaf rust has often been noted on seedlings grown
capable of causing sporadic, locally widespread under shade. Infestation by a superficial, black mildew
defoliation, but since the impact is not serious, it is fungus, probably Meliola sp., is also common
not a major threat to plantations. Other pests are of (Selander 1990).
minor significance.
Threat Assessment
Nursery diseases can be managed effectively. Root There appears to be no threat of pests or diseases, but
rot is generally not a serious problem, except in trees the plantation history is too short to arrive at valid
older than 10 years, and is not a threat to plantations conclusions.
managed on shorter rotations. Dieback caused by
Botryodiplodia theobromae has been noted in Kerala,
India, but bark injury caused by fire or other agencies 4.21. Pinus merkusii
is considered to be a predisposing factor (Sharma and
Sankaran 1988). In the Philippines, canker caused by Indonesian common name: Tusam
Corticium salmonicolor is a common problem, but its
impact is not serious (Anino 1990). Thus diseases do The tropical pine, Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae), occurs
not appear to be a threat to P. falcataria plantations in naturally in the mountains of northern Sumatra. It has
Indonesia. The problems with Botryodiplodia and been planted widely in Indonesia for afforestation and
Corticium spp. in other countries may be due to a protection of watersheds since the 1960s. It yields a
narrow genetic base of the host where P. falcataria is general-purpose timber but most plantations were for
an introduced species. pulpwood production. The estimated area of pine
plantations in Indonesia is 700 000 ha (Nambiar et al.
1998). It is planted in Aceh, North Sumatra and in
4.20. Peronema canescens West, Central, and East Java. Java has about 584 000
ha of plantations that are tapped for resin (Perum
Indonesian common name: Sungkai Perhutani 1995).

Peronema canescens (Verbenaceae) belongs to a Insect pests

monotypic genus indigenous to Indonesia (Kalimantan There are three main pests of P. merkusii in Indonesia
and Sumatra) and Malaysia. Often called “jati sabrang” (Table 4.10). The most damaging is the tusam pitch
(teak across Java) it yields high quality timber, almost moth, Dioryctria rubella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).

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 34 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Notes

Shoot and stem Dioryctria rubella Tusam pitch moth Causes shoot die-back and
boring (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) stem distortion

Foliage feeding Miliona basalis Pine looper

(Lepidoptera, Geometridae)

Nesodiprion biremis Pine sawfly

(Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)

Several species Bagworms Generally, minor pests, but

(Lepidoptera, Psychidae) outbreaks known in natural
stands

Root feeding Several species White grubs On roots of saplings

(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)

Coptotermes sp. Termites Feeds on root collar

(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae)

The moth lays eggs on young shoots and the larvae Other pests on P. merkusii in Indonesia include white
bore into them. It causes dieback of the shoots and grubs that attack roots of seedlings in nursery (Intari
stem. It has been considered to be a stem borer rather and Natawiria 1973), termites (Coptotermes sp.) that
than a shoot borer because of serious damage caused attack the root collar and lower stem of saplings
to the stem by the larval tunnel extending upto 30 cm (Suharti et al.1991) and leaf-feeding bagworms
(Matsumoto 1994). It is a serious pest in North (Pteroma plagiophleps, Eumeta sp. and Cryptothelia
Sumatra. Thousands of hectares of young plantations variegata). Outbreaks of bagworms and Miliona
were affected in an outbreak in 1982 (Supriana and basalis have occurred in natural pine stands in
Natawiria 1987b). There is no effective control Sumatra (see Section 3.1).
method against this pest.
Diseases
The pine looper, Miliona basalis (Lepidoptera, Damping-off, caused by several species of fungi
Geometridae) feeds on the needles and most damage (Table 4.11) is a serious problem in nurseries.
is to young plantations. Frequent, but short-lived, Fortnightly spraying of Propanocarb and Captanol
outbreaks occurred in the 1950s in plantations in effectively control them (Ibnu and Supriana 1987).
North Sumatra, during which the egg parasitoid Soil treatment with Captanol, Captan or Manzzeb also
Trichogramma minutus was released for control controlled the problem (Suharti 1988). The fruit
(Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). Sporadic outbreaks extract of Xylocarpus granatum had antifungal activity
have continued in the 1970s and 1980s against damping-off (Widyastuti 1996; Widyastuti
(Mangundikoro and Depari 1958; Husaeni 1993). et al. 1999). Leaf blight caused by Cladiospora sp.
It has also been recorded in Aceh. A third pest, causes the death of up to 70% of seedlings in nurseries
Nesodiprion biremis (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae) in Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished);
causes sporadic light defoliation in North Sumatra. and similar disease symptoms have been noted in the
Groups of 5-25 larvae feed on the distal three-fourths central pine nursery in North Sumatra.
of the needles. Generally, the infestation level is not
considered serious (Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). Threat assessment
These three pests have not been reported from Java Pine shoot moths are important pests of tropical pines
although pine plantations have been raised there for in Southeast Asia, particularly of young plantations.
many years. Dioryctria rubella in the Philippines attacks Pinus
caribaea, P. kesiya and P. merkusii (Lapis 1987),

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 35

Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia

4.22. Schleichera oleosa
Disease Causative agent Notes
Indonesian common name: Kesambi
Damping-off Pythium sp. On seedlings
Fusarium sp.
Rhizoctonia sp. Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae) is an introduced
species that is naturalised in many parts of Indonesia.
Blight Cladiospora sp. On seedlings There are about 3700 ha, mainly in East Java, planted
for lac production (Perum Perhutani 1995).
Root rot Botryodiplodia sp. Rare incidence in
nurseries in Java
Insect pests
No insect pests have been reported from Indonesia
although some minor pests occur in India. The main
D. abietella and D. sylvestrella infest P. merkusii in insect pest of the tree, the lac insect, Laccifer lacca,
Thailand (Hutacharern 1978) and D. castanea introduced from India, is made used for lac production.
damages P. kesiya in Northern India (Singh et al.
1988). Other shoot borers (Rhyaciona and Petrovia Diseases
spp.) also occur in the Philippines and Thailand. Since No diseases have been reported from Indonesia
there is no effective method to control this pest, the although some are known in India.
shoot borer continues to be a threat to pine plantations
in Sumatra. It does not occur in Java, possibly because Threat assessment
it can survive only in higher latitudes. There is no threat of pests and diseases to S. oleosa in
Indonesia.
Milionia basalis and Nesodiprion beremis are also
confined to Sumatra. Nesodiprion beremis, which is
not a serious pest in Indonesia, occurs in Thailand 4.23. Swietenia macrophylla
(Hutcharern 1978) but, in general, they are replaced
by other species of defoliators (Dendrolimus, Indonesian common name: Mahoni
Neodiprion) in more Northern latitudes. The three
main pests, D. rubella, M. basalis and N. beremis, Swietenia macrophylla (Meliaceae), commonly called
are confined to Northern Sumatra. This suggests mahogany, is a fairly fast-growing species native to
there is scope for expanding pine plantations to the tropical America. It is widely planted across the tropics
higher altitudes of lower latitudes in Indonesia without for its high quality wood that is used for furniture and
the risk of major pests. Other pests such as root cabinet making. There are over 54 000 ha of
grubs and termites, which are more prevalent in plantations in Indonesia, mainly in West Java (Perum
lower latitudes, can be managed effectively and Perhutani 1995). Plantation trials are under way at
therefore are of little economic significance. Bark Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan.
beetles (Scolytidae), which can infest the trees in
large numbers and kill them, are major pests of pines Insect pests
in temperate climates. One species, Ips calligraphus In common with many other countries, infestation by
has been recorded on P. merkusii in Jamaica the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Lepidoptera,
(Garraway 1986). Bark beetles thrive mainly on Pyralidae) has limited expansion of mahogany
freshly cut logs and weak trees. As pine plantations plantations in Indonesia. Its larvae bore into the
extend to poorer sites, vigilance is needed to detect growing shoot of saplings destroying the terminal bud
any new pests. causing growth retardation and stem forking. Young
trees 3-6 years old and 2-8 m tall are the most heavily
Diseases are not a major threat to pine plantations in attacked (Morgan and Suratmo 1976), a finding
Indonesia, as the nursery diseases are manageable. supported by Suratmo (1977) who observed about

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 36 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

90% of 3-year-old trees (2.5 m tall) were infested mellea and Phellinus noxius has been reported
but only 5% of trees 14 years old and 13 m tall. (Mayhew and Newton 1998).
Older trees are not susceptible to attack. With the
life cycle lasting between 1 and 2 months there are Threat assessment
several overlapping generations and repeated attacks The shoot borer is the major threat to cultivation of
coincident with flushing. At present, there is no mahogany worldwide, with the related species,
effective method to control this pest. It has been Hypsipyla grandella replacing H. robusta, in the Latin
suggested that planting of trees repellent to the shoot American tropics. Although older trees are not
borer moth along the plantation border or in a mixture attacked, many plantation programmes have been
will prevent the arrival of moths for egg laying. In abandoned due to damage during the establishment
preliminary trials, planting of Acacia mangium stage. Development of practical control methods
around a mahogany plantation prevented H. robusta using strategies such as chemical application, insect
infestation (Matsumoto et al. 1997), and parasitoids and shade regulation have been
interplanting neem, Azadirachta indica, with unsuccessful. The use of deterrent trees is being
mahogany in uneven admixture reduced shoot borer tested. Recently, the Australian Centre for
attack (Suharti et al. 1995). These preliminary International Agricultural Research has supported
results are encouraging, but more critical, large-scale international cooperation to find a solution to this
trials are necessary to examine the effectiveness and vexing problem.
feasibility of this approach.
The shoot borer does not occur in Fiji, but
The scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus compactus (syn. ambrosia beetle and termites have taken a heavy
Xyleborus morstatti) (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) lays toll of S. macrophylla plantations there. Three species,
eggs in galleries in the stems of seedlings in the Neotermes papua, N. samoanus and an unidentified
nursery leading to their collapse (Suratmo 1982; Neotermes sp. infest living trees aged 2 years and older
Natawiria 1990; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and (Kamath et al. 1996). They hollow out the trees from
Suharti 1998). It also infests living twigs and branches within the trunk and older infestations become
of older trees (Mayhew and Newton 1998). This manifested as gentle to heavy swellings on the trunk.
species also damages mahogany seedlings in Sri On an average, 7% of trees in plantations are infested.
Lanka and Thailand. Minor pests observed in This attack is similar to that of Neotermes sp. on teak
experimental plantings include the leaf-feeding in Indonesia. Vigilance is necessary to detect signs of
caterpillar, Attacus atlas (Lepidoptera, Saturnidae) and termite infestation of mahogany in Indonesia.
the leaf-cutter bee, Megachile sp. (Hymenoptera,
Megachilidae) (Matsumoto 1994). Two endemic species of ambrosia beetles
(Crossotarsus externe-dentatus and Platypus
Diseases gerstaeckeri) also infest trees older than 6-8 years in
The only disease noted in S. macrophylla is bark rot, Fiji. Such attacks appear to be related to poor tree
which occurs at the base of the trunk. The lesion health. Monitoring the possible build up of Xylosandrus
appears in the middle of the rainy season, spreads compactus, which infests twigs of older mahogany
rapidly from bottom upwards and often kills the trees trees in Indonesia, in trees of poor health is needed.
by the end of the season. The lesion always appears
on the stem surface facing the water flow along the The only serious disease is the unidentified pathogen
slope and it is assumed that the pathogen arrives spread through flowing water which results in the
through water and enters through wounds. The death of trees. Research is needed to determine the
causative organism remains unidentified. About 40% etiology of this disease. In this context, it is interesting
of trees have been affected in some patches of to note that the fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi,
S. macrophylla stands in Purwodadi forest district, causing a serious root disease in Eucalyptus marginata
Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished). and other trees in Australia, can disperse through
There are no other major diseases, although flowing subsurface water in lateritic soil on hill slopes
occurrence of the root rot pathogens, Armillaria (Kinal et al. 1993).

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 37

4.24. Tectona grandis Insect Pests

There are three well-known pests of teak in Indonesia
Indonesian common name: Jati (Table 4.12). Caterpillars of the moth, Hyblaea puera
(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae), commonly known as the
Teak, Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae), was probably teak defoliator, feed on the foliage during the early
introduced to Java 400-600 years ago from India. It part of the growth season, soon after flushing. It is
is now naturalised and occurs over extensive areas in believed to cause one or more total defoliation events
Java and Muna Island in Southeast Sulawesi. It every year in most teak areas, but systematically
produces one of the finest of tropical timbers that is gathered data are not available. The teak defoliator is a
in high demand for a variety of purposes, from building migrant pest, with shifting foci of high-density
bee hives to ships. Plantation forestry in Java is infestations during the early outbreak period, which
dominated by teak, with about 1 million ha making up coincides with pre-monsoon rains (Nair 1988). This
about 55% of all its forest plantations. The plantations is followed by widespread infestation and sudden
are in East Java (570 000 ha), Central Java (312 000 disappearance of the pest population. The dynamics
ha) and West Java (185 000 ha). Some plantations of infestation are similar to Indian infestations
exist also in Southeast Sulawesi. Indonesia has a long (Kalshoven 1953), but detailed studies are lacking. In
tradition in teak plantation management and supplies a Indian teak plantations H. puera causes substantial loss
significant proportion of teak timber in world trade. of growth increment (Nair et al 1996).
Teak is managed on a 60-year rotation and plantations
are usually established by direct seeding in a taungya The teak leaf skeletoniser Eutectona machaeralis (syn.
system. Recently, a small area of plantations has been Hapalia machaeralis, Pyrausta machaeralis)
established with rooted cuttings and tissue cultured (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) is also present in plantations
plantlets from selected clones. Experimental teak in Java (Suratmo 1987). This caterpillar feeds on the
plantations have been established in Kalimantan and it leaves, leaving the major veins intact, hence the name,
appears that although the teak grows faster it does ‘skeletoniser’. Intachat (1998) identified the species
not produce good quality wood. in Indonesia, Malaysia and probably Thailand as Paliga

Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia

Type of damage Scientific name Common name Notes

Leaf feeding Hyblaea puera Teak defoliator

(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae)

Paliga damastesalis Teak leaf skeletonizer Earlier known as

(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Eutectona, Pyrausta or
Hapalia machaeralis

Valanga nigricornis Grasshopper

(Orthoptera, Acrididae)

Trunk/stem boring Neotermes tectonae Inger-inger Unique pest of teak in

(Isoptera, Kalotermitidae) Indonesia

Xyleutes ceramica Beehole borer

(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)

Xyleborus destruens Ambrosia beetle Minor pest

(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)

Zeuzera coffeae Red borer On saplings

(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)

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 38 Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

damastesalis, as distinct from Eutectona machaeralis Acrididae) causes sporadic defoliation and white grubs
present in India, although it has similar habits. She also damage seedlings in nurseries.
suggests that the correct nomenclature of Eutectona
machaeralis is Paliga machoeralis. Kalshoven (1953) Diseases
mentions that although present in Java, it does not attack Teak is fairly resistant to diseases, although several
teak, but other authors list it as a major pest of teak in pathogenic organisms have been recorded. A few
Java (Natawiria and Tarumingkeng 1971; Mieke 1994; diseases affect young trees in taungya systems, notably,
Suratmo 1996; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and an unidentified root wilt and stem canker, Corticium
Suharti 1998). Little primary data is available on the salmonicolor (pink disease). In a 31 ha plantation at
frequency and intensity of its attack in Java. In India, Kendal, Central Java, 6% of 2-year-old saplings were
outbreaks of teak leaf skeletoniser occur during the latter killed by the root wilt and 2% were affected by canker,
part of the growth season in most years when the leaves which resulted in drying up or breakage of stem above
are old, and so its impact is negligible (Nair et al. 1996). the point of canker (about 1.5 m above ground)
(Sumardi and Widyastuti 2000). These problems appear
The third notable pest of teak in Java is the termite, to be associated with high input management, involving
Neotermes tectonae (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae). Popularly close cultivation of taungya crops and tillage. Cultivation
known as ‘inger-inger’, this wood-dwelling termite of agricultural crops increases the humidity, favouring
hollows out portions of stem and branches. Usually, the pink disease. Tillage may cause root injury facilitating
external symptom, swellings of the trunk and branches, invasion by the wilt bacterium, which is a wound
becomes visible only 3-5 years after the initiation of pathogen. The diseases can be managed by appropriate
attack. The termites occupy crevices within the swollen silvicultural practices.
stem. Trees over 3 years old are attacked but the
symptoms appear only later. It is a serious problem in Threat assessment
Central and East Java (Intari 1990) and various aspects Teak has been grown successfully in Java for over a
have been studied. In some forest districts in Central century and there is no threat of pests or diseases that
Java, 10-72% of the trees were attacked and the will ruin teak plantations. The most acknowledged
production loss (degradation of construction timber to problem is the trunk-infesting termite, Neotermes
fuel wood) estimated at 9-21% (Subyanto 1992; tectonae, unique to teak in Indonesia. It causes
Subyanto et al. 1992). Thinning of infested trees is the economic loss due to degradation of the timber. It is
only practical method to reduce the incidence of attack, mostly confined to some endemic patches, particularly
although methods such as introduction of fumigants, in Central Java and is kept under reasonable control
e.g. phostoxin, into the affected portion of the trunk by thinning operations. The impact, in terms of growth
have been tried (Intari and Amir 1975). loss, caused by the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, is
not fully recognised because the loss is not visible.
The following teak pests are of lesser importance. Although its control is still not feasible except in young
The ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus destruens, attacks the plantations, it is necessary to gather information on its
trunk of living teak trees making branching tunnels that prevalence and impact in Java. Other pests are of little
extend into the heartwood. It is prevalent in areas where consequence. Information is also needed on the
there is no definite dry season (Kalshoven 1953) so such prevalence and seasonal incidence of the teak
areas are avoided for teak cultivation. The teak beehole skeletoniser, Paliga damastesalis.
borer, Xyleutes ceramica (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) which
infests the trunk is present but not common in Central Teak is becoming popular in the agroforestry systems
Java (Intari 1975). The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae, has in Indonesia because of the availability of fast growing,
infested a small proportion of saplings in an 18-month- tissue-cultured clones and high returns from planting
old teak plantation at Kendal, Boja Forest District, Central in homesteads. Problems experienced in taungya
Java (K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi unpublished observation). system under forest plantations will become important
This plantation was intercropped with corn and other in the homestead agroforestry systems. This will
agricultural crops under the taungya system. The include bacterial root wilt, pink disease, red borer and
grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis (Orthoptera, the teak defoliator.

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 Chapter 5

General Conclusions
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

Indonesian forests are in a state of transition (see risk of pests and diseases in Indonesian forest
Chapter 2). The rate of conversion of natural forests plantations. There is unavoidable risk in making these
to plantations in recent years has been faster than ever judgements but this is typical of many real life situations
before. There is rapid expansion of plantations of new, where decisions must be made without sufficient data.
fast-growing species in the outer islands while In fact, the plantation companies have already taken
traditional, slow-growing timber species like teak, pine the risk. The conclusions drawn here should be taken
and Agathis continue to be grown in Java. One only as a broad guideline.
species, Acacia mangium, accounts for 64% of the
area planted in recent times (Chapter 2, Table 2.6).
Paraserianthes falcataria occupies 7% of the area 5.1. Summary of present problems
followed by Gmelina arborea and eucalypts. and future threats
Paraserianthes falcataria is being expanded on private
lands in Java with support by various Government The risk associated with each species has been
agroforestry promotion schemes. Plantation discussed in Chapter 4. What is attempted here is a
development is taking place in a qualitatively different summary and analysis of general features. The species
direction than previously. Although there is a choice fall into two categories: those that have been grown in
for selection from among several species, including Indonesia for a long time and those that are new.
some indigenous species recommended under the HTI
scheme, growers choose the few species listed above. Long-standing plantation species
This is mainly because the emphasis is on fast-growing Species grown in Java are in this category. Risk
trees suitable for pulpwood, and more information is assessments for these species is easier because we
available on silviculture, growth performance and have the benefit of experience. The species and a
suitability for pulping of these species. summary of their present pest and disease problems,
and future risk is given in Table 5.1.
Risk of pest and disease damage should be an important
criterion for selection of species for large-scale There is no serious disease problem other than
planting, but this is seldom done in practice, because manageable nursery diseases among the ten species
the plantation industry cannot wait for scientists to grown over a longer period. Serious insect pest
provide the necessary database to make foolproof problems exist for Paraserianthes falcataria,
choices. Scientific method relies on observational and Swietenia macrophylla and Tectona grandis and they
experimental data that are acquired over a long period. cause economic loss, although this is not generally
Even then, there are many uncertainties regarding the recognised in the case of teak. Unfortunately, there is
conditions under which pest and disease problems may no effective control method yet for any of these pests.
develop. However, an attempt has been made here to There are also localised problems such as the pine
review existing information and to predict the future shoot borer in Sumatra, ambrosia beetle of teak in

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 40 General Conclusions

Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing plantation species

Tree species Category Current major problem Future threat

Agathis dammara Pest None None

Disease None None

Dalbergia latifolia Pest None None

Disease None None

Mangroves Pest None None

(mainly Rhizophora) Disease None None

Maesopsis eminii Pest None None

Disease None None

Melaleuca cajuputi Pest None None

Disease None None

Paraserianthes falcataria Pest 1. Trunk borer 1. Trunk borer

(Xystrocera festiva) (Xystrocera festiva)
2. Defoliator 2. Defoliator
(Pteroma plagiophleps) (Pteroma plagiophleps)
Disease None None

Pinus merkusii Pest None in Java None in Java

Shoot borer Shoot borer
(Dioryctria rubella) (Dioryctria rubella)
in Sumatra in Sumatra
Disease None None

Schleichera oleosa Pest None None

Disease None None

Swietenia macrophylla Pest Shoot borer Shoot borer

(Hypsipyla robusta) (Hypsipyla robusta)
Disease None None

Tectona grandis Pest Defoliator Defoliator

(Hyblaea puera) (Hyblaea puera)
Disease None None

areas not subject to seasonal drought, and wilt of New plantation species
Dalbergia in some areas. Avoiding planting in risky The risks to the new species are presented in Table
areas can circumvent these, although in the case of 5.2. No major problem has so far been experienced in
pine, it is not feasible to avoid planting it in its native these 14 species, but there are indications of impending
range in Sumatra. problems, such as root rot in Eucalyptus spp. and root

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 41

Table 5.2. Summary of pest and disease problems for new plantation species

Tree species Category Current major problem Future threat

Acacia mangium and Pest None Helopeltis, unpredictable

other Acacia spp. caterpillar outbreak
Disease None Root rot, Heart rot of stem

Alstonia spp. Pest None Unpredictable

Disease None None

Anthocephalus sp. Pest None Unpredictable

Disease None None

Azadirachta excelsa Pest None None

Disease None None

Dipterocarps Pest None None

Disease None None

Dyera spp. Pest None None

Disease None None

Eucalyptus spp. Pest None None

Disease None Root rot

Eusideroxylon zwageri Pest None None

Disease None None

Gmelina arborea Pest None Unpredictable

Disease None None

Gonystylus bancanus Pest None Unpredictable

Disease None None

Koompassia spp. Pest None None

Disease None None

Ochroma pyramidale Pest None None

Disease None None

Octomeles sumatrana Pest None None

Disease None None

Peronema canescens Pest None None

Disease None None

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 42 General Conclusions

and stem rot in Acacia mangium. Other potential 1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). The situation therefore
threats are less obvious. Eucalyptus spp.and Acacia needs monitoring. Although there are no serious
mangium have been grown in Indonesia over fairly insect pest problems at present, the situation also
large area for a longer period than other species in this needs attention, in view of the potential threat of
group. Many pest problems develop over a long period, the mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. becoming adapted
facilitated by favourable conditions provided by as more of the Indonesian landscape is planted with
extensive monocultures. Therefore, the risk of pests A. mangium. There is also the treat of unpredictable
and diseases for most species in this group is caterpillar outbreaks, as indicated by some instances
unpredictable. Experience with large monocultures of in Malaysia.
the same species in other countries can provide some
pointers to the potential problems, although this is not In the case of other new species, most of which are
fully dependable. For example, Pinus merkusii is indigenous, there are no serious pest or disease
plagued by shoot borer in Philippines, Thailand, problems, at present. For some of them, limited
Vietnam, India and Northern Sumatra, but not in Java. experience in other countries or the chemical profile
We have the advantage of such experience in the case of the species (e.g. Azadirachta spp.) suggests that
of Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and to some there is little risk (Table 5.2) but for others the risk is
extent, Acacia mangium. unpredictable.

Eucalypts have been generally pest free, except for Future most important pests and diseases
subterranean termites attacking the tap root during the If one insect pest is to be named as the most dangerous
establishment stage. Diseases create problems in to Indonesian forest plantations in future, the choice
nursery, but are manageable. Eucalyptus spp. are will undoubtedly fall on the sengon borer, Xystrocera
susceptible to foliar diseases caused by fungi in humid festiva. Its population is likely to increase further as
environments, but selection of resistant species and more area is brought under P. falcataria all across
provenances has circumvented this problem. In Indonesia due to its promotion by industrial and
Indonesia, some species e.g. E. urophylla, have been agroforestry plantation initiatives. Xystrocera festiva has
found to be susceptible to root rot but others e.g. a number of alternative hosts, in the family
E. pellita, are less so. These problems have led to the Leguminosae, including Albizia spp. and Acacia spp.
present trend in Indonesia is to replace Eucalyptus Although A. mangium is not a favoured host of
spp. with Acacia.spp. X. festiva, its expansion may also help to increase
X. festiva population. This borer seems to be well-
Gmelina arborea, except for minor problems with a adapted to Indonesia as it is replaced in neighbouring
stem borer, is currently pest free in Indonesia, as in countries by X. globosa, a species also present in low
many other countries where it has been planted as an numbers in Indonesia.
exotic, but the situation needs monitoring, as it suffers
from serious pests in its native range. Some companies Another insect likely to build up in future is Helopeltis.
are now enlarging the area under Gmelina arborea, in Many closely related species of Helopeltis are
place of Acacia mangium, although it requires more important pests of horticultural plantations in the
fertile sites than the acacia. tropics and populations have been increasing in young
A. mangium plantations, particularly in Sumatra (see
Acacia mangium suffered a heart-rot problem which Section 4.1). It has a history of outbreaks in cashew,
threatened to proliferate in Malaysia, but it is being tea and neem in India and in tea and Eucalyptus spp.
kept in check by enlarging the genetic base of planting in Sumatra. Care must be exercised to prevent the
stock and by planting the heart rot resistant hybrid, build up of Helopeltis species.
A. mangium x A. auriculiformis. It has been
suggested that the heart and root rot problems are Good quality timber will remain in demand despite of
the result of mismatching of the species with the the present emphasis on pulpwood species.
sites, with the absence of a seasonal dry spell Improvements in machinery and utilisation methods
facilitating the development of the diseases (Arentz will enable smaller dimension timbers to be used

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 K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 43

increasingly. Teak, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. are 5.2. The research scenario
likely to fill this need. The teak defoliator and the
emerging pests of Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. may Existing unsolved pest and disease problems and newly
require attention in future. emerging problems call for timely attention to research
and development in this field. Research capacity in
The most prevalent diseases for most tree species are Indonesia is quite inadequate to meet the challenge.
caused by a host of fungal pathogens in the nursery. Indonesian forest protection research literature is
Fortunately, they can be kept under control by suitable characterised by a large number of reviews describing
practices and need-based use of selected fungicides. or listing the problems (see the bibliography). Most of
The most serious threat is the spread of root rot caused them have been presented in seminars and conferences
by several species of fungi. They will assume greater that are often organised with external support. Very
importance as the disease inoculum builds up on sites little new knowledge is generated by the small number
where there are consecutive rotations of the same of researchers in the forest protection field, although
species. there are exceptions. Some plantation companies have
established research units which look at pest and
Indigenous versus exotic tree species disease problems and collaborate with universities, but
The question is often raised whether exotic tree species there is scope for strengthening the ties for mutual
are at greater risk of pest and disease outbreaks. It is benefit. The main constraints to improving forest
difficult to offer a simple answer and designating a protection research are:
species as exotic is a matter of definition (see Section
3.3). If we accept the narrow definition, based on the Few specialised researchers
boundaries of the larger island groups than the country, Forestry protection research capacity exists at the
most species currently grown extensively in Indonesia Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development
are exotic. Since a valid discussion of the comparative Agency (FERDA), two universities in Java (IPB and
susceptibility of exotic versus indigenous species Gadjah Mada), three in Kalimantan, (East Kalimantan
cannot be attempted without a broader coverage of (Mulawarman), Central Kalimantan and West
species and countries where they are grown, it is not Kalimantan), one in Sulawesi and one in Sumatra. The
attempted here. However, based on Indonesian total number of researchers in forest protection is only
experience it can be said that both exotic and about 40, with less than half possessing a Ph.D. degree.
indigenous species may have serious pest problems. This is inadequate to meet the entomological and
Examples are the indigenous Pinus merkusii in Sumatra pathological research needs.
and the exotic Swietenia macrophylla. The difference
is that an indigenous species is unlikely to be wiped Low budget provision
out by a pest because it has evolutionarily outlived Staff salaries and research funds are low and often the
such an eventuality and it is therefore safer to grow staff have to depend on external support from plantation
them. On the other hand, in theory, an exotic species companies and other sources to conduct research.
can suffer heavy damage and extinction caused by
indigenous pests and pathogens. There is also the risk Extensive plantations
of pests and pathogens invading from the area of Except in Java, most plantations are located far away
natural occurrence of the exotic host, as in the case from the staff headquarters and there are inadequate
of Leucaena psyllid, conifer aphids or eucalypt trunk travelling and field camping facilities to carry out
borers. This does not always happen, as exemplified research.
by the thriving exotic rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis,
in many countries. A comprehensive risk analysis is Inadequate research publication effort
beyond the scope of this study. We can say that the Most research results remain in the form of student
risk is not associated with whether a species is exotic theses and project reports, and inadequate attention is
or indigenous per se and that risk must also be given to publishing them in peer-reviewed journals.
balanced with opportunities. The few published papers appear in in-house journals

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Black
 44 General Conclusions

and symposia proceedings, mostly in Bahasa pests and diseases. This calls for a dialogue between
Indonesia, the benefits of broader expert review of Government, universities and plantation companies
the research are not captured. While there are to formulate appropriate approaches. An immediate
numerous publications, the scientific quality of many need is to set up a plantation health monitoring system
is inadequate. Although there are some high quality for Indonesia covering pests and diseases, and
publications that contribute to advancement of plantation failures due to other causes. This has the
knowledge or solving problems, there are also many support of some plantation companies. Some
publications that are premature, and many fundamental research is needed to complement
recommendations that are impracticable, ineffective problem-solving research, for example, to create a
or prohibitively expensive. scientific database and expertise for identification of
disease organisms and insects, many of which are
poorly identified. Although plantation companies may
5.3. Future outlook be interested in immediate problem solving research,
the approach should be to simultaneously strengthen
To meet the needs of expanding plantations, more indigenous research capability and infrastructure for
attention needs to be paid to promoting research on long-term benefits.

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S., Husaeni, E.A., Rachmatsjah, O., Kasno,
Hama dan Penyakit Secara Terpadu, 107-112.
Nuhamara, S.T. and Haneda, N.F. (eds.)
Prosiding Seminar National di Bogor 30 Juli
Proceedings Workshop Permasalahan dan
1991. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB dan Departemen
Strategi Pengelolaan Hama di Areal Hutan
Kehutanan, Bogor, Indonesia.
Tanaman, 13-17. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB dan
Departemen Kehutanan, Bogor. 252. Santoso, E. and Hardi, T. 1991. Pengendalian
hama dan penyakit di hutan tanaman industri
247. Rahayu, S. 1999. Penyakit tanaman hutan di
Kalimantan Timur (Pest and disease control of
Indonesia: Gejala, penyebab, dan teknik
timber estates in East Kalimantan). Jurnal
pengendaliannya. (Forest diseases in Indonesia:
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan 7(1):
The symptom, causal and technical control).
14-17.
Kanisius, Yogyakarta. 112p.
253. Santoso, E. and Suharti, M. 1984. Studi
248. Rahayu, S., Subyanto and Kuswanto. 1998.
morfologis dan anatomis cendawan karat yang
The occurrence of pest and disease of Shorea
menyerang tanaman Acacia auriculiformis A.
spp. - A preliminary study in Wanariset and
Cunn (Morphological and anatomical studies on
Bukit Soeharto Forest Area in East Kalimantan,
rust diseases of Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.).
Indonesia. In: Proceedings Seminar on
Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hutan.
Ecological Approach for Productivity and
Report No. 441, Bogor. 15p.
Sustainability of Dipterocarp Forests, 53-57.
Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, 254. Santoso, E., Anggraeni, I. and Irianto, R.S.B.
Indonesia and Kansai Environmental 1995. Researches of diseases of IFP (Industrial
Engineering Center, Japan. Plantation Forestry). Paper presented at
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Seminar of IFP Research: Efforts to improve Ancaman terhadap HTI, 20 December 1986,
IFP quality in Welcoming Eco-label Era. Jakarta, 100-107. FMIPA dan Departemen
Cisarua, Indonesia. 11p. Kehutanan. Inhutani I, Jakarta.
255. Shiomi, T., Mulya, K. and Oniki, M. 1991. 262. Suharti, M. 1973. Causal agents and the
Bacterial wilt of cashew (Anacardium environmental influence to the damping-off
occidentale L.) caused by Pseudomonas disease of Pinus merkusii seedlings. Laporan
solanacearum in Indonesia. Industrial Crops Lembaga Penelitian Hutan No. 162, Bogor.
Research Journal 2(1): 29-35.
263. Suharti, M. 1976. Root cancer disease on the
256. Siswanto, T.H. 1984. The effect of plant Paulownia kawakamii Ito in Riau, Sumatra.
residues on the occurrence of damping-off on Laporan Lembaga Penelitian Hutan No. 221,
Pinus merkusii Jung. Et de Vriese (in Bogor.
Indonesian). Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor
264. Suharti, M. 1980. Gall disease on cayeput
Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia.
(Melaleuca leucadendron) leaves at Ponorogo,
257. Sitepu, I.R. and Suharti, M. 1998. Pest and Madiun. Laporan Lembaga Penelitian Hutan No.
disease management in industrial forest 340, Bogor.
plantations in Indonesia. In: Nambiar, E.K.S.,
265. Suharti, M. 1981. The influence of leaf gall
Gintings, A.N., Ruhiyat, D., Natadiwirya, M.,
disease attack on cayeput oil quality. Laporan
Harwood, C.E. and Booth, T.H. (eds.) Sustained
Lembaga Penelitian Hutan No. 364, Bogor.
productivity of short and medium rotation
plantation forests for commercial and community 266. Suharti, M. 1983. Busuk batang pada Agathis
benefit in Indonesia - An analysis of research loranthifolia Roxb. di BKPH Gunung Slamet
priorities, 39-47. Proceedings of a Workshop Barat, Banyumas Timur (Bark rot on Agathis
held at Bogor, Indonesia, 6-7 May 1998. CSIRO loranthifolia Roxb. in BKPH Gunung Slamet
Forestry and Forest Products, Australia. Barat, Banyumas Timur). Duta Rimba 61-62:
17-19.
258. Smits, W.T.M., Yasman, I., Leppe, D. and
Noor, M. 1991. Some observations on diseases 267. Suharti, M. 1988. Efektivitas beberapa jenis
of Dipterocarpaceae. In: Soerianegara, I., fungisida untuk pengendalian penyakit lodoh
Tjitrosomo, S.S., Umaly, R.C. and Umboh, I. pada bibit Pinus merkusii di Sempolan, Jember,
(eds.) Proceedings of the 4th Round Table Jawa Timur (Effectiveness of some fungicides
Conference on Dipterocarps, 147-163. for the control of damping-off in Pinus
BIOTROP Special Publication No. 41, merkusii seedlings at Sempolan, Jember, East
SEAMEO-BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. Java). Buletin Penelitian Hutan 496: 31-41.
259. Soepardi, R. 1958. Penyakit dan hama Pinus 268. Suharti, M. and Hadi, S. 1974. Wilt disease of
merkusii hama serangan di tanah Gayo. (Pests Dalbergia latifolia in Malang forest district,
and diseases of Pinus merkusii in Gayo land). East Java. Laporan Lembaga Penelitian Hutan
Rimba Indonesia 7(3-4): 264-277. No. 194, Bogor. 9p.
260. Soepardi, R. 1976. Hutan dan penyakit Pinus 269. Suharti, M. and Intari S.E. 1974. Pedoman
merkusii di tanah Gayo (Pests and diseases of pengenalan hama dan penyakit pada jati
Pinus merkusii in Gayo land). Gema Rimba (Tectona grandis L.f.) (Guide to identify pest
3(15): 20-27. and disease on teak (Tectona grandis L.f.)).
Laporan Lembaga Penelitian Hutan No. 182,
261. Soeyamto, C.H. and Mardji, D. 1986. Hama
Bogor.
dan penyakit pada persemaian dan tegakan
hutan tanaman industri (Pests and diseases in 270. Suharti, M. and Santoso, E. 1988. Hubungan
nursery and stands of industrial plantation antara faktor ketinggian tempat, curah hujan,
forest). In: Prosiding Seminar Nasional umur tanaman dan intensitas fox-tail pada
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tegakan Pinus merkusii di Jawa (Relation pests and diseases in industrial plantation
between factors of altitude, rainfall and forests). Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Universitas
plantation age and the intensity of fox-tail in Mulawarman, Samarinda.
Pinus merkusii stands in Java). Buletin 277. Sulthoni, A. 1986. Permasalahan perlindungan
Penelitian Hutan 494: 21-29. tanaman pada hutan tanaman industri dan
271. Suharti, M. and Santoso, E. 1989. Penyakit kaitannya dengan teknologi maju (Issues on
kanker batang pada Ecalyptus urophylla di plant protection in industrial plantation forest
areal hutan PT Arara Abadi, Riau (Stem cancer and its relation with advanced technology). In:
of Ecalyptus urophylla in forest area of PT Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ancaman terhadap
Arara Abadi, Riau). Buletin Penelitian Hutan HTI, 20 December 1986, Jakarta, 20-25.
509: 37-45. FMIPA dan Departemen Kehutanan. Inhutani
I, Jakarta.
272. Suharti, M. and Santoso, E. 1995. Penyakit
kanker batang pada E. urophylla di areal hutan 278. Sumadiwangsa, S. 1997. Kayu gaharu komoditi
PT Arara Abadi Perawang, Riau (Stem cancer elit di Kalimantan Timur (Agarwood as a high-
diseases on Eucalyptus urophylla in forest area value commodity in East Kalimantan). Duta
at PT Arara Abadi Perawang, Riau). Buletin Rimba 20: 205-206.
Penelitian Hutan 567: 37-45. 279. Supriana, N. and Natawiria, D. 1987. Forest
273. Suharti, M. and Sitepu, I.R. 1997. Some pests and diseases in Indonesia. In: de Guzman,
important pests and diseases of forest E.D. and Nuhamara, S.T. (eds.) Forest pests
plantation in Indonesia. In: Nasendi, B.D. (ed.) and diseases in South-East Asia, 21-41.
A state-of-the art report on some recent BIOTROP Special Publication No. 26,
forestry policies, initiatives and achievements SEAMEO-BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia.
in Indonesia: Concepts, strategies and actions 280. Tikupadang, H., Sumardjito, Z. and Sila, M.
for sustainable forest management and forestry 1993. Inventarisasi dan identifikasi serangga
development towards 21 st century, 39-45. potensial menjadi hama dan mikroba potensial
Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of menjadi penyakit pada hutan tanaman industri
Indonesia, Jakarta. PT Inhutani I, Kabupaten Gowa, Propinsi
274. Suharti, M., Anwar, C. and Santoso, E. 1981. Sulawesi Selatan. (Inventory and identification
Wilt disease of pine at Aek Na Uli, North of potentially serious pests and diseases in
Sumatra. Laporan Balai Penelitian Hutan No. industrial forest plantation at PT Inhutani I,
376, Bogor. Gowa regency, South Sulawesi). Jurnal
Penelitian Kehutanan 7: 10-21.
275. Suharti, M., Hardi, T. and Irianto. B. 1991.
Mengenal beberapa hama dan penyakit penting 281. Torquebiau, E. 1984. Man-made Dipterocarp
pada tanaman HTI (Identification of important forest in Sumatra. Agroforestry Systems 2:
pests and diseases in industrial plantation 103-127.
forest). In: Hadi, S., Rachmatsyah, O. and 282. Widyastuti, S.M. 1996. Penghambatan penyakit
Nahamara, S.T. (eds.) Peningkatan damping-off (rebah semai) pada semai pinus
Produktivitas Hutan Tanaman Industri melalui oleh ekstrak biji nyiri (Xylocarpus granatum).
Upaya Pengendalian Hama dan Penyakit Secara (Inhibition of damping-off of pine seedling by
Terpadu, 97-106. Prosiding Seminar Nasional extract of Xylocarpus granatum’s seed). Jurnal
di Bogor 30 Juli 1991. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB Perlindungan Tanaman Indonesia 2(1): 32-35.
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283. Widyastuti, S.M. and Sumardi. 1998.
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Mengenal beberapa jenis hama dan penyakit against root rot pathogen of forest tree species.
tanaman hutan industri (Identification of some Asian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 2:1-8.
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284. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Harjono. 1999. (Biological control of red root rot on Acacia
Potensi antagonistik tiga Trichoderma spp. using Trichoderma). Jurnal Perlindungan
terhadap delapan penyakit akar tanaman Tanaman 4: 65-72.
kehutanan. (Antagonistic potential of three
288. Zaidi, M.D.H. 1997. Mekanisme masuknya
species of Trichoderma spp. against eight root
intensitas serangan jamur pelapuk kayu teras
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Gadjah Mada University 41:2-10.
Wirakarya Sakti, Propinsi Jambi (Entry
285. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Hidayati, N. mechanism of heart rot disease on Acacia
1998a. Kemampuan Trichoderma spp. untuk mangium Willd in HTI PT Wirakarya Sakti,
pengendalian hayati jamur akar putih pada Acacia Jambi province). Thesis, Fakultas Kehutanan,
mangium secara in vitro. (Potential of Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.
Trichoderma spp. for biological control white
289. Zakir, Simon, T. and Suharti, M. 1993. Jenis
root rot of Acacia mangium). Buletin Kehutanan
jamur yang berasosiasi dengan biji
Gadjah Mada University 36: 24-38.
Paraserianthes falcataria and Pinus merkusii
286. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Puspitasari, D. dalam berbagai periode serta cara simpan (Fungi
1999. Uji kemampuan penghambatan ekstrak associated with Paraserianthes falcataria and
biji nyiri (Xylocarpus granatum) terhadap jamur Pinus merkusii in various method and period of
benih tanaman kehutanan. (Test toward storage). Buletin Penelitian Hutan 554: 37-55.
inhibition potential of the extract of Xylocarpus
290. Zulfiah, A. and Gales, K. 1997. Diseases of
granatum against fungi on seed of forest tree
tropical Acacias in South Sumatra. In: Old, K.M.,
species). Buletin Kehutanan Gadjah Mada
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University 37: 2-9.
tropical Acacias, 48-52. Proceedings of an
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Harjono. 1998b. Pengendalian hayati penyakit Sumatra), 28 April-3 May 1996. CIFOR Special
akar merah pada akasia dengan Trichoderma. Publication, Bogor, Indonesia.
 L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 79

6.3. Bibliography Indexes

Scientific Indexes

Tree Species Bibliography Number

Acacia 003 011 016 027 029 094 110

111 166 171 174 180 184 192
211 221 228 242 243 244 245
251 253 284 287 288 290
Acacia auriculiformis 221 253
Acacia mangium 003 011 016 027 029 094 110
111 174 180 184 192 228 242
243 245 251 284 287 288
Agathis dammara 070 213 239
Agathis loranthifolia 266
Alstonia scholaris 007
Anacardium occidentale 255
Avicennia 013 187
Azadirachta indica 129
Bruguiera 041 044
Dalbergia latifolia 060 224 268
Dipterocarpaceae 063 071 078 086 163 164 209
258 281
Eucalyptus 036 056 098 102 103 110 186
188 189 190 191 215 225 251
271 272
Eucalyptus alba 056 225
Eucalyptus deglupta 098 110 251 271 272
Eucalyptus urophylla 271 272
Gmelina arborea 030 072 097
Gonystylus bancanus 137 145
Melaleuca cajuputi/leucadendron 040 059 264 265
Metroxylon sagu 181
Mikania micrantha 019
Nylocarpus granatum 282 284
80 Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases

Paraserianthes falcataria 029 050 061 068 082 090 104

130 132 133 162 167 232 289
Paulownia kawakamii 263
Pinanga 200
Pinus merkusii 005 009 011 043 074 084 114
119 120 141 143 167 172 174
175 183 184 194 217 219 220
222 256 259 260 262 267 270
Rhizophora 004 013 187
Rhizophora mucronata 004
Santalum album 109 250
Shorea 002 006 051 105 178 182 237
248
Shorea acuminatissima 237
Shorea albida 002
Shorea javanica 006 051 182
Shorea smithiana 237
Swietenia macrophylla 077 080 127 142 147 148 149
Tectona grandis 010 038 039 042 045 053 065
122 123 124 126 158 269

Insects

Acanthopsyche 041
Antennopsis gayi 096
Aulacaspis vitis 157
Calliteara cerigoides 078
Chaetocnema 044
Chionaspis 004 052
Clouges glauculalis 007
Curinus coeruleus 117
Dioryctria 054 057 114 141
Duomitus ceramicus 038
Eurema 031 061 134
Helopeltis 067 102 103
Helopeltis antonii 103
 L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 81

Hypsipyla robusta 077 080 127 142 147 148 149

Loranthus 125
Macrochirus praetor 046
Metisa plana 106
Milionia basalis 043
Mucanum 051
Neotermes tectonae 010 039 042 045 053 122 123
124 158
Paliga damastesalis 037
Prionoxystus 097
Scolytids 066
Xyleutes ceramicus 038
Xystrocera festiva 033 035 068 076 090 104 130
132
Zeuzera coffeae 098

Diseases

Aecidium fragiforme 213 239

Botryodiplodia 177
Cylindrocarpon 195
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum 186
Fusarium 195
Guignardia candeloflamma 200
Hyphomycetes 190
Mycosphaerella 188 189
Mycosphaerella gracilis 188
Pseudomonas solanacearum 255
Ramaria canieticolor 243
Rhizoctonia solani 174
Trichoderma 175 176 177 283 284 286 287
82 Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases

General Indexes

In Bahasa Indonesia Bibliography Number

Akasia 003 011 016 027 029 094 110

111 166 171 174 180 184 192
211 221 228 242 243 244 245
251 253 284 287 288 290
Bercak daun 178 188 200 215
Boktor 033 035 068 076 090 104 130
132
Busuk akar 060 176 179 224 283 286
Busuk batang 176 266
Busuk bonggol 181
Busuk hati 228 288
Cendana 109 250
Damar 070 213 239
Derajat penularan 004
Dipterocarpa 002 006 015 018 063 071 078
086 163 164 195 197 198 209
258 281
Ekaliptus 036 056 098 102 103 110 186
188 189 190 191 215 225 251
271 272
Ekor serigala 217 270
Embun tepung 221
Gaharu 140 278
Hama persemaian 026
Hawar daun 186
Hutan Tanaman Industri 008 021 024 025 026 032 036
049 058 079 083 088 100 101
112 115 116 118 121 128 131
134 136 138 139 154 156 159
161 162 170 201 205 207 212
218 223 230 231 233 235 236
238 240 241 246 247 252 254
257 261 273 275 276 277 280
Inger-inger 010 039 042 045 053 122 123
124 158
Jamur akar merah 287
 L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 83

Jamur akar putih 284

Jamur karat 239 253
Jamur pewarna 229
Jati 010 038 039 042 045 053 065
122 123 124 126 158 269
Jati putih 030 072 097
Kanker batang 271 272
Kayu putih 040 059 264 265
Kerawai 084
Kumbang ambrosia 012 137 145 160
Kupu kuning 031 134
Leda 098 110 251
Lodoh 172 173 175 222 256 262 267
282
Mahoni 077 080 127 142 147 148 149
Mangrove 004 013 028 052 157 165 187
Mete 255
Mimba 129
Nyiri 282 284
Oleng-oleng 038
Penggerek batang 012 030 097 098
Penggerek lubang jarum 136
Penggerek pucuk 077 080 127 142 147 148 149
Penggerek pucuk rotan 046 047
Penyakit layu 268 274
Penyakit puru 264 265
Pulai 007
Ramin 137 145
Rayap 010 027 039 040 042 045 053
056 059 060 070 096 108 122
123 124 158 224
Kanker akar 263
Rotan 046 047 062
Sagu 181
84 Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases

Sengon 029 049 061 068 082 090 104

130 132 133 162 167 232 289
Sonokeling 060 224 268
Tusam 005 009 011 043 057 074 084
114 119 120 141 143 167 172
174 175 183 184 194 217 219
220 222 256 259 260 262 267
270 274 282
Ulat kantung 041 106

In English

Agarwood 140 278

Ambrosia beetle 012 137 145 160
Bagworm 041 106
Bark beetle 012 030
Bark rot 266
Beehole borer 038
Cashew 255
Caueput 040 059 264 265
Damping-off 172 173 175 222 256 262 267
282
Dipterocarp 002 006 015 018 063 071 078
086 163 164 195 197 198 209
258 281
Fox-tail 217 270
Gall disease 264 265
Heart rot 228 288
Industrial plantation forest 008 021 024 025 026 032 036
049 058 079 083 088 100 101
112 115 116 118 121 128 131
134 136 138 139 154 156 159
161 162 170 201 205 207 212
218 223 230 231 233 235 236
238 240 241 246 247 252 254
257 261 273 275 276 277 280
Ironwood 137 145
Leaf blight 186
 L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 85

Leaf spot 178 188 200 215

Mahogany 077 080 127 142 147 148 149
Mangrove 004 013 028 052 157 165 187
Neem 129
Nursery pests 026
Pine 005 009 011 043 057 074 084
114 119 120 141 143 167 172
174 175 183 184 194 217 219
220 222 256 259 260 262 267
270 274 282
Pine sawfly 084
Pinhole borer 136
Powder post beetle 062
Powdery mildew 221
Rattan 046 047 062
Rattan top borer 046 047
Red root rot 287
Rhizome rot 181
Root canker 263
Root rot 060 176 179 224 283 286
Rust disease 239 253
Sago 181
Sandalwood 109 250
Sapstain 229
Scale insect 004
Stem canker 271 272
Stem rot 176
Teak 010 038 039 042 045 053 065
122 123 124 126 158 269
Teak skeletonizer 037
Termite 010 027 039 040 042 045 053
056 059 060 070 096 108 122
123 124 158 224
White grubs 055
White root rot 284
Wilt disease 268 274
Indexes

Tree Dalbergia 3, 21, 22, 40

D. latifolia 6, 21, 22, 40, 48, 51, 52
Acacia 17, 19, 31, 41, 42, 46, 50, 54 D. sissoo 21, 22, 47
A. aulacocarpa 19 Dipterocarps 7, 41, 46
A. auriculiformis 17, 18, 19, 42, 45 Dipterocarpus 22
A. crassicarpa 19 D. cornutus 22, 23
A. mangium 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, Dyera 7, 24, 41
36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54 D. costulata 24
A. mearnsii 18, 54 D. lowii 24
A. perigrina 19 D. polyphylla 24
Actinophora fragrans 11, 12
Agathis 3, 39, 45 Eucalyptus 1, 2, 7, 8, 18, 24, 25, 26, 40, 41, 42,
A. borneensis 19 51
A. dammara 6, 19, 20, 40 E. alba 48
A. loranthifolia 19, 52 E. camaldulensi 24
Albizia 17, 42, 48 E. deglupta 24, 45
A. falcataria 50, 51 E. grandis 24
A. lebbek 18 E. marginata 26, 36
Alstonia 7, 20, 41 E. pellita 24, 25, 42
A. scholaris 20 E. tereticornis 24
A. spatulata 20 E. torrelliana 24
Anthocephalus 7, 41, 52 E. urophylla 24, 25, 42, 52
A. cadamba 20 Enterolobium 31
A. chinensis 20, 49 Eusideroxylon 48
A. macrophyllus 20 E. zwageri 7, 26, 41
Aquilaria 27 Excoecaria agallocha 11, 12, 29, 49
Avicennia 28, 29
A. marina 29, 45 Gmelina 50, 54
A. alba 29, 50 G. arborea 1, 2, 7, 8, 27, 39, 41, 42
Azadirachta 42 G. moluccana 26
A. excelsa 7, 21, 41 Gonystylus 27, 52
A. indica 21, 36, 52 G. bancanus 7, 27, 41
G. macrophyllus 27
Bruguiera 28, 29, 47
B. gymnorhiza 29 Hopea 23
H. mengrawan 22
Casuarina H. odorata 22, 23
C. junghuhniana 11, 12 Heritiera fomes 29, 51
C. montana 11 Hevea braziliensis 7, 43
88 Indexes

Koompassia 7, 28, 41 Pithecolobium 31

K. excelsa 28 Prionoxystus 27
K. grandiflora 28
K. malaccensis 28 Rhizophora 6, 12, 28, 29, 40

Leucaena leucocephala 1 Samanea saman 31

Schleichera 12
Melaleuca 12 S. oleosa 6, 35, 40
M. cajuputi 6, 29, 30, 40 Shorea 7, 12, 22, 23, 43, 51
M. leucodendron 29, 30, 45, 46, 48 S. albida 24, 45
Maesopsis eminii 7, 28, 40, 51 S. assamica 23
S. johorensis 23
Neolamarckia 20 S. javanica 22, 23, 47
N. cadamba 20 S. lamellata 23
S. leprosula 22, 23
Ochroma grandiflora 30 S. parviflora 22, 23
O. lagopus 30, 45 S. pinanga 22, 23
O. pyramidale 7, 30, 41, 49 S. robusta 24
Octomeles sumatrana 7, 30, 41, 46 S. selanica 22
S. smithiana 22, 23
Palaquium 11, 12 S. stenoptera 22
Paraserianthes 12 Sonneratia 28
P. falcataria 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 31, 32, S. acida 11
33, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49 Swietenia macrophylla 6, 7, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43, 48,
Peronema 43, 46 53
P. canescens 7, 33, 41
Pinus 3 Tectona grandis 2, 6, 7, 37, 39, 40
P. caribaea 34
P. kesiya 34, 35 Xylocarpus granatum 34, 54
P. merkusii 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 33, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43,
47, 49, 52
 Indexes 89

Insect Ericeia 19
E. subcinerea 51
Acanthopsyche 28, 29, 47 Eumeta 34
Achaea janata 12, 19, 29 E. (Clania) variegata 11
A. serva 29, 49 Eurema
Agathiphaga 20 E. blanda 32
Agrilus 25 Eutectona 37
A. kalshoveni 12 E. machaeralis 37, 38, 49
A. sexsignatus 24, 26
Alcides 24, 25 Glena indiana 27
A. gmelinae 26 Glyphodes 20
Alcidodes G. bicolor 20
A. dipterocarpi 23 Gonipterus 26
A. ludificator 26, 27
Anadasmus porinodus 30 Hapalia machaeralis 37
Anagyrus 31 Helicoverpa armigera 19
Andrector ruficornis 45 Heliothis armigera 19
Apion argulicolle 27 Helopeltis 16, 18, 24, 25, 41, 42, 51
Apis dorsata 28 H. antonii 18, 21
Archips micaceana 24 H. clavifer 23
Attacus atlas 36 H. fasciaticollis 16, 18
Aulacaspis 53 H. sumatranus 16, 18
A. marina 28, 29 H. theivora 16, 18
A. vitis 53 Heteropsylla cubana 1
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis 24, 51
Batocera numitor 20 Hyblaea puera 12, 29, 37, 38, 40, 49
Hypsipyla
Calliteara cerigoides 22, 23, 49 H. grandella 36
Calopepla leayana 27 H. robusta 12, 35, 36, 40, 48, 49, 53
Chaetocnema 47
Characoma 30 Indarbela quadrinotata 31, 32
Chionaspis 28, 29, 47 Ips
Cleora injectaria 29, 50 I. calligraphus 35, 46
Clovia 33 I. grandicollis 46
Coptotermes 34
C. curvignathus 15, 16, 18 Kolla bataviae 24
Crossotarsus externe-dentatus 36
Cryptothelia variegata 34 Laccifer lacca 35
Lawana candida 22, 23
Dendrolimus 35 Leucoptera sphenograpta 21
Dioryctria Loboschiza vulnerata 21
D. abietella 35 Locusta 16, 18
D. castanea 35, 51 Lymantria galinara 11
D. rubella 33, 34, 35, 40, 48
D. sylvestrella 35 Macrotermes gilvus 21
Duomitus ceramicus 47 Margaronia 20
M. hilaralis 20
Eurema 32, 33, 53 Megachile 36
E. blanda 32 Milionia basalis 11, 34, 35
E. hecabe 32 Mucanum 22, 23, 47
90 Indexes

Nanophyes shoreae 23 Rhyaciona 35

Neodiprion 35
Neotermes 36 Selepa celtis 19, 27
N. papua 36 Sesarma 28, 47
N. samoanus 36 Sinoxylon 18
N. tectonae 12, 37, 38, 47, 52 Spirama retorta 18, 51
Nesodiprion beremis 34, 35 Sternocera 18
Sylepta derogata 30, 49
Odontotermes grandiceps 21
Ophiusa Tingis beesoni 27
O. melicerta 12, 29 Trichogramma minutus 34
O. serva 11
Ozola minor 27 Valanga nigricornis 16, 18, 37, 38
Voracia casuariniphaga 11
Paliga
P. damastesalis 37, 38, 47 Xyleborus 28, 29
P. machaeralis 38 X. destruens 37, 38
Petrova cristata 48 X. fornicatus 16, 27
Petrovia 35 X. morstatti 36
Phoracantha 26 Xyleutes ceramica 27, 37, 38
Platypus gerstaeckeri 36 Xylosandrus 16, 18
Plecoptera reflexa 19, 20 X. compactus 19, 36
Prionoxystus 26, 27 X. morigerus 32
Prodenia litura 19 Xystrocera
Pseudophacopteron 54 X. festiva 12, 16, 17, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 42,
P. alstonium 20 46, 47, 50
Pteroma 11 X. globosa 17, 19, 31, 32, 42
P. plagiophleps 16, 18, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40,
49 Zeuzera coffeae 18, 24, 25, 30, 37, 38
Pyrausta 37 Zeuzera conferta 28, 29
P. machaeralis 37
 Indexes 91

Disease Hypoxylon mammatum 17

Aecidium fragiformae 19 Kirramyces destructens 25

Agrobacterium tumefaciens 22, 23
Armillaria mellea 36 Leptoporus lignosus 17
Asterina 23
Atelocauda digitata 17 Macrophoma 26
Meliola 17, 33
Botryodiplodia 25, 27, 32, 33, 51 Mycosphaerella 25
B. thoeobromae 33
Nectria 25
Calonectria rigidiuscula 30 Nectria radiocola 23
Capnodium 23
Cercospora 17, 23 Oidium 17
Cladiospora 34
Collectotrichum 17, 23, 27, 32 Pestalotia 23, 25
Corticium 33 Pestalotiopsis 17
C. pseudoferreum 18 Phellinus noxius 17, 18, 30, 36, 45
C. salmonicolor 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 33, 38 Phytophthora 25, 26, 27, 32
Curvularia 22, 25 P. cinnamomi 26, 36, 48
C. harveyi 23 Pythium 19, 20, 25, 27, 32
Cylindrocarpon 22 Pytophthora palmivora 17
C. destructens 23
Cylindrocladium 25, 26 Rhizoctonia 19, 20, 27, 32, 49
Cylindrocladium multiseptatum 25 Rigidoporus hypobrunneus 17
Cytospora 17 Rigidoporus microporus 17, 18
Rosellinia 32
Fusarium 19, 21, 22, 23, 25
F. moniliformae 30 Stilbella ecuadorensis 30, 49
F. solani 21, 22, 28
Fomes lignosus 17, 18 Tinctoporellus epimiltinus 17
Trichoderma 54
Ganoderma 21, 27, 32
G. philipii 17, 18 Ustulina 32
G. pseudoferreum 17, 19