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Blackfoot language
The Blackfoot language, also called Siksiká
Siksika
(its denomination in ISO 639-3, English: /ˈsɪksəkə/
Siksiká (ᓱᖽᐧᖿ), Siksikáíʼpowahsin
SIK-sə-kə; Siksiká [sɪksiká], syllabics ᓱᖽᐧᖿ), often
(ᓱᘁᓱᘁᖳᐟᑲᖷᑊᓱᐡ), Niitsipowahsin (ᖹᐨᓱᑲᖷᑊᓱᐡ)
anglicised as Siksika, is an Algonquian language
spoken by the Blackfoot or Niitsitapi people, who
currently live in the northwestern plains of North
America. There are four dialects, three of which
are spoken in Alberta, Canada, and one of which
is spoken in the United States: Siksiká
(Blackfoot), to the southeast of Calgary, Alberta;
Kainai (Blood, Many Chiefs), spoken in Alberta
between Cardston and Lethbridge;
Aapátohsipikani (Northern Piegan), to the west
of Fort MacLeod which is Brocket (Piikani) and
Aamsskáápipikani (Southern Piegan), in
northwestern Montana. [3] The name Blackfoot
Frances Densmore in a session with
probably comes from the blackened soles of the Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief in 1916,
leather shoes that the people wore.[4] where Mountain Chief was interpreting
traditional songs into Plains Indian Sign
There is a distinct difference between Old Language.[1]
Blackfoot (also called High Blackfoot), the dialect
Native to Canada, United States
spoken by many older speakers, and New
Region Piikani Nation, Siksika
Blackfoot (also called Modern Blackfoot), the
Nation, and Kainai Nation
dialect spoken by younger speakers.[5] Among the in southern Alberta;
Algonquian languages, Blackfoot is relatively Blackfeet Nation in
divergent in phonology and lexicon.[6] The Montana
language has a fairly small phoneme inventory, Ethnicity 15,000 Blackfoot[2]
consisting of 11 basic consonants and three basic
Native speakers 2,900 (2016)[2]
vowels that have contrastive length counterparts.
Language family Algic
Blackfoot is a pitch accent language.[7][8]
Blackfoot language has been declining in the Algonquian
number of native speakers and is classified as Siksika
either a threatened or endangered language,
Dialects Siksiká (Blackfoot)
depending on the source used.[9]
Kainai (Blood, Many
Chiefs)
Like the other Algonquian languages, Blackfoot is
Aapátohsipikani (Northern
considered to be a polysynthetic language due to
Piegan)
its large morpheme inventory and word internal
Aamsskáápipikani
complexity.[10] A majority of Blackfoot (Southern Piegan)
morphemes have a one–to–one correspondence
Writing system Blackfoot Syllabics
between form and meaning, a defining feature of
Sometimes Latin
agglutinative languages. However, Blackfoot does
Language codes
display some fusional characteristics as there are

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morphemes that are polysemous.[11]

Both noun ISO 639-2 bla (https://www.loc.gov/s
and verb stems cannot be used bare but must be tandards/iso639-2/php/lang
inflected.[12] Due to its morphological complexity, codes_name.php?code_ID=60)
Blackfoot has a flexible word order. ISO 639-3 bla
Glottolog siks1238 (https://glottolo
The Blackfoot language has experienced a g.org/resource/languoid/i
substantial decrease in speakers since the 1960s d/siks1238)
and is classified as "definitely endangered" by the ELP Niitsipowahsin (https://w
UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in ww.endangeredlanguage
Danger. [13] In Canada, this loss has been s.com/lang/1677)
attributed largely to residential schools, where
Indigenous students were often punished severely
for speaking their first languages.[14] Widespread
language loss can also be attributed to the Sixties
Scoop, through which thousands of Indigenous
Blackfoot is classified as Definitely Endangered by the
children were taken from their families, often
UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
without parental consent, and relocated by the
government into non-Indigenous families.[15] As a result of People Niitsitapi (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ)
these losses, the Blackfoot community has launched numerous
Language Niitsipowahsin
language revitalization efforts, include the Piikani Traditional
(ᖹᐨᓱᑲᖷᑊᓱᐡ)
Knowledge Services and many more.
Country Nitawahsin'nanni
(ᖹᒣᖷᑊᓱᐡ ᖻᐡᖹ)
Language variations
Pied Noir
Pied-Noir is an alternate name for the Blackfoot tribe. The
exact translation is 'black foot' in French.[16]

Other

Siksikáíʼpowahsin[17] (syllabics: ᓱᘁᓱᘁᖳᐟᑲᖷᑊᓱᐡ) and

Niitsipowahsin [18] (ᖹᐨᓱᑲᖷᑊᓱᐡ) are two other language variations
for Blackfoot.

Classification
Blackfoot is a member of the Algonquian language family
belonging to the Plains areal grouping along with Arapaho, A sign at the Siksika Health and
Gros Ventre, and Cheyenne. Blackfoot is spoken in Wellness Centre in Siksika 146
Northwestern Montana and throughout Alberta, Canada, reads "Oki", a Blackfoot greeting
making it geographically one of the westernmost Algonquian
languages.

History

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The Blackfoot people had been one of many Native American nations that inhabited the Great
Plains west of the Mississippi River. The people were bison hunters, with settlements in what is
now the northern United States and southern Canada. Forced to move because of wars with
neighboring tribes, the Blackfoot people settled all around the plains area, eventually
concentrating in what is now Montana and Alberta. Blackfoot hunters would track and hunt game,
while the remaining people would gather food, and other necessities for the winter. The northern
plains, where the Blackfoot settled, had incredibly harsh winters, and the flat land provided little
escape from the winds. The Blackfoot Nation thrived, along with many other native groups, until
the European settlers arrived in the late eighteenth century. The settlers brought with them horses
and technology, but also disease and weapons. Diseases like smallpox, foreign to the natives,
decimated the Blackfoot population in the mid-nineteenth century. Groups of Blackfoot people
rebelled against the Europeans, such as Mountain Chief's tribe. But in 1870, a tribe of peaceful
Blackfoot were mistaken for the rebellious tribe and hundreds were slaughtered. Over the next
thirty years, settlers had eradicated the bison from the Great Plains. This took away the main
element of Blackfoot life and the people’s ability to be self-sustaining. With their main food source
gone, the Blackfoot were forced to rely on government support.[4]

In 1886, the Old Sun Residential School opened on the Blackfoot Reserve in Alberta. In 1908, it
was described by an official survey as "unsanitary" and "unsuitable in every way for such an
institution". Regardless, it remained operational until its closure in 1971. Dozens of Blackfoot
children died while attending.[19] The school was rife with physical, sexual, and psychological
abuse, which left a lasting impact on the Blackfoot children who attended.[20] The trauma endured
by students, as well as the subsequent repression of their Indigenous language and culture, has
been credited, in part, with the loss in the number of Blackfoot speakers.[21]

Phonology

Consonants
Blackfoot has nineteen consonants, of which all but /ʔ/, /x/, /j/ and /w/ form pairs distinguished
by length. One of the two affricates /k͡ s/ is unusual for being heterorganic.[22][23]

Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal

Nasal m ⟨m⟩ mː ⟨mm⟩ n ⟨n⟩ nː ⟨nn⟩

Plosive p ⟨p⟩ pː ⟨pp⟩ t ⟨t⟩ tː ⟨tt⟩ k ⟨k⟩ kː ⟨kk⟩ ʔ ⟨'⟩

Affricate t͡s ⟨ts⟩ t͡sː ⟨tss⟩ k͡s ⟨ks⟩ k͡sː ⟨kss⟩

Fricative s ⟨s⟩ sː ⟨ss⟩ x ~ χ ⟨h⟩

Approximant w ⟨w⟩ j ⟨y⟩

Vowels

Monophthongs
Blackfoot has a vowel system with three monophthongs, /i o a/.[22][23][24]

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Front Central Back

High i ⟨i⟩ iː ⟨ii⟩ o ⟨o⟩ oː ⟨oo⟩

Low a ⟨a⟩ aː ⟨aa⟩

The short monophthongs exhibit allophonic changes as well. The vowels /a/ and /o/ are raised to
[ʌ] and [ʊ] respectively when followed by a long consonant. The vowel /i/ becomes [ɪ] in closed
syllables.[24]

Diphthongs
There are three additional diphthongs in Blackfoot. The first diphthong ai is pronounced [ɛ] before
a long consonant, [ei] (or [ai], in the dialect of the Blackfoot Reserve) before /i/ or /ʔ/, and
elsewhere is pronounced [æ] in the Blood Reserve dialect or [ei] in the Blackfoot Reserve dialect.
The second diphthong ao is pronounced [au] before /ʔ/ and [ɔ] elsewhere. The third diphthong oi
may be pronounced [y] before a long consonant and as [oi] elsewhere.[25]

Length
Length is contrastive in Blackfoot for both vowels and consonants. Vowel length refers to the
duration of a vowel and not a change in quality. The vowel /oo/ is therefore the same sound as /o/
only differing in the length of time over which it is produced.[8]

áakokaawa 'he will rope'

áakookaawa 'she will sponsor a Sundance'

Consonants can also be lengthened with the exception of /ʔ/, /x/, /j/ and /w/.

kiipíppo 'one hundred'

nínna 'my father'
sokáʼpssiwa 'he is good'

Pitch accent
Blackfoot is a pitch accent language and it is a contrastive feature in the language. Every word will
have at least one high pitched vowel or diphthong but may have more than one. Note that high
pitch here is used relative to the contiguous syllables. Blackfoot utterances experience a gradual
drop in pitch therefore if an utterance contains a set of accented vowels the first will be higher in
pitch than the second but the second will be higher in pitch than the syllables directly surrounding
it. Pitch is illustrated in the Latin-based orthography with an acute accent.[8]

ápssiwa 'it's an arrow'

apssíwa 'it's a fig'
máátaissikópiiwa 's/he's not resting'

Phonological rules

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Blackfoot is rich with morpho-phonological changes. Below is a limited sample of phonological

rules.

Semi-vowel loss
Glides are deleted after another consonant, except a glottal stop, or word initially but kept in other
conditions.[26]

/w/ loss

poos-wa póósa
cat-an.sg → 'cat'

/j/ loss

óóhkotok-yi óóhkotoki
stone-inan.sg → 'stone'

word-initial

w-ókoʼsi ókoʼsi
3.sg.poss-child → 'his/her child'

Accent spread
Accent will spread from an accented vowel to the following vowel across morpheme boundaries.[27]

á-okskaʼsiwa → áókskaʼsiwa 's/he runs'

atsikí-istsi → atsikíístsi 'shoes'

Vowel devoicing
At the end of a word, non-high pitched vowels are devoiced, regardless of length.[28]

Grammar – general

Lexical categories
Lexical categories in Blackfoot are a matter of debate in the literature, with the exception of nouns
and verbs. Additional proposed categories, proposed by Uhlenbeck, are adjectives, pronouns,
adverbs, and particles.[29] Taylor classifies the Blackfoot language as having two major classes,
substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs, with one minor class consisting of particles.[30]
Frantz classifies adjectives and adverbs as affixes but not independent classes.[31]

Agreement

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Agreement morphology is extensive in Blackfoot and agreement morphemes are often fusional, i.e.
animacy and number (nouns) or person and number (verbs) are indicated within the same affix.

Animacy
All nouns are required to be inflected for animacy and are classified as either animate or
inanimate. Verbs are inflected to match the animacy of its arguments. Animacy in Blackfoot is a
grammatical construct for noun classification. Therefore, some semantically inherently inanimate
objects, such as drums and knives are grammatically animate.[32]

Verbs are marked with a transitivity marker which must agree with the animacy of its arguments.
Even in stories in which grammatically inanimate objects are markedly anthropomorphized, such
as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

Number
All nouns are required to be inflected as either singular or plural. Verbal inflection matches the
number of its arguments.[32]

Person marking
Blackfoot has five grammatical persons – first, second, third (proximate), fourth (obviative), and
fifth (sub-obviative).[33]

Word order
Word order is flexible in Blackfoot. Subjects are not required to precede the verb.[34] Independent
noun phrases may be included but these are typically dropped in Blackfoot. Due to the extensive
person inflection on the verb they are not necessary for interpreting the meaning of the utterance.
However, if first or second person pronouns are present it yields an emphatic reading.[35] There is
an ordering restriction if the Distinct Third Person (DTP) attached pronoun /-aawa/ is used in
which the subject independent noun phrase must occur before the verb. If the independent noun
phrase occurs after the verb then the DTP may not be used.[36]

Subjecthood
Blackfoot nouns must be grammatically particular in order to be a subject of a verb.[35] In
transitive constructions the subject must be volitional to be interpreted as subject.[37]

Person hierarchy
It has been asserted that Blackfoot, along with other Algonquian languages, violates the Universal
Person Hierarchy in verb complexes by ranking second person over first person. The hierarchy has
traditionally been published as 2nd person > 1st person > 3rd person (proximate) > 4th person
(obviative).[38] However, alternative analyses of Blackfoot person hierarchy have been published
that suggest the Universal Person Hierarchy is applicable to Blackfoot.[39]

Verbal structure

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The Blackfoot verbal template contains a stem with several prefixes and suffixes. The structure of
the verb stem in Blackfoot can be roughly broken down into the pre-verb, the root, the medial, and
the final. The root and final are required elements.

Generally, information encoded in the pre-verb can include adverbs, most pronouns, locatives,
manners, aspect, mood, and tense. Incorporated objects appear in the medial. The final includes
transitivity and animacy markers, and valency markers.

Grammar – nouns

Agreement morphology
Noun classes are split based on grammatical gender into two categories: animate and
inanimate.[40] Additionally, all nouns must be marked for number. Number agreement suffixes
attach to noun stems and take four forms, as shown in the table below.[32]

Inanimate Animate

Singular Plural Singular Plural

-yi -istsi -wa -iksi

íʼksisako (inanimate stem) 'meat'

íʼksisako-yi → íʼksisakoyi 'meat'
íʼksisako-istsi → íʼksisakoistsi 'meats'

Proximate and obviative

When a sentence contains two or more particular animate gender nouns as arguments proximate
(major third person/3rd) and obviative (minor third person/4th) markings are used to
disambiguate. There may only be one proximate argument in any given sentence but multiple
obviates are permissible. Proximate arguments are more prominent in discourse. Redirectional
markers, referred to as inverse and direct theme in the literature, can be applied to indicate that
the fourth person is the subject argument.[41]

Particularity/referentiality
Blackfoot nouns must be grammatically particular, according to Frantz (2009), in order to be a
subject of a verb. To be the subject of any verb in Blackfoot the noun must point to a specific
referent in the world. In transitive constructions the subject must also be volitional to be
interpreted as subject. If the subject of a transitive verb is non-specific or non-volitional then the
verb must be inflected as having an unspecified subject.[42]

Oma isttoána iihtsíkahksiniiʼpi

om-wa isttoan-wa iiht-íkahksinii-ʼp-yi
that-an.sg knife-an.sg means-cut.off-unspec.sub-inan.pl
annistsi ikkstsíksiistsi.

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ann-istsi ikkstsíksi-istsi
that-inan.pl branch-inan.pl
'The knife cut off those branches.' or 'By means of the knife, the branches were cut off.'

Grammar – verbs

Verbal morphology template

There are four verb categories in Blackfoot: intransitive inanimate, intransitive animate, transitive
inanimate, and transitive animate. The parameters of transitivity and animacy for verb selection
are typically referred to as stem agreement in order to delineate it from person agreement. The
animacy for intransitive verbs is determined by the subject of the verb whereas the transitive verbs
are defined by the animacy of their primary object.[43]

The only required component of a clause in Blackfoot is the verb, referred to as a verbal complex in
the Algonquian literature, that must be appropriately inflected according to the standard template:

preverb – root – medial – final

Preverbs are prefixes which encode adverbs, most pronouns, locatives, manners, aspect, mood,
and tense. Medials are suffixes which primarily encode manner and incorporated objects. Finals
are suffixes which encode transitivity, animacy, and valency. Roots and finals are always required
in a verbal complex whereas preverb and medials are not.[44]

Inverse and direct theme

When there are two animate arguments acting in a transitive animate verb stem one of the
arguments must be acting on the other. Which argument is the actor (subject) and which is the
acted upon (object) is indicated by the use of direct or inverse theme marking. If a subject
argument is higher than the object argument on the person hierarchy then the direct suffix is used.
Conversely, when an object outranks the sentences subject then the inverse suffix is used.[45]

Direct

Nitsikákomimmayi nitániksi.
nit-ikákomimm-aa-yi ni-táni-iksi
1.sg-love-dir-3.pl 1.poss-daughter-an.pl
'I love my daughters.'

Inverse

Nitsikákomimmoki nitániksi.
nit-ikákomimm-ok-yi ni-táni-iksi
1.sg-love-inv-3.pl 1.poss-daughter-an.pl
'My daughters love me.'

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Voice and valency

Blackfoot voice alterations occur as suffixes on the verb and fall into the category of finals. Finals
can include causative, benefactive, reciprocal, and reflexive affixes that either decrease or increase
the valency of the stem they are attached to. Below is an example of the reflexive final suffix. It can
only be added to a transitive animate stem and results in an animate intransitive stem. This is then
interpreted as being a reflexive verb, where the subject of the AI (animate intransitive) stem is
understood to be both the underlying subject and object of the original verb stem.[46]

oma imitááwa siiksípohsiwa

om-wa imitáá-wa siiksip-o꞉hsi-wa
that-an.sg dog-an.sg pst:bite(ta)-refl(ai)-3.sg
'That dog bit itself.'

Relative clauses
Relative clauses are rare in Blackfoot but they do occur. In order to embed a clause, it needs to be
nominalized first. The reclassification strategy for nominalization is displayed here followed by a
relative clause that uses a nominal formed by this strategy. Reclassification is done by adding
nominal inflection to the verb stem instead of person inflection. This derived form then refers to
the underlying subject and agrees in both number and animacy.[47]

omiksi áyoʼkaiksi
om-iksi á-yoʼkaa-iksi
that-an.pl dur-sleep-an.pl
'those sleeping ones'

Examples below show how a reclassified nominalized clause is used in a relative clause. Note the
nominal agreement morphology on the verb matches the subject, singular and plural, respectively.

oma nínaawa áyoʼkaawa

om-wa ninaa-wa á-yoʼkaa-wa
that-an.sg man-an.sg dur-sleep-an.sg
nóoma.
n-oom-wa
1.poss-husband-an.sg
'That man who is sleeping is my husband.'

Omiksi aakííkoaiksi áínihkiiksi

om-iks aakííkoaN-iksi á-Inihki-iksi
that-an.pl girl-an.pl dur-sing-an.pl
áyaakahkayiyaawa.
áyaak-wa:hkayi-yi-aawa
fut-go.home-3.pl-pro
'Those girls who are singing are on their way home.'

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Orthography

Latin-based orthography
The Siksiká, Kainai, and Aapátohsipikani reserves adopted a standardized roman-based
orthography in 1975. The Blackfoot alphabet consists of 13 letters: ⟨a, h, i, k, m, n, o, p, s, t, w, y⟩,
and a glottal stop (ʼ).[48]

Letter Aa Hh Ii Kk Mm Nn Oo Pp Ss Tt Ww Yy ʼ

⟨a⟩ ~ ⟨h⟩ ~ ⟨i⟩ ~ ⟨k⟩ ~ ⟨o⟩ ~ ⟨p⟩ ~ ⟨t⟩ ~

IPA ⟨m⟩ ⟨n⟩ ⟨s⟩ ⟨w⟩ ⟨j⟩ ⟨ʔ⟩
⟨ʌ⟩ ⟨x⟩ ⟨ɪ⟩ ⟨g⟩ ⟨ʊ⟩ ⟨b⟩ ⟨d⟩

Two digraphs are also used: ts ⟨ts⟩ and ks ⟨ks⟩.

Diphthongs IPA

ai ⟨e⟩ ~ ⟨ε⟩ ~ ⟨æ⟩ ~ ⟨aj⟩

ao ⟨ɔ⟩ ~ ⟨aw⟩

oi ⟨oj⟩

Vowels can be marked with an acute accent or underlined to illustrate pitch accent. Vowels and
consonants that are long are written with a double letter (aa = ⟨aː⟩).[48]

Syllabic writing system

A syllabics script, ᑯᖾᖹ ᖿᐟᖻ ᓱᖽᐧᖿ piikani kainai siksika, was created by Anglican missionary John
William Tims around 1888, for his Bible translation work. Although conceptually nearly identical
to Western Cree syllabics, the letter forms are innovative. Two series (s, y) were taken from Cree
but given different vowel values; three more (p, t, m) were changed in consonant values as well,
according to the Latin letter they resembled; and the others (k, n, w) were created from
asymmetrical parts of Latin and Greek letters; or in the case of the zero consonant, possibly from
the musical notation for quarter note. The Latin orientation of the letters is used for the e series,
after the names of the Latin letters, pe, te, etc.

Blackfoot Latin source

ᑭ pe P

ᒥ te T

ᖼ ke K

ᒋ me m

ᖸ ne N

ᖴ we digamma Ϝ

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The direction for each vowel is different from Cree, reflecting Latin alphabetic order. The e
orientation is used for the diphthong /ai/. Symbols for consonants are taken from the consonant
symbol minus the stem, except for diphthongs (Ca plus ⟨ᐠ⟩ for Cau, and Ca plus ⟨ᐟ⟩ for Coi, though
there are also cases of writing subphonemic [ai, ei, eu] with these finals).

C -a -e -i -o final medial

(none) ᖳ ᖰ ᖱ ᖲ

p- ᑫ ᑭ ᑯ ᑲ ᐤ

t- ᒣ ᒥ ᒧ ᒪ ᐨ

k- ᖿ ᖼ ᖽ ᖾ ᘁ

m- ᒉ ᒋ ᒍ ᒐ ᐢ

n- ᖻ ᖸ ᖹ ᖺ ᐡ

s- ᓭ ᓯ ᓱ ᓴ ᔈ ᐧ

y- ᔦ ᔨ ᔪ ᔭ ᐟ ᑉ

w- ᖷ ᖴ ᖵ ᖶ ᐠ ᙿ

There are additional finals: allophones ⟨ᑊ⟩ [h] and ⟨ᐦ⟩ [x], and three medials: ⟨ᖿᐧ⟩ ksa, ⟨ᒣᐧ⟩ tsa, ⟨ᖿᑉ⟩
kya, ⟨ᖿᙿ⟩ kwa.

⟨᙮⟩ is used for a period.

Also, sometimes it is written in Latin letters but with different spelling on computers because not
all computers support the letters used in the Blackfoot language.

Literature
John Tims was an Anglican clergyman with the Church Missionary Society. He was at Blackfoot
reserve from 1883 to 1895. Tims translated parts of the Bible into Blackfoot. Selections from
Matthew were published by the Church Missionary Society Mission Press in 1887. The Gospel of
Matthew was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1890, and other portions of
Scripture were published as Readings from the Holy Scriptures by the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge in 1890. He used both Roman script and a Canadian Aboriginal syllabics
script. The Gospel of Mark was translated by Donald G. Frantz and Patricia Frantz, and published
by Scriptures Unlimited, a joint venture of the New York Bible Society (later called Biblica) and the
World Home Bible League (later called the Bible League) in 1972. The Gospel of John was
Translated by Wycliffe Bible Translators and Blackfoot people and published by the Canadian Bible
Society in 1979.

Causes of endangerment

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Negative attitude towards Blackfoot is the primary reason for endangerment.[49] Most children
were discouraged from speaking the minority language in schools or public places.[49] Children
were often beaten for speaking their native language and were sent home.[49] Teachers were very
ashamed when their students spoke their native language.[49]

Vitality
According to the UNESCO Factor 1: Intergenerational Transmission, Blackfoot is classified under
severely endangered.[50] It is predicted that Blackfoot is used mostly by the grandparental
generation and up.[50] In fact, there are no more than 1500 native speakers, most of whom are
likely over the age of 50.[18] Due to the lack of speakers, the language will likely be extinct within
the next 40 years. Once older people pass away, no one will be speaking Blackfoot unless
something changes.

According to the UNESCO Factor 9: Amount and Quality of Documentation, there may be
adequate grammar or sufficient amount of grammar, dictionaries, and texts.[50] For example, a
secondary documentation exists today, Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots and Affixes, 3rd
Edition (2017), written by Donald G. Frantz and Norma Jean Russell.[51] The newest edition
includes more than 1,000 new entries, major additions to verb stems, contains more than 5,500
Blackfoot–English entries, and an English index of more than 6,000 entries.[51] The transcription
uses an official, technically accurate alphabet and the authors of this book have classified entries
and selected examples based on more than 46 years of research.[51] This book is comprehensive
and includes enough information for those who wish to learn Blackfoot and for those who have an
interest in Native Studies and North American linguistics.

Revitalization efforts
In the late 1900s, many tribes began a surge of revitalization efforts to encourage cultural
awareness of indigenous customs and traditions. Of these, the Blackfoot revitalization effort has
proven to be quite successful, producing various institutions, including a college dedicated to
preserving and promoting Blackfoot traditions. Today, there are head-start programs in primary
and secondary schools on the reservation to teach even infants and toddlers about the history of
the tribe from an early age.

The Piegan Institute

In 1987, Dorothy Still Smoking and Darrell Robes Kipp founded the Piegan Institute,[52] a private
501(c)(3) non-profit foundation in Montana dedicated to researching, promoting, and preserving
the Native American Languages, particularly the Blackfoot language. Piegan Institute founded
Nizipuhwahsin (also Nizi Puh Wah Sin or Niitsípuwahsin or Cuts Wood) School in 1995 as a
Blackfoot language K–8 immersion school. Since its inception the school has grown and relocated
to the center of Browning, Montana, in a custom-built schoolhouse. Recently, some of the school's
first graduates have returned to teach the newest generation the Blackfoot language.[53]

Blackfeet Community College

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Blackfeet Community College (BCC), founded in 1974, is a two-year, nationally accredited college
that was made possible by the Indian Education Act of 1972 and the 1964 Act enacted by the Office
of Economic Opportunity. BCC is a member of both the American Indian Higher Education
Consortium and the American Indian Science and Engineering Society (AISES). It allows teenagers
and adults alike to take classes in a wide range of subjects, from classes in Psychology and Digital
Photography to classes on Blackfoot language and tradition. They have beginning Blackfoot
language classes with labs for members and non-members of the community to learn the
language.[54]

Chief Mountain Technologies

In order to create jobs for the Blackfoot people with real-world applications, the Blackfeet Tribal
Business Council launched a company called Chief Mountain Technologies in 2009. This company
gives tribal members the opportunity to work in the fields of computer science and business in
Browning, Montana, on behalf of various government organizations. The establishment of this
company in the Blackfoot community allows the people to use their culture and their language in
the modern world while maintaining their traditions.[55]

Radio programming in Blackfoot

Radio station KBWG in Browning, Montana, broadcasts a one-hour show for Blackfoot language
learners four times a week.[56] The Voice of Browning, Thunder Radio, FM 107.5, or Ksistsikam
ayikinaan (literally 'voice from nowhere') went live in 2010, and focuses on positive programming.
In 2011, John Davis, a 21-year-old Blackfeet Community College student explained, "I was the first
Blackfeet to ever talk on this radio", Davis said. "This is my coup story." A story in the Great Falls
Tribune noted, "When the station was replaying programming that originated elsewhere, the radio
was all 'tear in my beer' and 'your cheatin' heart.' They called it the suicide station for its
depressing old country themes ..." The station's offerings have now expanded beyond country to
include AC/DC and Marvin Gaye, and "on-the-air jokes they would never hear on a Clear Channel
radio station, such as: 'The captain is as cool as commodity cheese.' "[57]

"So far we have broadcasting Monday through Friday from around 6:30, Indian time", quipped
station manager Lona Burns, "to around 11, Indian time." ... "It's Indian radio", agreed Running
Crane. "Where else can you hear today's hits with traditional music?"[58]

Canadian government support

The Canadian government has provided support for the languages through funds and other
financial resources. According to James Moore, the former Minister of Canadian Heritage and
Official Languages, "the Government of Canada is committed to the revitalization and preservation
of Aboriginal languages." The funding was put to use in the form of digital libraries containing
interviews with native speakers, online courses, and various other resources in the hopes of
promoting Blackfoot language and passing it down to subsequent generations. On top of both of
these government efforts, the Canadian Government has also provided over $40,000 through the
Aboriginal Languages Initiative Fund to promote the use of Aboriginal languages in community
and family settings.[59]

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In 2019 the Canadian government announced their investment of over $1.5 million towards
supporting Indigenous languages in Southern Alberta. Eleven out of seventeen projects approved
for funding focus on revitalization of the Blackfoot language and include efforts such as language
classes, illustrated workbooks, graphic novels, a video game, and a mobile app.[60]

In addition to federal funding, the Blackfoot language is also supported through Alberta's
Indigenous Languages in Education grant program. This program offers up to $285,000 annually
towards the development of Indigenous language training, programs, and curricula for instructors
between Kindergarten and Grade 12, and an additional $50,000 annually towards development of
new resources for Indigenous language teaching and learning.[61]

Piikani Traditional Knowledge Services

Piikani Traditional Knowledge Services serve the Piikani Nation as the first stop in understanding
the development of meaningful relationships with the Indigenous Nation.[62] Their vision is to
enhance, preserve, protect, and be keepers of the Piikani culture, language, spirituality, songs,
customs, and history.[62] This program is committed to sustaining and preserving Piikanisinni, the
way of life of the Piikani, that identifies characteristic values, principles, and integrity maintained
from ancient Piikani culture and practices.[62] The program includes Piikanissi cultural education
and training, Piikanissini cultural mobilization, Piikanissini data management, and provides
resources that promote Piikanissini.[62] This program is community-based and focuses on keeping
the Blackfoot culture and language alive.[63]

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Baldwin, S. J. (1994). "Blackfoot Neologisms". International Journal of American
Linguistics. 60 (1): 69–72. doi:10.1086/466218 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F46621
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Bortolin, Leah and Sean McLennan. A Phonetic Analysis of Blackfoot. MS, University
of Calgary, 1995.
Denzer-King, R. (n.d.). Google Books. Retrieved February 12, 2016
Derrick, D. (n.d.). Syllabification and Blackfoot. Retrieved February 10, 2016, from
http://www.ece.ubc.ca/~donaldd/publications/proceedings_NWLC22_donald_der
rick.pdf (https://web.archive.org/web/20180511002318/http://www.ece.ubc.ca/~do
naldd/publications/proceedings_NWLC22_donald_derrick.pdf)
Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and
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edition published 1995, ISBN 0-8020-0767-8). (First edition published 1989, ISBN 0-
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Frantz, Donald G. (2017) [1991]. Blackfoot Grammar. Toronto: University of Toronto
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Gick, B.; Bliss, H.; Michelson, K.; Radanov, B. (2012). "Articulation without acoustics:
'Soundless' vowels in Oneida and Blackfoot". Journal of Phonetics. 40: 46–53.
doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2011.09.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wocn.2011.09.002).
Geers, Gerardus Johannes, "The Adverbial and Prepositional Prefixes in Blackfoot",
dissertation. Leiden, 1921
Hanks (1954). "A Psychological Exploration in the Blackfoot Language". International
Journal of American Linguistics. 20 (3): 195–205. doi:10.1086/464277 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1086%2F464277). JSTOR 1263343 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1263343).
S2CID 145249192 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145249192).
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Tongue (https://web.archive.org/web/20130104164342/http://www.library.arizona.e
du/help/how/find/films/indian/t.html). Native Voices Public Television Workshop.
Archived from the original (http://www.library.arizona.edu/help/how/find/films/india
n/t.html) on 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America (https://archive.or
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Miyashita, M. (2011). "Five Blackfoot Lullabies". Proceedings of the American
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Uhlenbeck, C.C. An English-Blackfoot Vocabulary, New York: AMS, 1979. (Originally

published 1930 in series: Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van
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ISBN 0-404-15796-3
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from the Southern Peigans, Amsterdam: Uitgave van de N.V. Noord-Hollandsche
Uitgevers-Jaatschapp-ij, 1934. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie Van
WetenSchappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, Deel XXXIII,
No. 2)
Uhlenbeck-Melchior, Wilhelmina Maria (2005). Montana 1911 : a professor and his
wife among the Blackfeet : Wilhelmina Maria Uhlenbeck-Melchior's diary and C. C.
Uhlenbeck's original Blackfoot texts and a new series of Blackfoot texts (2005 ed.).
Calgary: University of Calgary Press. ISBN 9780803218284.
Uhlenbeck, Christianus Cornelius. 1912. A new series of Blackfoot texts: from the
southern Peigans Blackfoot Reservation Teton County Montana. (Verhandelingen der
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afdeeling Letterkunde, N.R.
13.1.) Amsterdam: Müller. x+264pp. Retrieved from
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Uhlenbeck, Christianus Cornelius. 1938. A Concise Blackfoot Grammar. Amsterdam:
Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers-Maatschappij. Retrieved from
http://glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/100587

Further reading
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2007. "Typological distinctions in word-formation."
Language Typology and Syntactic Description: Vol 3, ed. by T. Shopen, 1–65.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Armoskaite, Solveiga. 2011. The destiny of roots in Blackfoot and Lithuanian. PhD
Dissertation, University of British Columbia.
Bortolin, Leah and Sean McLennan (1995). "Blackfoot" (http://www.shaav.com/profe
ssional/linguistics/blackfoot.html). University of Calgary, Alberta. Retrieved
2017-04-16.
Frantz, Donald G. "The Blackfoot Language" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150110
020054/http://people.uleth.ca/~frantz/blkft.html). Lethbridge, Alberta, University of
Lethbridge. Archived from the original (http://people.uleth.ca/~frantz/blkft.html) on
2015-01-10. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
Frantz, Donald G. (1999). "The Sounds of Blackfoot" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0070523195858/http://people.uleth.ca/~frantz/blsounds.html). Lethbridge, Alberta,
University of Lethbridge. Archived from the original (http://people.uleth.ca/~frantz/bl
sounds.html) on 2007-05-23. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
Gibson, Karen B. (2003). The Blackfeet: People of the Dark Moccasins. Mankato,
Minnesota: Bridgestone Books. ISBN 978-0736815659.
Hammarström, Harald; Robert Forkel; Martin Haspelmath, eds. (2017). "Glottolog
3.0" (http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/siks1238). Jena, Germany: Max
Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

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2024/07/26 2:15 Blackfoot language - Wikipedia

Thomason, Sarah Grey (2015). Endangered Languages: An Introduction. Vol. 166.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

External links
Piegan Institute (https://web.archive.org/web/20130410212545/http://www.piegani
nstitute.org/pieganindex.html)
Blackfoot Language Group, University of Montana (http://www2.umt.edu/ling/BLG/Bl
ackfootDictionary/home.html)
Don Frantz's page on the Blackfoot language (https://web.archive.org/web/2015011
0020054/http://people.uleth.ca/~frantz/blkft.html)
Blackfoot – English Dictionary (https://web.archive.org/web/20040404092448/htt
p://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Blackfoot-english/): from
*Webster's Online Dictionary (https://web.archive.org/web/20120223164907/http://
www.websters-online-dictionary.org/) – The Rosetta Edition.
Blackfeet Language (https://web.archive.org/web/20110716004650/http://www.sao
kioheritage.com/Blackfeet%20Language.html) at Saokio Heritage
Blackfoot Digital Library.org (https://web.archive.org/web/20110621010914/http://
www.blackfootdigitallibrary.org/)
Biblical online study material (articles, publications, audio and video files) in Blackfoot
language (https://www.jw.org/bla/) by Jehovah's Witnesses
Tribal immersion schools rescue language and culture (http://www.csmonitor.com/20
02/0611/p11s01-legn.html)
Teacher on use of Nintendo for Siksika instruction (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=d_tjHXozK3w&feature=autoplay&list=ULqAUgc5hHAHU&playnext=1)
OLAC resources in and about the Siksika language (http://www.language-archives.or
g/language/bla)
Stocken, Harry W.G.: First ten chapters of St. Matthew's Gospel (http://hdl.handle.ne
t/2027/aeu.ark:/13960/t8gf1h36n) = ᖳᐦᓱᒧᐧᖹᖽᐧᖹ ᒉᒧᔭ ᖲᐨᓱᖻᐟᑊᑯ (Akhsitsiniksini Matiyo
otsinaihpi). Toronto?, 1888 (Peel 1755 (http://peel.library.ualberta.ca/bibliography/1
755.html))
http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/profile/15784/contributions
http://www.piikanitks.org/ptks-programs---services.html

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