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not be distributed or claimed as your own and may not be used to create products for sharing or selling.

Thank you for your honesty.

The information contained here is neither guaranteed accurate, nor a substitute for current FAA regulations or any official references. The Backseat
Pilot LLC accepts no liability for the content provided, or the consequences of any actions taken on the basis of the information provided.

© 2008 - 2024 The Backseat Pilot LLC

 USING THE CONTENT
NAVIGATION (Microsoft Word)
Navigation Panel: No need to scroll endlessly through the document. Click the View tab, and in the box labeled ‘Show,’
check Navigation Pane. A great technique is to always keep this open. Just click the lesson title in the Navigation pane.
Table of Contents: Hold the Control key & click on the title of the lesson. (Navigation Pane is far more useful).

RISK MANAGEMENT CONTENT

Many sections contain numerous repetitive Risk Management elements. Rather than repeating the
information over and over, you’ll find RM Concepts at the end of the applicable sections (VII – XII). The
lessons that reference these topics are linked to the RM Concepts section.

LINKS
Blue text in the body of a lesson (not the heading/header) is a web link. If you have internet access, holding the Control
key and clicking on the text will take you to the website. For example: The Backseat Pilot

LEGEND
* - The lessons are generally based off the DA20. DA20 specific information is denoted with an *.
Search for * to quickly find and update each area containing DA20 specific material

PDF E-BOOK
IMPORT TO YOUR IPAD
1. Login to your account, click the My Digital Content button, navigate to the desired PDF, and tap on it
2. In the box that appears at the bottom center of the screen, tap Download
3. After the download is complete, tap Open In and choose the desired app (GoodReader, Adobe, Books, etc.)

IMPORT TO FOREFLIGHT
ForeFlight provides 5 different ways to import a document into the app.

NAVIGATION
Any app that supports Headings/Chapters (ForeFlight, GoodReader, Adobe, Books. Etc.) will display easy use navigation.

USE ADOBE ON YOUR COMPUTER

Navigation: Click View, select Navigation Bars, and click Bookmarks.
Table of Contents: The lesson plans listed in the Contents page (below) can be clicked on for easy navigation.

ABBREVIATIONS
CE: Common Error
RM: Risk Management Concept

CONTACT
If you come across any errors, or have any questions please contact us at Info@thebackseatpilot.com, or head to our website and
send us a contact form (they both go to the same inbox).

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 RECENT UPDATES
Most of the recent updates are indicated with a Red bar in the left margin (not shown in the PDF)
To View/Remove the Red Bar in Word, select the Review tab, Track Changes drop down, then Track Changes

DATE LESSON UPDATE

April 2024 All Updated to Instructor ACS standards

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 CONTENTS
I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Effects of Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process.................................................................................9
I.B. Learning Process.......................................................................................................................................................18
I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques...................................................................30
I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing..........................................................................................................39
I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment.................................................................................45
I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching (Risk Management & Accident Prevention).............................................................50

II. Technical Subject Areas

II.A. Human Factors.........................................................................................................................................................59
II.B. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance.................................................................................................................73
II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance...................................................................................................................................80
II.D. Principles of Flight...................................................................................................................................................91
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info)..................................................................................................106
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems.................................................................................................................110
II.E. Generic Flight Controls & Systems......................................................................................................................111
II.E. Cessna 152..........................................................................................................................................................149
II.E. Cessna 172S G1000.............................................................................................................................................161
II.E. Cirrus SR20.........................................................................................................................................................173
II.E. Diamond DA20...................................................................................................................................................198
II.E. Diamond DA40...................................................................................................................................................204
II.E. Piper Archer II (PA-28-181).................................................................................................................................213
II.E. Piper Archer III (PA-28-181)................................................................................................................................221
II.E. Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)..................................................................................................................................229
II.F. Performance and Limitations.................................................................................................................................238
II.G. National Airspace System......................................................................................................................................250
II.H. Navigation Systems and Radar Services.................................................................................................................260
II.I. Navigation and Flight Planning................................................................................................................................269
II.J. 14 CFR and Publications..........................................................................................................................................287
II.K. Endorsements & Logbook Entries..........................................................................................................................294
II.M. Night Operations..................................................................................................................................................300
II.N. Supplemental Oxygen............................................................................................................................................310
II.O. Pressurization........................................................................................................................................................314

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III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Pilot Qualifications................................................................................................................................................320
III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - General Overview.................................................................................................332
III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS.....................................................................................................................339
III.C. Weather Information............................................................................................................................................343

IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight

IV.A. Maneuver Lesson.................................................................................................................................................376

V. Preflight Procedures
V.A. Preflight Assessment.............................................................................................................................................378
V.B. Flight Deck Management.......................................................................................................................................383
V.C. Engine Starting.......................................................................................................................................................387
V.D. Taxiing, Airport Sign & Lighting.............................................................................................................................392
V.F. Before Takeoff Check.............................................................................................................................................412

VI. Airport Operations

VI.A. Communications, Light Signals & Runway Lighting Systems.................................................................................417
VI.B. Traffic Patterns.....................................................................................................................................................425

VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds

VII.A. Normal Takeoff and Climb...................................................................................................................................434
VII.B. Normal Approach and Landing............................................................................................................................443
VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb................................................................................................................................455
VII.D. Soft-Field Approach and Landing.........................................................................................................................461
VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb.......................................................................................467
VII.F. Short-Field Approach and Landing.......................................................................................................................471
VII.M. Slip to a Landing.................................................................................................................................................478
VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing............................................................................................................................486
VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach and Landing................................................................................................492
VII. RM Concepts...........................................................................................................................................................499

VIII. Fundamentals of Flight

VIII.A. Straight and Level Flight.....................................................................................................................................512
VIII.B. Level Turns..........................................................................................................................................................519
VIII.C. Straight Climbs and Climbing Turns....................................................................................................................527
VIII.D. Straight Descents and Descending Turns............................................................................................................534
VIII. RM Concepts..........................................................................................................................................................541

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IX. Performance Maneuvers
IX.A. Steep Turns...........................................................................................................................................................544
IX.B. Steep Spirals.........................................................................................................................................................552
IX.C. Chandelles.............................................................................................................................................................557
IX.D. Lazy Eights............................................................................................................................................................564
IX.E. Ground Reference Maneuvers..............................................................................................................................570
IX.E. Rectangular Course...........................................................................................................................................571
IX.E. S-Turns...............................................................................................................................................................579
IX.E. Turns Around a Point.........................................................................................................................................586
IX.D. Eights on Pylons....................................................................................................................................................593
IX. RM Concepts............................................................................................................................................................601

X. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight............................................................................................................................605
X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics.................................................................................................................615
X.C. Power-Off Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................626
X.D. Power-On Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................637
X.E. Accelerated Stalls...................................................................................................................................................648
X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls...........................................................................................................................................656
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls................................................................................................................................................661
X.H. Secondary Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................666
X.I. Spins........................................................................................................................................................................ 671
X. RM Concepts.............................................................................................................................................................681

XI. Basic Instrument Maneuvers

XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight........................................................................................................................685
XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes................................................................................................................694
XI. RM Concepts............................................................................................................................................................701

XII. Emergency Operations

XII.A. Emergency Descent.............................................................................................................................................704
XII.B. Emergency Approach and Landing.......................................................................................................................708
XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions.................................................................................................................716
XII.C. Generic.............................................................................................................................................................717
XIII.B DA20.................................................................................................................................................................726
XIII.B. Cessna 152......................................................................................................................................................732

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 XIII.B. Cessna 172S G1000.........................................................................................................................................741
XIII.B. Cirrus SR20......................................................................................................................................................752
XIII.B. DA40................................................................................................................................................................759
XIII.B. Piper Archer II (PA-28-181)..............................................................................................................................769
XIII.B. Piper Archer III (PA-28-181).............................................................................................................................776
XIII.B. Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)...............................................................................................................................781
XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear............................................................................................................788
XII. RM Concepts...........................................................................................................................................................792

XIII. Postflight Procedures

XIV.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing.....................................................................................................................796

XIV. Appendix
B. Flight Review.............................................................................................................................................................801
C. Common Carriage.....................................................................................................................................................805

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I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Effects of Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapters 2 & 4

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to human behavior and
effective communication as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Elements of Human Behavior

2. Learner Emotional Reactions
3. Teaching the Adult Learner
4. Effective Communication
5. Recognizing & Accommodating Human Behavior

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner will understand the 3 basic elements of the communicative process, recognize the
Standards various barriers to communication, and develop communication skills to convey the desired
information to future learners.
 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Years of thinking people have understood you. Unless you’ve known this stuff, they haven’t.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Basic human needs as well as defense mechanisms and effective communication.

Why
Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience. To successfully accomplish the task of helping bring about
this change, the instructor must know why people act the way they do.

How:
1. Elements of Human Behavior (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Definitions of Human Behavior
i. The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how & why human functions the way they do
a. Combination of innate human nature and individual experience & environment
b. Working knowledge of behavior can help an instructor better understand a student
ii. Scientific World Definition
a. Behavior is the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways
 Ex: Fear (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook uses public speaking example)
a Fear triggers innate biological responses in everyone (increased breathing, etc.)
b How a person handles the fear is a product of individual experiences
1. Not being able to speak publicly, versus taking public speaking classes
iii. Satisfying Needs Definition
a. Human behavior is the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs
 Simple needs drive behavior: food, water
 Complex needs also drive behavior: respect and acceptance
b. To a large extent, thoughts, feelings and behavior are shared by all men and women
iv. Life Course of Humans Definition
a. As humans grow, behavior changes
 As people mature, their mode of actions moves from dependency to self-direction
 Therefore, the age of the learner impacts how curriculum design
v. Personality Types
a. Myers Briggs Type Indicator
 Seemingly random variation in behavior is quite structured and is due to differences in the ways
individuals prefer to use their perception & judgment
 Myers-Briggs distilled behavior into 16 personality types
a Others have contributed to and continued personality research
b Various tests developed with uses from career choices to marriage partners
b. Personality Tests
 Provide your personality type based on their personality types

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

a Your priorities, strengths, weaknesses, motivators, stressors, how you react to others
 Other personalities and how to effectively connect with them
 Example: DiSC Assessment (not free, but can see a bit of a sample report)
c. Big Picture: People learn, respond, and relate in different ways based on their personalities
 What works for one person may not work for another
 The more you know about behavior and the individual, the better you can instruct
B. Instructor and Learner Relationship
i. Personality affects how one learns & teaches
ii. Instructor must understand their style of teaching and as much as possible adapt to learners
a. Adjust teaching style & scenarios to fit learner’s learning style
C. Motivation
i. The reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals
a. Motivation prompts people to put forth effort and affects student success/goals
b. Probably the dominant force governing student’s progress and ability to learn
 Important to discover what motivates each student to encourage hard work
 Determining why they are enrolled in the course can provide insight into motivations
ii. Positive Motivation
a. Promise or achievement of awards (personal, social, financial, satisfaction of self, recognition)
b. Essential to true learning & more effective than negative motivation
c. Examples of Positive Motivations
 Secure, pleasant conditions and a safe environment
 Tangible return for efforts
a Lesson objectives should be clear and explain the benefit of concepts/training
 Group approval/belonging
 Favorable self-image (increasing self-confidence and abilities)
iii. Maintaining Motivation
a. Reward Success
 Praise incremental successes during training
 Relate accomplishments to lesson objectives
 Comment favorably on progress and ability
b. Present New Challenges
 With each success, present the next challenge
iv. Drops in Motivation
a. Natural, especially after the initial excitement wears off
b. Remind students of their goals and reasons for training
c. Ensure students know that learning plateaus are normal
D. Human Needs
i. Hierarchy of Human Needs – An organization of human needs into levels of importance
a. Until the needs are satisfied, one can’t focus fully on learning, self-expression, or any other task
 Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides motivation
a Thus, the person strives to satisfy the needs of the next higher level
ii. Physiological
a. Biological needs: Food, rest, and protection from the elements
iii. Security
a. Protection against danger, threats, deprivation affect learner behavior
b. If a learner does not feel safe, he or she cannot concentrate fully on learning, self-expression or any
other task

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

iv. Belonging
a. Belong, to associate, and to give and receive
friendship and love
 Learners are usually out of their normal
surroundings so this need will be more
pronounced
b. Ensure new learners feel at ease and their decision to
pursue aviation is reinforced
v. Esteem
a. Needs consist of two types:
 Internally - Relating to self-esteem: confidence,
independence, achievement, competence,
knowledge
 Externally - Relating to reputation: status,
recognition, appreciation, and respect of
associates
b. This may be the main reason for the learner’s interest in aviation
vi. Cognitive and Aesthetic
a. This need was added years after initial development of the theory
b. Cognitive: Need to know and understand
 If a person understands what is going on, they can either control the situation or make informed
decisions about what steps might be taken next
c. Aesthetic: Connect directly with emotions
 Subtle factor in the domain of persuasion
 When someone likes something, the reasons are not examined – they simply like it
a But, if an instructor does not like a learner, this subtle feeling may affect the ability to teach
vii. Self-Actualization
a. A person’s need to be and do what one was “born to do”
b. When all other needs are satisfied only then can self-actualization be attained
c. Realizing one’s own potential for continued development/Reaching personal goals & potential
viii. Help learners satisfy their needs in a manner that will create a healthy learning environment
E. Defense Mechanisms
i. Subconscious, almost automatic, ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations
a. Used to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect personal worth
ii. Repression
a. A person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind. Things a
person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or hopefully never
because they fade away on their own accord
iii. Denial
a. Refusal to accept a reality because it is too threatening
iv. Compensation
a. Learners attempt to disguise the presence of a weak quality by emphasizing a more positive one
 “I’m not a fighter, I’m a lover” philosophy can be an example of compensation
b. May accept and develop a less preferred but more attainable objective instead of a more preferred but
less attainable objective
v. Projection
a. Blame is relegated to others for their own shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

b. Motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses are attributed to others

c. “I failed because I had a poor examiner” – the learner believes the failure was not their fault
vi. Rationalization
a. Subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable
b. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in their excuses
c. For example, failing a test because “there was not enough time to study,” when the learner skipped
study groups and practice tests
vii. Reaction Formation
a. Sometimes individuals protect themselves from dangerous desires by not only repressing them, but
actually developing conscious attitudes and behavior patterns that are just the opposite
viii. Fantasy
a. Daydreaming about how things should be rather than doing something about how they are
ix. Displacement
a. Unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less
threatening substitute
2. Learner Emotional Reactions (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Anxiety – “A state of mental uneasiness arising from fear…”
i. Most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction
ii. Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing enjoyment of flying, and by teaching to cope with fear
a. Treat fears as a normal reaction, do not ignore them
iii. Introduce maneuvers with care so the learner knows what to expect/what their reaction should be
B. Stress
i. Normal Reactions to Stress
a. Respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training
 This is desired, stress should not overwhelm and cause abnormal reactions (below)
ii. Abnormal Reactions to Stress
a. Response may be completely absent or at least inadequate
b. Response may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation
c. Abnormal Reactions:
 Inappropriate reaction, such as extreme over-cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate
laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotion
 Marked changes in mood on different lessons (excellent morale/deep depression)
 Severe anger to the instructor, service personnel, and others
iii. Seriously Abnormal Learners
a. Refrain from instructing the learner and assure they don’t continue training/become certificated
 Have another instructor (not acquainted with the learner) conduct an evaluation flight
a Confer to determine whether further investigation or action is justified
 Primary legal responsibility is whether to endorse the learner to for solo or a practical test
a If the student may have a serious psychological deficiency, don’t endorse/recommend
C. Impatience
i. An impatient learner fails to understand the need for preliminary training and seeks only the ultimate
objective without considering the means to reach it
ii. Counter impatience by presenting the necessary preliminary training one step at a time, with clearly state
goals for each step, while tailing instruction to the pace of the learner (i.e. slow learner vs motivated, fast
learner)
D. Worry or Lack of Interest
i. Learners who are worried or emotionally upset are not ready to learn and gain little from instruction

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

a. Outside experiences affect behavior and performance in training – the instructor is not responsible for
these diversions, but also cannot ignore them because they affect learning
ii. Instruction should be keyed to divert attention from their worries and troubles to the tasks at hand
iii. The most effective cure is prevention – ensure the learner knows at the end of each lesson exactly how well
they have progressed and what deficiencies are present
E. Physical Discomfort, Illness, Fatigue, and Dehydration
i. All these conditions slow the rate of learning, and should be mitigated to the extent possible
ii. Fatigue – one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety
a. Acute Fatigue: Normal occurrence of everyday living
b. Chronic Fatigue: Combination of both physiological problems and psychological issues (financial, home
life, job-related stress)
c. Fatigue impairs and adversely affects pilot judgement and decision making
d. Be aware of fatigue and adjust the length and frequency of training as necessary
iii. Dehydration and Heatstroke
a. Dehydration: Critical loss of water to the body. Reduces alertness
b. Heatstroke: Inability of the body to control its temperature
c. Carry ample water on any long flight, keep the temperature cool, and wear light clothing
F. Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction
i. To hold interest and maintain motivation, provide well-planned, appropriate & accurate instruction
ii. Instruction should be meaningful
a. Teach to the level of the learner. Be professional (appearance and presentation of material)
iii. Once the instructor loses confidence, it is difficult to regain and learning is diminished
3. Teaching the Adult Learner (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Certain traits need to be recognized when teaching adults
i. Adult Learner Characteristics
a. Learning is a means to an end (generally have a use for the knowledge/skill)
b. Seek out learning experiences to cope with specific life changing events (marriage, new job, etc.)
c. Autonomous & self-directed; need to be independent & exercise control
d. Draw from foundation of life experience and knowledge for learning
e. Goal oriented
f. Relevancy oriented
g. Practical, focusing on aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work
h. Need to be shown respect
i. Need to increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem is a strong secondary motivator
j. Want to solve problems & apply new knowledge immediately
ii. Instructors Should
a. Provide an organized training syllabus with clearly defined objectives
b. Help students integrate new ideas with what they already know
c. Clarify and articulate student expectations early
d. Recognize the student’s need to control pace and start/stop time
e. Use scenario-based training (takes advantage of preference to self-direct)
f. Provide self-directed learning involving other people as resources, guides, etc. (don’t isolate)
g. Use books, programmed instruction and computers which are popular with adults
h. Refrain from “spoon-feeding”
i. Set a cooperative learning climate
j. Create opportunities for mutual planning
4. Effective Communication (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 4)
A. A style of communication must be developed that can convey info to learners

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

B. Basic Elements of Communication

i. Communication takes place when a person transmits ideas/feelings to another
ii. Effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received
a. Receiver reacts with understanding and changes their behavior accordingly
b. A change in behavior is the goal of communication
iii. 3 elements of communication: Source, Symbols, Receiver
a. Source (the sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor)
 Effectiveness as a communicator is related to 3 basic factors
a An ability to select and use language is essential for transmitting meaningful symbols
1. Effectiveness is dependent on the understanding of the words used
2. Basically, the words you use are important to learning
b Communicators reveal information about themselves – self-image, views of ideas being
communicated as well as the receiver
1. Basically, have a positive attitude!
c Material is accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating
1. Out of date info makes you look bad, and you lose credibility
d In summary, as the instructor speak clearly and professionally, using words the learners can
understand; be positive, and know the information you’re teaching
b. Symbols (words or signs, or simple oral, visual, or tactile codes)
 Determine the symbols best to start/end & those best for explaining, clarifying, emphasizing
a Then determine which medium is best suited for transmission (hearing, seeing, touch)
 Monitor the feedback from a learner as symbols may need to be modified for clarity
 Learners need feedback on how they are doing (Negative feedback in private only)
c. Receiver (the listener, reader, or learner)
 Effective communication: Receiver reacts with understanding & changes behavior
 To change behavior, the learner’s abilities, attitudes, experiences need to be understood
a Learners come with a wide variety of abilities, tailor instruction to their level
b Age, gender, cultural background, education, etc. can influence behavior
c A varied communicative approach will succeed best in reaching most learners
1. Not all learners learn in the same way, using multiple approaches is most effective
d Experience, background, and ability will help determine the instructor’s approach
C. RM: Barriers to Effective Communication
i. Lack of Common Experience
a. Greatest single barrier to effective communication
b. A communicator’s words cannot communicate the desired meaning to another person unless he has had
some experience with the objects or concepts to which these words refer
 It is essential that instructors speak the same language as the learners
 If specific terminology is needed, ensure understanding (especially common in aviation)
ii. Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
a. This results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent
 Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person
 Make sure associations are clear
b. For communication to be effective, the learner’s understanding must match the instructor’s
iii. Overuse of Abstractions (words that are general rather than specific)
a. Abstractions do not evoke the same items of experience in the minds of learners
 Avoid abstractions in most cases
iv. External Factors

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

a. Factors outside the instructor’s control preventing an activity from being carried out properly
b. Physiological interference is any physical problem that may inhibit understanding
 Hearing loss, injury, physical illness, etc.
c. Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions (like noise)
d. Psychological interference is a product of how the learner/instructor feel
 If either isn’t committed, or if fear or mistrust exist then communication is impaired
e. Consider the effects of these factors and mitigate them where possible
v. Interference
a. Occurs when the message gets disrupted, truncated, or added to
 Instructor/learner believe an intact message was sent/received when it wasn’t
b. Additional feedback and confirmation reduce the harmful effects of interference
D. Developing Communication Skills
i. Role Playing
a. Practice instructing to develop communication skills, techniques, etc.
b. For example: Flying with an instructor who plays the role of a learner to assess your teaching
ii. Instructional Communication
a. Know the topic well
b. Do not be afraid to use examples of past experience to illustrate particular points
c. Determine the level of understanding by some sort of evaluation
 Ask them questions to gauge their understanding
iii. Listening
a. One way to become better acquainted with learners is to be a good listener
b. Learners also need to want to listen
 Teaching learners how to listen will improve information transfer
c. The pilot must be ready to listen and be responsible for listening
d. Listen to understand, rather than refute
 If certain areas arouse emotion, be aware of this and take extra measures to listen
a Emotions can interfere with listening
b Ex: a strong fear of spins distracting the pilot from listening to a lesson about spins
e. Listen for the main ideas
f. Don’t daydream
g. Take notes (no one can remember everything)
iv. Questioning
a. Good questioning can determine how well a learner understands
b. Ask open ended and focused questions
 Open ended questions allow the learner to explain more fully
a Explaining (or teaching) the lesson to you (the instructor) helps the learner learn
 Focused questions allow the instructor to concentrate on desired areas
a Focused questions are good to measure general knowledge of a subject
c. Paraphrasing and perception checking can confirm understanding is in the same way
 Perception checking gets into feelings by stating the instructor’s perceptions of the learner’s
behavior and the learner can clarify them as necessary
v. Instructional Enhancement
a. The deeper the knowledge about an area, the better the instructor is at conveying it
5. RM: Recognizing & Accommodating Human Behavior
A. Working knowledge of behavior can help an instructor better understand a student
i. Leads to successful instruction

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

B. Understand and adjust for different personalities, motivators, learning styles, etc.

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
An awareness of the 3 basic elements indicates the beginning of the understanding required for the successful
communicator. Recognizing the various barriers to communication further enhances the flow of ideas. The instructor
must develop communication skills to convey desired info to learners and recognize that communication is a two-way
process. The true test of whether successful communication has taken place is to determine if the desired results have
been achieved and the learner’s behavior has been changed.

17
I.B. Learning Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) – Chapter 3

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the learning process as
required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Learning Theory

2. Perceptions and Insight
3. Acquiring Knowledge
4. Laws of Learning
5. Domains of Learning
6. Characteristics of Learning
7. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
8. Types of Practice
9. Evaluation vs Critique
10. Distraction, Interruptions, Fixation & Inattention
11. Errors
12. Memory & Forgetting
13. Retention of Learning
14. Transfer of Learning

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the learning process and can integrate the knowledge when
Standards instructing learners.
 I.B. Learning Process

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This will explain why you will or will not remember this lesson.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Understanding how people learn and applying that knowledge to the learning environment.

Why
As a flight instructor, the ability to effectively teach learners is imperative. Understanding how people learn and how
to apply that knowledge is the basis for effective teaching.

How:
1. Learning Theory
A. Definition – A body of principles used to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes
B. How people learn is explained by 2 basic concepts: Behaviorism and Cognitive Theory
C. Behaviorism (Positive Reinforcement, rather than no reinforcement or punishment)
i. Stresses the importance of having particular behavior reinforced, to shape or control what is learned
a. The instructor provides the reinforcement
ii. Frequent positive reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning
iii. The theory provides ways to encourage the learner’s progress and learning with rewards
iv. Today, behaviorism is used more to break unwanted behaviors, such as smoking, than in teaching
a. The popularity of behaviorism has waned – learning has been shown to be a much more complex
process than a response to a stimuli
D. Cognitive Theory (Focuses on what is going on inside the learner’s mind)
i. Learning isn’t just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a learner thinks/understands/feels
ii. Two Major Branches of the Cognitive Theory
a. The Information Processing Theory
 The learner’s brain has internal structures which select and process incoming material,
store/retrieve it, use it to produce behavior, and receive/process feedback on the results
a This involves a number of cognitive processes: gathering and representing information
(encoding), retaining of information, and retrieving the information when needed
b The brain gets input from the senses; amount of sensory input the brain receives per second is
very high, so it lets many of the habitual and routine things go unnoticed
1. The human unconscious takes charge, leaving the conscious thought processes free
2. Ex: A pilot using rudder when entering a turn is often unaware of pressing the pedal
b. Constructivism
 Learning is the result of the learner matching new information against preexisting information and
integrating it into meaningful connections
a Humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the
information received from sense organs
 High Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) - also referred to as aeronautical decision making (ADM)

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 I.B. Learning Process

a Training based on problems or scenarios

1. Allows for the construction of meaning from experience
b Common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of higher order thinking skills
c Teaching HOTS
1. Taught like other cognitive skills: from simple to complex & concrete to abstract
2. Effective teaching engages the learner in mental activity, has them examine the problem
and select the best solution, and explore other ways to accomplish the task
3. Strategies & methods include:
a. Problem-based learning instruction
b. Authentic, real-world problems
c. Learner-centered learning
d. Active learning
e. Cooperative learning
f. Customized instruction to meet the individual learner’s needs
4. HOTS must be emphasized throughout a program of study for best results
d Scenario-Based Training (SBT)
1. The heart of HOTS, and an example of Problem Based Learning
2. Uses a structured script of “real world” scenarios to address flight-training objectives in an
operational environment
a. Adapt scenarios to the aircraft, its flight characteristics and the environment, and
require the learner make real-time decisions in a realistic setting
b. Good Scenario:
i. Clear set of objectives
ii. Tailored to the needs of the learner
iii. Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment
3. Offer solutions, evaluate them, choose one, judge effectiveness, reflect on process
4. The goal is reached when the learner “makes meaning” of the information based on past
experience and personal interpretation
5. After a couple flights, the scenario should be planned/led by the learner
E. Behavioral + Cognitive
i. Plan, manage, and conduct aviation training with the best features of each theory
ii. Provides a way to measure the behavioral outcomes and promote cognitive learning
2. Perceptions & Insight
A. Initially, all learning comes from perceptions which come from the senses
i. New learners are overwhelmed by stimuli and often focus on meaningless things, missing key info
a. Instructor needs to direct trainee’s perceptions, so the learner obtains relevant information
B. Factors Affecting Perceptions
i. Physical Organism
a. Provides the perceptual apparatus (the body) for sensing the world around them
ii. Goals and Values
a. Every experience is affected by the individual’s values and beliefs
 Understand the learner’s values and tailor teaching to those values
b. Goals are more highly valued and therefore sought after than other less important ideas
iii. Self-Concept
a. Self-image (confident or insecure) has a great influence on perception
 A positive self-image allows the learner to remain open to new experiences
 A negative self-image has a negative effect on learning
iv. Time and Opportunity

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 I.B. Learning Process

a. Proper sequence and time are necessary for learning

v. Element of Threat
a. Does not promote effective learning
 Attention is limited to threatening object/idea
C. Insight
i. Grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes
ii. ‘Aha!’ moment when the info ‘clicks’ and you gain a more complete understanding of the concept
a. Learning becomes more meaningful and more permanent
iii. One of the instructor’s primary responsibilities
iv. Help the learner understand how each piece of information relates to the others
3. Acquiring Knowledge
A. Memorization (first attempt to acquire knowledge)
i. Not good for problem solving
B. Understanding (stage 2 of acquiring knowledge)
i. Knowledge is organized in useful ways and a group of memorized facts gives way to understanding
ii. Advantages
a. Not limited to questions matching memorized facts
b. Easier time mastering variations of a process
c. Allows for more efficient communication
d. Learners who understand the purpose behind a procedure are better able to remember it
C. Concept Learning
i. Based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or
more major attributes that set them apart
a. Ex. Military vs civilian aircraft
b. By grouping information into concepts, we create manageable categories
ii. Enhances understanding when individuals formulate concepts from facts or steps
a. Generalized concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of describing one thing, they
describe many things at once
b. Concepts are revised as knowledge and experience is gained
 Military aircraft are then revised into heavies and fighters
a Heavies are then revised to C130s, C17s and C5s, etc.
iii. Schemas
a. Cognitive framework that helps people organize and interpret information
b. We form schemas when we notice recurring patterns in things frequently observed or done
 Ex. ATC clearances (IFR clearance, approach clearance, etc.)
c. We continuously learn new schemas and revise old ones to accommodate new information
d. Disadvantage: Difficult to retain new info that doesn’t conform to established schemas
4. Laws of Learning (REEPIR)
A. Laws of learning provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively
B. Readiness
i. The basic needs of the learner need to be met before they’re ready or capable of learning
a. The instructor can do little to motivate the learner if these needs haven’t been met
b. If outside responsibilities, interests, worries, etc. weigh heavily, they may have little interest
ii. Learners best acquire new knowledge when they see a clear reason for doing so
a. Provide useful, applicable, information tailored to a specific learner’s experience level
iii. Two steps to keep learners in a state of readiness:
a. Communicate a clear set of objectives and relate each new topic to the objectives
b. Introduce topics in a logical order and leave learners with a need to learn the next topic

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 I.B. Learning Process

iv. Be alert to, and capitalize on, teachable moments

a. Moments of opportunity when a person is particularly responsive to being taught something
C. Effect
i. Behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, and vice versa
ii. Learning should affect the learner positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction
a. Encourage!
b. Create situations designed to promote success
D. Exercise
i. Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened without it - “Use it or lose it”
ii. Exercise is most meaningful/effective when a skill is learned in the context of real-world applications
iii. Provide opportunities for practice and ensure it’s directed toward a goal and performed properly
E. Primacy
i. What is learned first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression
a. Un-teaching is much more difficult than teaching
ii. The first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow
F. Intensity
i. A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience
ii. The instructor should use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible
a. Instructional aides can improve realism, motivate learning and challenge learners
G. Recency
i. Things most recently learned are best remembered
a. The further removed in time from a new fact/understanding, the more difficult to remember
ii. Repeat, restate, or reemphasize important points at the end of a lesson to help in remembering
5. Domains of Learning (What is to be learned: Knowledge, Change in Attitude, Physical Skill, or combo)
A. A framework to help understand the major areas of learning & thinking
B. Cognitive Domain (Knowledge)
i. Includes remembering specific facts and
concepts that help develop intellectual
abilities & skills
ii. 6 major categories, or levels, from the
simplest (knowledge) to the most complex
(evaluation)
iii. Four Practical Learning Levels
a. Rote – Ability to repeat without
understanding or application
 Define, identify, label
b. Understanding – Insight into what has
been taught
 Learner consolidates old and new perceptions into an insight on a subject/maneuver
 Describe, estimate, explain
c. Application – The skill for applying what has been learned
 Understands, has had demonstrations, and has practiced until consistent
 Determine, develop, solve
d. Correlation – Correlation of what has been learned with things previously learned and subsequently
encountered
 Objective in aviation instruction
 Ex: Can correlate the elements of turn entries with performing lazy eights and chandelles

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 I.B. Learning Process

C. Affective Domain (Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values)

i. This hierarchy addresses a learner’s emotions toward the
educational experience
ii. Includes feelings, values, enthusiasms, motivations, attitudes
 Is the learner motivated?
b. Measuring objectives in this domain is not easy
c. Ex. evaluating a positive attitude to safety
iii. Provides a framework for teaching in 5 levels (pictured, right)
D. Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)
i. Skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas
a. Typical activities include learning to fly a precision
approach, programming a GPS
ii. Practical Instructional Levels
a. Observation
b. Imitation
c. Practice
d. Habit
iii. As tasks/equipment become more complex, the requirement
for integration of cognitive and physical skills increases
iv. 7 educational objective levels (shown right)
6. Characteristics of Learning (PRMA)
A. Purposeful
i. In the process of learning, the learner’s goals are the most
important factor
a. Most people have definite ideas about what they want to
do and achieve (goals)
b. Learners learn from any activity that furthers their goals

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 I.B. Learning Process

c. Individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is trying
to get them to learn
ii. To be effective, instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the learner’s goals
B. Result of Experience (Learn by Doing)
i. Learning is an individual process, and the learner can learn only from personal experiences
a. Previous experiences condition a person to respond to some things and to ignore others
b. Instructors are faced with the problem of providing learning experiences that are meaningful, varied,
and appropriate to individual learners
ii. If an experience challenges, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences, &
physical activity, it is far more effective than just committing something to memory
iii. If learners are to use sound judgment and develop decision making skills, they need learning experiences
that involve the use of judgment in solving realistic problems
C. Multifaceted
i. Individuals learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings
a. A flight instructor is not just training memory and muscles
b. The learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements,
emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once
ii. While learning the subject at hand, learners may be learning other things as well
a. They may be developing attitudes about aviation, they may learn self-reliance, etc.
D. Active Process (Constantly Engage the Learner)
i. Don’t assume a learner remembers something just because they were there when material was presented
ii. For effective knowledge transfer, learners need to react/respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only
inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually
7. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
A. Skill knowledge: knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in cognitive or mental skills, which manifests
itself in the doing of something (Ex. riding a bike)
B. Stages of Acquiring a Skill
i. Cognitive Stage
a. Memorizing the steps to a skill
b. Provide clear, step by step examples
ii. Associative Stage
a. Practice begins to store the skill
b. The learner can assess progress and make adjustments instead of simply repeating steps
iii. Automatic Response Stage
a. Through practice, the skill becomes automatic allowing increased focus on other aspects
C. Knowledge of Results
i. The learner must be informed of their progress, both good and bad
a. Inform as soon after their performance as possible, don’t allow learners to practice mistakes
ii. Flying is foreign; a learner may know something is wrong but may not know how to correct it
D. How to Develop Skills
i. Consistent practice improves performance
E. Learning Plateaus
i. They’re normal and temporary, ensure the learner understands this and is prepared for them
ii. Over-practice can bring on a learning plateau
a. If necessary, move away from a certain task and return to it at a later time
8. Types of Practice
A. Deliberate Practice
i. Learner practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice

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 I.B. Learning Process

a. Feedback shows differences between performance and desired goal

 Focus is on eliminating differences
B. Blocked Practice
i. Doing the same task over and over until it becomes automatic
ii. Enhances current (short-term) performance, but does not improve either concept learning or retrieval from
long-term memory
C. Random Practice
i. Mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session
ii. Performing a series of separate skills in a random order leads to better retention
a. Learner starts to recognize the similarities/differences of each skill making it more meaningful
9. Evaluation vs. Critique
A. Overview
i. Practical suggestions are more valuable than a grade in the initial stages of skill acquisition
a. Early evaluation provides a check on teaching effectiveness and can help locate problem areas
ii. Instructor monitors learner practice and provides feedback
a. Constructive criticism helps eliminate errors – compliments help keep the evaluation positive
iii. Allowing the learner to critique themselves enhances learner-centered training
B. Overlearning of Knowledge
i. The continued study of a skill after initial proficiency is established
ii. Advantage: Application of knowledge is more streamlined and efficient
iii. Disadvantage:
a. Reduces critical thinking
 Ex. Checklist recitation that becomes second nature to the point it’s decoupled from actions
b. Can impede further learning or lead to forgetting general knowledge
 Pilots can develop streamlined, automatic procedures tuned to their aircraft/procedures while their
overall understanding of the concept diminishes
iv. Remain aware of skills developed as a result of overlearning and ensure learner actions are accompanied by
use of their underlying knowledge
C. Application of Skill
i. Final and critical question is “Can the learner use the information received?”
a. Learner needs to understand the skill so well it becomes easy/habitual
b. Learner needs to be able to recognize the situations where the skill is appropriate to use
D. Summary of Instructor’s Actions
i. Explain that the key to acquiring & improving skill is continued practice
ii. Monitor practice and provide immediate feedback
iii. Avoid conversation & other distractions when learners are practicing individual skills
iv. Explain that learning plateaus are common and continued practiced = continued improvement
10. Distraction, Interruptions, Fixation & Inattention
A. Distraction: Unexpected event that causes the learner’s attention to be momentarily diverted
i. Learners need to decide whether or not a distraction warrants further attention/action
a. Act on the distraction or turn attention back to what they were doing
B. Interruption: Unexpected event where the learner voluntarily suspends one task to complete a different one
i. Significant source of errors
a. Learners need to develop procedures for dealing with interruptions
b. Common example, performing a checklist, interrupted, returns to the checklist but at the wrong step
C. Fixation: Occurs when the learner becomes absorbed in one task to the exclusion of other tasks
i. Generally, a sign that the task has not been mastered well enough to be performed with other tasks
D. Inattention: Occurs when a learner fails to pay attention to a task that is important

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 I.B. Learning Process

i. Can be a natural byproduct of fixation

ii. Can occur when learners are not busy (bored, or don’t find a task important)
iii. Alert the learner to the problem and develop habits to keep their attention
E. Identifying Fixation & Inattention Problems
i. Follow where learners look
a. Glance at the learner’s eyes to see where they are looking
b. Extended time on one instrument could be fixation
c. Extended time neglecting engine instruments could be inattention
11. Errors
A. To believe people can eliminate errors from their performance is to commit the biggest error of all
i. Be prepared for occasional errors
B. Two Kind of Errors
i. Slip
a. A person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does something else
b. Forms of Slips
 Neglect to do something
 Confuse two similar things
 Asked to perform a routine in a slightly different way
 Time pressure
ii. Mistake
a. A person plans to do the wrong thing and succeeds
 Error of thought. Sometimes caused by a gap or misconception in learner’s understanding
b. Forms of Mistakes
 Incorrect understanding
 Incorrectly categorizing a specific situation
C. RM: Reducing Error
i. Learning and practicing
a. Chair flying when away from the aircraft can be a huge help (as long as it is practiced properly)
ii. Taking Time
a. Work at a comfortable pace
b. Slow is steady, steady is fast
 Rushing leads to mistakes and starting over/repeating
iii. Checking for Errors
a. Actively look for evidence of errors
iv. Using Reminders
a. Checklists, bugs, notebook, etc.
v. Developing Routines
a. Standardized procedures are widely known to reduce errors
vi. Raising Awareness
a. Raise awareness when operating in conditions under which errors are known to happen, or in conditions
which defenses against errors have been compromised (fatigue, lack of practice, etc.)
D. Error Recovery
i. Error is inevitable, learners must learn to recover from situations
a. Do not let the error “snowball” and cause additional problems, or grow bigger than it is
 Solve the problem, and focus on the tasks at hand/ahead
E. Learning from Error
i. Great learning tool

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 I.B. Learning Process

ii. When an error is made ask the learner why it happened/what could be done different
iii. Great debrief topics include a discussion of what went well and what could have gone better
12. Memory & Forgetting
A. Memory General
i. Memory includes 3 parts: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
ii. The total system operates like a computer
a. Accepts input, information is processed, storage capability, and an output function

B. Sensory Memory (Quick Scan, Precoding)

i. Receives stimuli from the environment and quickly processes it based on a set concept of what is important
a. Other factors can influence reception of info
 If it is dramatic or impacts more than one sense it is more likely to make an impression
ii. Recognizes certain stimuli and immediately transmits them to short-term memory for action
a. Called precoding (ex. Fire Alarm – working memory is immediately made aware of the alarm and preset
responses begin to take place)
iii. Capable of retaining information for only a very short period of time and within seconds the relevant
information is passed to the short-term memory
C. Short-Term Memory (Coding, Rehearsal, Recoding)
i. Short-term memory resembles the control tower of a major airport and is responsible for coordinating all
incoming and outgoing flights
a. Information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after which it may rapidly fade or be consolidated into
long-term memory, depending on the individual’s priorities
ii. Rehearsal or repetition of the info and sorting or categorization into chucks help with retention
a. The sorting process is called Coding or Chunking
b. Usually takes 5 - 10 sec; if interrupted, the information is easily lost since it is only stored for 30 seconds
iii. Time limited and Capacity limited (time limitation can be overcome by repetition)
iv. The coding process may involve recoding to adjust information to individual experiences
a. This is when actual learning begins to take place
b. Recoding: relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in memory
v. Three basic operations of Short-term memory
a. Iconic Memory: Brief sensory memory of visual images
b. Acoustic Memory: Encoded memory of a brief sound or the ability to hold sounds in short-term memory
c. Working Memory: Active process to keep information until it is put to use

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 I.B. Learning Process

 The goal of working memory is not to move information from short-term to long-term memory, but
merely to put the information to use
vi. Developing a logical strategy for coding information is a significant step in the learning process
D. Long-Term Memory (Process, Store, Recall)
i. Relatively permanent storage of unlimited information
a. For it to be useful, special effort must have been expended during the coding process
 The more effective the coding process, the easier the recall
 What is stored in long-term memory affects a person’s perceptions of the world and what
information in the environment is noticed
a Information that makes it to long-term memory typically has significance attached to it
ii. One of the major responsibilities of the instructor is to help learners use their memories effectively
a. Look for ways to make training relevant and meaningful enough for the learner to transfer new
information to long-term memory
E. Memory and Usage
i. The ability to retrieve knowledge or skills is primarily related to two things:
a. How often the knowledge has been used
b. How recently the knowledge has been used
ii. The more frequent and recent knowledge is used, the more likely it is retained
F. Forgetting
i. There are many theories regarding why people forget (FIRRS)
a. Fading: Suggests that information that is not used is forgotten
b. Interference: We forget things because an experience has overshadowed it, or the learning of similar
things has intervened
 Two conclusions from interference:
a Similar material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar material
b Material not well learned suffers most from interference
c. Retrieval Failure: Inability to retrieve the information
d. Repression or Suppression: A memory is pushed out because of the feelings associated with it
13. Retention of Learning
A. The instructor needs to make certain that the learner’s learning is readily available for recall
i. Teach thoroughly and with meaning
B. Praise Stimulates Remembering
i. Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated
C. Recall is Promoted by Association
i. Each bit of information which is associated with something to be learned tends to facilitate its recall
D. RM: Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention (lack of learner motivation)
i. Without motivation there is little chance for recall; most effective motivation is based on positive objectives
E. Learning with all our Senses is most Effective
i. When several senses respond together, a fuller understanding/greater chance of recall is achieved
F. Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall (mere repetition does not guarantee retention)
i. Each repetition provides an opportunity to gain a clearer perception of the subject to be learned
ii. 3-4 repetitions provide the maximum effect
G. Mnemonics
i. Pattern of letters, ideas, visual images, or associations to help remember
a. Include, but not limited to, acronyms, acrostics, rhymes & melody
b. Ex. ANDS – Accelerate North, Decelerate South
14. Transfer of Learning
A. Primary Objective is to promote Positive Transfer

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 I.B. Learning Process

i. Positive Transfer - Learning skill A helps to learn skill B (slow flight and short field landings)
ii. Negative Transfer - Learning skill A hinders learning of skill B (landing an airplane vs a helicopter)
iii. A degree of transfer is involved in all learning since all learning is based on prior learned experience
iv. Achieving Positive Transfer
a. Plan for transfer as a primary objective
b. Ensure that learners understand that information can be applied in other situations
c. Maintain high-order learning standards
d. Avoid unnecessary rote learning, since it does not foster transfer
e. Provide meaningful learning experiences that build confidence in the ability to transfer knowledge
f. Use material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations (make relationships clear)
B. Habit Formation
i. It’s the instructor’s task to insist on correct techniques/procedures to provide proper habit patterns
ii. Training traditionally has followed a building block concept
a. Start with the basics and build from there
C. Understanding
i. Ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of understanding
ii. The deeper we think about what we have learned, the more likely we can retrieve the info later
D. Remembering during Training
i. Threat: Lack of frequent usage in the past
a. Learner needs to engage in regular practice of what was learned
b. Shorter, regularly spaced studying produces results far greater than cramming the night before
ii. Threat: Learner lacks a degree of understanding that may assist with recalling the knowledge
a. Repetition of knowledge along with efforts to increase understanding leads to best results
b. Reading with “study questions” (answering and / or creating study questions)
E. Remembering after Training
i. Continued practice of knowledge and skill is the only means to retaining what was learned
ii. Practice is as important after certification as it was before
iii. Skills that become automatic during training may not remain automatic after a period of disuse
F. Sources of Knowledge
i. Books, photographs, videos, diagrams, charts, etc.
ii. Encourage the learner to gain experience in the real-world
a. Continued flying, observation, communication, etc.
G. Summary of Instructor’s Actions
i. Discuss differences between short-term and long-term memory
ii. Explain the effect of frequent and recent usage of knowledge on remembering and forgetting
iii. Explain the effect of depth of understanding on remembering and forgetting
iv. Encourage the learner use of mnemonic devices while studying
v. Explain the benefits of studying at regularly spaced intervals, and the disadvantages of cramming

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

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I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 3 & 7

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the teaching process as
required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Teaching
2. Course of Training
3. Preparation of a Lesson
4. Organization of Material
5. Training Delivery Methods
6. Electronic Learning
7. Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
8. Integrated Flight Instruction
9. Problem Based Instruction
10. Planning Instructional Activity

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the preparation of a lesson, the different presentation methods, how
Standards the learner applies the knowledge, and the importance and use of a review and evaluation.
 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This is how one should structure a lesson to properly ensure the necessary knowledge is retained.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The teaching process can be divided into steps - preparation, presentation, application, and review and evaluation.

Why
Effective teaching is necessary to provide a proper learning experience for learners.

How:
1. Teaching
A. Process
i. Organizes material to teach in a way the learner can understand
ii. Four steps: Preparation, Presentation, Application, Review/Evaluation
B. 4 Essential Teaching Skills
i. People skills
a. Effective instructors relate well to people
b. Technical knowledge is useless if it’s not communicated effectively
c. Effective communication requires actively listening to the learner
ii. Subject matter expertise
a. Effective instructors have a sincere interesting in learning & professional growth
b. Be a lifelong learner, network, continue to develop professionally
iii. Management skills
a. Ability to plan, organize, lead, and supervise (plan, organize & carry out a lesson)
b. Effective time management to achieve goals without over planning
c. Supervision of learners when necessary (i.e., preflight procedures)
iv. Assessment skills (more details in Task D.)
a. Used to verify the learner’s progress
b. Purpose of the assessment needs to be clear
2. Course of Training
A. Complete series of studies leading to a specific goal
i. Curriculum, syllabus, lesson plan
B. Includes
i. Curriculum includes courses for various pilot certificates and ratings
ii. Syllabus: Summary/outline of an individual course of study containing multiple lessons
a. Description of each lesson, including objectives & completion standards
iii. Lesson plan: Detailed plan for how a specific lesson is conducted
a. Objective, organization of material, teaching aids, instructor/learner actions, evaluation criteria,
completion standards
3. Preparation of a Lesson

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

A. A lesson must be planned – Objectives, procedures and facilities, goals to be attained, review/evaluation
B. Training Objectives & Completion Standards
i. Training Objectives
a. Two types: Performance-based & Decision-based
 Performance-Based: Define exactly what needs to be done and how it is done
 As training progresses, shift toward decision-based training objectives
a Scenario-based training to teach critical thinking skills (risk management & ADM)
b. Clearly defined training objectives that the learner understands are essential
 Objectives should incorporate the desired level of learning for the applicable domain(s) of learning
a Adapt training to a specific performance level of knowledge or skill
ii. Standards
a. Closely tied to objectives
b. When a learner performs according to well-defined standards, evidence of learning is apparent
c. Standards should contain comprehensive examples of the desired learning outcomes
 Easier for cognitive & psychomotor domains, more difficult for affective domain
iii. Incorporating ADM & risk management leads to sound judgement & good decision-making skills
C. Performance Based Objectives
i. Set measurable, reasonable standards describing the learner’s desired performance
a. Objectives must be clear, measurable, and repeatable
ii. Begin writing a lesson with performance-based objectives
(PTS/ACS or syllabus objectives can be used)
iii. Elements of Performance Based Objectives
a. Description of the Skill or Behavior
 Explains the desired outcome of the instruction as
a change in knowledge, skill, or attitude
a Should be in concrete and measurable terms
b. Conditions
 Explain the rules for demonstration of the skill
a Include information such as equipment, tools,
reference material, and limiting parameters
c. Criteria
 Standards that measure objective accomplishment
 Good criteria leave no question as to whether the performance meets the objective(s)
D. Importance of the ACS
i. Supply specific performance objectives based on the standards for issuance of a certificate/rating
a. Often reviewed to ensure content & criterion validity
b. Content Valid: Maneuvers mimic what is required in actual flying
c. Criterion Valid: Completions standards are reflective of acceptable standards (reasonable)
ii. Use the maneuver-based approach of the ACS but present the objectives as scenario-based training (SBT)
a. SBT learners have better decision-making skills compared to solely maneuver-based training
E. Decision-Based Objectives
i. Scenario based training develops judgement & ADM skills – facilitates higher level of learning
ii. Teaches the learner how to gather information and make informed, safe, and timely decisions
iii. Combined with maneuvers-based training
a. Teach maneuvers requiring repitition and once learned, integrate them into realistic flight situations
4. Organization of Material
A. Intro – Sets the stage for everything to come. Consists of 3 elements:

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

i. Attention – Story, video clip, etc. to direct attention to the lesson

ii. Motivation – Specific reasons why the info is important
iii. Overview – A clear, concise presentation of objectives and key ideas
B. Development – Main body. The material should be organized logically, options include:
i. Past to present
ii. Simple to complex
iii. Known to unknown
iv. Most frequently used to least
C. Conclusion
i. Retraces important elements and relates them to the objective
5. Training Delivery Methods
A. Lecture Method
i. Suitable for presenting new material, for summarizing ideas, and for showing relationships
ii. Most effective when combined with instructional aids and training devices
iii. Different Types of Lectures:
a. Illustrated Talk – Relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas
b. Formal Lecture – Purpose is to inform, persuade, or entertain with little learner participation
c. Teaching Lecture – Delivered in a manner that allows some learner participation
 Favored by aviation instructors
B. Discussion
i. Uses lecture and then discussion to involve the learner
a. Short lecture followed by instructor-learner & learner-learner discussion
b. Requires participation & develops higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
C. Guided Discussion Method
i. Goal is to draw out the knowledge of the learner
a. Encourages active participation of the learners
b. The greater the participation, the more effective the learning
ii. The instructor acts as a facilitator – Ask skillful questions (open ended questions encourage more discussion
and a better gauge of understanding than specific, use both as necessary)
iii. Helpful in areas where learners can use initiative and imagination in addressing problems
D. Cooperative or Group Learning
i. Organizes learners into small groups who work together to maximize understanding
a. Leads to better test scores, higher self-esteem, improved social skills & greater comprehension
ii. Instructor
a. Plan what the group is expected to learn and be able to do on their own
b. Use clear & specific objectives to describe the knowledge/abilities to be acquired
iii. Conditions & Controls
a. Small, heterogeneous groups
b. Clear, complete instructions (what to do, in what order, materials)
c. Learner perception of targeted objectives as their own, personal objectives
d. Opportunity for learner success
e. Learner access to and comprehension of required info
f. Sufficient time for learning
g. Individual accountability
h. Recognition & reward for group success
i. Time to reflect on how they worked together as a team
E. Demonstration-Performance Method
i. Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

ii. Many lessons can combine the lecture and demonstration-performance methods
a. The initial information is given in a classroom with a lecture
b. The information is demonstrated and then applied in the airplane
iii. Five Phases: Explanation, Demonstration, Learner Performance, Instructor Supervision, Evaluation
F. Drill and Practice Method
i. Connections are strengthened with practice
ii. Learn by practicing and applying what they have been told and shown
G. Be familiar with as many methods as possible
6. Electronic Learning
A. General
i. Any type of education involving an electronic component
a. Examples: Flight simulators, computer-based training modules,
ii. Advantages: Time flexible, cost effective, easily updated, accessible from anywhere, self-paced
iii. Limitations: Lack of peer interaction and personal feedback, limited instruction on certain subjects,
equipment cost (i.e. simulator), instructor must be sufficiently trained on the system operation, not a
replacement for the real thing/real life situations and training
B. Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) Method
i. Couples the computer with multimedia software to create a training device
ii. Reduces manpower
iii. Learners can move at their own pace
iv. Not practical for an entire training program
v. Instructor is responsible for monitoring and oversight of learner progress
a. Computer has no way of knowing when a learner is having difficulty
b. Tends to be more one on one instruction as CAL handles the big picture concepts
C. Simulation, Role-Playing, Video Gaming
i. As gaming grows in popularity, educators are seeking to provide games that help retain subject matter
ii. Flight simulation is most prominent form in aviation training
a. Not perfect for all training, but a great tool
b. Allows the learner to learn/practice in a defined environment
 Can pause, slow down, repeat, change parameters, etc.
c. Can practice things that would otherwise be dangerous in the plane, like emergency procedures
7. Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
A. Effective instruction aids:
i. Cover the key points & concepts
ii. Are straightforward & factual making it easy to remember & recall
iii. Are relatively simple
B. Reasons for instructional aids:
i. Assist the instructor in the teaching-learning process
ii. Clarify relationships between objects and concepts
iii. Help learners understand & retain knowledge
iv. Hold their attention
v. Can utilize multiple senses (help learning)
vi. Help solve language barriers
C. Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids
i. Process
a. Clearly establish the lesson objective

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

b. Gather necessary data

c. Organize the material into a lesson plan
d. Select the ideas to be supported with aids
 Concentrate on key points
ii. Aids should be simple, meaningful to the
learner, & compatible with objectives
iii. Should encourage learner participation
D. Types of Aids
i. Chalk/Marker Board
ii. Print Material (media, pictures, drawings, etc.)
iii. Enhanced Training Materials (training
syllabi/records, maneuvers guide, etc.)
iv. Projected Material (PowerPoint, slides,
pictures, etc.)
v. Video
vi. Interactive Systems (computer software/apps)
vii. Computer Assisted Learning (combination of
audio, text, graphics, or video on a computer)
viii. Models, Mockups, Cut-Aways
a. Mockup: 3d working model
b. Cut-away: Type of model that can be taken apart to reveal inner structure/operation
8. Integrated Flight Instruction (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 9)
A. Learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by visual & instrument references
i. Develops the habit of continually monitoring their own and the aircraft’s performance
a. Leads to improved airspeed control, navigation, coordination, landings, safety, and overall competency
b. The more accurate the flying, the greater the increase in performance and operating efficiency
B. Procedures
i. From the beginning, each flight maneuver is introduced using outside and instrument references
ii. Technique: Some instructors prefer to teach only visual references early in the training, arguing that learners
over emphasize the instruments and neglect outside references
a. Teach visual first, establish a base and habit of looking outside, then integrate with instruments
C. See & Avoid
i. Ensure the learner develops the habit of looking outside
ii. Don’t allow the focus on instrument indications to preclude scanning & collision avoidance
a. Most midair collisions occur in daylight, VFR weather conditions
9. Problem Based Instruction
A. Lessons involving problems encountered in real life which ask learners to find real-world solutions
i. Starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution
ii. Helps gain a deeper understanding of the information and improves ability to recall the information
B. Effective Problems
i. Relate to the real world so learners want to solve them
ii. Require learners to make decisions
iii. Open ended, not limited to one answer
iv. Connected to previously learned knowledge and new knowledge
v. Reflect lesson objectives
vi. Challenge learners to think critically
C. Teaching HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
i. Basic Approach to Teaching HOTS:

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

a. Set up the problem

b. Determine learning outcomes for the problem
c. Solve the Problem or Task
d. Reflect on Problem solving process
e. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery
f. Reevaluate solution with additional options
g. Reflect on this solution and why it is the best
h. Consider what best means
D. Scenario Based Training
i. Presents realistic scenarios that allow learners to mentally rehearse and explore practical applications of
their knowledge
ii. Good scenario:
a. Is not a test
b. Will not have one right answer
c. Does not offer an obvious answer
d. Should not promote errors
e. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision making
iii. Consider providing hypothetical emergency situations for the learner to talk through
a. The Air Force has their student pilots talk through how they would maintain aircraft control, analyze the
situation, take the proper action, and land as soon as conditions permit (MATL)
b. Talking through these steps, one at a time, encourages the pilot to apply the same steps in a real
emergency and familiarizes them with many emergency situations
E. Collaborative Problem Solving
i. Two or more working together to solve a problem
ii. Instructor provides assistance only when needed
F. Case Study Method
i. Case Study: Written or oral account of a real-world situation containing a message that educates the learner
ii. Presents the case for the learner to analyze it, come to conclusions, and offer possible solutions
a. Effective case studies require the learner to use critical thinking skills
b. Not necessarily one right answer
iii. The NTSB is a great place for case studies
10. Planning Instructional Activity (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 7)
A. Blocks of Learning
i. Constitute the necessary parts of the total objective
ii. By developing blocks, a learner can master the
segments (blocks) individually
a. The blocks can be progressively combined with
other segments until reaching the overall objective
b. Blocks are more manageable and increase self-
confidence versus taking on the overall goal
iii. Early identification of the foundation of blocks of
learning is essential
a. They should represent units of learning which can
be measured and evaluated
iv. Blocks should be truly integral - Extraneous blocks are
expensive frills, and detract from the final objective
v. Any learner problems can be divided into blocks of
learning to help solve that problem

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

a. Ex. Steep turns can be broken into blocks which can be mastered or fixed to perfect the maneuver
B. Training Syllabus
i. Big Picture
a. Designed to provide a road map showing how to accomplish the overall objective of a course
b. Should be fairly brief but comprehensive enough to cover the essential information
ii. Format & Content
a. The syllabus should always be in the form of an abstract or digest of the course training
 It should include blocks of learning to be completed in the most efficient order
b. Effective training relies on organized blocks of learning
 Therefore, all syllabi should stress well defined objectives and standards for each lesson
a Appropriate objectives/standards should be established for:
1. The overall course
2. Each stage of training
3. The separate flight and ground segments
b Other details may be added to explain how to use it / describe pertinent reference materials
iii. Using a Training Syllabus
a. The syllabus must be flexible, and should be used primarily as a guide
 When necessary, the order of training should be altered to suit progress / special demands
 Departing from the syllabus, the instructor must consider the effects on the learning blocks
b. Ground Lessons
 Concentrate on the cognitive domain of learning
a Many areas concern safety/ADM/judgment which are related to the affective domain
1. Instructors who can stress these factors along with traditional aviation subjects can
favorably influence a learner’s attitudes, beliefs, and values
c. Flight Lessons
 Generally, emphasize the psychomotor domain
a Affective domain is also important
1. Attitude toward flight safety, ADM, and judgment should be a major concern
 Should include risk management instruction
a Throughout training include increasingly more subtle risks so the learner becomes more skilled
in identifying them
iv. A syllabus should include special emphasis areas that are causal factors in accidents or incidents
a. Ex. Collision and wake turbulence avoidance
C. Lesson Plans
i. Purpose
a. Designed to assure each learner receives the best possible instruction under existing conditions
 Help instructors keep a check on their own activity, as well as their learners
 The instructor has in essence taught the lesson to themselves prior to teaching learners
b. An adequate lesson plan, when properly used, should:
 Assure a wise selection of material and the elimination of unimportant details
 Make certain that due consideration is given to each part of the lesson
 Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a suitable sequence for efficient learning
 Provide an outline for the teaching procedure to be used
 Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives of the course of training
 Give the inexperienced instructor confidence
 Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the instructor or date on which the less is given
ii. Characteristics

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

a. A lesson plan should be a working document that should be revised as changes occur or are needed
b. Unity – should be a unified segment of instruction
 No extraneous info not important to the objective
c. Content – Each lesson should contain new material, but it should be related to previous lessons
d. Scope – Each lesson should be reasonable in scope
 Keep the objectives realistic as a person can only master a few principles at a time
e. Practicality – Plan each lesson in terms of the conditions under which training is to be done
 Lesson plans in the airplane will differ from those in the classroom
 Also, the kinds/quantities of instructional aides available have a great influence
f. Flexibility – A degree of flexibility should be incorporate even though there is an outline
g. Relation to a Course of Training – Plan and teach each lesson so the relation to objectives is clear
 EX. A lesson on short field T/O and LDGs should be related to certification and safety objectives
h. Instructional Steps – Every lesson, when adequately developed, falls logically into the four steps of the
teaching process (Preparation, Presentation, Application, Evaluation)

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

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I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 6 & 9

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the critique and evaluation
as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Assessment
2. Critique
3. Assessment of Piloting Ability

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner can properly critique and evaluate learners using the methods and characteristics
Standards described.
 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The dreaded tests and awful instructor critiques, this is how you do it.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The critique refers to the instructor’s role as a critic, and the evaluation portion discusses creating and conducting
effective evaluations.

Why
The instructor must be able to appraise learner performance and convey this information back to the learner. Also,
throughout a course, and at the end of a course, a learner must be evaluated to measure and document whether the
course objectives have been met.

How:
1. Assessment
A. Purpose: To determine how a learner is progressing in the course
i. Provides practical and specific feedback to learners, including direction and guidance to raise performance
a. Highlights areas where a learner is lacking, helps the instructor see where more help is needed
ii. Provides an opportunity for self-evaluation and enhances aeronautical decision making and judgement skills
B. Characteristics of an Effective Assessment
i. Objective
a. Must be honest, and based on the facts of the performance as they were, not as they could have been
ii. Flexible
a. Performance must be examined in the context it was accomplished
b. Fit the tone, technique and content of the assessment to the occasion, as well as the learner
c. Allow for variables
d. The ongoing challenge for the instructor is deciding what to say, omit, stress, and minimize
iii. Acceptable
a. Confidence in the instructor’s qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence and authority make
an honest assessment acceptable to a learner
 The instructor’s manner, attitude, and familiarity with the subject play into the learner’s confidence
b. Present the critique fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of competence
iv. Comprehensive
a. Cover strengths AND weaknesses
b. What will provide the greatest benefit?
 A few major points or more minor points (tailor to the learner)
 Critique what needs improved most or only what can be reasonably expected to improve
v. Constructive
a. An assessment is pointless unless the learner benefits from it
b. When identifying a mistake or weakness, give positive guidance for correction
 Praise for its own sake, or negative comments that don’t point to improvement should be omitted

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 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

vi. Organized
a. Needs to follow some pattern of organization otherwise it may lose its impact
 Any pattern is acceptable as long as it is logical and makes sense to learner and instructor
b. Options include:
 The sequence of the performance itself
 Work backward from where the demonstration failed (or was successful)
 Break the whole into parts or build the parts into a whole
vii. Thoughtful
a. Reflects thoughtfulness toward the learner’s need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval
 Ridicule, anger, or fun at a learner’s expense have no place in a critique
b. While being straightforward and honest, always respect the learner’s personal feelings
viii. Specific (rather than general)
a. Learners cannot act on recommendations unless they know specifically what the recommendations are
 Tell the learner why something was not good and offer suggestions on how to improve
b. Learners should have no doubt what was good, and what was poor, and how they can improve
C. Traditional Assessment
i. Generally, refers to written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, fill in the blank, etc.
a. Measure of performance is limited, and a good grade may not reflect an ability to apply the knowledge
ii. Characteristics of a good test:
a. Reliability: Degree to which test results are consistent with repeated measurements
b. Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
c. Usability: Refers to the functionality of the test (legible, clear, easily graded, etc.)
d. Objectivity: Describes singleness of scoring of the test (i.e., doesn’t introduce subjectivity)
e. Comprehensiveness: Degree to which the test measures the overall objectives
f. Discrimination: Degree to which a test distinguishes the difference between learners
 Test designed for discrimination contains:
a Wide range of scores
b All levels of difficulty
c Items that distinguish between learners with differing levels of achievement of the objectives
D. Authentic Assessment
i. Asks a learner to perform real-world tasks and demonstrate a meaningful application of skill/competency
a. Learners must generate responses from their knowledge rather than choosing from options
ii. Learner-Centered Assessment
a. Four-step series of open-ended questions:
 Replay: verbally replay the flight or procedure
 Reconstruct: identify the things that could have been done differently
 Reflect: Reflect on the events to find insight
 Redirect: Relate the lessons learned to other experiences
b. Can then compare the instructor’s assessment with the learner’s self-assessment
c. Post assessment, progress is recorded on a rubric. Two broad rubrics are used:
 One that assesses proficiency on skill-focused maneuvers/procedures (Maneuver Grades)
 One that assesses proficiency on single-pilot resource management (Risk Management Skills)
iii. Maneuver or Procedure Grades
a. Describe: Learner can describe characteristics and elements but needs help executing the maneuver
b. Explain: Learner can describe the activity, its concepts, principles & procedures but needs help executing
c. Practice: Learner can plan and execute the scenario. Assistance corrects deviation and errors
d. Perform: Learner identifies/corrects errors & can perform the activity without instructor assistance

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 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

e. Not Observed: Not accomplished/required

iv. Assessing Risk Management Skills
a. Explain: Can identify, describe & understand risks, but needs prompted to identify risks/make decisions
b. Practice: Can identify, understand, and apply SRM principles; assistance corrects deviation & errors
c. Manage-Decide: Can gather the most important data, identify courses of action, evaluate risk in each
course of action, and make the appropriate decision; instructor intervention not required
E. Choosing an Effective Assessment Method
i. Determine level-of-learning objectives
a. State individual objectives as general, level-of-learning objectives
 Should measure one of the learning levels of the cognitive, affective, or psychomotor domains
ii. List indicators of desired behaviors
a. Samples of behavior that give the best indication the objective has been achieved
b. Behaviors need to be able to be measured
iii. Establish criterion (performance-based) objectives
a. State the behavior expected, conditions under which it is to be performed, and criteria that must be met
iv. Develop criterion-reference test items
a. Written Test Questions
 Questions should attempt to measure the behavior described in the criterion objectives
 Questions missed identify areas that were not adequately addressed
b. Performance Tests for Maneuvers
 Performance testing is desirable for evaluating training based on ACS/PTS standards
 Instructor’s job is to prepare the learner for the practical tests
a Evaluate the learner on all tasks before recommending them for the ACS/PTS practical test
F. Oral Assessment
i. Overview
a. Most common means of assessment
b. Questions are generally classified as fact questions (memory or recall) and HOT questions (analyze
situations, solve problems, arrive at conclusions)
c. Desirable results when done properly:
 Reveals the effectiveness of the training methods
 Checks learner retention of what has been learned
 Reviews material already presented to the learner
 Can be used to retain learner interest and stimulate thinking
 Emphasizes the important points of training
 Identifies points that need more emphasis
 Checks comprehension of what has been learned
 Promotes active learner participation, which is important to effective learning
ii. Effective Questions:
a. Apply to the subject of instruction
b. Brief and concise, but also clear and definite
c. Adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learners
d. Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, where, when, why, or how and not a combination)
e. Present a challenge to the learner
iii. Questions to Avoid
a. Yes / No questions have no place in effective quizzing
 Ex: “Do you understand?” / “Do you have any questions?”
b. Puzzle

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 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

c. Oversize
d. Toss-up
e. Bewilderment
f. Trick Questions
g. Irrelevant Questions
2. Critique
A. Purpose
i. An instructor-to-learner assessment
a. Used in conjunction with a traditional or authentic assessment
ii. Covers good/bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of individual parts & overall performance
B. Types
i. Instructor/Learner Critique
a. The instructor leads a group discussion in which members of a class offer criticism of a performance
 This should be controlled carefully and directed with a firm purpose (not a free-for-all)
b. It’s often beneficial (if the learner being critiqued approves) to allow other learners to sit in on post-
flight debriefs to learn from other’s mistakes/successes
ii. Learner Led Critique
a. A learner is asked to lead the assessment (instructor can provide structure, if necessary)
b. This can generate learner interest and learning, and be effective
iii. Small Group Critique
a. Small groups are assigned a specific area to analyze and present their findings on
 The combined reports can result in a comprehensive critique
iv. Individual Learner Critique by another Learner
a. Another learner is requested to present the entire assessment
 The instructor must maintain firm control over the process
v. Self-Critique
a. A learner critiques their own personal performance
b. Do not leave controversial issues unresolved, or erroneous impressions uncorrected
c. Make sure the learner realizes their mistakes
vi. Written Critique
a. 3 advantages:
 Instructor can devote more time and thought to it
 Learners can keep written assessments and refer to them whenever they wish
 The learner has a record of suggestions, recommendations, and opinions of all other learners
b. Disadvantage is that other members of the class do not benefit
C. Ground Rules
i. Do not extend the critique beyond its scheduled time limit and into time allotted for other activities
a. Point of diminishing returns is reached very quickly; no more than 10 – 15 min (Definitely < 30 min)
ii. Avoid trying to cover too much. Get the main points (4-5 things to correct at most)
iii. Allow time for a summary of the critique to reemphasize the most important things to remember
iv. Avoid absolute statements (most rules have exceptions)
v. Avoid controversies with the class and don’t take sides
vi. Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into defending criticism
vii. If part of the critique is written, ensure it is consistent with the oral portion
3. Assessment of Piloting Ability (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 9)
A. Overview
i. Essential part of the teaching process to determine how, what, and how well learning is occurring
ii. Provides learner something constructive to work or build on

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 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, & Testing

iii. Provides direction and guidance to raise performance

iv. Learner’s must understand the purpose of the assessment, otherwise little improvement will result
v. Can be used as a tool for reteaching
B. Demonstrated Ability
i. Assessment must be based on established standards of performance adjusted for the learner’s experience
C. Postflight Evaluation
i. Keep the learner informed of progress (done along with maneuvers or summarized postflight)
ii. Should be written
iii. With SBT, collaborative assessment is used when a scenario is completed
a. Learner self-assessment (leads to growth in thought process/behaviors) and full instructor assessment
D. Solo Flight
i. Ensure a positive, confidence building experience
ii. Instructor Presence
a. Be available to answer questions or resolve issues
b. Have access to a portable radio, if possible, to monitor and, terminate the solo if a situation arises
 Keep communication to a minimum, don’t talk on short final
iii. Debrief
a. Very important to debrief immediately after solo
 Answer questions, ensure correct flight procedures
E. Correction of Errors
i. Safety permitting, it’s often better to let learners progress part way into a mistake and find a way out
ii. Learners may perform a procedure correctly but not fully understand the principles/objectives
a. If suspected, require the learner vary the procedure slightly, combine it with another operation, or apply
the elements to the performance of another procedure
F. Practical Test Recommendations
i. Serious flight instructor responsibility
ii. Require learner to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge & skill required for the certificate/rating
a. Failure to ensure the learner meets the requirements is a serious deficiency in instructor performance
 FAA may hold the instructor responsible
Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

44
I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 8

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to flight instructor
characteristics and responsibilities as necessary in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities

2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
3. Qualifications & Professionalism
4. Professional Development

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the responsibilities associated with instructing as well as the
Standards characteristics related to being a professional.
 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
These are the characteristics that will make you a great flight instructor, and the responsibilities of being one.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson discusses the scope of responsibilities for instructors and enumerates methods they can use to enhance
their professional image and conduct.

Why
It is important that aviation instructors not only know how to teach, but they also need to project a knowledgeable
and professional image.

How:
1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
A. Helping Learners
i. Learning should be enjoyable and interesting
ii. Standards, and measurement against standards are key to helping learners
a. Learners need to see growth; people are proud of the successful achievement of difficult goals
B. Providing Adequate Instruction
i. Carefully and correctly analyze each learner’s personality, thinking, and ability
a. The same instruction may not be equally effective for each learner
ii. Incorrectly analyzing a learner may result in the instruction not producing the desired outcome
iii. Learners experiencing slow progress due to discouragement/lack of confidence should be assigned sub-goals
which are easier to attain than the normal learning goals
a. Complex lessons can be broken down, each element can be practiced, finishing with the full maneuver
b. As confidence and ability are gained, difficulty should be increased until progress is normal
iv. Fast learners may assume correcting errors is unimportant since they make few mistakes
a. This overconfidence may result in faulty performance
b. For such learners, constantly raise the standard of performance
v. Individuals learn when they are aware of their errors
a. But deficiencies should not be invented
C. Standards of Performance
i. Instructors fail to provide competent instruction when they permit their learners to get by with substandard
performance, or without thoroughly learning necessary knowledge
a. The instructor is responsible for instructing to the established standards in the ACS/PTS
ii. Accepting lower standards to please a learner doesn’t improve the learner-instructor relationship
a. An earnest learner does not resent reasonable standards that are fairly/consistently applied
D. Emphasizing the Positive
i. The way instructors conduct themselves, the attitudes displayed, and the manner instruction is developed
contribute to the formation of either positive or negative impressions by their learners
ii. Success depends on the ability to present instruction that develops a positive image of aviation

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 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

iii. Every reasonable effort should be made so instruction is given under the most favorable conditions
iv. Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results in positive learning
E. Minimizing Learner Frustration (Encourage, rather than discourage)
i. Motivate Learners
a. More can be gained from wanting to learn than being forced to learn
 When learners see the benefits or purpose of a lesson their enjoyment/efforts will increase
ii. Keep Learners Informed
a. Learners feel insecure when they don’t know what is expected or what will happen to them
 Tell learners what is expected of them and what they can expect in return
b. Keep learners informed by:
 Giving them an overview of the course, keeping them posted on progress and giving adequate
notice of exams, assignments, or other requirements
 Talk about money when necessary
iii. Approach Learners as Individuals – Each person has a unique personality that should be considered
iv. Give Credit When Due
a. Praise/credit from the instructor usually is ample reward and provides an incentive to do better
b. Praise pays dividends, but when given too freely it becomes valueless
v. Criticize Constructively
a. It is important to identify mistakes and failures
b. If the learner is briefed on the errors AND is told how to correct them, progress can be made
vi. Be Consistent
a. Learners have a keen interest in knowing what is required to please the instructor
b. The instructor’s philosophy and actions must be consistent to avoid learner confusion
vii. Admit Errors
a. Respect can be earned by honestly acknowledging mistakes
 No one is perfect. If in doubt, admit it
b. Covering up mistakes tends to destroy confidence
viii. Be Well Prepared (Over prepare)
a. Learners are spending a lot of money and deserve a well-prepared instructor
2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
A. Mold the learner into a safe pilot who takes a professional approach to flying
B. Be current and proficient in the aircraft & encourage each pilot to learn as much as possible
C. Physiological Obstacles for Flight Learners
i. Learners may react to negative factors – Do not ignore the factors or ridicule the learners
a. Fear of small aircraft, strange noises, G-forces/Motion sickness, etc.
ii. Negative sensations can often be overcome by understanding the nature of their causes
D. Ensuring Learner Skill Set
i. Responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to solo ops
a. By far the most important responsibility since the instructor is the only person in a position to make the
determination that a learner is ready for solo ops
ii. Before endorsing solo flight, the learner should display consistent ability to perform the maneuvers
a. The learner should also be capable of handling ordinary problems that might occur

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 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

iii. Provide adequate instruction for each item in the applicable ACS/PTS, including “special emphasis areas”
iv. Be current on the latest procedures regarding training, certification, and safety
v. Maintain a current library of information
E. Pilot Supervision & Surveillance
i. Instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance & restraint with respect to solo operations
ii. Does not stop at solo
a. Responsibility to train competent, safe, and smart pilots who will be an asset to the aviation community
b. Instill risk management and ADM, as well as good, safe habits, and recognize/remove bad habits
3. Qualifications & Professionalism
A. Qualifications
i. Be thoroughly familiar with the functions, characteristics, and use of all flight instruments/avionics/systems
ii. Maintain familiarity with current pilot training techniques and certification requirements
a. Frequent review of new periodicals/technical publications, personal contacts with FAA inspectors/DPE
b. Participate in pilot & instructor clinics and interact with veteran flight instructors
B. Professionalism
i. The instructor is the central figure in aviation training and bear responsibility for all phases of training. The
instructor needs to be professional

ii. Sincerity
a. Be straight forward and honest at all times
b. Do not attempt to hide some inadequacy behind a smokescreen or unrelated instruction
 Any façade can cause the learner to lose confidence and adversely affect learning
iii. Acceptance of the Learner
a. The instructor must accept all learners as they are, including all faults and problems
b. Under no circumstance should the instructor do something which implies degrading the learner
c. Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and support, rather than reproof, will encourage learning
iv. Personal Appearance and Habits
a. Instructors are expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed
 Attire worn should be to a professional status
b. Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional image
 Exercising common courtesy is perhaps the most important of these

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 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

a A rude, thoughtless, inattentive instructor cannot hold anyone’s respect

 Personal cleanliness is important as well (it can be distracting)
v. Demeanor
a. Attitude and behavior can contribute much to a professional image
 Requires development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor
b. Instruction is best done with a calm, pleasant, thoughtful approach putting the learner at ease
c. The instructor must constantly portray competence in the subject matter and genuine interest in the
learner’s well being
vi. Proper Language
a. Speak normally, without inhibitions, and speaks positively and descriptively, without profanity
4. Professional Development
A. Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications
and abilities, and are constantly alert for ways to improve their qualifications, effectiveness, and the services
they provide to learners
B. The instructor needs a steady supply of fresh material to make instruction interesting and up to date
i. Keep well informed with what is being written in current aviation publications
C. Continuing Education
i. Continually update knowledge and skill
ii. Government
a. FAA seminars, articles, regulations, ACs, etc.
b. Pilot Proficiency Awards Program
c. Gold Seal Flight Certificate
iii. Educational/Training Institutions (attend classes at community colleges, technical schools, etc.)
iv. Commercial Organizations (training material and training courses)
v. Industry Organizations (articles, publications, training programs)
D. Sources of Material
i. Maintain access to current flight publications (regulations, AIM, PTS, ACS, ACs, etc.)
ii. Commercial handbooks, periodicals, technical journals
5. Instructor Ethics & Conduct
A. A formal code of conduct/ethics promotes safety, good judgement, ethical behavior, and personal responsibility
i. Flight Instructors Model Code of Conduct (FIMCC) provides a vision to help instructors build relationships
with their learners
B. Remember you are teaching a pilot who should:
i. Make safety the #1 priority
ii. Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions
iii. Recognize and manage risk effectively
iv. Be accountable for their actions
v. Act with responsibility and courtesy
vi. Adhere to prudent operating practices and personal operating parameters
vii. Adhere to applicable laws and regulations
viii. Seek proficiency in control of the aircraft
ix. Use flight deck technology in a safe and appropriate way
x. Be confident in a wide variety of flight situations
xi. Be respectful of the privilege of flight

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

49
I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching (Risk Management & Accident Prevention)

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to managing and mitigating
risk.

Elements 1. Principles of Risk Management

2. Risk Management Process
3. Level of Risk
4. Assessing Risk
5. Mitigating Risk
6. Risk Management Tools
7. Teaching Risk Management
8. ADM, CRM, & SRM

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner can recognize potentially hazardous situations and effectively mitigate risk using
Standards the concepts and procedures listed here.
 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
We’re pilots, we like the rush of flight and the sense of danger. All FAA operations in the United States involve risk;
don’t let the risk and danger get out of control.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Risk management is a decision-making process designed to perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk
associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action.

Why
Flying is inherently dangerous, but there are ways to keep the danger to a minimum. This lesson will describe ways to
recognize and mitigate the risk involved with flying.

How:
1. Principles of Risk Management
A. The goal of risk management is to proactively identify safety-related hazards and mitigate the associated risks
B. Accept no Unnecessary Risk
i. Only accept the necessary risk
a. Flying is impossible without risk, do not make a situation more dangerous than necessary
C. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level
i. In single pilot situations, the pilot makes decisions (not ATC, or passengers)
ii. In other situations, it may be beneficial to “go up the ladder” for a decision
a. i.e. Talk to the chief pilot or experienced CFI about a potentially risky situation
D. Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs
i. Analyze costs and benefits, make an informed decision
E. Integrate Risk Management into Planning at All Levels
i. Safety requires risk management planning in all stages of flight
a. Plan early and throughout to avoid unnecessary, amplified risk
2. Risk Management Process
A. Step 1: Identify the Hazard
i. A hazard is any real or potential condition that can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, damage to or
loss of equipment or property
B. Step 2: Assess the Risk
i. Determine the level of risk associated with the identified hazards
a. Assess in terms of its likelihood (probability) and its severity (consequences)
ii. Develop a method to tangibly measure risk (Risk Assessment Matrix, below)
C. Step 3: Mitigate the Risk
i. Look into ways to reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk
ii. All risks have 2 components: Probability of occurrence & Severity of the hazard
a. Try to reduce or eliminate at least one component
iii. Use the Cost/Benefit analysis to decide if it is worth accepting the risk
3. Level of Risk

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

A. The level of risk posed by a given hazard is measured in terms of:

i. Severity (extent of possible loss)
ii. Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)
4. Assessing Risk
A. Pilots must differentiate in advance between a low risk flight and a high-risk flight
B. Establish a review process and develop strategies to minimize risk on the high and low risk flights
C. The Risk Matrix is a helpful risk assessment model
i. Assesses the likelihood of an event occurring and
the consequences of that event
a. Likelihood (probability of occurrence):
Probable, Occasional, Remote, Improbable
 i.e. Likelihood of a pilot flying MVFR to
encounter IFR conditions
b. Severity: Catastrophic, Critical, Marginal,
Negligible
 i.e. If pilot is not IFR rated how severe
could the consequences be
ii. High Likelihood/Severity is bad and vice versa
5. Mitigating Risk
A. After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to reduce the risk
i. Analyze options that can reduce unnecessary risk
a. i.e. Cancel/delay flight, bring CFI or more experienced pilot, etc.
B. By mitigating known risks to acceptable levels, pilots can complete their planned flights safely or ensure
alternate options when the flight cannot be accomplished
6. Risk Management Tools
A. PAVE Checklist
i. Another way to mitigate risk
ii. The risks of flight are divided into 4 categories
a. Once the risks have been identified, decide whether the risk or combination or risks can be managed
safely and successfully. If not, the flight should be cancelled
iii. Pilot in Command: Am I ready? (IMSAFE Checklist, proficiency, recency, currency, etc.)
iv. Aircraft: Is the aircraft appropriate for the trip?
a. Maintenance, Landing Distance, Performance Capabilities, Equipment, Fuel load, Altitude, etc.
v. EnVironment: Weather, Terrain, Airports, Airspace, Day/Night, etc.
vi. External Pressures: Influences outside of the flight that create pressure to complete the flight, often at the
expense of safety
a. This is the most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that can
cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk factors
b. Follow your own personal operating procedures (don’t bend the rules for anyone), plan for delays, and
manage passenger’s expectations to reduce external pressure
B. 5P Checklist
i. Used to evaluate the situation at key decision points during the flight, or when an emergency arises
a. Very helpful part of Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
b. Based on the idea that the pilot has five variables that impact the environment and lead to a decision
c. At least 5 times before & during the flight, review and consider the 5 P’s and make the appropriate
decision required by the current situation
 Decision points: Preflight, pre-takeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of flight, pre-descent, and just prior
to the final approach fix or entering the pattern

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

ii. 5 P’s:
a. Plan
 The mission. Contains: planning, weather, route, fuel, publication currency, etc.
 Always changing (weather changes, delays, restrictions, etc.), adjust with it
b. Plane
 Condition, abilities (performance, automation, database currency, etc.), equipment, systems, etc.
c. Pilot
 IMSAFE - Recognize and review your physiological situation
d. Passengers
 Passenger’s desires can influence decision making and risk management
a Plan ahead as much as possible
 Ensure passengers are involved in decision making process
a Ensure they understand risk involved in situations
1. i.e., IFR approach below minimums or takeoff with IFR below landing minimums
 Understand what passengers want to do
a They may be more risk averse than you
e. Programming
 Plan in advance when and where programming approaches/route changes, and airport information
gathering should be accomplished & should not be accomplished
 Familiarity with the equipment, route, local air traffic control environment, and personal capabilities
should drive when, where, and how the automation is programmed and used
C. Flight Risk Assessment Tools (FRAT)
i. Enables proactive hazard identification, is easy to use, and visually depicts risk
a. Variety of FRATs available
ii. Formal process using pen and paper to help remove personal desires and emotion from decision making
a. Determine an acceptable level of risk for flight based on type of operation, environment, aircraft, etc.
 Create realistic numerical thresholds (min of 3) that trigger additional levels of scrutiny, for example:
a Green (medium): Good to fly, mitigate risk as able
b Yellow (serious): Some risk needs to be reduced before departure
c Red (high): Do not fly until risk is reduced/mitigated
 Fixed list of hazards are scored based on severity
 When risk exceeds the acceptable level, reevaluate hazards and reduce risk
a If risk cannot be reduced, don’t fly
iii. National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) Flight Risk Assessment Tool
D. IMSAFE Checklist
i. Mitigate risk by determining your own physical and mental readiness for flight
a. Illness – Symptoms?
b. Medication – Taking any?
c. Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
d. Alcohol – Been drinking?
e. Fatigue – Well rested?
f. Emotion – Emotionally upset?
7. Teaching Risk Management
A. When & How
i. Most beneficial if RM is taught first (lesson 1) and then integrated into the rest of training (ground & flight)
ii. Should be included in all preflight and postflight briefings
a. Encourage learner participation and as experience increases, have the learner lead

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

iii. Include in recurrent, transition, flight reviews, IPCs, etc.

B. Teaching Techniques by Phase of Instruction
i. Private Pilot
a. Pre-Solo
 Part of every preflight & postflight brief
 Introduce a non-numerical FRAT and demo its use. Learner can conduct basic RM analysis by solo
b. Post-Solo to XC
 Perform risk analysis of planned flight with some help from instructor
 Instructor reviews RM prior to solo flight, and learner debriefs instructor on RM aspects of the flight
c. XC
 Learner masters RM techniques
 Learner completes a full risk analysis for every flight and reviews it with instructor
ii. Instrument
a. Emphasize broad risk management techniques to analyze/evaluate complex weather & other elements
 Ex: single engine plane or over terrain > SE service ceiling of a twin, night flight, low IMC, icing, etc.
iii. Transition
a. Employ scenarios emphasizing RM aspects of the new plane (performance, equipment, procedures, etc.)
b. Additionally, emphasize SRM skills (automation management, task/workload management, SA)
iv. Recurrent, Flight Reviews, IPCs
a. Very likely that it has been a while since the learner has been exposed to RM training
b. Use scenarios that mirror the pilot’s typical operating profile
v. Operational Flights
a. Encourage operational pilots to practice RM on all their flights
 Goal is to provide guidance allowing pilots to think of RM intuitively as part of every flight
b. Scale RM procedures to match the complexity of the flight
 Ex: For a local flight, use PAVE to brief major risk elements, for a complex flight, use a FRAT
vi. Professional Pilots
a. Most professional pilots encounter RM and more (TEM, CRM, etc.) training at their jobs
b. Emphasize RM factors specific to the training/flying outside of their job
 Ex. GA flying, airspace considerations, single-pilot operations, etc.
C. RM: Managing Risk during Flight Instruction
i. Overview
a. Same RM techniques as taught to learners apply to the instructor
b. Maintain SA of aircraft state, traffic, weather, airspace, and what the learner is doing/planning to do
ii. Common Risks
a. Identify risks using the PAVE acronym (Pilot, Aircraft, Environment, External Pressures)
iii. Best Practices
a. Follow RM procedures discussed in this lesson
b. Always include the learner in RM
 Instructor & learner are responsible for see & avoid, NOTAMs, TFRs, aircraft airworthiness, etc.)
c. PAVE
 Pilot: Be familiar with aircraft & avionics before instructing, IMSAFE, etc.
 Aircraft: Determine airworthiness, resolve any concerns (include the learner in the process)
 Environment: Emphasize precise risk assessment & mitigation with learner (terrain, weather, etc.)
 External: Be conscious of learner’s limitations, concerns & other factors that can affect performance
a Change the schedule, the plan (i.e., ground vs flight instruction), or end early as required
iv. Takeoff & Landing Considerations

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

a. Takeoff
 Time for an aircraft to begin the takeoff and start a climb is only a few seconds
a Not enough time to teach effectively
b Learner is focused on the takeoff and likely does not have the attention to listen and learn
c Majority of teaching should be done prior to contacting tower/advising CTAF of takeoff
 Imperative that the instructor creates realistic training scenarios
a Should mimic what the learner will encounter in real life
1. Short-field takeoff: Specify where an imaginary obstacle exists
b Don’t create unnecessary hazards (ex. unsafe climb rates or pitch attitudes)
 Be aware of and adjust for other aircraft
a Wake turbulence, in-trail spacing and separation from other aircraft
b. Landing
 Don’t teach landings mechanically
a Instead, convey problems & solutions based on the specific approach
b Teach the learner to adjust based on the aircraft, environment, conditions, and performance
 Teach when the student can listen and absorb
a Landing can require high concentration and increased stress
b Use concise prompting on approach to landing to fix/teach
 Certain landings present unique risks
a Be aware of the associated risks
1. Strong crosswinds, low approach speeds for short fields, anything reducing safety margins
b Anticipate potential landing errors and risks based on the maneuver
8. RM: Obstacles to Maintaining SA
A. Distraction
i. Contributing factor in many accidents
ii. Minor problem can result in neglecting proper control of the aircraft
iii. Divide attention – flying always comes first
B. Fatigue
i. Impairs alertness and performance
ii. Two major phenomena: Sleep loss & circadian rhythm disruption
iii. Normal response to many flight operation conditions
a. Low pressure, humidity, noise, and vibration makes pilot susceptible to sleep fatigue
iv. Only effective treatment is sleep
C. Complacency
i. Overconfidence from repeated experience
ii. Reduces effectiveness in the flight deck
iii. Difficult to recognize
a. Be especially alert to complacency in learners with significant experience
b. Advanced avionics can promote complacency and inattention
iv. Exercises to recognize complacency and situational awareness
a. Ask about positions of other aircraft in the pattern, instrument indications, and the aircraft’s location in
relation to references
b. Focus the learner’s attention on an imaginary problem
 Point out that SA is not being maintained if the learner diverts too much attention from other tasks
9. ADM, CRM, & SRM
A. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

i. A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances
ii. Teaching pilots to make sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents
a. It is estimated that approximately 80% of all aviation accidents are a result of human factors
iii. Decision Making Process
a. Define the Problem
 Recognize a change has occurred or an expected change did not occur
 Critical error: Incorrectly defining the problem
a Attempting to solve a problem that may not exist or be the cause of the change
b Wastes time and energy and distracts from flying
 Choose a Course of Action
a Evaluate the need to react, determine actions to resolve the situation in the time available
b Consider the expected outcome of each action and associated risks
 Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome
B. Factors Affecting Decision Making
i. RM: Hazardous Attitudes
a. Attitude affects the quality of decisions
 5 hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions
a Contribute to poor judgement
 Recognizing is the first step to neutralizing these attitudes
a Once recognizing a thought as hazardous, label it as hazardous and state the antidote
b. Attitudes & Antidotes

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

ii. Stress Management

a. Learning to cope with stress is an effective ADM tool
b. A certain amount of stress is good – keeps you alert and prevents complacency
 Stress is cumulative, too much can amount to an intolerable burden
 Performance increases with the onset of stress, peaks, then falls rapidly as stress gets too high
c. Stressors can increase risk of error
 Physical: Associated with the environment (temperature, noise, vibration, lack of oxygen)
 Physiological: Physical conditions (fatigue, lack of physical fitness, missed meals)
 Psychological: Social or emotional factors (divorce, death in the family, sick child)
d. Recognize when stress is affecting a learner
 Seems distracted or has a difficult time accomplishing the tasks
 Try to determine the cause (doesn’t have to be specific, could be a private matter)
 To help learners, instructors can recommend actions
a Have them self-assess then set realistic goals - Delay training, if necessary
b Put the learner and their progress first
C. Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM) / Crew Resource Management (CRM)
i. What is it?
a. How to gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
b. Application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment
 Includes all groups working with the flight crew involved in decisions to operate a flight safely
a Pilots, dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance, ATC
ii. Use of Resources
a. Use all available resources
 Think outside the box
b. Internal Resources
 Found in the flight deck during flight
a Equipment, systems, charts, books, etc.
b Ingenuity, knowledge, and skill
c Other passengers (even if they are not pilots)
c. External Resources
 ATC and flight service specialists
a Traffic advisories, vectors, weather info, emergency assistance
d. Workload Management
 Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
 Prepare for high workload situations
a Don’t wait until you’re in the situation
b i.e., prepare for the approach before it begins
 Be able to recognize high workloads
a Faster paced work along with divided attention
b Stay ahead as much as possible to prevent high workloads
c Manage tasks in order of importance when behind
iii. 5 P’s Check, as discussed is a very helpful to (SRM)

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is extremely important that a pilot (especially a learner pilot) can recognize and effectively mitigate risk to provide a
safe flight. This chapter provided many factors to consider and ways to reduce the inherent risk associated with flying.

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II. Technical Subject Areas
II.A. Human Factors

References:
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25); Chapter 17 pgs. 1-19
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) Chapter5 pg. 3
AIM – Chapter 8

Objectives The student exhibits knowledge regarding aeromedical factors as required in the PTS/ACS.

Key Elements 1. IM SAFE – Self Checklist

2. Trust the instruments
3. Carbon Monoxide is 200x more likely to bond with blood than oxygen

1. Hypoxia
Elements 2. Hyperventilation
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
4. Spatial Disorientation
5. Motion Sickness
6. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
7. Fatigue and Stress
8. Dehydration
9. Hypothermia
10. Optical Illusions
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
12. Alcohol and Other Drugs
13. ADM, CRM, & SRM

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to explain different aeromedical factors, and their importance to
Standards flying and possible effects during flight.
 II.A. Human Factors

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Safety in the aircraft requires knowledge of the factors that can lead to negative consequences if we were unaware or
unable to treat them. Hypoxia, for example, can result in symptoms of euphoria and the inability to make any sort of
rational decision, which is obviously not a good thing while you’re trying to fly a plane. (There are many good
hyperbaric chamber/hypoxia videos on you tube)

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Aeromedical factors involve a number of health and physiological factors that can influence a pilot and his or her
ability to fly safely. Some are minor, while others require special attention to ensure safety and survival.

Why
Many of these factors not only affect the health and well-being of the pilot but can quickly lead to in-flight
emergencies.

How:
1. Hypoxia
A. Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen”
i. The greatest concern is getting oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to oxygen deprivation
ii. Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including:
a. An insufficient supply of oxygen
b. Inadequate transportation of oxygen
c. Inability of the body tissues to use oxygen
B. Hypoxic Hypoxia
i. A result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs
ii. A blocked airway or drowning are examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen
iii. For Pilots: The reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude is a common example
a. Partial Pressure: amount of pressure that a single gas (out of a mixture) contributes to the total pressure
iv. Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant with changes in altitude, partial pressure
decreases as altitude increases
a. As you ascend, the percentage of each gas remains the same, but the molecules no longer have the
pressure required to drive oxygen into the respiratory system
b. The decrease of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure leads to hypoxic hypoxia
C. Hypemic Hypoxia
i. Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport sufficient oxygen to the cells in the body
ii. Hypemic means “not enough blood”
iii. This type of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood
iv. Possible Causes:
a. Not enough blood volume
 Can be caused by severe bleed or blood donation
b. Certain blood diseases, such as anemia

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 II.A. Human Factors

c. Hemoglobin, the molecule that transports oxygen, is unable to bind oxygen molecules
d. Carbon monoxide poisoning
D. Stagnant Hypoxia
i. Stagnant means “not flowing;” stagnant hypoxia results when the oxygen rich blood in the lungs isn’t
moving to the tissues that need it
a. Ex. An arm or leg “falling asleep” because the blood flow has been restricted
ii. This type of hypoxia can result from:
a. Shock
b. The heart failing to pump blood effectively
c. A constricted artery
iii. During flight, stagnant hypoxia can occur when pulling excessive positive Gs
iv. Cold temperatures can also decrease the blood supplied to extremities
E. Histotoxic Hypoxia
i. The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen
a. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “Toxic” means poison
ii. In this case, oxygen is being transported to the cells, but they are unable to use it
iii. Causes:
a. Alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics and poison
b. Drinking an ounce of alcohol is equivalent to an additional 2,000’ of altitude
F. Symptoms of Hypoxia
i. The first symptoms are euphoria and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, the extremities
become less responsive and flying becomes less coordinated.
ii. As it worsens, vision narrows, concentration and instrument interpretation become difficult
iii. Common symptoms include:
a. Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
b. Headache
c. Decreased reaction time
d. Impaired judgment
e. Euphoria
f. Visual Impairment
g. Drowsiness
h. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
i. Tingling in fingers or toes
j. Numbness
iv. Even with all of these symptoms, the effects of hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of security
and be deceived into believing that everything is normal (euphoria)
G. Useful Consciousness
Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness
i. Describes the maximum time the pilot has
to make rational, lifesaving decisions and 45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
carry them out at a given altitude without 40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
supplemental oxygen 35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
ii. Above 10,000 ft., symptoms increase in 30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
severity, and time of useful consciousness 28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
rapidly decreases 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
H. Treatment 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
i. Flying at lower altitudes (Emergency 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more
Descent)
ii. Use supplemental oxygen immediately

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 II.A. Human Factors

I. FAA Physiology Training – One day course in OK. Altitude chamber and vertigo demonstrations
i. Experiencing and witnessing the effects of hypoxia can be very helpful to recognizing its onset
2. Hyperventilation
A. Occurs when experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and depth increase
i. Result is an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness while the
respiratory system attempts to override your actions and regain control of breathing
B. Pilots encountering a stressful situation may unconsciously increase their breathing rate
i. At higher altitudes, with or without oxygen, a pilot may have a tendency to breathe more rapidly than
normal, which can lead to hyperventilation
C. Hyperventilation symptoms are similar to hypoxia so it’s important to treat the proper condition
D. Common Symptoms:
i. Visual Impairment
ii. Unconsciousness
iii. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
iv. Tingling sensations
v. Hot and cold sensations
vi. Muscle spasms
E. Treatment
i. Involves restoring the proper carbon dioxide level in the body
ii. If using supplemental oxygen, check the equipment and flow rate to ensure it’s not hypoxia
a. If unsure, hypoxia is the more threatening situation and should be treated
iii. Breathing normally is the best prevention and the best cure for hyperventilation
iv. Breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps
v. Recovery is usually rapid once breathing is returned to normal
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
A. Middle Ear Problems
i. Explanation
a. Difference between the outside air pressure and the air inside the middle ear and nasal sinuses
b. The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of the skull
 Normally, the pressure differences are equalized by the Eustachian Tube
a A tube leading from inside each ear to the back of the throat on each side
b Tubes are usually closed, but open with chewing, yawning or swallowing to equalize pressure
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain is the primary indicator
 Large pressure differences can lead to excessive pain and eardrum damage
b. Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity
iii. Relation to flying
a. Climb: Eardrum bulges outward as pressure in the eustachian tube remains the same while outside air
pressure decreases, resulting in discomfort
b. Descent: Eardrum bulges inward causing discomfort as outside pressure increases while pressure in the
Eustachian tube remains at altitude
c. Excessive pressure in either situation can result in pain and a ruptured ear drum
iv. Treatment
a. If minor, chew gum or stretch the jaw to attempt to equalize pressure
b. Pinch the nostrils, close the mouth, and blow slowly and gently in the mouth and nose
 Forces air into the Eustachian tube allowing the pressure to equalize
 May not be possible to equalize the pressure with a cold, an ear infection, or sore throat

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 Be cautious in a climb, forcing air into the Eustachian tube can add more pressure and force the
eardrum farther outward leading to increased pain
c. If experiencing minor congestion, nose drops or nasal sprays may reduce painful ear blockage
B. Sinus Problems
i. Explanation
a. Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the pressure in the cockpit through small openings that
connect the sinuses to the nasal passages
b. An upper respiratory infection (cold or sinusitis) or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough
congestion to slow equalization
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain over the sinus area (pain can become excessive)
b. Some sinus blocks can make the upper teeth ache
c. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages
iii. Relation to flying
a. As the difference in pressure increases, congestion may plug the sinus’ openings
b. “Sinus block” occurs most frequently during descents
iv. Treatment
a. Use slow descent rates
b. Do not fly with sinus problems
4. Spatial Disorientation
A. Explanation
i. Orientation: The awareness of the position of the aircraft and of oneself in relation to a specific reference
point
ii. Spatial Disorientation refers to the lack of orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement of
the airplane in space
iii. The body uses three systems to ascertain orientation and movement in space
a. Visual: The eye, by far the largest source of information
b. Somatosensory: Nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with hearing, sense position based on
gravity, feeling, and sound
c. Vestibular System: A very sensitive motion sensing system located in the inner ears
 Reports head position, orientation, and movement in 3-dimensional space
iv. When all 3 systems agree you have a clear idea of where and how the body is moving
a. When they don’t agree is when you become disoriented
B. Relation to flight
i. Flying can result in conflicting information being sent to the brain, leading to disorientation
ii. Visual System (eyes)
a. Flight in VMC
 Eyes are the major orientation system and can usually prevail over false sensations
b. Flight in IMC
 Without visual cues, the eyes can’t correct for false sensations which leads to disorientation
iii. Vestibular System (inner ear)
a. Allows the pilot to sense movement and determine orientation in the surrounding environment
b. Two major parts: Semicircular Canals and Otolith Organs
c. Semicircular Canals
 Explanation
a Detect angular acceleration
b Three tubes at right angles to each other (one on each axis)
c Each canal is filled with Endolymph Fluid

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d In the center of the canal is the cupola

1. Gelatinous structure resting on sensory hairs at the end of the vestibular nerves

 How they work: In a Turn

a Turn Detection
1. Unaccelerated, Straight & Level Flight
a. Hair cells are upright, and the brain doesn’t sense a turn
2. Turning Flight
a. Semicircular canal and its fluid are put into motion
b. Fluid lags behind the canal walls
c. Canal wall and cupola move in the opposite
direction of the fluid
d. Brain interprets the hair movement as a turn
b Only detects turns of a short duration
1. After about 20 seconds, the fluid catches up with
the canal walls and the hairs are no longer bent
(unaccelerated, straight & level flight)
2. Hairs detect no relative movement so the
sensation of turning ceases
3. Returning to straight-and-level flight, the fluid
moves in the opposite direction
4. Falsely interpreted as a turn in the opposite
direction
a. To correct for this, the pilot reenters the
original turn
c Demonstration: Establish a 30o bank turn, tell the
student to close their eyes and let you know when
the aircraft is flying straight. Try it again, but this
time once they believe the aircraft is straight, roll out of the bank. The student will feel like the
aircraft is turning in the opposite direction.
d. Otolith Organs
 Explanation
a Detect linear acceleration/gravity
b A gelatinous membrane containing chalk like crystals covers the sensory hairs

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c When you tilt your head, the weight of the crystals

causes the membrane to shift due to gravity and
sensory hairs detect the shift
 Acceleration
a Forward acceleration gives the illusion of the head
tilting backward and deceleration gives the illusion of
the head tilting forward
iv. Somatosensory System (nerves)
a. Nerves in the body’s skin, muscles, and joints constantly send
signals to the brain which signals the body’s relation to gravity
 Ex. Acceleration will be felt as the pilot is pushed back into the seat
b. False Sensations
 Forces created in turns can lead to false sensations of the direction of gravity
a The brain cannot differentiate between the forces of a turn and the force of gravity
 Turbulence can create motions that confuse the brain
 Fatigue or illness can exacerbate these sensations
C. Countering the sensations
i. Recognize the problem, disregard the false sensations, and rely totally on the flight instruments
ii. Understand the problem and control the aircraft using only instrument indications
5. Motion Sickness
A. Cause
i. Caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body
ii. Anxiety and stress also affect motion sickness
B. Symptoms
i. General discomfort
ii. Nausea
iii. Dizziness
iv. Paleness
v. Sweating
vi. Vomiting
C. Treatment
i. Open fresh air vents
ii. Focus on objects outside the airplane
iii. Avoid unnecessary head movement
iv. Take control of the aircraft and fly smooth, straight and level
a. Letting someone else fly can make the situation worse
v. Usually goes away after a few flight lessons
a. More used to flying and stress/anxiety are reduced
6. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
A. How it Happens – In the Plane
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines
ii. If the exhaust system is damaged or leaking, heat/defrost vents can provide CO a way into the cabin
B. How it Happens – In the Body
i. CO attaches itself to the hemoglobin in the blood
a. It does this about 200 times easier than oxygen
b. CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells resulting in Hypemic Hypoxia
ii. Can take up to 48 hours for the body to dispose of CO
iii. If severe enough, CO poisoning can result in death

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C. Effects of CO poisoning
i. Headache
ii. Blurred vision
iii. Dizziness
iv. Drowsiness
v. Loss of muscle power
D. Detecting and Correction
i. Disposable, inexpensive CO detectors are widely available
ii. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume CO is present
a. CO may be present in dangerous amounts even if no exhaust odor is detected
iii. If exhaust odor is noticed or symptoms are experienced, immediate actions should be taken
a. Turn off the heater
b. Open fresh air vents and windows
c. Use supplemental oxygen, if available
d. Land
7. Fatigue and Stress
A. Fatigue
i. Effects
a. Degradation of attention and concentration
b. Impaired coordination
c. Decreased ability to communicate
ii. Causes
a. Sleep loss
b. Exercise
c. Physical work
d. Stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue
iii. Categories of Fatigue (Acute and Chronic)
a. Acute Fatigue (short term)
 Definition
a Short term, and a normal occurrence in everyday life
b Tiredness felt after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep
 Skill Fatigue – A special type of acute fatigue affecting piloting skill. Effects include:
a Timing Disruption
1. Appearing to perform a normal task, but the timing of each component is slightly off
2. Pattern of operation is less smooth as each component is performed as a separate part
instead of part of a single, integrated activity
b Disruption of the perceptual field
1. Concentrating attention upon movements or objects in the center of vision and neglecting
those in the periphery
2. May be accompanied by a loss of accuracy/smoothness in control movements
 Causes
a Mild hypoxia
b Physical stress
c Psychological stress
d Depletion of physical energy resulting from psychological stress
e Sustained psychological stress
 Prevention
a Proper diet

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1. Prevents the body from having to consume its own tissues as an energy source
b Adequate rest and sleep
1. Maintains the body’s store of vital energy
2. The difference between flying fatigued and rested can be night and day,
b. Chronic Fatigue
 Definition
a Fatigue extending over a long period of time
b Usually has psychological roots, an underlying disease is sometimes responsible
 Causes
a Continuous high-stress levels produce chronic fatigue
 Symptoms
a Weakness
b Tiredness
c Palpitations of the heart
d Breathlessness
e Headaches
f Irritability
g Stomach or intestinal problems (rare)
h Generalized aches and pains throughout the body
i Emotional Illness (when conditions become serious enough)
 Prevention
a Usually requires treatment by a physician
iv. Prevention
a. If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground
b. Fatigue in the cockpit cannot be overcome through training or experience
c. Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue
 Avoid flying
a Without a full night’s rest
b After working excessive hours
c After an especially exhausting or stressful day
d. Suspected chronic fatigue should be treated by a physician
B. Stress
i. Body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it
ii. Body’s Reaction
a. Releasing chemical hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood
b. Increasing metabolism to provide more energy to the muscles
c. Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration all increase
iii. Stressors (elements that cause an individual to experience stress)
a. Physical stress (noise or vibration)
b. Physiological stress (fatigue)
c. Psychological stress (difficult work or personal situations)
iv. Categories of Stress (Acute and Chronic)
a. Acute Stress (short term)
 Involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger
 The type of stress that triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual
 Normally, a healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload
 On-going acute stress can develop into chronic stress

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v. Chronic Stress (long term)

a. Presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability to cope, causes performance to fall sharply
b. Causes
 Unrelenting psychological pressures
a Ex. Loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or work problems
c. Do not fly. Consult a physician
8. Dehydration
A. Definition
i. Critical loss of water from the body
B. Causes
i. Hot flight decks/flight lines, wind, humidity, diuretic drinks (coffee, tea, alcohol, caffeinated soda)
C. Effects
i. First noticeable effect is fatigue
a. Top physical and mental performance is difficult, if not impossible
ii. Headache, cramps, tingling, sleepiness, and dizziness
D. How it affects flying
i. Hot temperatures and high altitudes increase susceptibility to dehydration
a. Dry air at altitude increases the body’s rate of water loss
ii. Fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling hands & feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme
thirst
iii. Attention is taken from flying and skills diminish
E. Prevention
i. Carry an ample supply of water (recommended to drink 2 quarts of water per day)
a. Stay ahead – don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink
ii. Wear light colored, porous clothing and a hat
iii. Keep the cockpit well ventilated
iv. Limit caffeine and alcohol intake
9. Hypothermia
A. How it Happens
i. The body loses heat faster than it can be produced
a. Normal body temperature is 98.6o F (37o C), hypothermia occurs below 95o F (35o C)
ii. Mechanisms of heat loss
a. Radiated heat: Most heat loss is due to heat radiated from unprotected parts of the body
b. Direct contact: In contact with something very cold, heat is conducted away from the body
 Heat is lost much faster in cold water than cold air
 Heat loss if much faster if clothes are wet
c. Wind: Carries away the thin layer of warm air at the surface of your skin
B. Causes
i. Clothes that aren’t warm enough for the weather
ii. Too much time in the cold
iii. Falling into cold water
iv. Unable to get out of wet clothes or move to a warm, dry location
C. Symptoms
i. Shivering
ii. Slurred speech or mumbling
iii. Slow, shallow breathing
iv. Weak pulse
v. Clumsiness

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vi. Drowsiness
vii. Confusion or memory loss (can prevent the person from knowing they have hypothermia)
viii. Bright red, cold skin
D. Prevention (COLD)
i. Cover: Wear protective clothing
a. Cover your head, face, and neck. Wear mittens instead of gloves
ii. Overexertion
a. Avoid activities that result in a lot of sweat
b. Wet clothing + cold weather causes body heat to be lost more quickly
iii. Layers
a. Loose fitting, layered, lightweight clothing
b. Wool, silk or polypropylene inner layers hold heat better than cotton
c. Tightly woven, water repellent material is best for wind protection
iv. Dry
a. Stay dry – get out of wet clothing as soon as possible
10. Optical Illusions
A. Runway Width Illusion
i. Reason
a. A narrower than usual runway
b. A wider than usual runway
ii. Illusion
a. Narrow: Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
b. Wide: Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a lower altitude than it actually is
iii. Result
a. Narrow: The pilot who doesn’t recognize this will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects
along the approach path or landing short
b. Wide: the pilot who doesn’t recognize this will fly a higher approach, with the risk of leveling out high
and landing hard or overshooting the runway
B. Runway and Terrain Slope Illusion
i. Reason
a. An up-sloping runway, up sloping terrain, or both
b. A down sloping runway, down sloping terrain, or both
ii. Illusion
a. Upslope: Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it is
b. Downslope: Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a lower altitude than it is
iii. Result
a. Upslope: The pilot who does not recognize this will fly a lower approach
b. Downslope: The pilot who does not recognize this will fly a higher approach
C. Featureless Terrain Illusion
i. Reason
a. An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made
featureless by snow
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
iii. Result
a. The pilot who doesn’t recognize this will fly a lower approach
D. Atmospheric Illusions
i. Reason

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a. Rain on the windscreen

b. Atmospheric Haze
c. Penetration of fog
ii. Illusion
a. Rain - Can create the illusion of greater height
b. Atmospheric Haze: Can create the illusion of being a greater distance from the runway
c. Penetration of Fog: Can create the illusion of pitching up
iii. Result
a. Rain & Haze: The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach
b. Fog: The pilot who does not recognize this will steepen the approach, often quite abruptly
E. Ground Lighting Illusions
i. Reason: Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on moving trains
ii. Illusions: Can create the illusion of runway and approach lights
iii. Result: The pilot may attempt to land on a path, road, or train
iv. Reason: Bright runway and approach lighting systems
v. Illusion: Can create the illusion of less distance to the runway
a. Especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain
vi. Result: The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach
F. Preventing Landing Illusions
i. Anticipate them during approaches
ii. Aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing
iii. Using glide slope or VASI/PAPI systems whenever possible
iv. Maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
A. Why it’s a Danger
i. Scuba diving results in a significant increase in the amount of nitrogen dissolved in the body
a. The deeper the dive, the greater the nitrogen
ii. At sea level, the nitrogen inside and outside the body is in equilibrium
iii. When atmospheric pressure is reduced, nitrogen leaves the body
iv. If the nitrogen leaves too quickly, bubbles may form causing a variety of symptoms
a. Bubbles can form in the bloodstream, spinal cord or brain
b. Symptoms include impairment or severe pain - extreme cases can result in death
B. Scuba Diving and Flying
i. If enough time isn’t provided, DCS can occur as low as 5,000’ and create an in-flight emergency
a. In normal conditions, most cases of DCS occur at altitudes of 25,000’ or higher
ii. Wait at least 12 hrs. after a dive not requiring a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
a. 24 hrs. for flight above 8,000’
iii. Wait at least 24 hrs. after a dive that requires a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
iv. If a decompression occurs, DCS symptoms can be brought on quickly
12. Alcohol and Other Drugs
A. DON’T drink and fly
i. Even in small amounts, alcohol can impair judgement, decrease sense of responsibility, affect coordination,
constrict visual field, diminish memory, reduce reasoning ability, lower attention span
a. Altitude multiplies the effects of alcohol on the brain
b. Alcohol interferes with the brains ability to utilize oxygen (form of histotoxic hypoxia)
ii. A hangover can impair anyone attempting to fly
iii. FAR 91.17 – 8 hrs. ‘from bottle to throttle’ (8 hrs. and not feeling the effects of alcohol is better)
a. Considerable amounts of alcohol can remain in the body for over 16 hours – be cautious

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B. Medications
i. FAR 61.53 (Prohibition on operations during medical deficiency) prohibits flying if you:
a. Are taking medication/receiving treatment that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
ii. FAR 91.17 prohibits use of drugs affecting a person’s faculties in any way contrary to safety
iii. Medication can absolutely affect pilot performance
a. Side effects can impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, can cause confusion,
dizziness, headaches, nausea, mood swings, anxiety, balance problems, hearing problems, etc.
b. Drugs that cause no apparent side effects on the ground can create serious problems airborne
iv. Basically: Do not fly while taking any medication(s), unless approved by the FAA
13. ADM, CRM, & SRM
A. RM: Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
i. Human factors can present significant, distractions, disorientation, and an inability to manage tasks
a. The pilot must perform an honest evaluation of themselves prior to flight
 IMSAFE:
a Illness – Symptoms?
b Medication – Taking any?
c Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
d Alcohol – Been drinking?
e Fatigue – Well rested?
f Emotion – Emotionally upset?
ii. In flight, be alert to factors that can affect performance and lead to disorientation, etc.
iii. RM: Combat expectation bias
a. Your expectations can influence behavior
b. Individuals are vulnerable to thinking they see (or hear) what they expect to see (or hear)
c. Don’t assume everything will be OK, because it’s always been OK
d. If something doesn’t feel right (i.e., hypoxia symptoms), take action
B. Stress Management
i. Learning to cope with stress is an effective ADM tool
ii. A certain amount of stress is good – keeps you alert and prevents complacency
a. Stress is cumulative, too much can amount to an intolerable burden
b. Performance increases with the onset of stress, peaks, then falls rapidly as stress gets too high
iii. Stressors can increase risk of error
a. Physical: Associated with the environment (temperature, noise, vibration, lack of oxygen)
b. Physiological: Physical conditions (fatigue, lack of physical fitness, missed meals)
c. Psychological: Social or emotional factors (divorce, death in the family, sick child)
iv. Recognize when stress affect performance
C. RM: Hazardous Attitudes
i. Attitude affects the quality of decisions
a. 5 hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions
 Contribute to poor judgement
b. Recognizing is the first step to neutralizing these attitudes
 Once recognizing a thought as hazardous, label it as hazardous and state the antidote

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ii. Attitudes & Antidotes

D. Use all Resources

i. Use all available resources – Don’t depend solely on yourself
ii. Internal Resources
a. Equipment (autopilot, GPS, etc.), systems, charts, books, etc.
b. Ingenuity, knowledge, and skill
c. Other passengers (even if they are not pilots)
iii. External Resources
a. ATC, FSS, Guard, etc. (Traffic advisories, vectors, weather info, emergency assistance)
iv. Workload Management
a. Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
b. Prepare for high workload situations
 Don’t wait until you’re in the situation (i.e., prepare for the approach before it begins)
c. Be able to recognize high workloads
 Faster paced work along with divided attention
 Stay ahead as much as possible to prevent high workloads
 Manage tasks in order of importance when behind
 “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing/threatening issue

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
There are many factors a pilot needs to be aware of to ensure a safe flight and to understand the medical risks involved
with flying. Recognize conditions and symptoms associated with physiological issues and take action to maintain safety,
whether that means supplemental oxygen, trusting the instruments, or diverting and landing as soon as possible.

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II.B. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance

References:
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) (Chapter 1 pgs. 10-12)
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) (Chapter 14 pgs. 28-30, 17 pgs. 7-8
AIM Chapter 8-1-8
Pilot’s Role in Collision Avoidance (AC 90-48)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper visual scanning and
collision threat avoidance. The student also will have knowledge regarding in flight and landing
illusions as well as how to avoid trusting them.

Key Elements 1. “See and Avoid”

2. Clearing Procedures
3. Trust Your Instruments

Elements 1. “See and Avoid”

2. Proper Visual Scanning
3. Collision Risks
4. Clearing Procedures
5. Recognizing Hazards
6. Collision Avoidance
7. Conditions that Degrade Vision
8. Illusions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign Next Study Material

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the importance of maintaining a vigilant traffic scan and consistently
Standards scans for traffic. In the onset of an illusion the student understands the illusion and maintains
safe flight.
 II.B. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
AC 90-48C Appendix 1:
How much time do you think you would have to react if two planes were approaching each other at 360 mph from 10
miles out? 100 seconds
How about from 4 miles? 40 seconds
1 mile? 10 seconds
½ Mile? 5 seconds
What if the planes were approaching at 600 MPH? 12 seconds from 2 miles; 3 seconds from ½ mile
You can see that it’s very important that we look out for other traffic.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Visual scanning and collision avoidance is the ability to effectively scan the sky for potential collision threats.

Why
Safety. Visual scanning and collision avoidance is very important in creating safe skies. A diligent visual scan to avoid
collision threats is paramount to the safety of all pilots.

How:
1. “See and Avoid” (FAR 91.113, AC 90-48)
A. Flight rules prescribed in FAR part 91 set forth the concept of “See and Avoid”
B. The Concept
i. Vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by each person operating an aircraft, regardless of whether the
operation is conducted under IFR or VFR
ii. Although the task of avoiding other aircraft is often a shared job, the pilot is always responsible to see and
avoid traffic (never rely entirely on ATC for collision avoidance)
2. Proper Visual Scanning (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Remain constantly alert to all traffic movement within the field of vision, as well as periodically scanning the
entire visual field to ensure detection of conflicting traffic
B. Effective scanning
i. Only a very small area, the fovea, can send a clear, focused image to the brain (center of vision)
a. This is during daylight, at night, vision works differently
b. All other visual information not processed directly through the fovea will be of less detail
ii. Effective scan: short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas in the central visual field
a. Each movement should not exceed 10o and each area should be observed for at least 1 second
iii. Peripheral Vision
a. Can be very useful in spotting collision threats
 Apparent movement is often detected by the peripherals
b. Visual search at night depends almost entirely on the peripherals
 The fovea is very good in the daylight, but doesn’t see well at night, your peripheral vision is much
better at night and thus is primary in detecting traffic in the dark

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 Fovea is essentially a blind spot at night. Looking approximately 10o below, above, or to either side
of an object can compensate for the fovea’s inability to see at night
iv. RM: Relaxed Intermediate Focal Distance
a. In a featureless sky (nothing to focus on), eyes revert to a relaxed intermediate focal distance (10-30’)
 Means you are looking without actually seeing anything
b. To be most effective, shift glances and refocus at intervals
v. Realize that eyes take a few seconds to refocus when switching between instruments and distant objects
C. Poor visual scanning and/or a lack of visual scanning increases the risk of midair collisions
i. Remember, most midair collisions, and near midair collision occur during VFR weather and daylight
D. RM: Distractions to Visual Scanning
i. Imperative to fly based on outside references with short glances inside (90% outside, 10% inside)
a. Allows the pilot to continue scanning
ii. Distractions can include:
a. Flight instruments, moving map and their numerous features, Heads down activities (chart reading,
checklists, cell phones, etc.), people, automation, etc.
3. Collision Risks
A. RM: High Traffic Areas (high volume operational environments)
i. Airports (especially uncontrolled), VORs, VFR waypoints, VFR corridors, training areas, airways, etc.
ii. Be especially vigilant
B. Distractions
i. Concentrating on instruments, maps, tablet, conversation, troubleshooting a problem, or anything other
than continuing the scan
ii. Poor visibility conditions such as rain, reduced visibility/haze, and the position of the sun
C. Division of Attention
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Fly with visual references to assist with scanning, verify with quick glances to the instruments
4. Clearing Procedures
A. Before Takeoff
i. Prior to taxiing onto the runway scan the approach area(s) for traffic
B. Climbs and Descents
i. Execute gentle banks Left and Right at a frequency which permits continuous scanning
C. Straight and Level
i. Execute appropriate clearing procedures at periodic intervals
ii. Maintain a consistent scan (10o intervals focusing for at least 1 second)
D. Traffic Patterns
i. Entries into traffic patterns while descending should be avoided
a. Enter at pattern altitude, scanning for other traffic
b. The aircraft blocks the view ahead of, and below the aircraft. Descending into the pattern presents the
possibility of descending onto another aircraft already in the pattern
E. Traffic at VOR Sites
i. VOR’s are highly transited areas, aircraft from many different directions converge at VORs
ii. Sustained vigilance should be maintained in the vicinity of VORs and intersections
F. Training Operations
i. Vigilance should be maintained and clearing turns should be made prior to practicing all maneuvers
a. Verbalize clearing procedures – “Clear Left, Right, Above, Below”
G. Blind Spots
i. High wing and low wing aircraft have their respective blind spots
a. Momentarily raise/lower the wing as necessary to clear for traffic before turning

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ii. Look around any blind spots created by the fuselage frame, sun visors, windshield posts, etc.
5. Recognizing Hazards (AC 90-48, AIM 8-1-8)
A. RM: Aircraft Speed and Collision Risk (Collision reaction time)
i. Approaching aircraft have very high closure rates
ii. Studies have shown that the minimum time it takes for a pilot to spot the traffic, identify it, realize it’s a
collision threat, react, and have the airplane respond is at least 12.5 seconds (table below)
B. Recognize High Hazard Areas
i. Aircraft tend to cluster near VORs, and Class
B, C, D, and E surface areas
a. Being in a radar environment still
requires vigilance (don’t depend on ATC)
C. Determining Relative Altitude
i. Use the horizon as a general reference point
a. If the aircraft is above the horizon, it’s
likely on a higher flight path
b. If the aircraft is below the horizon, it’s
likely on a lower flight path
D. Collision Course Targets
i. Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion is likely to be on a collision course
a. If there is no lateral or vertical motion in the windscreen, but it increases in size, take evasive action
 Like an aiming point on approach (object remains stationary)
E. Taking Appropriate Action
i. If on a collision course, take immediate actions
a. Preferably in compliance with the FARS, but do what is necessary to avoid hitting the aircraft
 Be familiar with Right-of-Way rules (FAR 91.113)
b. Anticipate that the other pilot may make a quick maneuver as well
 Watch the other aircraft and continue scanning as there may be other aircraft in the area
6. Collision Avoidance (AIM 8-1-8)
A. Cockpit Management
i. Studying maps, checklists and manuals before flight, with other proper preflight planning (radio frequencies,
organizing materials) can permit more time for scanning
B. Visual obstructions in the Cockpit
i. Move to see around blind spots caused by aircraft structures (posts, wings, etc.)
a. Maneuver the aircraft if necessary (in the case of wings)
ii. Do not block your view outside with maps, checklists, etc.
C. Windshield Conditions
i. Keep the windscreen clean, dirty or bug smeared windscreens can greatly reduce vision
a. Dirty windscreens facing into the sun are especially difficult to see through
D. Be More Visible
i. Day or night, use exterior lights
ii. Keep interior lights low at night to maintain night vision
E. ADS-B
i. Other traffic is displayed on the MFD, often times with visual and/or audio alerts
a. Do not rely on ADS-B as a substitute for scanning
b. Understand the operation, capabilities, and limitations
F. ATC Support
i. Use flight following for radar traffic advisories whenever possible
G. RM: Safety Pilot / Another set of Eyes

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i. Any additional help in scanning and pointing out other traffic is very beneficial to collision avoidance
7. Conditions that Degrade Vision (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Physical Health and Vision
i. Diet and physical health have an impact on how well a pilot can see, especially in the dark
ii. Vision can be degraded by numerous physical factors, including:
a. Medicines/drugs, exhaustion, poor physical conditioning, missing meals, alcohol, tobacco, stressors,
fatigue, lack of oxygen (hypoxia), etc.
b. Deficiencies in Vitamin A and C have been shown to reduce night acuity
iii. Factors such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, certain drugs, and a lack of oxygen can
especially decrease night vision
B. Environmental Conditions
i. Dim illumination
a. Small print and colors become unreadable unless adequate lighting is available
 Aeronautical charts, instruments, notes, etc. become hard to read
ii. Darkness
a. Dark Adaptation - Vision becomes more sensitive to light
 Exposure to darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adaptation
 Night vision is impaired by:
a Exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000’
b Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes
c Deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet
d Prolonged exposure to bright sunlight
 Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, a pilot
should close one eye when using light to preserve some degree of night vision
iii. Excessive Illumination
a. Examples: Light reflected off the canopy, surfaces in the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, desert terrain
 These can produce glare, uncontrollable squinting, eye watering, even temporary blindness
 Fly with sunglasses or some sort of shading device as much as possible
iv. Visibility Conditions
a. Smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flying toward the sun can reduce the ability to see other aircraft
v. Empty Field Myopia
a. With nothing to focus on the eyes automatically focus on a point slightly ahead of the plane
 Induced nearsightedness resulting in poor scanning
 Example: Hazy skies without a clear horizon or reference
b. Preventing
 Day: Recognize the issue and force your eyes to focus farther ahead, maintain your scan
 Night: Search out and focus on distant light sources, no matter how dim
8. Vestibular / In Flight / Visual Illusions
A. Preventing Spatial Disorientation
i. Can only be prevented by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground, or to flight instruments
a. Trust your instruments when disoriented!
B. The Leans
i. Reason
a. An abrupt correction of a banked attitude entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in
the inner ear
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction

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iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude (the turn), thinking
(feeling) the airplane is straight and level
b. Or will feel compelled to lean to the perceived vertical plane until the illusion subsides
C. Coriolis Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant rate turn that has ceased to stimulate the brain’s
motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude to stop the perceived rotation
iv. Prevention
a. Don’t make sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant rate turns
under IFR conditions
b. Develop an instrument cross-check that involves minimal head movement
c. If something is dropped, use minimal head movement and be alert for the Coriolis illusion
D. Graveyard Spin
i. Reason
a. Recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of being in a spin in the opposite direction
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin
E. Graveyard Spiral
i. Reason
a. There is an observed loss of altitude during a prolonged constant rate turn which has ceased to
stimulate the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of a wings level descent
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss of
altitude
F. Somatogravic Illusion
i. Reason
a. A rapid acceleration, often during takeoff
ii. Illusion
a. In the case of a rapid acceleration, it can create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude
b. In the case of a rapid deceleration, it can create the illusion of being in a nose down attitude
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose low, or dive attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose up, or stall attitude
G. Inversion Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt change from a climb to straight and level flight
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of tumbling backwards
iii. Result

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a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude
 This could intensify the situation
H. Elevator Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually due to an updraft
b. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually due to a down draft
ii. Illusion
a. Upward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a climb
b. Downward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a descent
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will pull the aircraft into a nose up attitude
I. False Horizon
i. Reason
a. Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and
certain geometric patterns of ground light
ii. Illusions
a. Can create the illusion of not being aligned correctly with the horizon
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a dangerous attitude
J. Autokinesis
i. Reason
a. In the dark
ii. Illusion
a. A static light when stared at for many seconds will appear to move about
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Maintaining a proper, efficient visual scanning and keeping an eye out for traffic is very important. Also, in the case of
illusions, it is extremely important we understand when and where they may happen and how to best prevent them
from getting us into a dangerous situation. Finally, CFIT is an issue affecting all GA pilots. Planning ahead, maintaining
situational awareness, and adjusting to changing conditions are the best tools to combat CFIT (and, of course, a GPWS
system).

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II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

References:
Single Pilot Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations (AC 91-73)
AIM – Chapter 4-3-18 Taxiing
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) – Chapter 1 pgs. 12-13
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) – Chapter 14 pgs. 31-33
Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper incursion avoidance.

Key Elements 1. Read back all clearances

2. Head down activities only when stopped
3. Always have current Airport Diagram (AD)

Elements 1. Runway Incursion

2. Taxi Instructions
3. Plan, Review, and Brief
4. Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
5. Airport Markings, Signs, & Lights
6. Airport Operations & Runway Incursions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely and competently navigate towered and non-towered airports while
Standards effectively avoiding runway incursions.
 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Runway incursions have led to serious accidents with significant loss of life… (YouTube has many runway incursion
recordings, incorrect taxi instructions, aircraft taxiing the wrong way, etc.)

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Runway incursion avoidance provides practical guidance with the goal of increasing safety and efficiency of aircraft
movement on the airport surface while reducing the risk of runway incursions.

Why
Runway incursions have sometimes led to serious accidents with significant loss of aircraft as well as life. Although
they are not a new problem, with increasing air traffic, runway incursions have been on the rise.

How:
1. Runway Incursion
A. Any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a
collision hazard or results in a loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land
B. Approximately 3 runway incursions occur each day at towered airports in the US
i. About 65% of all incursions are caused by pilots (about half are caused by GA pilots)
ii. Pilot Deviation examples: Crossing a runway without a clearance, takeoff or landing without a clearance
C. Airport/Taxiing Challenges
i. Situational Awareness
a. Increased traffic and airport expansion creates complex runway and taxiway layouts
b. Surface operations are more difficult & the potential for incursions are more hazardous than before
ii. Distractions
a. Checklists, radio calls, cell phone (texting, phone calls, etc.)
iii. With increasing air traffic, runway incursions have been on the rise
a. One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface movement accident
D. Causal Factors
i. Failure to comply with ATC instructions
ii. Lack of airport familiarity
iii. Nonconformance with standard operating procedures (SOPs)
E. Preventive Practices
i. Be aware of the airplane’s position and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations on the airport
a. Listen to other radio calls and build a 3D picture of other traffic on the airport surface area
ii. Readback all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
iii. Review airport layouts
iv. Know airport signage
v. Review NOTAMs
vi. Request progressive taxi instructions when necessary

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vii. Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line or entering any taxiway
viii. Turn on lights and the rotating beacon or strobes when taxiing
ix. When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible and wait for taxi instructions before moving
x. Study & use proper phraseology
xi. Write down complex taxi instructions
2. Taxi Instructions
A. Approval must be obtained prior to moving onto the movement area while tower is in operation
B. Clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway
i. Any runway means any runway: active, inactive, open, closed, etc.
C. When assigned taxi instructions, ATC will specify:
i. The runway or the point to taxi to
ii. Taxi instructions
iii. Hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the route will cross a runway
a. This does not authorize the aircraft to enter or cross the assigned departure runway at any point
D. When instructions are received from the controller, always read back:
i. The runway assignment
ii. RM: Any clearance to enter a specific runway (entering or crossing runways)
iii. Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway
E. Uncontrolled Field
i. Since a taxi clearance is not given by ground, the pilot should announce their intentions on CTAF
ii. Always have a taxi diagram
a. Plan and announce your taxi route prior to moving
iii. Monitor the CTAF frequency to be aware of other aircraft on or around the airport, and to build a mental
picture of their location in relation to you
a. Departing or arriving? Will they be crossing your planned taxi route?
iv. Apply the right-of-way rules, and give way when appropriate, or when safety dictates
v. Radio communication is not required at uncontrolled fields, and therefore a visual scan is very important
3. Plan, Review and Brief
A. Route Planning
i. Have a current copy of the Airport Diagram
ii. Large airports often have pre-designated, or standard, taxi routes, review these for familiarity
a. Used to reduce frequency congestion and streamline taxi procedures
iii. Based on the runway in use and usable taxiways, review the expected routes
B. Record & Review
i. Always write down ATC taxi instructions to prevent mistakes
a. Helps ensure you follow ATC’s instruction, rather than what you expected or planned
ii. RM: Review the route given by ATC, ask for help in case of confusion
a. Ensures you understand where to go, increases situational awareness and prevents disorientation
b. Progressive Taxi
 If unfamiliar with the airport or confusion exits, you can request progressive taxi instructions
 Step-by-step routing directions
c. Be aware of hold short lines and ILS critical areas (if in use) on your route of taxi
 Without explicit clearance, do not cross either of these (only required if ILS critical areas are in use)
iii. Benefits
a. Recording taxi instructions
 Prevents mistakes and forgetfulness
 RM: Combats expectation bias
a Expectation Bias: Your expectations can influence behavior

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b Individuals are vulnerable to thinking they see (or hear) what they expect to see (or hear)
1. Ex: You always taxi C, D to runway 27, so when ground clears you a different route (C, F, B,
D), out of habit/expectation you hear what you expect to hear (C, D) and taxi the wrong way
 Verifies what you heard is what the controller said
b. Reviewing the taxi instructions & route
 Increases situational awareness
 Allows the pilot to recognize any confusion/questions prior to moving
 Allows the pilot to operate with their head up/eyes outside to the max extent
C. Taxi Briefing (AC 91-73)
i. Taxi operations briefings should include the following (prior to taxi, and prior to landing)
a. Ground Procedures
 Timing and execution of checklists/communications that will not interfere with taxiing
 Expected route/any abnormalities or unusual procedures
 Identify critical locations on the taxi route (hold short, hot spots, etc.)
 Address previous experience/unusual procedures or techniques
 During low visibility operations, brief the requirements and considerations
b. Expectations of others (pilots of passengers) in the plane
 Sterile cockpit procedures - encourage others to speak up if they see a potential conflict
 Use of airport diagrams (pilots)
 Cell phones/electronic devices should be off
4. RM: Appropriate Flightdeck Activities (Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. For safety reasons the pilot’s workload should be at a minimum during taxi operations
i. This can be accomplished through SOPs that direct attention only to essential tasks while taxiing
ii. Complete pre-taxi checklists and data entry prior to taxi
iii. All heads down activities should be done only when the aircraft is stopped
iv. RM: Task prioritization – taxiing comes first, handle all other tasks when safely stopped
B. A sterile cockpit should be implemented from taxi through climb to focus on taxiing/ATC instruction
i. No cell phones, conversations, or anything unnecessary to the duties of flight
C. Taxiing Near Other Aircraft
i. Use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location
a. Know your present location and mentally calculate the next location that will require increased attention
(crossing traffic, hot spot, etc.)
ii. Awareness is enhanced by understanding the clearance issued to pilots, other aircraft, and vehicles
a. Listen to other aircraft on the radio and the instruction they are given, develop a picture of other aircraft
in relation to you, maintain situational awareness!
b. Don’t set expectations, listen to, and comply with, the clearance(s) you receive
iii. Be especially vigilant if another aircraft with a similar call sign is on frequency
a. Care should be taken to avoid inadvertently executing a clearance for another aircraft
b. Ask if you’re unsure of who the radio call was for

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5. Airport Markings, Signs, & Lights (for

more detailed info, see V.D. Taxiing,
Airport Signs, and Lighting)
A. Taxiway Markings
i. General
a. Taxiways should have
centerline/runway holding
position markings whenever
intersecting a runway
b. Edge markings delineate
areas not for aircraft use or
define taxiway edges
c. May have shoulder/hold
position markings for ILS
critical areas and
taxiways/taxiway
intersections
ii. Taxiway Centerline Markings
a. Normal Centerline
 Purpose - Provide a
visual cue to permit
taxiing along a
designated path
 Markings - A single
continuous yellow line
that is 6” - 12” wide
b. Enhanced Centerline
 Purpose - Same as above but at larger commercial airports to warn that a runway hold position
marking is being approached and unless cleared to cross, the aircraft should prepare to stop
 Markings - A parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline
a Centerlines are enhanced for a max of 150’ prior to a runway holding position marking
iii. Taxiway Edge Markings
a. Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesn’t match up with pavement)
b. 2 types of markings, depending on whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway edge
 Continuous Markings
a Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface not for use by aircraft
b Markings - Continuous double yellow line with each line at least 6’’ wide and 6’’ apart
 Dashed Markings
a Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is intended for aircraft (Apron)
b Markings - Broken double yellow line (6” wide, spaced 6” apart; dashes are 15’ long and 25’
apart)
iv. Taxi Shoulder Markings
a. Purpose - Paved shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
b. Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
 If confusion exists to the side of use, yellow shoulder markings are used
v. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
a. Purpose - When it isn’t possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or to supplement such signs

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b. Markings - Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and black inscription
 Adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating left turns on the left
side of the centerline and vice versa
vi. Surface Painted Location Signs
a. Purpose - Supplement location signs alongside the taxiway assisting in
confirming the taxiway one is on
b. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription, right of center
vii. Geographic Position Markings
a. Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations
b. Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
 A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring and a pink circle
a When on dark pavements the white/black ring are reversed
 Designated with either a number or a number and a letter
a Number corresponds with consecutive position on the route
B. Holding Position Markings

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i. General
a. Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (hold on the solid side)
b. 4 yellow lines (2 Solid/2 Dashed) spaced 6” or 12” apart across the width of the taxiway or runway
 3 locations where runway hold lines are encountered: Taxiways, Runways. Approach Areas
ii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
a. Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the
runway
 Always stop so that no part extends beyond the hold markers
 Don’t cross without clearance and separation at uncontrolled
airports
iii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways (as shown to the right)
a. Purpose - installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing operations
 Must stop before markings/exit prior to reaching the position
b. Markings - Sign (white inscription/red background) next to hold
markings
 Markings are placed on the runway prior to the intersection
iv. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
a. Purpose - Hold aircraft on a taxiway so it doesn’t interfere with operations
b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Purpose - Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
 Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2’ apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10’ apart across the taxiway
c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
 Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection
 Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
a If requested to hold short of a taxiway without markings, provide adequate clearance from the
taxiway
d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs (as shown to the right)
 Purpose - Supplements the signs located at the holding position
a Normally used when the width of the holding position on the
taxiway is greater than 200’
 Markings - Red background/white inscription, left of center, on the
holding side, prior to hold lines
C. Other Markings
i. Vehicle Roadway Markings
a. Purpose - Used to define a path for vehicle operations on or crossing areas also intended for aircraft
b. Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
 In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate edges
ii. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings
a. Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
b. Markings - A painted circle with an arrow in the middle (arrow is aligned toward the facility)
 Located with a sign on the apron/taxiway
 Sign shows the VOR station ID letter, course for the check, and DME data (if necessary)
 Black letters/numerals on a yellow background
iii. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings (as shown on the right)
a. Purpose - Delineates the movement area (The area under air
traffic control)

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b. Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6” in width

 Solid line is the nonmovement area side, the dashed line is the movement area side
iv. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
a. Purpose - For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed
b. Markings - The lighting circuits will be disconnected
 The runway threshold, designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated
 Yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway and at 1,000’ intervals
v. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
a. Purpose - To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed
b. Markings - Yellow crosses are placed on the runway at each end
 A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each end of the runway instead
 A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for closure, duration of the closure,
configuration and the existence and hours of operation of an airport control tower
a Check NOTAMs and the ATIS for information
 Closed taxiways are treated as hazardous areas and blockaded; no part of the aircraft may enter
a As an alternative, a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway
D. Airport Signs
i. General
a. Six types of signs installed on airfields
 Mandatory Instruction; Location; Direction; Destination; Information; Runway Distance Remaining
ii. Mandatory Instruction Signs
a. Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area/area where aircraft are prohibited
b. Markings - Red background with a white inscription
c. Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
 Runway Holding Position Sign
a Located at the hold position on taxiways intersecting
runways/runways intersecting runways
b The sign states the designation of the intersecting runway
 Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
a Used when necessary to hold aircraft on a taxiway in a runway
approach/departure area so it doesn’t interfere with runway ops
 ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
a ILS system is being used, and it’s necessary to hold at a location
other than the Hold Markers
b The sign will have the inscription “ILS” and will be located adjacent
to the holding position marking on the taxiway
 No Entry Sign
a Prohibits an aircraft from entering an area
b Typically, on a taxiway intended to operate in one direction or
vehicle intersections that may be mistaken as a
taxiway/movement surface
iii. Location Signs
a. Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
 Other location signs provide a visual cue to assist in determining when an area has been exited
b. Taxiway Location Sign
 Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
 Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border

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c. Runway Location Sign

 Purpose - Complement compass info; typically installed where the proximity of runways to one
another could cause confusion as to which runway the pilot is on
 Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription
d. Runway Boundary Sign
 Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when “clear of the runway”
a Adjacent to the hold markings on the pavement
b Visible when exiting the runway
 Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting the hold markings
e. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
 Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when clear of the
ILS critical area
a Adjacent to ILS hold markings and can be seen leaving the critical area
 Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting ILS hold markings
iv. Direction Signs
a. Purpose - Identify intersecting taxiways leading out of an intersection
a Designations and their arrows are arranged clockwise from the 1st taxiway on the pilot’s left
b. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription with an arrow indicating the turn direction
E. Destination Signs
i. Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
a. Destinations commonly shown are
 Runways  Civil Aviation Areas
 Aprons  Cargo Areas
 Terminals  International Areas
 Military Areas  FBOs
ii. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription indicating a destination
a. Always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to
that destination sign
F. Information Signs
i. Purpose - Used to provide a pilot with information on things such as:
a. Areas the tower can’t see, radio frequencies, and noise abatement
procedures
ii. Markings - Yellow Background with a black inscription
G. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
i. Purpose - Inform the pilot the distance remaining on the runway
a. Thousands of feet of landing runway remaining
ii. Markings – Black background with white numeral inscription

H. Taxiway Lighting
i. Taxiway Edge Lights
a. Steady blue lights outlining the edges of taxiways

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ii. Taxiway Centerline lights

a. Steady green lights installed along the centerline of the taxiway
iii. Clearance Bar Lights
a. Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights
b. Installed at holding positions on taxiways to increase visibility of the holding position
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
b. Installed at taxiway/runway intersections
c. Enhance conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights across the entire taxiway at the runway
holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
b. A controlled stop bar operates in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
6. Airport Operations & Runway Incursions
A. Hold Lines
i. Indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway
ii. Unauthorized crossing of hold lines could result in an incursion with an aircraft taking off or landing
iii. RM: During taxi: (Entering or crossing runways)
a. Approaching from the dashed side, cross (no clearance necessary) and stop fully passed the solid lines
b. If approaching hold lines from the solid side, do not cross without a clearance
 If you arrive at hold short lines without a clearance (or are unsure), stop and request clearance
c. Always clear both directions before crossing
d. Turn on all exterior lights whenever taxiing on/across a runway

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B. RM: Landing and Rollout

i. When landing and rolling out on a taxiway that will cross/approach another runway, brief the situation
a. Know where you will stop, what taxiways are appropriate to use/not use, and potential hot spots
b. Taxi slow, don’t exit at high speeds
ii. RM: If stopped between parallel runways, only cross when cleared to cross
a. Never cross the solid side of hold short lines without a clearance
iii. After landing, ensure that the entire aircraft has crossed over the hold short line
a. If you are constrained by an adjacent parallel runway hold short line, stop, and immediately advise ATC
iv. After landing, nonessential communications and actions should not be initiated until clear of all runways
C. RM: Night Operations
i. Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft on the airport surface easier to see
a. Engines Running: Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running
b. Taxiing: Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
 Turn on the taxi light when moving or intending to move on the ground
 Turn it off when stopped or yielding or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel
 Strobe lights should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
c. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
d. Entering the Departure Runway: Turn on all lights, except for landing lights
 Line up slightly (3’) off centerline to enable a landing aircraft to differentiate you from runway lights
e. Takeoff: Turn on landing lights when cleared for takeoff, or starting the roll at an uncontrolled airport
ii. Be more cautious at night
a. Reduced visibility makes taxiing more difficult
 Ensure you remain on the assigned route; it is easier to get confused and miss a turn at night
 Taxi slower, allow yourself ample time to stop if something suddenly appears in front of you
a Not necessarily another airplane (animal, debris, FOD, etc.)
 Look closely for taxiway markings (especially hold short lines)
a Some airports have lights in the ground along with hold short lines, some don’t
b Use lights/lighted signs along taxiway edges to maintain position
D. RM: Low Visibility
i. AIM 4-3-19 Taxi During Low Visibility
a. Focus entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving
 Taxi slowly
 Focus should be outside
b. Sterile cockpit - Withold checklists and nonessential communication until stopped with the brakes set
c. Notify the controller of difficulties or at the first indication of becoming disoriented
d. Lack of visibility from the tower can prevent visual confirmation of adherence to taxi instructions

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface movement accident. By focusing resources to attack this
problem head-on, the FAA hopes to reduce and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents.

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the principles of flight. The
student should understand why airplanes are designed in certain ways, as well as the forces
acting on airplanes and the use of those forces in flight.

Key Elements 1. Stability vs. Maneuverability

2. Left Turning Tendency
3. Load Factors

Elements 1. Forces of Flight

2. Airfoil Design
3. Wing Planform
4. Stability and Controllability
5. Turning Tendency
6. Load Factors in Airplane Design
7. Wingtip Vortices

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the principles to flight.

Standards
 II.D. Principles of Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane, which will result in a considerably better
understanding of the airplane and make you a considerably better pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Principles of Flight are the characteristic forces of flight as well as why and how the airplane performs certain
ways.

Why
To become a pilot, a detailed technical course in the science of aerodynamics is not necessary. However, with the
responsibilities for the safety of passengers, the competent pilot must have a well-founded concept of the forces
which act on the airplane, and the advantageous use of these forces, as well as the operating limitations of the
particular airplane.

How:
1. Forces of Flight
A. Overview
i. Lift – The upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and under the wing
ii. Weight – Opposes lift, and is caused by the downward pull of gravity
iii. Thrust – The forward force which propels the airplane through the air
iv. Drag – Opposes thrust, and is the backward, or retarding force, which limits the speed of the airplane
v. Terminology:
a. Chord Line: The imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil
b. Relative Wind: The direction of movement of the wind relative to the aircraft’s flight path. It is opposite
the aircraft’s flight path, and irrespective of the angle of attack
 EX: Straight and level slow flight and high-speed flight have the same relative wind
c. Angle of Attack: The angle between the chord line and the relative wind
B. Lift
i. The force that opposes weight
ii. Principles of Lift
a. Newton’s three laws of motion:
 Newton’s 1st Law: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain
moving at the same speed and in the same direction
 Newton’s 2nd Law: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is
inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force
a The law may be expressed by the following formula: Force = Mass x Acceleration (F=ma)
 Newton’s 3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
b. Bernoulli’s Principle
 As the velocity of a fluid (air) increases, its internal pressure decreases
iii. Airfoils

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iv. Definition
a. An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing, which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a
moving stream of air
v. Airfoils and Lift
a. Circulation of the airstream about the airfoil is an important factor in the generation of lift
b. The wing’s shape is designed to take advantage of both Newton’s Laws and Bernoulli’s Principle
 The greater curvature on the upper portion causes air to accelerate as it passes over the wing
a According to Bernoulli, the increase in the speed of the air on the top of an airfoil produces a
drop in pressure and this lowered pressure results in lift
1. Molecules moving over the upper surface are forced to move faster
a. Since the upper molecules travel a greater distance, pressure is reduced above
 A downward-backward flow of air also is generated from the top surface of the wing
a The reaction to this downwash results in an upward force on the wing (Newton’s 3rd Law)
 The action/reaction principle is also apparent as the airstream strikes the lower surface of the wing
when inclined at a small angle (the angle of attack) to its direction of motion
a The air is forced downward and therefore causes an upward force resulting in positive lift
vi. Pilot Control of Lift
a. Lift = ½ pCLv2S (Memory Aid: ½ Pint, Chug a Liter, Vomit twice, Sleep it off)
 P = Rho or a pressure constant
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to measure lift as it relates to the angle of attack
a Determined by wind tunnel tests and based on airfoil design and angle of attack
 V = Velocity
 S = Surface Area (Constant)
b. The amount of lift generated is controlled by the pilot as well as determined by aircraft design factors
 The pilot can change the Angle of Attack (AOA), the airspeed or you can change the shape of the
wing by lowering the flaps
c. Changing the Angle of Attack
 AOA - Angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind
 Increasing the AOA increases lift
a By changing pitch, you change the wing’s AOA, and the coefficient of lift (C L)
d. Changing Airspeed
 The faster the wing moves through the air, the more lift is produced
a Lift is proportional to the square of the airspeed
1. EX: At 200 knots, an airplane has 4 times the lift as if it was traveling at 100 knots (if other
factors remain constant)
a. But, if the speed is reduced by ½, lift is decreased to ¼ of the previous value
e. Angle of Attack and Airspeed
 The AOA establishes the CL for the airfoil and lift is proportional to the square of the airspeed
a Since you can control both the AOA and the airspeed, you can control lift

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C. Weight
i. Definition
a. The force of gravity which acts vertically through the center of the plane toward the center of earth
b. The combined load of the airplane itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage (everything)
ii. Weight pulls the airplane downward because of the force of gravity
iii. In stabilized level flight, when the lift = weight, the plane is in equilibrium and doesn’t gain/lose altitude
a. If lift becomes less than weight, the airplane loses altitude and the other way around
D. Thrust
i. Thrust is the forward-acting force which opposes drag and propels the airplane
a. This force is provided when the engine turns the prop and acts parallel to the longitudinal axis
b. F=MA
 Force is provided by the expansion of burning gases in the engine which turns the propeller
 A mass of air is accelerated opposite to the direction of the flight path (Newton’s 3 rd Law)
a The equal/opposite reaction is thrust, a force on the plane in the direction of flight
ii. Thrust begins the airplane moving, it continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are equal
a. To maintain a constant airspeed, thrust and drag must be equal
b. If thrust (power) is reduced the plane will decelerate as long as thrust is less than drag
 If airspeed is increased, thrust becomes greater than drag and airspeed increases until equal
E. Drag
i. Definition
a. Rearward, retarding force, caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, or other objects
b. Drag opposes thrust, and acts rearward and parallel to the relative wind
 Acts in opposition to the direction of flight, opposing the forward-acting force of thrust, and limits
the forward speed of the airplane
ii. Types of Drag
a. Parasite Drag
 Caused by an aircraft surface which deflects/interferes with the smooth airflow of the airplane
 Three Types of Parasite Drag
a Form Drag: Results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow from the
surface of a structure (The amount is related to the size and shape of the structure)
1. Basically, how aerodynamic is the aircraft?
b Interference Drag: Occurs when varied currents of air over an airplane meet and interact
1. Ex: Mixing of air over structures like wing and tail surface brace struts and gear struts
c Skin Friction Drag: Caused by the roughness of the airplane’s surfaces
1. A thin layer of air clings to these surfaces and creates small eddies which add to drag
 Parasite Drag and Airplane Speed
a The combined effect of all parasite drag varies proportionately to the square of the airspeed
1. Ex: Plane, at a constant altitude has 4x as the parasite drag at 160 knots than at 80 knots
 Main Point: As airspeed increases, Parasite drag increases
b. Induced Drag
 Systems in General
a Physical fact that no system, doing work in the mechanical sense, can be 100% efficient
1. Whatever the nature of the system, the required work is obtained at the expense of certain
additional work that is dissipated or lost in the system
2. The more efficient the system, the smaller the loss
 The Wing as a System

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a In level flight, the aerodynamic properties of the wing produce lift, but this is obtained at the
expense of a penalty, Drag
1. Induced drag is inherent whenever lift is produced
 How it Works
a When lift is produced, the pressure on the lower
surface is greater than the upper surface
1. The air flows from the high-pressure area below
the wingtip upward to the low pressure
b The high-pressure air beneath the wing joins the
low-pressure air above the wing at the trailing edge
and wingtips causing a spiral or vortex which trails
behind each wingtip
1. The spiral is a lateral flow outward from the
underside to the upper surface of the wing
2. Basically, induced drag is made by the air
circulation around the wing as it creates lift
c There is an upward flow of air beyond the wingtip
and a downwash behind the trailing edge
1. The downwash has nothing to do with the
downwash necessary to produce lift
a. It is the source of induced drag
i. Vortices increase drag because of the
energy spent producing the turbulence
d Downwash – The Source
1. The vortices deflect the airstream downward,
creating an increase in downwash
a. The wing operates in an average relative
wind which is inclined downward and rearward near the wing
2. Because the lift produced by the wing is perpendicular to the relative wind, the lift is
inclined aft by the same amount, reducing it
3. The greater the size and strength of the vortices, and therefore the downwash component,
the greater the induced drag becomes
e The lower the airspeed, the greater the angle of attack required to produce lift equal to the
airplane’s weight, and the greater the induced drag
1. Induced drag varies inversely as the square of the airspeed
 Main Point: As lift increases, induced drag increases
c. Total Drag
 The sum of induced and parasitic drag
 Region of Normal vs Reversed Command
a Normal Command
1. As airspeed decreases, total drag
decreases, to a point (L/DMAX)
2. Maintaining an altitude, higher speeds
require higher power settings & lower
speeds require lower power settings
b Region of Reversed Command
1. As airspeed decreases below L/DMAX,
total drag begins to increase

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a. This is referred to as the region of reversed command

2. Below L/DMAX, while maintaining altitude, slower speeds require higher power settings and
faster speeds require lower power settings
2. Airfoil Design
A. Airfoil: Structure designed to obtain reaction upon its
surface from the air through which it moves or that moves
past such a structure
B. Terminology
i. Camber
a. Curvature of the upper / lower surface
b. Upper surface tends to have more camber
ii. Leading edge / Trailing edge
a. Generally rounded leading edge
b. Generally narrow and tapered trailing edge
iii. Chord Line
a. Straight line drawn through the airfoil profile connecting
the extremities of the leading and trailing edges
b. Distance from the chord line to the upper / lower surfaces
denotes the magnitude of camber
iv. Mean Camber Line
a. Equidistant at all points from the upper and lower surfaces
C. General Design Characteristics
i. Air Pressure
a. Airfoil is constructed to take advantage of the air’s
response to physical laws
b. This develops two actions from the air mass:
 Negative pressure lifting action above the wing
 Positive pressure lifting action from below the wing
c. Different airfoils have different flight characteristics
(pictured above)
 Aircraft weight, speed & purpose dictate the airfoil shape
ii. Low Pressure Above
a. Air moving over the upper surface of the airfoil moves faster than air along the bottom
 Upper surface has a higher camber in this case
 Bernoulli’s Principle: Increase in speed of air across the top of an airfoil decreases pressure
b. Downward, backward flow of air creates downwash
 Newton’s 3rd Law: Downward, backward flow results in an upward force on the airfoil
iii. High Pressure Below
a. Positive pressure from below the airfoil
 Particularly at higher AOAs
 Newton’s 3rd Law
b. Stagnation Point: Near the leading edge there is a point where the airflow is virtually stopped

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 Speed gradually increases, matching the velocity of the air on the

upper surface near the trailing edge
 Slower airflow = increased pressure (Bernoulli’s principle)
iv. Pressure Distribution (pictured, right)
a. At different AOAs, pressures vary between positive / negative
b. Negative pressure on the upper surface creates a larger force than the
positive pressure from air striking the lower surface
c. Center of Pressure (CP): Average of the pressure variation for a given
AOA
 Aerodynamic forces act through the CP
 At high AOAs, the CP moves forward
 At low AOAs, the CP moves aft
d. CP movement is very important to wing structure design
 Affects aerodynamic balance and controllability
v. Note: The production of lift is much more complex than a simple
differential pressure between the upper and lower airfoil surfaces, but
these concepts suffice for this discussion
3. Wing Planform
A. Planform describes the wings outline as seen from above
i. Many factors affect shape, including purpose, load factors, speeds,
construction and maintenance costs, maneuverability/stability, stall/spin
characteristics, fuel tanks, high lift devices, gear, etc.
ii. There are many different shapes and advantages/disadvantages to each
(many shapes are combined)
B. Taper – Ratio of the root chord to tip chord
i. Rectangular wings have a taper ratio of 1
a. Simpler and more economical to
produce/repair (ribs are same size)
b. Root stalls first providing more
warning and control during recovery
ii. Ellipse (Tapered)
a. Provides best span wise load
distribution and lowest induced drag
b. But the whole wing stalls at the same
time; very expensive/complex to build
C. Aspect Ratio – divide the wingspan by the
average chord
i. The greater the aspect ratio, the less
induced drag (more lift)
ii. Increasing wingspan (with the same area)
results in smaller wingtips, generating
smaller vortices
a. Reduces induced drag and are more
efficient
b. Planes requiring extreme
maneuverability and strength have
much lower aspect ratios

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 Ex: Fighter, and aerobatic aircraft

D. Sweep – When the line connecting the 25% chord points of the ribs isn’t perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
i. The sweep can be forward, but it is usually backward
ii. Helps in flying near the speed of sound, but also contributes to lateral stability in low-speed planes
4. Stability and Controllability
A. Stability
i. The inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb its equilibrium, and return to or
continue on the original flight path
a. Stability is primarily a design characteristic
b. The more stability, the easier to fly, but too much results in significant effort to maneuver
 Therefore, stability and maneuverability must be balanced
ii. There are two types of stability: Static and Dynamic
iii. Static Stability (SS)
a. Equilibrium: All opposing forces are balanced (Steady unaccelerated flight conditions)
b. SS: The initial tendency; The aircraft’s initial response when disturbed from a given pitch, yaw, or bank
 Positive SS: The initial tendency to return to the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed
(to return to the trimmed condition)
 Negative SS: The initial tendency to continue away from original equilibrium after being disturbed
(the aircraft moves farther and farther away from the trimmed position)
 Neutral SS: The initial tendency to remain in a new condition after equilibrium has been disturbed
(the aircraft remains in a new position and does not return or trend away from the original trimmed
position)
c. Positive SS is the most desirable - The plane attempts to return to the original trimmed attitude
iv. Dynamic Stability (DS)
a. SS refers to the initial tendency, DS refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from a
given pitch, bank, or yaw
 Refers to whether the disturbed system returns to equilibrium over time or not
 The degree of stability can be gauged in terms of how quickly it returns to equilibrium
 Referred to as Positive, Negative, and Neutral – Same as SS, but over time (overall tendency)
b. Most desirable is Positive Dynamic Stability

v. Stability in an aircraft significantly affects two areas:

a. Controllability – Capability of the aircraft to respond to the pilot’s control, especially in regard to flight
path and attitude
 Quality of the aircraft’s response to control application when maneuvering the aircraft, regardless of
stability characteristics
b. Maneuverability - Quality of the aircraft that permits it to be maneuvered easily and to withstand
stresses imposed by maneuvers
 Governed by weight, inertia, size and location of flight controls, structural strength and power plant

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 It is a design characteristic
B. Longitudinal Stability (LS) – About the lateral axis
i. LS makes an airplane stable about its lateral axis and involves the pitching motion
a. A Longitudinally unstable plane has a tendency to dive and climb progressively steeper making it
difficult/dangerous to fly
ii. To obtain LS, the relation of the wing and tail moments must be such that, if the moments are balanced and
the airplane is suddenly nosed up, the wing moments and tail moments will change so that their forces will
provide a restoring moment bringing the nose down again
a. And, if the plane is nosed down, the change in moments will bring the nose back up
iii. Static LS, or instability, is dependent on 3 factors:
a. Location of the wing in relation to the Center of Gravity (CG)
 The CG is usually ahead of the wing’s Center of Lift (CL) resulting in nose down pitch
 This nose heaviness is balanced by a downward force generated by the horizontal tail
a The horizontal stabilizer is often designed with a negative AOA to create a natural tail-down
force
b Remember, the tail down force lifts the nose of the aircraft up (pitch up motion)
 The CG-CL-Tail-down force line is like a lever
with an upward force at CL and 2 downward
forces (CG and Tail-down) on either side
balancing each other
a The stronger down force is at the CG; tail
down force is weaker but has a longer arm
 In the case of a dynamically stable aircraft: If the
nose is pitched up (with no other change in
controls/power), airspeed will begin to
decrease. As airspeed decreases, the tail-down force of the elevator will decrease. As the tail-down
force decreases, the nose of the aircraft will begin to pitch down, resulting in increased airspeed. As
airspeed increases, the tail-down force of the stabilizer will increase, lifting the nose back up. If left
untouched, this process will continue, and each pitch up/down will progressively weaken until the
aircraft returns to stabilized flight.
b. Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect the CG
 If the plane is loaded with the CG farther forward, more tail down force is necessary
a This adds to longitudinal stability since the nose heaviness makes it more difficult to raise the
nose and the additional tail down forces makes it difficult to pitch down
1. Any small disturbances are opposed by larger forces, dampening them quickly
 If the plane is loaded farther aft, the plane becomes less stable in pitch
a If the CG is behind the CL, the tail must exert upward force so the nose doesn’t pitch up
b If a gust pitches the nose up, less airflow over the tail will cause the nose to pitch further
c This is an extremely dangerous situation
c. The area or size of the tail surfaces
 The larger the area/size of the tail surface, the more force exerted
C. Lateral Stability - About the Longitudinal Axis
i. Lateral stability about the longitudinal axis is affected by:
a. Dihedral; Sweepback Angles; Keel Effect; Weight Distribution
ii. Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are slanted upward from the root to the tip
a. Some aircraft are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than the wing roots
 Dihedral is the upward angle formed by the wings

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b. Dihedral stabilizes the airplane by balancing the lift in a sideslip

 When a gust causes a roll, a sideslip will result
 The sideslip causes the relative wind affecting
the airplane to be from the direction of slip
 When the relative wind comes from the side, the
wing slipping into the wind (low wing) gets an
increase in AOA and develops an increase in lift
 The wing away from the slip (high wing), is
subject to a decrease in AOA and lift
 The changes in lift result in a rolling moment that
raises the lowered wing (more stable)
c. In a shallow turn: the increased AOA increases lift on
the low wing with a tendency to return the aircraft
to straight and level flight
iii. Sweepback is the angle at which the wings are slanted
rearward from the root tip
a. Sweepback effectively increases dihedral to achieve stability, but the effect is not as pronounced
 A rough estimation is that 10o of sweepback is equal to about 1o of effective dihedral
b. When a disturbance causes an aircraft with a sweepback to drop a wing, the low wing presents its
leading edge at an angle that is more perpendicular to the airflow. This results in more lift on the
lowered wing
iv. Keel effect depends on the action of the relative wind on the side area of the fuselage
a. Laterally stable airplanes: The greater portion of the keel area is above and behind the CG
 When the plane slips to one side, the combination of the airplane’s weight and the pressure of the
airflow against the upper portion of the keel area rolls the plane back to wings level
a The fuselage behaves like a keel, exerting a steadying influence on the aircraft
b. To Summarize: The fuselage is forced by keel effect to parallel the wind
v. Weight Distribution
a. If more weight is located on one side, it will have a tendency to bank that direction
D. Directional Stability (DS) - Stability about the vertical axis
i. DS is affected by the area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG
a. Makes the airplane act like a weathervane, pointing the nose into the relative wind
ii. SIDE - For a weathervane to work, a greater surface area must be aft of the pivot point (the CG)
a. If the same amount of surface area were exposed to the wind in front of and behind the pivot point, the
forces would balance and there would be little or no directional movement
b. Ex: If the nose yaws left, it will pivot around the CG. As the aircraft yaws, the relative wind will push on
the right side of the fuselage. Since there is more surface area behind the pivot point (CG), there is
more force applied behind the CG and the nose will be pushed back to the right
iii. VERTICAL FIN – the vertical fin acts like a feather on an arrow in maintaining straight flight (pictured below)
a. The farther aft the fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the DS
b. As the plane yaws in one direction, the air strikes the opposite side of the vertical fin
 This puts pressure on vertical fin, stopping the motion and then turning the nose into the relative
wind (like a weathervane)

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 Ex: If the nose yaws right, the relative wind puts pressure
on the left side of the vertical stabilizer stopping the yaw
and moving the nose back to the left
5. Turning Tendency (Torque Effect – Left Turning Tendency)
A. Torque is made up of 4 elements which produce a twisting or
rotating motion around at least 1 of the 3 axes
i. Torque Reaction from the engine and propeller, Corkscrew Effect
of the Slipstream, Gyroscopic Action of the Propeller, and P-
Factor, or asymmetric loading of the propeller
B. Torque Reaction
i. Newton’s 3rd Law – For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction
a. The engine parts/propeller rotate one way; an equal force
attempts to rotate the plane the opposite direction
ii. When airborne, this force acts around the longitudinal axis,
resulting in a left rolling tendency
iii. On the ground, during takeoff, the left side is being forced down resulting in more ground friction
a. This causes a turning moment to the left that is corrected with rudder
iv. The strength of the torque reaction is dependent on
engine size and horsepower, propeller size and rpm,
airplane size, and the condition of the ground
surface
 The higher the power setting, the greater
the left turning tendency
v. Torque is corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron
trim tabs, and/or aileron/rudder use
a. Most aircraft engines are not installed on the
centerline of the aircraft (on the longitudinal axis), they are offset to counteract a portion of the rolling
motion caused by torque
b. Trim tabs can be adjusted to counter the turning tendency in level flight
c. Some airplanes are designed to create more lift on the wing that is forced downward as well
d. Torque not countered by the engine and trim tab position must be corrected with coordinated rudder
and aileron inputs
C. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
i. The high-speed rotation of the propeller sends the
air in a corkscrew/spiraling rotation to the rear of the
aircraft where the air strikes the left side of the
vertical stabilizer, pushing the nose to the left
ii. At high prop speeds/low forward speeds the rotation
is very compact
a. This exerts a strong sideward force on the
vertical tail causing a left turn around the vertical
axis
b. The corkscrew flow also creates a rolling
moment around the longitudinal axis
 The rolling moment is to the right and may counteract torque to an extent
iii. As the forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and becomes less effective

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

iv. The slipstream effect is countered with coordinate rudder and aileron and is most pronounced in takeoffs
and climbs (high prop speed and low forward speed)
D. Gyroscopic Action
i. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
a. Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)
b. Precession - The resultant action of a spinning rotor when a force is applied to its rim
 If a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead
of, and in the direction of turn
a This causes a pitch moment, yaw moment,
or combination of the two depending on
where the force is applied
 Ex: Most often occurs with tail wheel aircraft
when the tail is raised on the takeoff roll
a The change in pitch (lifting the tail wheel)
has the same effect as applying a forward force to the top of the propeller
1. This force is felt 90o in the direction of rotation (clockwise viewed from the cockpit)
b The forward force will take effect on the right side of the propeller, yawing the nose left
ii. Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
iii. Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
iv. Correction is made with proper elevator and rudder pressures to prevent undesired pitch and yaw
E. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
i. When flying with a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
a. This moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc area (causing a yaw to the left)
ii. P-factor is caused by the propeller’s resultant velocity, which is generated by the combination of two parts:
a. The velocity of the propeller blade in its plane of rotation
b. The velocity of the air passing horizontally through
the propeller disc
iii. At positive AOAs, the right (down swinging) blade is
passing through an area of resultant velocity greater
than the left (up swinging) blade
a. Since the prop is an airfoil, increased velocity
means increased lift
 Therefore, the down blade has more lift and
tends to yaw the plane to the left
iv. Ex: Visualize the propeller shaft mounted perpendicular
to the ground (like a helicopter)
a. If there were no air movement at all, except that
generated by the propeller, identical sections of the blade would have the same airspeed
b. But, with air moving horizontally across the vertically mounted prop, the blade proceeding forward into
the flow of air will have a higher airspeed than the blade retreating with the airflow
 The blade proceeding into the airflow creates more lift, moving the center of lift toward it
c. Visualize rotating the vertically mounted propeller to shallower angles relative to the moving air (as on
an airplane)
 Unbalanced thrust gets proportionately smaller until it reaches zero when the propeller shaft is
exactly horizontal in relation to the moving air
v. Summary: Descending propeller blade has a higher AOA resulting in a bigger bite of air, therefore the center
of thrust is moved to the right side of the aircraft’s centerline and there will be a tendency to yaw left
6. Load Factors (LF) in Airplane Design

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

A. General
i. Load factor is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane
ii. Measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity)
a. Gs can be positive or negative
 Ex of positive Gs: A sharp pull up and the resulting force pushing the pilot into the seat
 Ex of negative Gs: A sharp push down and the resulting force lifting the pilot off the seat
b. 1 G is equivalent to normal gravitational forces (at 1 G, a 200 lb. person weighs 200 lbs.)
c. 2 Gs is double – (at 200 Gs, a 200 lb. person weighs 400 lbs.), 3 is triple, etc.
d. 0.5 Gs is equivalent to half of the weight of the aircraft or person
iii. Ex: A load factor of 3 means that the total load supported by the airplane is three times its weight
 Expressed as 3 Gs
 If an aircraft is pulled up from a dive, subjecting the pilot to 3 Gs, the pilot would be pressed down
into the seat with a force equal to three times their weight
a The wings of the airplane would also be supporting 3x the weight of the airplane
iv. Load factor is important to the pilot for two distinct reasons:
a. It is possible for the pilot to impose a dangerous overload on the aircraft structures
 Aircraft are designed to withstand a certain range of load factors
 For example, normal category aircraft are designed to operate between -1.52 and 3.8 Gs
a Exceeding these ranges can damage the structure and lead to failure
b. An increased LF increases the stall speed and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe speeds
B. Airplane Design
i. How strong an airplane should be is determined largely by the use it will be subjected to
a. This is difficult as maximum possible loads are much too high to incorporate in efficient design
 If planes are to be built efficiently, extremely excessive loads must be dismissed
 The idea is to determine the highest LF that can be expected in normal operation under various
operational situations – These are ‘limit load factors’
a Planes must be designed to withstand limit load factors with no structural damage
ii. Airplanes are designed in accordance with the category system:
a. Normal Category limit load factors are -1.52 Gs to 3.8 Gs
b. Utility Category limit load factors are -1.76 Gs to 4.4 Gs (Mild acrobatics, including spins)
c. Acrobatic Category limit load factors are -3.0 Gs to 6.0 Gs
C. The Vg diagram shows the flight operating strength of a plane based on load factor (vertical scale) and indicated
airspeed (horizontal scale) – describes the allowable airspeed/LF combinations for safe flight
i. Each aircraft has its own Vg diagram that is valid at a certain weight and altitude
ii. Areas to note on the Vg diagram:
a. Lines of Maximum Lift Capability (curved lines)
 The aircraft in this diagram is capable of developing no more than 1 G at 64 mph, the wings level
stall speed of the airplane
 Since the maximum load factor varies with the square of the airspeed, the maximum positive lift
capability of this aircraft is 2 G at 92 mph, 3 G at 112, 4.4 G at 137, etc.
 Any load factor above this line is unavailable aerodynamically
a i.e., the aircraft cannot fly above the line of maximum lift capability because it stalls
b The same situation occurs for negative lift flight
 If the aircraft is flown at a positive load factor greater than the limit of 4.4 Gs, structural damage is
possible

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

b. Maneuvering Speed
 The intersection of the positive limit load factor (4.4 Gs) and the line of maximum positive lift
capability
 This is the minimum airspeed at which the limit load can be developed aerodynamically
 Any speed greater than this provides the capability to damage the aircraft
 Speeds less than this do not provide the lift capability to cause damage from excessive loads
c. Intersection of the Negative Limit Load Factor and Line of Maximum Negative Lift Capability
 Airspeeds greater than this provide a negative lift capability that can damage the aircraft
 Airspeeds less do not provide the lift capability to cause damage from excessive loads
d. Limit Airspeed (redline)
 This aircraft is limited to 225 mph
 Above this speed, structural damage or failure may result
7. Wingtip Vortices
A. How They Work
i. When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a pressure
differential exists above and below the wing
ii. The pressure above the wing is less than atmospheric pressure
iii. The pressure below the wing is equal to or greater than
atmospheric pressure
iv. Since air always move from higher to lower pressure, and the
path of least resistance is the tips of the wings, there is a
spanwise movement of air from the bottom of the wing
outward from the fuselage to the tips
v. This flow of air spills over the wingtips
vi. As the air curls upward around the wingtip, it combines with
downwash to form a fast-spinning trailing vortex

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

a. These vortices increase drag because of energy spent in producing the turbulence
vii. Thus, whenever an airfoil is producing lift, induced drag occurs and wingtip vortices are created
a. Just as lift increases with AOA, induced drag also increases
b. As AOA increases, there is a greater pressure difference between the top/bottom of the wing
 Greater pressure difference = greater lateral airflow and stronger vortices
B. Strength of the Vortices
i. As mentioned, the greater the AOA, the stronger the vortices
a. Therefore, the strongest vortices occur when the aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow
b. Strength is directly proportional to weight and inversely proportional to wingspan and airspeed
 As weight increases, AOA increases
 A wing in the clean configuration has a greater AOA than with flaps, slats, etc. in use
 As airspeed decreases, AOA increases
ii. Thus, the strongest vortices occur during takeoff, climb, and landing
C. Dangers of Vortices
i. Wake turbulence can be a hazard to any aircraft significantly lighter than the generating aircraft
ii. Flying through another aircraft’s wake can result in major structural damage, or induced rolling making the
aircraft uncontrollable
D. Behavior and Avoidance
i. Behavior
a. Sink at a rate of several hundred fpm, slowing/diminishing the further they get behind an aircraft
b. When vortices sink to the ground, they tend to move laterally with the wind
 A crosswind will decrease lateral movement of the upwind vortex and increase movement of
downwind vortex
a Be cautious, this could move another aircraft’s vortices into your path
 A tailwind can move the vortices of a preceding aircraft forward into the touchdown zone
ii. Avoidance
a. To minimize the chances of flying through another aircraft’s wake:
 Takeoff:
a Takeoff prior to the point the preceding aircraft rotated, and attempt to climb above or away
from their flight path
b Takeoff after a landing jet’s touchdown point
 Enroute:
a Avoid flying through another aircraft’s flight path
b Avoid following another aircraft on a similar flight path at an altitude within 1,000’
 Landing:
a Stay above a preceding aircraft’s path, and land past their touch down point
b Parallel runways – stay at and above the other jet’s flight path for the possibility of drift
c Crossing runways – cross above the larger jet’s flight path
d Land prior to a departing aircraft’s takeoff point
E. For more information, see lesson VI.B. Traffic Patterns, Wake Turbulence

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The competent pilot must have a well-founded concept of the forces which act on the airplane, and the advantageous
use of these forces, as well as the operating limitations of the particular airplane.

105
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should become familiar with the four forces of flight and the forces of flight
maneuvers.

Key Elements 1. Pilot Control of Lift

2. Parasite vs. Induced Drag
3. Ground Effect

Elements 1. Ground Effect

2. Climbs
3. Descents
4. Turns
5. Stalls

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student displays the ability to explain the forces of flight and their interaction and effect on
Standards flight.
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane which will result in a considerably better
understanding of the airplane and hopefully make you a considerably better pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What:
The four forces of flight are in essence the fundamental principles that govern flight; they are what make an airplane
fly.

Why:
How well a pilot performs in flight depends on the ability to plan and coordinate the use of power and flight controls
to change the forces of thrust, drag, lift, and weight. It is the balance between these forces that the pilot must always
control. The better the understanding of the forces, and means of controlling of them, the greater pilot’s skill.

How:
1. Ground Effect
A. Associated with the reduction of induced drag
B. Explanation
i. When flying close to the ground, the vertical component of the
airflow around the wing is restricted by the ground
a. Causes a reduction in wingtip vortices and a decrease in upwash
and downwash
b. Since ground effect restricts downward deflection of the air,
induced drag decreases
C. Effects on Flight
i. Takeoff
a. With the reduction of induced drag, the amount of thrust required to produce lift is reduced
 Therefore, the plane is capable of lifting off at lower-than-
normal takeoff speed
b. As you climb out of ground effect, the power (thrust) required to
sustain flight increases significantly as the normal airflow around
the wing returns and induced drag is increased
 If you climb out before reaching normal takeoff speed the
plane can sink back to the surface
ii. Landing
a. Decrease in induced drag makes the plane seem to float
 Power reduction is usually required during the flare
2. Climbs
A. In a steady state, normal climb the wing’s lift is the same as it is in level
flight at the same airspeed
i. Though the flight path changes when the climb is established, AOA and lift basically stay the same

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II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

B. During the change from straight and level to a climb, a change in lift occurs when elevator is 1 st applied
i. Raising the airplane’s nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases lift
ii. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the airplane climbing
C. Once the flight path is stabilized, the AOA and lift revert to approximately level flight values
D. If the climb is entered with no change in power settings, the airspeed gradually diminishes
i. This is because thrust required to maintain an airspeed in level flight cannot maintain the airspeed in a climb
ii. When inclined upward, a component of weight acts in the same direction as, and parallel to drag
a. This increases drag (drag is greater than thrust and therefore airspeed will decrease until equal)
E. Since, in a climb, weight is not only acting downward but rearward along with drag, additional power is needed
to maintain the same airspeed as in level flight
i. The amount of reserve power determines the climb performance
3. Descents
A. When forward pressure is applied, the AOA is decreased and, as a result, the lift of the airfoil is reduced
i. Reduction in lift/AOA is momentary and occurs during the time the flight path changes downward
ii. The change to a downward flight path is due to the lift momentarily becoming less than weight
B. When the flight path is in a steady descent, the airfoil’s AOA again approaches the original value and lift and
weight become stabilized
C. From the time the descent is started until it is stabilized, the airspeed will gradually increase
i. This is due to a component of weight acting forward along the flight path (like rearward in a climb)
a. Thrust is greater than drag
D. To descend at the same airspeed, power must be reduced when the descent is entered
i. The amount of power is dependent on the steepness of the descent
a. The component of weight acting forward will increase with an increase in angle of descent
4. Turns
A. Like any moving object, an airplane requires a sideward force to make it turn
i. In a normal turn, this force is supplied by banking so that lift is exerted inward as well as upward
B. When the airplane banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward
i. Lift is divided into two components, the horizontal component and the vertical component
a. Vertical Component – Acts vertically and opposite to weight
b. Horizontal Component – Acts horizontally toward the center of the turn (Centripetal Force)
 This is what makes the airplane turn
ii. The division of lift reduces the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting weight
a. Consequently, the airplane will lose altitude unless additional lift is created
 This is done by increasing the AOA until the vertical component of lift again equals weight
b. Since the vertical component of lift decreases as bank increases, AOA must be increased as the bank
angle is steepened
C. Holding Altitude
i. To provide a vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude, an increase in the AOA is required
ii. Since drag is directly proportional to AOA, induced drag will increase as lift is increased
a. This in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in proportion to the angle of bank
iii. Additional power must be applied to prevent airspeed from reducing in level turns
a. The required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the angle of bank
D. Rate of Turn
i. The rate at which an airplane turns depends on the magnitude of the horizontal component of lift
a. The horizontal component of lift is proportional to the angle of bank
ii. Therefore, at any given airspeed, the rate of turn can be controlled by adjusting the angle of bank
E. Turning Radius
i. Increased airspeed results in an increased turn radius and centrifugal force is directly related to radius

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II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

a. The increase of the radius of the turn causes an increase in centrifugal force which must be balanced by
an increase in the horizontal component of lift
 The horizontal component of lift can only be increased by increasing bank angle
ii. To maintain a constant rate of turn with an increased airspeed, the angle of bank must be increased
F. Slipping Turns
i. In a slipping turn, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the plane is yawed to the outside of
the turning flight path
a. The horizontal component (HCL) of lift is greater than Centrifugal Force (CF)
ii. HCL and CF equilibrium is reestablished by decreasing bank/increasing the rate of turn
a. Increase or decrease rudder pressure to center the ball or adjust bank
G. Skidding Turns
i. In a skidding turn, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank and the plane is yawed inside the turn
a. There is excess centrifugal force compared to the HCL
ii. Correction involves reducing the rate of turn/increasing the bank
a. Increase of decrease rudder pressure as necessary or adjust bank
5. Stalls
A. As long as the wing is creating sufficient lift to counteract the load imposed on it, the plane will fly
i. When the lift is completely lost, the airplane will stall
B. The direct cause of every stall is an excessive angle of attack
C. The stalling speed of a particular airplane is not a fixed value for all flight situations
i. However, a given airplane will always stall at the same AOA regardless of speed, weight, load factor, or
density altitude
ii. Each plane has a particular AOA where airflow separates from the upper wing and it stalls (16 o-20o)
D. 3 situations where the critical AOA can be exceeded:
i. Low Speed Flying
a. As airspeed is decreased, the AOA must be increased to retain the lift required to hold altitude
b. The slower the airspeed, the more AOA must increase. At the critical AOA, lift cannot increase further
 If airspeed is reduced, the airplane will stall, since the AOA has exceeded the critical AOA
ii. High Speed Flying
a. Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall
b. The wing can be brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed
c. Ex: diving at 200 knots with a sudden increase in back elevator pressure
 Because of gravity and centrifugal force, the plane cannot immediately alter its flight path
a It would merely change its AOA abruptly from very low to very high
 Since the flight path of the airplane in relation to the oncoming air determines the direction of the
relative wind, the AOA is increased, and the stalling angle would be reached
iii. Turning Flight
a. The stalling speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight and level flight
 This is because the centrifugal force is added to the plane’s weight
a The wing must produce sufficient additional lift to counteract the load imposed
b. In a turn, the necessary additional lift is acquired by applying back pressure
 This increases the wings AOA (AOA increases with the bank angle to maintain level flight)
c. If at any time during a turn the AOA becomes excessive, the airplane will stall

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point

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II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Select the aircraft systems lesson from the Navigation menu, or use the links below:

GENERIC
Generic Aircraft (PHOAK material)

CESSNA
Cessna 152
Cessna 172S G1000

CIRRUS
Cirrus SR20

DIAMOND
Diamond DA20
Diamond DA40

PIPER
Piper Archer II (PA-28-181)
Piper Archer III (PA-28-181)
Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)

More aircraft lessons are coming. Send an email to info@thebackseatpilot.com with suggestions.
II.E. Generic Flight Controls & Systems

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the primary and secondary flight controls, and trim.

Key Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls – Airflow and Pressure Distribution

2. Trim relieves control pressures
3. Flaps increase lift and induced drag

Elements 1. Terms 11. FADEC

2. Primary Flight Controls 12. Propellers
3. Secondary Flight Controls 13. Landing Gear & Brakes
4. Trim Systems 14. Fuel Systems
5. Powerplant 15. Electrical Systems
6. Ignition Systems 16. Avionics
7. Induction Systems 17. Flight Instruments
8. Oil Systems 18. Environmental Systems
9. Cooling Systems 19. Deicing and Anti-Icing Systems
10. Exhaust Systems

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can explain the primary and secondary flight controls and their function. The
Standards student will also understand how trim works and can effectively use it.
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Learning how the flight controls work and why the inputs you make result in the corresponding changes. This is what
is actually going on when you move the control surfaces, adjust trim, or use the flaps.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The airplane’s attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls. These are
hinged, moveable surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wings and vertical and horizontal stabilizers. When
deflected, these surfaces change the camber and angle of attack of the wing or stabilizer and thus change its lift and
drag characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures and flaps create a compromise between a
high cruise speed and low landing speed.

Why
Understanding how the airplane functions and the effects each control input will have on the airplane results in an
understanding of how to control the airplane. Understanding how the airplane works results in a much more
proficient pilot.

How:
1. Terms
A. Chord Line – An imaginary straight line drawn through an
airfoil from the leading to the trailing edge
B. Camber – The characteristic curve of an airfoil’s upper and
lower surfaces
i. The upper camber is usually more pronounced, while
the lower camber is relatively flat
a. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately
above the wing to be higher than below
ii. The more curved the upper surface, the more lift is
generated
2. Primary Flight Controls
A. Primary flight controls are those required to safely control
an airplane during flight
B. Ailerons
i. Control roll about the longitudinal axis
ii. Operated by cables, bell cranks, pulleys and/or push-
pull tubes connected to the control wheel or stick
iii. How they Work
a. Attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and move in opposite direction from each other
 One goes up, the other goes down

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a In a right turn, the right aileron goes up and the left

goes down
b In a left turn, the left aileron goes up and the right goes
down
b. The upward deflected aileron decreases the camber of the
wing resulting in decreased lift causing the wing to lower
c. The downward deflected aileron increases the camber of the
wing and results in increased lift causing the wing to raise
d. The increased lift on one wing, and decreased lift on the other
wing cause the aircraft to roll
iv. Adverse Yaw
a. Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift, it
also produces more induced drag
 The added drag attempts to yaw the nose in the direction of the raised wing (Adverse Yaw)
b. Rudder must be used to counteract and maintain coordinated flight
 The amount needed is greatest at low speeds, high AOA, and with large aileron deflections
v. Types of Ailerons
a. Manufacturers have engineered four different types of ailerons to counter adverse yaw (additional drag
due to the raised wing producing more lift)
b. Differential Ailerons
 Normally, ailerons moving an equal amount up and
down during a turn
 Differential ailerons: upward moving aileron raises
higher than the downward moving aileron lowers
a Ex: With full deflection in one direction, the
upward aileron might move 15o, and the down
aileron would only move 10o
 Produces increased drag on the descending wing (raised aileron) to counter adverse yaw
a Reduces, but doesn’t eliminate, adverse yaw
c. Frise-Type Ailerons
 The raised aileron pivots on an offset hinge,
projecting the leading edge of the aileron into the
airflow which creates drag and reduces adverse yaw
 Also forms a slot so air flows smoothly over the
lowered aileron, making it more effective at high
angles of attack
 Reduces adverse yaw, but does not eliminate it
d. Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
 The ailerons and rudder are linked with interconnect
springs which automatically deflect the rudder at the
same time the ailerons are deflected
a Ex: When rolling left, the interconnect cable and
springs pull forward on the left rudder pedal just
enough to prevent right yaw
 Rudder springs can be overridden by the pilot, if
necessary
e. Flaperons

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

 Combine flaps and ailerons

 Control bank but can also be lowered together to
function like a dedicated set of flaps
a Separate controls for ailerons and flaps
b A mixer is used to combine the separate pilot
inputs into the single set of control surfaces
 Often mounted away from the wing to provide
undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack
and/or low airspeeds

C. Elevator
i. Controls pitch about the lateral axis
ii. Like ailerons, operated by a series of mechanical linkages
iii. How It Works
a. Pulling the controls backward deflects the trailing edge up
 Changes the camber of the horizontal stabilizer, creating a downward aerodynamic force
 The overall effect causes the tail to move down and the nose to move up (about the CG)
a Strength is determined by the distance
between the CG and horizontal tail surface
b. Moving the controls forward deflects the trailing edge
of the elevator surface down
 Changes the camber of the horizontal stabilizer,
creating an upward force
 Moves the tail upward, pitching the nose down
(also about the Center of Gravity)
iv. Types of Elevators
a. T-Tail
 Elevator is mounted at the high point of the
vertical stabilizer and is above most effects of
downwash from the propeller and airflow around
the fuselage and wings in normal flight
a Makes for consistent control movements in most flight regimes
 Popular on light, as well as large airplanes (removes elevator from exhaust), and sea planes
 Control Differences
a At slow speeds, the elevator must be moved through a larger number of degrees to raise the
nose a given amount as compared to a conventional tail aircraft

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

1. The conventional tail has the downwash from the propeller to assist in raising the nose
 The controls are rigged so that increased control force is required the farther the controls move
a It gets progressively more difficult to move the elevator
b. Design Considerations
 Since the weight of the horizontal stabilizer is at the top of the vertical stabilizer, the moment arm
created causes high loads on the vertical stabilizer that can result in flutter
a Engineers must compensate for this by increasing the design stiffness of the vertical stabilizer,
usually resulting in a weight penalty over conventional designs
 When flying at a very high angle of attack with a low
airspeed and aft center of gravity, the T-tail may be
more susceptible to a deep stall
a The wake of the wing impinges on the tail
surface and renders it almost ineffective
b The wing’s airflow, when fully stalled, creates a
wide wake of decelerated, turbulent air that
blankets the horizontal tail
1. Elevator control is reduced, or possibly
eliminated, making it difficult to recover
from the stall
c. Stabilator
 “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
 A one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point
a When the controls are pulled back, the stabilator’s trailing edge raises, rotating the nose up
b Pushing forward lowers the trailing edge and pitches the nose down
 Antiservo tabs on the trailing edge decrease sensitivity
a Because a stabilator pivots around a central
hinge point, it allows the pilot to generate a
given pitching moment with lower control force
1. Because they are easier to move, to be
certified an aircraft must show an increasing
resistance to increasing pilot input
2. To provide this resistance, stabilators on
small aircraft contain an anti-servo trim tab
that deflects in the same direction as the
stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input and making it less
prone to overcontrolling
v. Safety Systems
a. Since flight at high AOAs can be dangerous, many aircraft compensate for these situations
 Systems range from control stops to elevator down springs
a Control stops limit the movement of the elevator control
1. Some stops can adjust to allow more/less elevator control movement based on the situation
b Elevator down spring: assists in lowering the nose of the aircraft to prevent a stall caused by an
aft CG position
1. Produces a mechanical load on the elevator causing it to move toward the nose-down
position, if not otherwise balanced
 Stick pushers are commonly used on transport category jets

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a If the computers recognize an approaching or impending stall, they will automatically push
forward on the stick to prevent reaching a critical angle of attack
D. Rudder
i. Controls yaw about the vertical axis
a. Typically used to maintain coordination
ii. Often cable operated, but can be operated by various mechanisms
iii. How it Works
a. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal
force is exerted in the opposite direction
 Pushing the left pedal moves the rudder left
a Alters airflow around the vertical stabilizer creating a
sideward lift moving the tail right & nose left
1. Moving the rudder in either direction increases
the camber and therefore increases lift on one
side of the rudder. Additionally, pushing the
rudder into the relative wind creates a force which
moves the aircraft’s nose in the same direction
b. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed
 Large deflections may be necessary at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds
 In a propeller driven airplane, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases effectiveness
iv. V-Tail
a. Utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as a conventional elevator and rudder
 The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers
b. The movable portion of the V-tail, often called ruddervators, are connected through a special linkage
that allows the control wheel to move both surfaces simultaneously
 Moving the rudder pedals moves the surfaces
differentially, providing directional control
 When both the rudder and elevator are
moved, a control mixing mechanism moves
each surface the appropriate amount
c. Drawbacks
 More complex than for a conventional tail
 More susceptible to Dutch roll
 Total reduction in drag is minimal
3. Secondary Flight Controls
A. Secondary control systems improve performance
characteristics or relieve excessive control forces
i. Flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers and trim systems
a. We’ll focus on the more common items – wing
flaps, spoilers, and trim
B. Flaps
i. The most common high lift devices used on practically all airplanes
a. Attached to the trailing edge of each wing to increase induced drag and lift for any given AOA
b. Important Functions
 Increased lift allows the aircraft to get airborne at lower speeds, reducing the amount of runway
required, and improves climb performance
 The increased drag allows for steeper approaches

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a A great example of this are military aircraft, specifically C-130s and C-17s, which can use flaps to
their advantage to perform steep approach and landings
 The lower landing speeds provide shorting landing distances
 Although many of these factors don’t have a huge impact on general aviation aircraft, these
functions make large differences for airliners which would otherwise need tremendous amounts of
runway to takeoff and land
ii. Plain Flaps
a. Simplest of the types
b. Increase wing camber, resulting in a significant increase
in the coefficient of lift at a given AOA
c. Drag is greatly increased, and the center of pressure
moves aft resulting in a nose down pitching moment
iii. Split Flaps
a. Deflect from the lower surface and produce a slightly
greater increase in lift than the plain flap
b. More drag is produced because of the turbulent airflow
behind the airfoil
iv. Slotted Flap
a. Most popular on airplanes today
b. Increase lift significantly more than plain and split flaps
c. When lowered, it forms a duct between the flap well in
the wing, and the flap’s leading edge
a High energy air from the lower surface is ducted
to the upper surface accelerating the upper
boundary layer and delaying airflow separation
d. Large aircraft have double- or even triple-slotted flaps
 Allows for maximum increase in drag without
destroying the flap’s added lift
v. Fowler Flaps
a. Type of slotted flap which changes the camber of the
wing and increases the wing area
b. Slides backward on tracks and then retracts downward
c. First portion of extension greatly increases lift with a
very small increase in drag
 As extension continues and the flap drops
downward, drag increases with little increase in lift
vi. Flap Control
a. Mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically operated
 Can also be a combination
a For example, many flaps are electrically powered and hydraulically actuated
b An electric switch activates the hydraulic pump(s) which physically move the flaps
b. Be aware of any flap operating speeds for your particular aircraft
C. Spoilers
i. High drag devices deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow over the wing, reducing lift and
increasing drag
ii. Uses
a. Reduce Airspeed

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 Increased drag allows for a more rapid reduction of airspeed in flight, and decreases ground roll
during landing
a On landing, airspeed decreases due to the spoilers being raised, and the destruction of lift
transfers the weight from the wings to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness
b. Increased Rate of Descent
 The aircraft can descend at a faster rate without increasing airspeed
c. Roll control
 To turn, the spoiler on one of the wing’s is deployed destroying some of the lift and creating more
drag on that wing
a The wing with the spoiler deployed will drop and the aircraft banks and yaws in that direction
b Adverse yaw is eliminated
4. Trim Systems
A. Used to relieve the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls
B. Consist of cockpit controls and small hinged devices on the trailing edge of one or more primary control surfaces
i. Minimize workload by aerodynamically assisting movement and the position of the controls
C. How a Trim Tab Works
i. The most common installation is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator
ii. Operation
a. Often operated manually through a small, vertically mounted control wheel (or trim crank)
b. The trim tab moves in the opposite direction of the elevator surface
c. Placing the trim in full nose-down moves the tab to its full up position (pictured, right)
 With the tab up, into the airstream, airflow over the tail forces the elevator down
a Causes the tail to move up and results in a nose-down pitch change
d. In the full nose-up position, the tab moves to its full
down position (pictured, right)
 Air flowing under the tail hits the tab forcing the
elevator up, reducing the elevator’s AOA
a Causes the tail to move down and results in a
nose-up pitch change
 Note: The bottom picture says “Tab up,” but
should say “Tab down”
D. Types of Trim Tabs
i. Balance Tabs
a. Look and function just like trim tabs, but the balance
tab is coupled to the control surface rod
 When the controls are deflected, the tab
automatically moves in the opposite direction
a Any time the control surface is deflected, the
tab moves the opposite direction
b Airflow against the tab counterbalances some
of the air pressure against the control surface
enabling the pilot to move the control more
easily and hold the control surface in position
b. If the linkage is adjustable from the cockpit, the tab acts as both a trim and balance tab
ii. Servo Tabs (primarily used in large aircraft)
a. Vey similar in operation and appearance to trim tabs and balance tabs

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b. A servo tab is a small portion of a flight control that deploys in such a way that it helps to move the
entire flight control surface in the direction that the pilot wishes it to go
c. Aids in moving the control surface and holding it in the desired position
d. Only the servo tab moves in response to movement of the flight controls
 The force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the control surface
iii. Antiservo Tabs
a. Decrease stabilator sensitivity and act as a trim device
b. Operation
 Work the same as a balance tab, but it moves in the same
direction as the flight control (rather than opposite)
 When the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the
trailing edge of the tab moves up
iv. Ground Adjustable Tabs
a. Metal trim tab on the rudder bent in either direction while on
the ground to apply a trim force
 Displacement is found through trial and error
v. Adjustable Stabilizer
a. Instead of using a trim tab on the elevator, some aircraft can
adjust the entire stabilizer
 This is driven by a jackscrew (motor driven on large aircraft and cranked on small aircraft)
E. Using Trim Tabs
i. Establish the desired power, pitch attitude, and configuration, then trim to relieve pressures
ii. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, re-trim for the new condition
5. Powerplant – four-stroke, reciprocating engines
A. General
i. Four stroke, reciprocating engine is the most common design used in general aviation
ii. The name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating,
movement of the pistons
iii. Basic Operating Principle - Convert chemical energy (fuel) into
mechanical energy
a. Pistons produce the mechanical energy to accomplish work
b. Occurs in the engine cylinders through combustion
B. Basic Components and Operation
i. Components
a. Cylinders
 Contain intake/exhaust valves, sparks plugs and
pistons
a Intake and exhaust valves allow the fuel-air
mixture to enter the combustion chamber of the
cylinder, and the burned gases to exit
b Spark plugs are used to ignite the fuel air mixture
1. Some engines do not have spark plugs, but use
high pressure to ignite the fuel-air mixture
c The pistons move up and down in the cylinder and
drive the crankshaft which drives the propeller
b. Crankcase
 Contains crankshaft, and connecting rods

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a The pistons are connected to the crankshaft via the connecting rods
b The movement of the pistons through the connecting rods rotate the crankshaft
1. The connecting rods transfer the linear (up and down) motion of the cylinders to rotational
motion, or the spinning of the crankshaft
c The crankshaft is connected to the propeller
c. Accessory Housing
 Contains magnetos, if applicable
a Magnetos are the power source for the spark plugs
1. As mentioned above, some airplanes do not use spark plugs and rely on compression alone
2. More information in 4. Ignition System
ii. Four-stroke operating cycle
a. Intake Stroke
 The fuel-air mixture is pulled into the combustion
chamber of the cylinder
a Piston moves to the bottom, increasing the
volume in the chamber
b The fuel air mixture enters the combustion
chamber
b. Compression Stroke
 The fuel-air mixture is compressed as the piston
moves up, decreasing the volume in the chamber
a Intake valve closes
b Piston moves to the top, compressing the fuel-air
mixture
c At the end of this stroke, a spark plug ignites the
mixture
c. Power Stroke
 The fuel-air mixture is ignited, increasing pressure
and forcing the piston back down
a Begins when the fuel-air mixture is ignited
resulting in a tremendous increase in pressure
1. Forces the piston back down, away from the
cylinder head
2. This creates the power that turns the
crankshaft which drives the propeller
d. Exhaust Stroke
 The burned gases are expelled
a The exhaust valve opens as the piston reaches the bottom
b As the piston moves back up, it pushes out the exhaust gases
C. Two Primary Engine Designs
i. Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition
a. Spark ignition (contains spark plugs/magnetos), has been the most popular choice for many years
b. In an effort to reduce costs, simplify design, and improve reliability, several manufacturers are turning to
compression ignition systems
 Compression systems can run on diesel or jet fuel
 Diamond DA42, for example
a Runs on jet fuel, and uses compression ignition

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ii. Components
a. The main mechanical components of spark and compression systems are essentially the same
b. The main difference is the process of igniting the fuel
 Spark Ignition – uses a spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed fuel air mixture
 Compression Ignition – compresses the air in the cylinder, raising its temperature to a degree
necessary for automatic ignition when fuel is injected into the cylinder
a Higher pressure = higher temperatures
D. Horizontally Opposed Cylinder Arrangement
i. The most popular reciprocating engine for smaller aircraft
ii. Cylinders oppose each other
a. A cylinder on one side of the crankcase “opposes”
a cylinder on the other
b. For this reason, they always have an even number
of cylinders
iii. Generally air cooled and mounted in a horizontal
position
iv. Compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engine’s
frontal area and allows a streamlined installation
minimizing aerodynamic drag
v. High power-to-weight ratios
a. Due to comparatively small, lightweight crankcase
6. Ignition System
A. General
i. The ignition system provides a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders
B. Components
i. Magnetos
a. A self-contained, engine driven unit that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs; completely
independent of the airplane’s electrical system
 A permanent magnet is used to generate the electrical current
 If the airplane loses electrical power (alternator and battery failure), the magnetos continue
operating and the engine will continue to run
b. Normally there are two magnetos per engine (a left and a right)
ii. Spark Plugs
a. The device that delivers electric current from the magnetos to the combustion chamber to ignite the
fuel-air mixture
 Basically, takes the energy from the magneto and delivers it as a spark in the combustion chamber
iii. High-Tension Leads
a. The wires that connect the magnetos to the spark plugs
iv. Ignition Switch
a. Controls the operation of the magnetos
b. 5 position switch:
 Off
 R (right) - Only runs the R magneto
 L (left) - Only runs the L magneto
 Both - Runs on both magnetos
 Start - Engages the starter using battery power. The starter rotates the crankshaft

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a The ignition system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn
C. Operation

i. Normal Operation
a. The system begins to fire when the starter is engaged and the crankshaft begins to turn
 The starter and initial crankshaft rotation are powered by the battery
b. The rotation of the crankshaft activates the magnetos which generate high voltage to produce a spark
through the spark plugs in the combustion chamber
 The combustion in the chamber produces piston movement which rotates the crankshaft
c. Once the engine can move the pistons on its own, then engine is started and the starter is no longer
necessary
 The starter is disengaged and the system operates on its own
 As long as the crankshaft is rotating, the magnetos/ignition system continue to operate
 As long as the magnetos/ignition system continue to operate, the crankshaft continues rotating
 Battery power is no longer necessary for engine operation
ii. Dual Ignition System
a. Most general aviation aircraft use a dual ignition system containing two individual magnetos, separate
sets of wires, and two separate spark plugs in each cylinder
b. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder
 Firing two spark plugs in each cylinder improves combustion and results in a slightly higher power
output
 If one magneto were to fail, the other is unaffected and the engine continues to operate normally,
but with a slight decrease in power
a The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails
7. Induction Systems
A. General
i. Brings in air from the outside, mixes it with fuel, and delivers the fuel-air mixture to the cylinders

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a. Air enters through an intake on the front of the engine and then travels through an air filter to prevent
dust and debris from entering the engine
b. Since the filter may become clogged, an alternate air source must be available
 This alternate source of air usually comes from inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses the
filter
ii. Two types of induction systems
a. Fuel Injection System
 Mixes the fuel and air immediately before entry into each cylinder, or injects fuel directly into each
cylinder
b. Carburetor System
 Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before it enters the intake manifold
B. Carburetor System
i. General
a. Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before entering the intake manifold
b. Two categories of carburetors – Float-type and pressure-type
 Float-type are the most common
 Pressure-type are rarely found in small aircraft
 The basic difference is the delivery of fuel – the pressure type carburetor delivers fuel under
pressure by a fuel pump
ii. Float-type Carburetors
a. Operation
 Fuel is sent from the fuel tank(s) to the carburetor float chamber
 The float chamber stores and meters the fuel that will be mixed with the air and sent to the engine
a The float chamber consists of a float that rests on the fuel in the chamber and a needle which is
attached to the float
1. The needle opens and closes an opening at the bottom of the chamber. When opened, fuel
is sent through the carburetor
 Based on the position of the float and the needle, fuel is metered to the discharge nozzle where it
will be mixed with the air
a When the level of fuel in the float chamber forces the float to rise, the needle valve closes the
fuel opening and stops fuel to the carburetor.
b The needle valve opens again when the engine requires additional fuel
c The position of the mixture needle is controlled by the mixture control lever in the cockpit
 At the same time, outside air enters through an air filter
 The filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi (narrow throat in the carburetor)
a When the air flows through the venturi, a low-pressure area is created that forces fuel to flow
through a main fuel jet located at the throat
1. This is the fuel that was allowed into the carburetor when the needle valve opened
 The fuel and air are mixed and flow to the combustion chambers based on the position of the
throttle valve
a The throttle valve is controlled by the throttle
b Increasing power opens the valve, allowing more of the fuel-air mixture to the combustion
chambers

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c Closing the throttle closes the valve, reducing the fuel-air mixture to the combustion chambers

b. Disadvantages
 Do not function well with abrupt maneuvers
 The discharge of fuel at low pressure leads to incomplete vaporization and difficulty in discharging
fuel into some types of supercharged systems
 Chief Disadvantage - Icing tendencies
c. Carburetor Icing
 Occurs due to the effect of fuel vaporization and the decrease in air pressure in the venturi, which
causes a sharp drop in temperature in the carburetor
a If water vapor in the air condenses when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice
can form on the internal surfaces of the carburetor, including the throttle valve
1. Ice generally forms in the vicinity of the throttle valve and in the venturi throat
 Carburetor icing restricts the flow of the fuel-air mixture and reduces power
a If enough ice builds up, the engine can stop operating
 Most likely to occur at temperatures below 70o F with relative humidity greater than 80%
a Due to the sudden cooling, icing can occur at temperatures as high as 100o F and humidity as
low as 50%
 The first indication of carburetor icing in an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller is a decrease in rpm,
which may be followed by engine roughness
a In an aircraft with a constant-speed propeller, carburetor icing is usually indicated by a decrease
in manifold pressure, but no reduction in rpm
1. In this case, the pitch is automatically adjusted to maintain rpm
 Carburetor heat is used to combat carburetor icing
d. Carburetor Heat
 Anti-icing system that preheats the air before it reaches the carburetor
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a Intended to keep the fuel-air mixture above freezing

 Primary use is to prevent the formation of ice, but can be used to melt ice that has already formed,
if the accumulation is not too great
 The use of carb heat decreases engine power, sometimes up to 15%
a Heated air is less dense than the outside air that was being used leading to reduced
performance
1. Using carb heat enriches the mixture (same fuel with less dense air)
2. Because it reduces engine output, carb heat should not be used when full power is required.
Follow the POH
C. Fuel Injection System
i. General
a. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve
b. Advantages of Fuel Injection
 Reduction in evaporation icing
 Better fuel flow
 Faster throttle response
 Precise control of mixture
 Better fuel distribution
 Easier cold weather starts
c. Disadvantages of Fuel Injection
 Difficulty in starting a hot engine
 Vapor locks during ground operation on hot days
 Problems associated with restarting an engine that quits because of fuel starvation

ii. Components and Operation

a. Engine-driven fuel pump
 Provides fuel to the fuel-air control unit after the engine is started
b. Auxiliary fuel pump

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 Provides fuel under pressure to the fuel-air control unit for engine starting and/or emergency use
(loss of the engine driven pump)
c. Fuel-air control unit
 Meters fuel based on the mixture control setting and sends it to the fuel manifold valve at a rate
controlled by the throttle
 Basically replaces the carburetor
d. Fuel manifold (distributor)
 Distributes the fuel to the individual fuel discharge nozzles
e. Discharge nozzles
 Located in the cylinder heads, and inject the fuel-air mixture directly into each cylinder intake port
f. Fuel pressure/flow indicators
 Provide the pilot information in regards to the fuel system
8. Oil Systems
A. Functions of the Oil System
i. Lubricates the engine’s moving parts
ii. Cools the engine by reducing friction and removes heat from cylinders
iii. Provides a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
iv. Carries away contaminants
B. Types of Oil Systems
i. Wet-Sump System
a. Oil is in a sump that is an integral part of the engine (usually located at the base of the engine)
b. Operation
 The oil pump draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine
 After oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump
a Generally returned by gravity to the sump since the sump is located at the bottom of the engine
 In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto
portions of the engine

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ii. Dry-Sump System

a. Oil is contained in a separate tank, outside of the engine, and circulated through the engine by pumps
b. Allows for a greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine (useful for large reciprocating engines)
c. Operation
 An oil pump supplies oil pressure to pump oil from the external oil tank through the engine
 After oil is route through the engine, it is pumped from various locations in the engine back to the oil
tank by scavenge pumps
C. Indications
i. Oil Pressure Gauge
a. Provides a direct indication of the oil system operation
b. Ensure the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine
ii. Oil Temperature Gauge
a. Measures the temperature of the oil
 Unlike oil pressure, temperature changes occur more slowly
b. High oil temperatures may signal:
 A plugged oil line
 Low oil quantity
 A blocked oil cooler
 A defective temperature gauge
c. Low oil temperatures may signal:
 Improper oil viscosity during cold weather operations
9. Cooling Systems
A. General
i. Why cooling is needed
a. The burning of fuel in the cylinders produces intense heat, most of which is expelled through the
exhaust system
b. Much of the remaining heat must be removed, or at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from
overheating
 Otherwise, the extremely high engine temperatures can lead to loss of power, excessive oil
consumption, detonation, and serious engine damage
c. The oil system is vital to the internal cooling of the engine, additional external cooling is necessary
ii. Types of engine cooling
a. Air Cooling
 Most small aircraft are air cooled – this is they system we’ll focus on
 Air flows into the engine compartment where it’s routed over the hottest parts of the engine and
expelled through the lower, aft portion of the cowling
b. Liquid Cooling
 Cooling liquid (usually water, ethylene glycol, or a combination of the two) is pumped around the
engine to cool the hot components
a Like the cooling system in your car
 Primary benefits: Less chance of shock cooling & the ability to direct coolant to specific, critical areas
 Negatives include added weight, and increased complexity (and increased cost)
B. Air Cooling
i. Operation

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a. Outside air enters the engine compartment where

baffles direct it to the hottest parts of the engine,
primarily the cylinders, which have fins that increase
the area exposed to the airflow
b. Air cooling is dependent on air flow, therefore it is
less effective during ground operations, takeoffs, go-
arounds, and other instances of high-power, low-
airspeed operation
 Conversely, high-speed descents provide excess
air and can shock cool the engine, subjecting it to
abrupt temperature fluctuations
ii. Monitoring and Controlling Engine Temperature
a. Monitoring Temperature
 The oil temperature gauge gives an indirect and
delayed indication of rising engine temperature
a Can be used for determining engine
temperature if this is the only means
available
 Cylinder head temperature (CHT) indicates a direct and immediate cylinder temperature change
b. Controlling Temperature
 To avoid excessive cylinder head temperatures:
a Increase airspeed,
b Enrich the fuel air mixture, and/or
c Reduce power
d Open cowl flaps (if installed)
10. Exhaust Systems
A. Operation and Uses
i. Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for the cabin, and
defrost the wind screen
ii. Operation
a. Engine Exhaust
 After combustion, the exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and
travel through the exhaust manifold/piping, and muffler to the atmosphere
b. Cabin Heat
 Outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
a The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases, and in turn heats the air around the muffler
 The heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
 Exhaust gases contain large amounts of carbon monoxide which is odorless and colorless, and
deadly
a To ensure exhaust gases are properly expelled, and not brought into the cabin through the
heating system, the exhaust must be in good condition and free of cracks
B. EGT
i. Some exhaust systems have an Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) probe
a. An EGT probe measures the temperature of the gases at the exhaust manifold
ii. The temperature of the gases varies based on the ratio of fuel to air entering the cylinders and can be used
as a basis for regulating the fuel-air mixture
a. The EGT gauge is highly accurate in indicating the correct fuel-air mixture setting

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b. For specific procedures, reference the POH

11. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)
A. A system consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control an aircraft’s engine and
propeller
i. First used in turbine aircraft, these systems are increasingly being used in piston powered aircraft (ex.
Diamond DA42)
B. What it does
i. Optimizes performance
a. The FADEC uses speed, temperature and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each cylinder
b. A digital computer calculates the ideal pulse for each injector, and adjusts ignition timing, and fuel flow
as necessary
 Generally results in decreased fuel consumption and increased horsepower
ii. Simplifies the Systems
a. Eliminates the need for magnetos, carburetor heat, mixture controls, propeller controls, and engine
priming
b. A single throttle is characteristic of FADEC equipped aircraft
 The pilot simply sets the throttle position, and the computer does the rest
a There is no need to monitor or control the mixture setting, or propeller
C. Safety
i. The FADEC is an essential part of the engine and propeller controller. Losing this system could result in
complete loss of engine power
ii. To prevent a failure from resulting in engine failure,
a. There must be a backup electrical source available
b. Two separate and identical digital channels are incorporated for redundancy
 Each channel is capable of providing all engine and propeller functions without limitations
c. In many aircraft, the FADEC uses power from a separate generator connected to the engine
12. Propeller
A. General
i. A rotating airfoil
a. Subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles
ii. Engine power is used to rotate the propeller
a. Rotation generates thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift
b. The amount of thrust depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack of the blade, and the rpm
iii. Prop is twisted – the blade angle changes from hub to tip
a. The greatest angle of incidence (highest pitch) is at the hub
b. The smallest angle of incidence (lowest pitch) is at the tip
c. The prop is twisted to provide uniform lift from the hub to the tip
 As the prop rotates, the tip of the blade
travels faster than the hub
a The tip travels a larger distance in the
same amount of time as the hub (like
overbanking tendency)
 A prop that wasn’t twisted would be
inefficient
a As airspeed increases, the portion near
the hub would have a negative AOA
while the tip would be stalled
iv. Installation
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a. Mounted on a shaft, which may be an extension of the engine crankshaft

 If it is directly connected to the crankshaft, the rpm of the propeller is the same as the crankshaft
rpm
 On some engines, the propeller is mounted on a shaft that is geared to the engine crankshaft
a In this case, the rpm of the propeller is different than that of the engine
b For example, the Diamond DA42 is geared at a ratio of 1.69:1
1. The engine spins 1.69 rpm to every 1 prop rpm
v. Two types of propellers
a. Fixed pitch
b. Adjustable pitch
B. Fixed Pitch
i. General
a. Fixed blade angle
 The pitch of the propeller is set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed
 Fixed pitch propellers only achieve their best efficiency only at a given combination of airspeed and
RPM
a The pitch setting is neither ideal for cruise or climb, and the aircraft suffers a bit in each category
b. Used when low weight, simplicity, and low cost are needed
c. Two types of fixed-pitch propellers
 Climb
 Cruise
ii. Climb Propeller
a. Lower pitch, and therefore less drag
 Less drag results in higher RPM and more horsepower capability
a This increases performance during takeoffs and climbs
b This decreases performance during cruise
iii. Cruise Propeller
a. Higher pitch, and therefore more drag
 More drag results in lower RPM and less horsepower capability
a This decreases performance during takeoff and climbs
b This increases performance during cruise
iv. Control and Indications
a. Tachometer
 Indicator of power
a Calibrated in hundreds of rpm
b Direct indication of the engine and propeller rpm
b. Controlling rpm
 The rpm is regulated by the throttle which controls the
fuel-air flow to the engine
a At a given altitude, the higher the tachometer
reading, the higher the power output of the engine
b As altitude increases, the tachometer may not show
correct engine power output
1. Power output depends on air density
a. Air density decreases as altitude increases
b. A decrease in air density decreases power output of the engine

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c. As altitude changes, the position of the throttle must be changed to maintain the same
rpm (throttle must be increased to maintain the same rpm at a higher altitude)
C. Adjustable Pitch (Constant-speed propeller)
i. General
a. A constant-speed propeller is a controllable pitch propeller whose pitch is automatically varied in flight
by a governor
 Governor maintains constant rpm despite varying air loads on the propeller
b. More efficient than other propellers because it allows selection of the most efficient engine rpm for the
given conditions
 Pitch can be adjusted for climb, cruise, and in between
ii. How it Works
a. Once a specific rpm is selected, the governor automatically adjusts the propeller blade to maintain the
selected rpm
 For example, after setting the rpm, an increase in airspeed or decrease in propeller load causes the
governor to increase the propeller blade angle to maintain the selected rpm
a In this case, the propeller would normally accelerate, but the governor increases the blade angle
(bigger bites of air) to maintain the desired rpm
 A reduction in airspeed or increase in load causes the propeller blade to decrease
a This would slow down a fixed pitch propeller, but the governor decreases the blade angle
(smaller bites of air) to maintain the same rpm
b. As long as the propeller blade angle is within its rpm range, a constant rpm is maintained
 If the propeller blade reaches a pitch stop (i.e. the blade cannot rotate any farther higher or lower),
the engine rpm will then increase or decrease (like a fixed pitch propeller)
a For example, if airspeed decreases enough to rotate the propeller blades until they contact the
low pitch stop, any further decrease in airspeed will cause the engine rpm to decrease. The
same concept applies to the high pitch stop, but will result in an rpm increase
iii. Controls and Indications
a. 2 controls - Throttle and Propeller control
 Throttle controls power output
 Propeller control regulates propeller rpm through the governor
a Rpm is shown on the tachometer
b. Manifold Pressure Gauge
 Power output is controlled by the throttle and indicated
on the manifold pressure gauge
a Gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel-
air mixture in the intake manifold
 At a constant rpm and altitude, the amount of power
produced is directly related to the fuel-air mixture
being delivered to the combustion chamber
a As the throttle is increased, more fuel and air flows
to the engine and manifold pressure increases.
Pressure decreases if power is reduced
 For any given rpm there is a manifold pressure that should not be exceeded
a If manifold pressure is excessive for a given rpm, the pressure in the cylinders could be
exceeded, placing undue stress on the cylinders
1. If repeated too often, the stress can weaken the cylinder components and lead to engine
failure

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 Always consult the manufacturer’s power/rpm settings in the POH

c. Adjusting power and rpm
 Decreasing power
a Reduce manifold pressure, then rpm (Lower power = Left to right – throttle, rpm)
b If rpm is reduced before manifold pressure, manifold pressure automatically increases,
potentially exceeding engine tolerances
 Increasing power
a Increase rpm, then manifold pressure (Raise power = Right to left – rpm, throttle)
13. Landing Gear and Brakes (Hydraulics)
A. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Types of Landing Gear
 Most common is wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water, or skis for landing
on snow
b. The landing gear on small aircraft consist of three wheels:
 Two main wheels, one on either side of the fuselage
 A third wheel positioned at the front or the rear of the airplane
a Conventional (tailwheel)
1. When the third wheel is positioned at the rear
b Tricycle
1. When the third wheel is positioned at the nose
c. Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
 Fixed
a Always remains extended
b Advantage of simplicity and low maintenance
 Retractable
a Designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear to be stowed inside the
structure during cruise flight
ii. Tricycle Landing Gear
a. Three advantages:
 Allows more forceful brake application during landings without causing the aircraft to nose over
 Permits better forward visibility during takeoff, landing, and taxiing
 Tends to prevent ground looping by providing more directional stability during ground operation
since the aircraft’s center of gravity is forward of the main wheels
a The forward center of gravity keeps the airplane moving forward in a straight line rather than
ground looping
b. Nosewheel
 The nosewheel is either steerable or castering
a Steerable nosewheels are linked to the rudders by cables or rods
b Castering nosewheels are free to swivel
 In either case, the aircraft is steered using rudder pedals
a Castering nosewheels may require the combination of rudder pedals and brakes
iii. Tailwheel Landing Gear
a. Two main wheels attached to the airframe ahead of the center of gravity that support most of the
weight of the structure
 A tailwheel at the very back of the fuselage provides a third point of support
b. Advantages of the tailwheel:

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 Adequate ground clearance for a larger propeller

 More desirable for operations on unimproved fields
c. Disadvantages of the tailwheel:
 With the CG located behind the main gear, directional control is more difficult while on the ground
a For example, if the pilot allows the airplane to swerve while rolling on the ground at a low
speed, there may not be sufficient rudder control and the center of gravity will attempt to get
ahead of the main gear, which may cause the airplane to ground loop
 Diminished forward visibility when the tailwheel is on or near the ground
B. Hydraulics
i. Standard Hydraulic Components:
a. Reservoir
b. Pump
c. Filter
d. Selector Valve
e. Relief Valve
f. Actuator or servo
ii. Operation
a. Hydraulic fluid is pumped from the reservoir
through a filter and then to an actuator or servo
 Servo – cylinder with a piston inside that turns
fluid power into work and creates the power
needed to move an aircraft system or flight
control
a Servos can be single-acting or double-
acting (fluid can be applied to one or both
sides of the servo)
b. The selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled
 For example, extension and retraction of the landing gear. The fluid has to work in two different
directions and the selector valve allows that based on the gear selector position in the cockpit
(extend or retract)
c. The relief valve provides an outlet for the system in the event of excessive fluid pressure
C. Brakes
i. Located on the main wheels
ii. Applied by either a hand control or foot pedal (most common)
a. Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential braking
b. Differential braking can supplement steering
14. Fuel Systems
A. General
i. Designed to provide uninterrupted, clean fuel from the tanks to the engine
ii. Fuel must be available under all conditions (engine power, altitude, attitude, and approved flight
maneuvers)
iii. Two common types of fuel systems in general aviation aircraft
a. Gravity Feed
 Uses gravity to transfer fuel from the tank(s) to the engine(s)
a Ex: On high-wing airplanes the fuel tanks are installed in the wings
1. Fuel is above the carburetor and gravity fed to it
b. Fuel-Pump System

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 If gravity cannot transfer the fuel (low-wing airplanes), fuel pumps are used
 Two fuel pumps per engine
a Engine driven pump
1. This is the main/primary fuel pump
2. Operates whenever the engine is operating
b Electrically-driven auxiliary pump
1. Used for engine start, and as a backup to the main pump
B. Fuel Tank and Strainer
i. Fuel Tank(s)
a. Normally located in the wings of an airplane
b. Vented to the outside to maintain atmospheric
pressure in the tank
c. Include an overflow drain
 Allows fuel to expand with increased temperature
and not damage the tank
ii. Strainer
a. After leaving the fuel tank, fuel passes through a
strainer that removes any moisture (water) and other
sediments in the system
 Contaminants like these are heavier than aviation
fuel and settle in a sump (low point in a fuel
system and/or fuel tank) at the bottom of the
strainer
b. The strainer should be drained before each flight
 Use the drain tool to check for the proper type of
fuel, as well as water and other contaminants in
the fuel
c. Water is the principal fuel contaminant
 Water can be hazardous because in cold weather
it can freeze and block fuel lines
a In warm weather it can flow into the
carburetor and stop the engine
 If water is present in the sump, it is likely that
there is more water in the fuel tanks and they
should be drained until there is no evidence of
water
 Water droplets can be identified by a cloudy
appearance of the fuel, or by the clear separation
of water from the colored fuel
d. To prevent condensation, fuel tanks should be filled after each flight or after the last flight of the day
C. Fuel Selectors
i. Allows selection of fuel from various tanks, if installed
a. Common settings include, Left, Right, Both, Off
b. Selecting Left or Right allows fuel to feed only from the respective tank, while Both feeds fuel from both
tanks
 Left and Right may be used to balance the fuel remaining in each wing tank, or to isolate one tank
ii. Always monitor the fuel consumption and quantities in each tank

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a. Many aircraft do not have a Both selection, and therefore the selector must be swapped between Left
and Right to maintain a balance
 Disregarding the fuel can lead to running an individual
tank dry, as well as unbalanced fuel loads
a Running a tank dry may allow air to enter the fuel
system and cause vapor lock, which makes it
difficult to restart the engine
b On fuel-injected engines, the fuel becomes so hot
it vaporizes in the fuel line, not allowing fuel to
reach the cylinders
D. Fuel Primer
i. Draws fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the
cylinders prior to starting the engine
a. Used in both gravity-feed, and fuel-pump systems
ii. During cold weather, when engines are difficult to start, the fuel primer helps because there is not enough
heat available to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor
iii. The primer should be locked in place when not in use
a. An unlocked primer can rattle lose out of flight and cause an excessively rich mixture
E. Fuel Gauges
i. Fuel Quantity Gauge(s)
a. Indicate the amount of fuel in each tank to the pilot
b. Aircraft certification rules only require accuracy in fuel gauges when they read “empty”
 Any reading other than empty should be verified
 Always visually check the fuel level in each tank during the preflight and compare it to the tank
quantity indications
ii. Fuel Pressure Gauge
a. If a fuel pump is installed, a fuel pressure gauge is included with it
b. Indicates the pressure in the fuel lines
 The POH can provide more detailed information in regards to the indications
15. Electrical Systems
A. General
i. Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14 or 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system
ii. A basic electrical system consists of the following:
a. Alternator/generator
b. Battery
c. Master/battery switch
d. Alternator/generator switch
e. Bus bar, fuses, and/or circuit breakers
f. Voltage regulator
g. Ammeter/loadmeter
h. Electrical wiring
B. Power Generation
i. Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric current to the electrical system and also maintain a
sufficient charge in the battery
ii. Some DC generators do not produce sufficient power to operate the entire electrical system at low engine
rpm
a. In this case, the excess electrical needs will be drawn from the battery, which can quickly be depleted
iii. Alternators have several advantages over generators
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a. Alternators produce sufficient current to operate the entire electrical system, even at low engine
speeds, by producing alternating current (AC), which is converted to DC
b. The electrical output of alternators is more constant through a wide range of engine speeds
iv. Voltage Regulator (contained in most systems)
a. Controls the rate of charge to the battery by stabilizing generator/alternator output
b. The generator/alternator voltage should be higher than the battery voltage
 Ex: a 12-volt battery would be fed by a generator/alternator system of approximately 14 volts
 The difference in voltage keeps the battery charged
C. Power Storage
i. Power is stored in batteries, primarily the main battery
a. Used as a source of electrical power for starting the engine, and a limited supply of electrical power for
use in the event the alternator or generator fails
D. Power Distribution

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i. A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system to connect the main electrical system to the
equipment using electricity as a source of power
a. Distributes the power from the alternator/generator/battery to the components using the power
E. Protection
i. Fuses or circuit breakers are used to protect the circuits and equipment from electrical overload
a. Spare fuses should be carried
b. Circuit breakers have the same function as a fuse but can be manually reset, rather than replaced, if an
overload occurs
F. Indications
i. Ammeter
a. Monitors the performance of the aircraft electrical system
b. Shows if the alternator/generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical power and indicates if
the battery is receiving an electrical charge
c. Ammeter Indications
 Designed with the zero point in the center of the
face, a negative indication on the left, and a
positive indication on the right
a When the pointer is on the plus side, it shows
the charging rate of the battery
b When the pointer is on the minus side, it
shows the discharge rate of the battery
1. More current is being drawn from the
battery than is being replaced
 A full scale minus deflection indicates a malfunction of the alternator/generator
 A full scale plus deflection indicates a malfunction of the regulator
d. Not all aircraft are equipped with an ammeter, some only show a warning light that, when lighted,
indicates a discharge in the system as a generator/alternator malfunction
ii. Loadmeter
a. Shows the load being placed on the alternator/generator
 Reflects the total percentage of the load placed on the generating capacity of the electrical system
by the electrical accessories and battery
 When all electrical components are turned off, it reflects on the amount of charging current
demanded by the battery
16. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary greatly, especially with the advent and large scale acceptance of glass displays
i. Electronic instrument displays, GPS’s, autopilots, radios, traditional instruments (vacuum, gyro, etc.)
a. G1000, Avidyne, etc.
ii. Be familiar with the avionics displays and instruments associated with your aircraft and their use
a. Manage automation
b. Do not become distracted with the seemingly unlimited functionality of glass cockpits
c. Reference the avionics user manual(s)
B. Autopilot
i. Automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set course
a. Can be directed by the pilot or coupled to a radio navigation signal
ii. Reduces physical and mental demands on a pilot and increases safety
iii. Autopilots vary greatly in complexity
a. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos
connected to the flight control system
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b. The number and location of the servos depends on the complexity of the system
 For example, a single-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal axis and a servo
actuates the ailerons
 A three-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes
a Three different servos actuate ailerons, elevator, and rudder
 More advanced systems often include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode
 Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids through a flight director
a These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems, GPS, and flight computers to control the
aircraft
iv. Most autopilot systems also incorporate a disconnect safety feature to disengage the system automatically
or manually
a. This allows the pilot to override an autopilot malfunction
C. Because avionics systems differ widely in their operation, refer to the manufacturer’s operating instructions
17. Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static Flight Instruments
i. Combined system that utilizes the static air pressure (static ports) and dynamic pressure (pitot tube) due to
the motion of the aircraft through the air
a. Utilized for the operation of the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
ii. How it Works
a. Flight instruments depend on accurate sampling of the ambient atmospheric pressure
 This is used to determine the height and speed of movement of the aircraft through the air
b. Static Pressure (still air pressure) is measured at a flush port where air is not disturbed
 Pressure of the air that is still or not moving, measured perpendicular to the aircraft surface
c. Pitot Pressure (impact air pressure) is measured through a tube pointed into the relative wind
 Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed
d. The Pitot Tube connects to the Airspeed Indicator; the Static Port connects to all 3 instruments

iii. Sensitive Altimeter

a. An aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it as feet
above a selected pressure level

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b. Principle of Operation
 The sensitive element is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules
a Air pressure tries to compress them, while natural springiness tries to expand them
b This results in their thickness changing as their air pressure changes
1. The change in thickness moves the gears/linkages to change the altitude displayed
 Contains an adjustable barometric scale (visible in the Kollsman window)
a This allows you to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured
b Rotating the knob changes the barometric scale: 1” Hg is equal to 1,000’
1. Standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000’
c Pressure altitude is when the Kollsman window
is set to 29.92” Hg
d When you want to display indicated altitude,
adjust to the local altimeter setting
1. This will indicate the height above the
existing sea level pressure
c. Errors (Mechanical and Inherent)
 Nonstandard Temperature
a When in warmer than standard air, air is less
dense and pressure levels are farther apart
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is higher
than it would be if the air were cooler
a. The pressure level for that alt is higher
than it would be at standard temp
b If air is colder than standard, it is denser, and
pressure levels are closer together
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is lower
than it would be if the air were warmer
a. The pressure level for that alt is higher than it would be at standard temp
 Nonstandard Pressure
a High pressure to Low pressure
1. As the pressure decreases, the altimeter reads it as though the airplane is climbing
a. The altimeter increases although the airplane is at the same altitude
i. To compensate for this the pilot will descend, therefore lowering true altitude and
putting the aircraft in a potentially dangerous position (lower than the altimeter
indicates)
b Opposite applies from low to high pressure
 REMEMBER: From hot to cold, or from high to low,
look out below!
iv. Vertical Speed Indicator
a. A rate-of-pressure change instrument giving an
indication of deviation from a constant pressure level
b. Principle of Operation
 Inside the instrument case is an aneroid
a Both the aneroid and the inside of the case are
vented to the static system

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1. But the case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside to change
more slowly than that inside the aneroid
 As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower (Descent is the opposite)
a The pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward
 When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes
a The pressure inside the case becomes the same as that inside the aneroid
v. Airspeed Indicator
a. A differential pressure gauge measuring the
dynamic pressure of the air the aircraft is in
 Dynamic Pressure: the difference in ambient
static air pressure and the total, or ram,
pressure caused by the motion of the aircraft
through the air
b. Principle of Operation
 Consists of a thin, corrugated phosphor bronze
aneroid, or diaphragm, receiving its pressure
from the pitot tube
 The instrument is sealed and connected to the
static port(s)
 As pitot pressure increases/ static decreases,
the diaphragm expands and vice versa
a A rocking shaft and set of gears drives the
airspeed needle
vi. Electronic Flight Display
a. General
 Digital displays have become increasingly popular over the years, and although they display the
same, and more, information, the methods have changed
 Pitot-static information now comes from an Air Data Computer or ADC
b. Air Data Computer (ADC)
 EFDs utilize the same instrument inputs as traditional gauges (pitot/static inputs), however the
processing is different
 The pitot static inputs are received by an ADC
a The ADC computes the difference between the total pressure and the static pressure and
generates the information necessary to display the airspeed on the PFD
b Altitude information is derived from the static port just as an analogue system does; however,
the static pressure does not enter a diaphragm
1. The ADC computes the received barometric pressure and sends a digital signal to the PFD
(primary flight display) to display the proper altitude
B. Gyroscopic System (Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator)
i. How it Works
a. The 2 characteristics of gyroscopes: Rigidity and Precession
 Rigidity: Characteristic that prevents its axis or rotation tilting as the Earth rotates
 Precession: Characteristic that causes an applied force to be felt 90o from that point in the direction
of rotation
b. The instruments contain a gyro (small wheel with its weight concentrated around its periphery)
 When spun at a high speed, the wheel becomes rigid, resisting any attempt to tilt or turn in any
direction other than around its spin axis

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a Attitude/Heading instruments operate on the principle of rigidity

1. The gyro remains rigid in its case and the aircraft rotates about it
 Rate indicators (turn indicators/turn coordinators) operate on the principle of precession
a The gyro precesses (or rolls over) proportionate to the rate the aircraft rotates about one or
more of its axes
c. Power Sources
 Electrical Systems
 Pneumatic (vacuum) Systems
a Driven by a jet of air impinging on buckets cut into the periphery of the wheel
 Venturi Tube Systems
a Air flows through venturi tubes mounted on the outside of the aircraft
1. The constricted part of the tube (low pressure) is connected to the instruments
a. This creates a suction
 Wet-Type Vacuum Systems
a Steel vane air pumps are used to evacuate the instrument cases
b The vanes in the pumps are lubricated with oil which is discharged with the air
c Excess air can be used inflate deicer boots
 Dry-Air Pump Systems
a At high altitudes, more air is needed in the instruments as the air is less dense
1. Air pumps that do not mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying
b Vanes are made of a special formulation of carbon which do not need lubricating
 Pressure Systems
a 2 dry air pumps are used with filters to filter anything that could damage the fragile carbon
vanes in the pump
b The discharge air from the pump flows through a regulator, where excess air is bled off to
maintain the pressure in the system at the desired level
c The regulated air then flows through inline filters to remove any contamination that could have
been picked up from the pump, and from there into a manifold check valve
d If either engine becomes inoperative, or if either pump fails, the check valve will isolate the
inoperative system and the instruments will be driven by air from the other system
e After passing through the instruments/driving the gyros, air is exhausted from the case
f The gyro pressure gauge measures the pressure drop across the instruments

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ii. Attitude Indicator

a. Principle of Operation
 Its operating mechanism is a small brass wheel
with a vertical spin axis
a It is spun by either a stream of air on buckets
cut into its periphery or an electric motor
 Mounted in a double gimbal which allows the
aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro
a A type of mount in which the axes of the two
gimbals are at right angles to the spin of the
axis of the gyro allowing free motion in two
planes around the gyro
 A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it
remains in the same plane as the gyro
a The airplane pitches and rolls around the
horizon disk
 A small aircraft is put in the instrument case so it appears to be flying relative to the horizon
a The aircraft can be raised or lowered
 To function properly, the gyro must remain vertically upright while the aircraft pitches/rolls
a The bearings have a minimum of friction, but even the small amount causes precession
1. To minimize tilting, an erection mechanism applies a force any time the gyro tilts to return it
to the upright position
b. Errors
 Free from most errors, but…
a There may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and vice versa
b There is also the possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error after a 180o turn
iii. Heading Indicator
a. The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal axis in such a
way that its spin axis is horizontal
 Senses rotation about the vertical axis of the
airplane
b. Must be set to the appropriate heading by referring
to a magnetic compass
 Rigidity causes them to maintain this heading
indication
c. Air driven: air flows into the case, blowing against
buckets in the periphery of the wheel
d. The instrument should be checked every 15 minutes
to ensure it matches the magnetic compass
iv. Turn Indicators
a. General
 Two types of turn indicators: Turn-and-slip, and Turn coordinators
 Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality of turn (coordination)
a Turn-and-slip shows direction and rate of turn
b Turn coordinator (canted gyro) shows direction and rate of turn and rate of roll
 Provides a backup source of bank information if the attitude indicator fails
b. Operation

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 Gyro is powered by air or an electric motor

 Small gyro mounted in a single gimbal
a Gyro rotates in the vertical axis, corresponding to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis
 Yawing produces a force in the horizontal plane
a Precession causes any yawing forces to tilt the gyro to the left or right
b A spring works to maintain the center position
c Spring also makes the indicator incapable of tumbling off its rotational axis
c. Turn-and-Slip Indicator
 Direction and rate of turn is displayed by the turn needle as yawing forces tilt the gyro

d. Turn Coordinator (more common in GA aircraft)

 Very similar to the turn-and-slip but the gimbal is canted so the gyro can sense both rate of roll as
well as rate of turn
a When rolling in/out of a turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction of the turn
b A rapid roll rate causes the mini aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate
c Only indicates rate and direction of turn; does not indicate angle of bank
 Used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn (3o per second)
a Align the wing of the mini aircraft with the turn index
v. Electronic Flight Display
a. In the electronic flight display, the gyroscopic instruments have been replaced by the AHRS (attitude and
heading reference system)
b. AHRS
 Electronic flight displays have replaced free-spinning gyros with sold-state laser systems that are
capable of flight at any attitude without tumbling
 The AHRS sends attitude information to the PFD to generate the pitch and bank information of the
attitude indicator
 The heading information is derived from a magnetometer that senses the earth’s lines of magnetic
flux
 All of the information is processed and then sent to the PFD to be displayed
18. Environmental Systems
A. Heating
i. There are many different types of aircraft heating systems depending on the type of aircraft
a. Fuel Fired Heaters
b. Exhaust Heating Systems
c. Combustion Heating Systems
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d. Bleed Air Heating Systems

ii. Exhaust Heating Systems
a. The simplest type of aircraft heating system and are used on most light aircraft
b. The engine exhaust system is used as a heat source for the cabin and carburetor (if carbureted)
c. Operation
 Outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
a The muffler is heated by the exiting exhaust gases, and in turn heats the air around the muffler
 The heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
d. Exhaust gases contain large amounts of carbon monoxide which is odorless and colorless, and deadly
 To ensure exhaust gases are properly expelled, and not brought into the cabin through the heating
system, the exhaust must be in good condition and free of cracks
iii. Fuel Fired Heaters
a. A small mounted or portable space-heating device
b. Operation
 Fuel is brough to the heater’s combustion chamber by using piping from a fuel tank, or taps in the
aircraft’s fuel system
 A fan blows air into the combustion chamber, and a spark plug or ignition device ignites the fuel-air
mixture
 Outside the combustion chamber, a second, larger diameter tube conducts air around the
combustion tube’s outer surface, and a second fan blows the warmed air into tubing which takes it
to the aircraft cabin
c. Because gasoline heaters are required to be vented, special care must be made to ensure the vents do
not leak into the interior of the aircraft
iv. Combustion Heater Systems
a. Often used to heat larger, more expensive aircraft
b. Operation
 Burns the aircraft’s fuel in a combustion chamber or tube to develop required heat
 Air flowing around the tube is heated and ducted to the cabin
 The byproduct, carbon monoxide exits through the heater’s exhaust pipe
 The system is activated by the thermostat
a The thermostat turns on the fuel solenoid allowing fuel into the burner chamber where it is
burned
b As the thermostat reaches its preset/desired temperature, it turns off fuel into the burner
chamber, and the cycle continues
c. Very Safe
 Overheat switch – shuts off fuel in the case of a malfunction
 Unlikely for carbon monoxide poisoning to occur
a Low pressure in the combustion tube, high pressure outside the combustion tube
b If there were a leak, the high-pressure air outside the combustion tube would travel into the
chamber and exit the exhaust
v. Bleed Air Heating Systems
a. Used on turbine-engine aircraft
b. Operation
 Extremely hot, compressed bleed air is ducted into a chamber where it is mixed with ambient or re-
circulated air to cool it to a useable temperature, and then is ducted into the cabin
c. Safety Features
 Temperature sensors that prevent excessive heat from entering the cabin

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 Check valves to prevent a loss of compressor bleed air when starting the engine and when full
power is required
 Engine sensors to eliminate the bleed system if
the engine becomes inoperative
B. Pressurization
i. General
a. Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons:
 More efficient - Less fuel consumed for a given
airspeed
 Bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by
flying above the storms
b. To fly at high altitudes, the aircraft must be
pressurized
 Pressurization is necessary to protect
occupants against hypoxia and the effects of
low atmospheric pressures on the body at high
altitudes
ii. How it Works
a. The cabin, flight and baggage compartments are
incorporated into a sealed unit capable of
containing air under a higher pressure than the
outside atmospheric pressure (Differential
Pressure)
 Differential Pressure – the difference in
pressure between the pressure acting on one
side of a wall and the pressure acting on the
other side of the wall (the difference between
the cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure)
b. Atmospheric air is compressed. Different aircraft systems, compress the air in in different ways:
 Turbine powered aircraft – bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the
cabin
 Older model turbine-powered aircraft – superchargers can be used to pump air into the sealed
fuselage
 Piston-powered aircraft – Often use air supplied from each engine turbocharger through a sonic
venturi (flow limiter)
c. The compressed air is conditioned and sent into the cabin
d. Air is released from the fuselage through a device called an outflow valve
 By regulating the amount of air exiting the fuselage, the outflow valve:
a Allows for a constant inflow of air into the pressurized fuselage, and
b Maintains the proper differential pressure
 A typical cabin pressure altitude is 8,000’ at the maximum designed cruising altitude of the airplane
iii. Cabin Pressure Control System
a. Provides cabin pressure regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, the means for selecting the desired
cabin altitude, and the means to dump the cabin pressure
 A cabin pressure regulator, an outflow valve, and a safety valve are used to accomplish these
functions

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b. Cabin Pressure Regulator – controls cabin pressure, and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential
value
 Differential control is used to prevent the maximum differential pressure, for which the fuselage was
designed, from being exceeded
 If we reach the maximum differential pressure, an increase in altitude outside will result in an
increase in cabin altitude
c. Outflow Valve
 Air is released from the fuselage by the outflow valve
 By regulating the air exit, the outflow valve allows for a constant inflow of air into the pressurized
area and the ability to maintain a specific differential pressure
d. Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve
 Combination of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
 The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined differential
pressure above ambient pressure
 The vacuum relief valve prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by allowing
external air to enter the cabin if ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure
 The dump valve dumps the cabin air into the atmosphere
a The cabin altitude will become equal to the atmospheric altitude
b Controlled by a switch in the cockpit (used for emergency situations)
iv. Instruments
a. Cabin differential pressure gauge
 Indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure
b. Cabin Altimeter
 Shows the altitude inside the airplane
 Differential pressure gauge and cabin altimeter can be combined into one instrument
c. Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent
 Shows how quickly the cabin altitude is changing during a climb or descent

19. Deice and Anti-Ice Systems

A. General
i. Anti-icing equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice
ii. Deicing equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed
iii. Protect numerous parts of the aircraft, including the leading edge of wing and tail surfaces, pitot and static
ports, fuel tank vents, stall warning devices, windshields, and propeller blades
iv. Most light aircraft only have a heated pitot tube and are not certified for flight in icing
a. We’ll discuss various common pieces of equipment that may not be included on your aircraft

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B. Airfoil
i. Deicing Boots
a. Inflatable deicing boots consisting of a rubber sheet bonded to the leading edge of the air foil
b. Operation
 When ice builds up on the leading edge, an engine-driven pneumatic pump inflates the rubber boots
a Many turboprop aircraft divert engine bleed air into the wing to inflate the rubber boots
 Upon inflation, the ice is cracked and falls off the leading edge of the wing
c. Controlled by a switch on the flight deck
 Can be operated in a single cycle, or allowed to cycle at
automatic, timed intervals
d. Instruments
 Many systems use a suction and pneumatic pressure
gauge to indicate proper boot operation
ii. Thermal Anti-Ice System
a. Heat provides one of the most effective methods for
preventing ice accumulation on an airfoil
b. Operation
 High performance turbine aircraft often direct hot air
from the compressor section of the engine to the
leading-edge surfaces
a The hot air heats the leading edge sufficiently to
prevent the formation of ice
 Should be activated prior to entering icing conditions
iii. Weeping Wing
a. Uses small holes in the leading edge of the wing to prevent
the formation and build-up of ice
b. Operation
 An antifreeze solution is pumped to the
leading edge of the wings and weeps out
through the small holes
c. Capable of deice and anti-ice
 When ice has accumulated on the leading
edges, the antifreeze solution chemically
breaks down the bond between the ice and
airframe, allowing aerodynamic force to
remove the ice
C. Windscreen
i. Alcohol
a. Directs a flow of alcohol to the windscreen
b. If used early enough, the alcohol prevents ice from building up on the windscreen
ii. Electric Heat
a. Small wires or other conductive material is imbedded in the windscreen
b. Operation
 Turned on by a switch in the cockpit
 Causes an electric current to be passed across the shield through the wires to provide sufficient heat
to prevent the formation of ice on the windscreen
D. Propeller

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i. Alcohol
a. Used to prevent ice from forming on the leading edge of the propellers
b. Alcohol is released from discharge nozzles and centrifugal force drives it down the leading edge of the
propeller blade
 There are also grooves in the propeller boots to help direct the flow of alcohol
ii. Electric Heat
a. Propellers are fitted with anti-ice boots
b. The boots are imbedded with electrical wires that carry current for heating the propellers

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

The airplane’s attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls. When
deflected, these surfaces change the camber and AOA of the wing or stabilizer and thus change its lift and drag
characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures necessary and flaps increase lift and induced drag
and create a compromise between a high cruise speed and low landing speed.

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. Useable Fuel: 24.5 gallons (standard tanks) / 37.5 gallons (long range tanks)
3. Min Oil: 4 Quarts

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Cessna 152. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Primary Flight Controls
i. Aileron, Rudder and Elevator control surfaces
a. Conventional aileron, rudder and elevator control surfaces
b. Manually operated through cables and mechanical linkage
c. Control wheel for the ailerons and elevator. Rudder/brake pedals for the rudder
ii. Construction
a. Ailerons: constructed of a forward spar containing balance weights, formed sheet metal ribs and “V”
type corrugated aluminum skin joined together at the trailing edge
b. Rudder: constructed of a formed leading edge skin containing hinge halves, a wraparound skin panel
and ribs, and a formed trailing edge skin with a ground adjustable trim tab at its base. The top of the
rudder incorporates a leading-edge extension which contains a balance weight
c. Horizontal Stabilizer: construction consists of a main spar and bellcrank, left and right wrap around skin
panels, and a formed trailing edge skin on the left half of the elevator; the entire trailing edge of the
right half is hinged and forms the elevator trim tab. The leading edge of both left and right elevator tips
incorporate extensions which contain balance weights

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B. Trim
i. Manually operated elevator trim
a. The elevator trim tab is moved through the vertically mounted trim control wheel
b. Forward rotation = nose down; Aft rotation = nose up
2. Flaps
A. Single-slotted wing flaps
B. Operated by the wing flap switch lever
i. 10o, 20o, 30o settings
a. For flap settings greater than 10o, move the switch lever to the right to clear the stop and position it as
desired
C. A scale and pointer to the left of the control lever indicates flap travel in degrees
D. Construction
i. Basically, the same as the ailerons (above), with the exception of the balance weights and the addition of a
formed sheet metal leading edge section
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming O-235-L2C
a. Direct Drive
b. Horizontally Opposed
c. 4 cylinders
d. Air Cooled
e. Carbureted
f. Wet Sump Oil System
g. 110 hp at 2550 rpm
ii. Engine Controls

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a. Throttle Control (black)

 Open in forward position
 Closed in aft position
 Friction lock – rotating clockwise increases throttle friction, counterclockwise decreases friction
b. Fuel Mixture (red)
 Rich – full forward
 Idle/Cutoff – full aft
 Small movements can be made by rotating the knob
a Clockwise = rich
b Counterclockwise = lean
 Rapid/large movements, the knob may be moved forward or aft by depressing the lock button in the
end of the control and positioning the control as desired
iii. Indications
a. Engine operation is monitored by the following:
 Oil Pressure Gauge
a A direct oil pressure line from the engine delivers oil to the gauge
b Normal – Green Arc (60-90 psi)
c Min Idling Pressure – Red Line (25 psi)
d Max Pressure – Red Line (115 psi)
 Oil Temperature Gauge
a Operated by an electrical-resistance type temperature sensor which receives power from the
aircraft electrical system
b Normal – Green Arc (100o – 245o F)
c Max Temp – Red Line (245o F)
 Tachometer
a Indicates both engine and propeller speed
b Normal – Green Arc (1900 to 2550 RPM)
c Max – Red Line (2550 RPM)
d The upper end of the green arc is “stepped” to indicate approximate RPM for 75% engine power
at sea level (2350 RPM), at 4000’ (2450 RPM), and at 8000’ (2550 RPM)
 Economy Mixture (EGT) indicator is also available
a A thermocouple probe in the muffler tailpipe measures exhaust gas temperature and transmits
it to the indicator
B. Propeller
i. Two Blade, Fixed Pitch propeller
ii. One piece, made of forged aluminum alloy
iii. 69” diameter
4. Landing Gear
A. Tricycle Landing Gear
i. Steerable nosewheel, and two main wheels
B. Shock absorption
i. Main Wheels - tubular spring steel main landing gear struts
ii. Nose Wheel - air/oil nose gear shock strut
C. Braking
i. Each main wheel is equipped with a hydraulically actuated disk brake on each wheel
ii. Operation

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a. Each brake is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder attached to each of the pilot's rudder
pedals. The brakes are operated by applying pressure to the top of either the left or right set of rudder
pedals, which are interconnected
 If braking action decreases during taxi or landing roll let up on the pedals and reapply with heavy
pressure
 If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the brakes should build up brake
pressure
 If one brake weakens or fails use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
b. When the airplane is parked, both main wheel brakes may be set by utilizing the parking brake which is
operated by a handle under the left side of the instrument panel
iii. Brake Failure
a. Symptoms of impending brake failure may include
 Gradual decrease in braking action
 Noisy or dragging brakes
 Soft or spongy pedals
 Excessive brake travel
 Weak braking action
b. If any of these symptoms appear, immediate attention is needed
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Two vented fuel tanks – one tank in each wing
ii. Standard Tanks
a. Usable Fuel: 24.5 gallons
b. Unusable Fuel: 1.5 gallons
c. Total Fuel: 26 gallons
iii. Long Range Tanks
a. Usable Fuel: 37.5 gallons
b. Unusable Fuel: 1.5 gallons
c. Total Fuel: 39 gallons
d. May be serviced to a reduced fuel capacity to permit heavier cabin loadings
 Fill each tank to the bottom of the indicator on the fuel filler neck
 12.25 usable gallons, 13 gallons total
iv. Operation
a. Gravity flows from the wing tanks to a fuel shutoff valve. With the valve in the ON position, fuel flows
through a strainer to the carburetor. From the carburetor, mixed fuel and air flows to the cylinders
through intake manifold tubes
b. The manual primer draws its fuel from the fuel strainer and injects it into the cylinder intake ports
v. Venting
a. Essential to system operation
 Blockage of the venting system will result in a decreasing fuel flow and eventual engine stoppage
b. Venting is accomplished by an interconnecting line from the right fuel tank to the left tank. The left tank
is vented overboard through a vent line which is equipped with a check valve, and protrudes from the
bottom surface of the left wing near the wing strut attach point
 The right fuel tank filler cap is also vented
vi. Drain Valves
a. Drain valves provide a means for examination of fuel in the system for contamination and grade

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b. The system should be examined before the first flight of every day and after each refueling
c. The fuel tanks should be filled after each flight to prevent condensation
vii. Fuel Indications
a. Quantity is measured by two float-type fuel quantity transmitters (one in each tank) and indicated by
two electrically-operated fuel quantity indicators
 Empty – Red Line and the letter E
B. At empty, approximately .75 gallons remain in either a standard or long-range tank as unusable fuel

C. Oil
i. Wet sump oil system
a. Engine sump capacity – 6 quarts (one additional quart if a full flow oil filter is installed)
b. The engine should not be operated on less than 4 quarts of oil
 To minimize loss of oil, fill to 5 quarts for normal flights less than 3 hours
a For extended flights, fill to 6 quarts (dipstick indication only)
ii. Basic Operation
a. Sump Oil Pump Oil Cooler Engine Sump
b. Oil is drawn from the sump through a strainer screen to the engine driven oil pump. From the oil pump,
oil is directly to the oil cooler and returns to the engine where it passes through the pressure screen, if
the engine does not incorporate a full flow oil filter

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 If the engine is equipped with a full flow oil filter, oil passes from the pump to a thermostatically
controlled bypass valve.
a If the oil is cold, the bypass valve allows the oil to bypass the oil cooler and flow directly to the
filter
b If the oil is hot, the bypass valve routes the oil from the accessory case forward through a
flexible hose to the engine oil cooler mounted on the left forward side of the engine. Returning
to the accessory case, the oil passes through the filter.
c The filtered oil then enters a pressure relief valve which regulates engine oil pressure by
allowing excessive oil to return to the sump, while the balance of the pressure oil is circulated to
various engine parts for lubrication. Residual oil returns to the sump by gravity flow
D. Hydraulic
i. There is no engine driven hydraulic system. For hydraulic information, reference 4. Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. 28 V DC Electrical System
B. Power Generation
i. Belt driven 60 Amp Alternator
a. Controlled by the left half of the master switch, labeled ALT
b. Alternator Control Unit – alternator regulator high-low voltage control unit mounted on the engine side
of the firewall
 In the event of an over-voltage, the alternator control unit automatically shuts down the alternator
leaving the battery to power the system
C. Power Storage
i. 24V Main Battery
a. Mounted on the right forward side of the firewall
b. Controlled by the right half of the master switch, labeled BAT
D. Power Distribution
i. Power is supplied to a bus bar
ii. The master switch controls the power to all circuits, except the engine ignition system, clock, and flight hour
recorder (if installed)
E. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g., Radio, Fuel Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are connected in series with their
respective circuit breakers
F. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Ammeter
a. The ammeter indicates the amount of current in amps from the alternator to the battery or the battery
to the aircraft electrical system
 When the engine is operating and the master switch is turned on, the ammeter indicates the
charging rate applied to the battery
 In the event the alternator is not functioning or the electrical load exceeds the alternator output,
the ammeter indicates the battery discharge rate
ii. Low Voltage Warning
a. The low voltage warning light will illuminate when system voltage drops below normal
 This may occur in the case that the alternator control unit senses a high voltage and shuts down the
alternator
a The alternator control unit may be reset by turning the master switch off and back on again.
1. If the light does not come back on again, normal alternator charging has resumed.
2. If the light returns, a malfunction has occurred and the flight should be terminated as soon
as practicable

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iii. Circuit Breakers and Fuses

a. Most of the electrical circuits are protected by “push-to-reset” type circuit breakers
 The alternator, although, is protected by a “pull-off” circuit breaker
b. Fuses
 Electrical circuits not protected by circuit breakers are the battery contactor closing circuit, clock
circuit, and flight hour recorder circuit – these circuits are protected by fuses mounted adjacent to
the battery

7. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
B. Audio Control Panel (ACP)
i. Two types of audio control panels are available for the 152 depending on whether the avionics package
includes a marker beacon receiver
ii. Dual transmitters – select 1 or 2 via the TRANS SELECT or XMTR switch
iii. Headset or speaker audio
a. Speaker – Place the switch up, in the SPEAKER position

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b. Headset – Place the switch down, in the PHONE position

iv. NAV/COM
a. If a marker beacon receiver is not installed, audio from both NAV and COMM frequencies is combined
and selected by the switches labeled NAV/COM 1 and 2
b. If a marker beacon receiver is included, separate control of NAV and Com audio is available
 NAV 1 and 2 switches select audio from the nav receivers
 COM switches select audio from communication receivers
v. COM AUTO Switch
a. If the aircraft is equipped with an ACP having marker beacon controls, a 3-position toggle switch labeled
COM AUTO is provided to automatically match the NAV/COMM audio to the transmitter selected
b. In the SPEAKER position, audio from the selected transmitter will be heard on the speaker. Switching to
the other transmitter automatically switches the new audio to the speaker
 The same applies to the headset audio when the switch is in the PHONE position
vi. COM BOTH Switch
a. If the aircraft is equipped with an ACP having marker beacon controls, a 3-position toggle switch labeled
COM BOTH is provided to allow both COM receivers to be monitored at the same time

C. Microphone Headset Installations

i. Three headset installations were offered in the Cessna 152. Be familiar with the one installed and its
operation
a. Hand held microphone and separate headset
b. Two microphone-headset installations - Padded headset, and Non Padded headset
 Microphone keying switch is located on the left grip of the pilots control wheel
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments

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A. Pitot Static
i. General
a. Supplies ram air pressure to the airspeed indicator
b. Supplies static air pressure to the airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, and altimeter
c. Components
 Unheated or heated pitot tube mounted on the lower surface of the left wing
a Optional electrically heated pitot tube controlled by a PITOT HT switch
 External static port on the lower left side of the forward fuselage
 Associated plumbing to connect the pitot tube and static port to the instruments
ii. Airspeed Indicator
a. Calibrated in knots and miles per hour
b. Limitations/Range Markings
 White Arc – 35 to 85 knots
a Full flap operating range. Lower limit is maximum weight VSO in landing configuration. Upper
limit is maximum speed permissible with flaps extended
 Green Arc – 40 to 111 knots
a Normal operating range. Lower limit is maximum weight VS at most forward CG with flaps
retracted. Upper limit is maximum structural cruising speed
 Yellow Arc – 111 to 149 knots
a Operations must be conducted with caution and only in smooth air
 Red line – 149 knots
a Maximum speed for all operations
iii. Vertical Speed Indicator
a. Depicts aircraft rate of climb or descent in feet per minute
b. Actuated by atmospheric pressure changes resulting from changes of altitude as supplied by the static
source
iv. Altimeter
a. Barometric type altimeter
b. Knob is used to adjust the barometric scale to the current altimeter setting
B. Vacuum
i. General
a. Engine driven vacuum system provides the suction necessary to operate the attitude indicator and
directional indicator
b. Components
 Vacuum pump
 Vacuum relief valve
 Air filter
 Instruments (attitude indicator, directional gyro, and suction gauge)
ii. Attitude Indicator
a. Provides a visual indication of the aircraft’s flight attitude
b. Bank is presented by a pointer at the top of the indicator
 Index marks at 10o, 20o, 30o, 60o, 90o
 Pitch and roll attitudes are represented by a miniature aircraft which can be adjusted via a knob at
the bottom of the instrument
a Miniature aircraft superimposed over a symbolic horizon divided into two sections by a white
horizon bar

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b Upper “blue sky” and lower “ground” (brown) have arbitrary pitch reference lines useful for
pitch attitude control
iii. Directional Indicator (DI)
a. Displays aircraft heading on a compass card in relation to a fixed simulated aircraft image and index
b. The DI will precess slightly over time
 The DI should be set to match the compass just prior to takeoff, and occasionally re-adjusted on
extended flights
 A knob on the lower left edge of the instrument is used to make the adjustments
iv. Suction Gauge
a. Located on the left side of the instrument panel
b. Calibrated in inches of mercury
c. Desired range is 4.5 to 5.4 inches of mercury
 Below this range may indicate system malfunction or improper adjustment and the indicators
should not be considered reliable

9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Ventilating
i. Heated air and outside air are blended together in a cabin manifold just aft of the firewall by adjustment of
the heat and air controls. This air is then vented into the cabin through outlets in the cabin manifold near
the pilot’s and passenger’s feet
ii. The temperature and volume of air cab be regulated through the push-pull CABIN HT and CABIN AIR control
knobs
a. Pull the CABIN AIR knob out for ventilation

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b. Pull the CABIN HT knob out to raise the temperature

 ¼ to ½” for a small amount of cabin heat. Additional heat is available by pulling the knob out farther
 Max heat – CABIN HT knob all the way out, and CABIN AIR knob all the way in
 No Heat – CABIN HT knob all the way in, and CABIN AIR knob all the way out
iii. Additional ventilation can be obtained by opening the adjustable ventilators near the upper left and right
corners of the windshield
B. Defrost
i. Windshield defrost is supplied by a duct leading from the manifold to a pair of outlets below the windshield
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Windshield Defrost
i. Windshield defrost is supplied by a duct leading from the manifold to a pair of outlets below the windshield
B. Pitot Heat
i. Electrically heated pitot tube to maintain proper operation in possible icing conditions
ii. Activated via the PITOT HT switch
a. 15-amp circuit breaker under the engine controls on the instrument panel

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Cessna 172S G1000

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. Useable Fuel: 53 Gallons
3. Min Oil: 5 Quarts

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Cessna 172. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Primary Flight Controls
i. Aileron, Rudder and Elevator control surfaces
a. Manually operated through cables and mechanical linkage
b. Control wheel for the ailerons and elevator. Rudder/brake pedals for the rudder

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B. Trim
i. Manually operated elevator trim
a. The elevator trim tab is moved through the vertically mounted trim control wheel
b. Forward rotation = nose down; Aft rotation = nose up
ii. Electric Trim, if installed
a. Electrically adjusts the trim tab through a switch on the control wheel
iii. Rudder trim, if installed
a. Accomplished through a bungee connected to the rudder control system and a trim lever mounted on
the control pedestal
b. Adjusted by lifting the trim lever, then moving it left or right
 Right trim will trim the aircraft nose right, Left trim will trim the aircraft nose left
2. Flaps
A. Single slot type wing flaps
B. Operated by the Wing Flap Control Lever on the instrument panel
i. 10o, 20o, and FULL positions
C. A scale and pointer to the left of the control lever indicates flap travel in degrees
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming IO-360-L2A
a. Direct Drive
b. Horizontally Opposed
c. 4 cylinders
d. Air Cooled
e. Fuel Injected
f. Wet Sump Oil System
g. 180 hp at 2700 rpm
ii. Engine Controls
a. Throttle Control (black)
 Open in Forward position
 Closed in Aft position
 Friction lock – rotating clockwise increases throttle friction, counterclockwise decreases friction
b. Fuel Mixture (red)
 Rich – full forward
 Idle/Cutoff – full aft
 Small movements can be made by rotating the knob
a Clockwise = rich
b Counterclockwise = lean
iii. Indications
a. G1000 Engine Indication System (EIS)
 Vertical strip on the left of the PFD during engine starts and on the MFD during normal operation (if
the MFD or PFD fails, the EIS is shown on the remaining display)
 3 pages
a Engine Page – RPM, Fuel Flow, Oil Pressure, Oil Temp, EGT, VAC, Fuel Qty, Eng Hours, Volts, and
AMPs
1. The Engine and Airframe Unit receives signals from the engine/system sensors and sends
the information to the EIS which is displayed on the engine page
b Lean Page – EGT, CHT, Fuel Flow, and Fuel Qty to be used for adjusting the mixture

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c System Page – Numerical values for parameters on the Engine page that are shown as indicators
only. Also provides a digital value for fuel used and fuel remaining
B. Propeller
i. Two Blade, Fixed Pitch propeller
ii. One piece, made of forged aluminum alloy
iii. 76” diameter
4. Landing Gear
A. Tricycle Landing Gear
i. Steerable nosewheel, and two main wheels
B. Shock absorption
i. Main Wheels - tubular spring steel main landing gear struts
ii. Nose Wheel - air/oil nose gear shock strut
C. Braking
i. Each main wheel is equipped with a hydraulically actuated disc brake on the inboard of each wheel
ii. Operation
a. Each brake is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder attached to each of the pilot's rudder
pedals. The brakes are operated by applying pressure to the top of either the left or right set of rudder
pedals, which are interconnected
 If braking action decreases during taxi or landing roll let up on the pedals and reapply with heavy
pressure
 If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the brakes should build up brake
pressure
 If one brake weakens or fails use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
b. When the airplane is parked, both main wheel brakes may be set by utilizing the parking brake which is
operated by a handle under the left side of the instrument panel
 To apply the parking brake, set the brakes with the rudder pedals, pull the handle aft, and rotate it
90° down
iii. Brake Failure
a. Symptoms of impending brake failure may include
 Gradual decrease in braking action
 Noisy or dragging brakes
 Soft or spongy pedals
 Excessive brake travel
 Weak braking action
b. If any of these symptoms appear, immediate attention is needed
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. General
a. Two vented integral fuel tanks – one tank in each wing
 53 gallons of useable fuel – 28 gallon tanks, 1.5 gallons unusable per tank
b. Engine driven fuel pump and Electric Auxiliary Fuel Pump
 Aux Pump is used primarily for priming the engine before start, vapor suppression in hot weather,
and in the event of a failure of the engine driven pump
c. 3 position fuel selector
 Both, Left, Right positions
ii. Fuel Distribution

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a. Gravity flow from the wing tanks to the fuel selector and then to the fuel reservoir tank
b. From the reservoir tank, fuel flows through the electric aux fuel pump, the fuel shutoff valve and
strainer to the engine driven fuel pump
c. From there, fuel is delivered to the fuel/air control unit which meters fuel in proportion to air and is
then delivered to each cylinder
iii. Fuel Indications
a. Two fuel sensors, one in each tank. Quantity is displayed on the EIS
 Fuel Quantity shows the fuel available in the tank up to the limit of the sensor (24 gallons)
a Above this limit, additional fuel may be added but will not be shown on the indicator
1. When the fuel level decreases below 24 gallons it will be displayed on the EIS
b A visual check of each wing tank fuel level is required prior to each flight to verify the amount of
fuel in the tank vs the indicated fuel quantity
b. Low Fuel Indications
 Low Fuel L/R is displayed with
less than 5 gallons for more
than 60 seconds
a Tone and amber indications
 Low Fuel L/R change to flashing
red hen quantity reaches the
usable fuel empty level
c. Sensor Failures
 If the system detects a failure,
the affected fuel indicator will
display a red X
B. Oil
i. Full pressure, wet sump oil system
a. Engine sump capacity – 8 quarts, Oil
filter capacity – 1 quart
b. The engine should not be operated
on less than 5 quarts of oil
 To minimize loss of oil, fill to 8
quarts for normal flights less
than 3 hours
a For extended flights, fill to 8
quarts (dipstick indication
only)
ii. Basic Operation
a. Sump Oil Pump Oil Filter
Pressure Relief Valve Oil Cooler
Engine Sump
b. Oil is drawn from the sump through
a filter screen on the end of a pickup
tube to the engine driven oil pump.
Oil from the pump passes through a
full-flow oil filter, a pressure relief
valve at the rear of the right oil
gallery, and a thermostatically
controlled remote oil cooler. Oil from the remote cooler is then circulated to the left oil gallery. The

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engine parts are then lubricated by oil from the galleries. After lubricating the engine, the oil returns to
the sump by gravity.
iii. Filter Bypass
a. If the filter becomes plugged or the oil temperature is extremely cold, a bypass valve will cause the oil to
bypass the filter
C. Hydraulic
i. There is no engine driven hydraulic system. For hydraulic information, reference 4. Landing Gear, above
6. Electrical
A. 28 V DC Electrical System
B. Power Generation
i. Belt driven 60 Amp Alternator
a. Controlled by the ALT side of the Master switch
b. Alternator Control Unit (ACU)
 Manages and monitors alternator performance. Examples include:
a Triggers PFD annunciations (ex. LOW VOLTS)
b In the event of an overvoltage condition, the ACU will automatically open the ALT FIELD CB to
stop alternator output
 Located in the Power Distribution Module (left forward side of the firewall. Power Distribution
Module houses the relays used in the aircraft electrical system, the ACU, main battery current
sensor, and external power connector)
C. Power Storage
i. 24V Main Battery
a. Controlled by the BAT side of the Master switch
ii. Secondary (standby) Battery
a. STBY BATT switch can supply power for a limited amount of time to the essential bus in the event of
alternator and main battery failure
 Time remaining may be estimated by monitoring the essential bus voltage. At 20 Volts, the standby
battery has little or no capacity remaining
b. ARM, OFF, TEST switch
 ARM
a Allows the standby battery to help regulate and filter essential bus voltage during the start cycle
b During normal flight, it allows the standby battery to charge and be ready to power the essential
bus in the event of alternator and main battery failure
 OFF
a Disconnects the standby battery from the essential bus
b Prevents standby battery from charging and automatically providing power should an electrical
system failure occur
 TEST
a The energy level of the battery shall be checked before starting the engine
D. Power Distribution
i. 2 Primary Buses – Electrical Bus 1 and Electrical Bus 2
a. Supplied with power whenever the Master Switch is turned on, and are not affected by starter or
external power usage
ii. Essential and Crossfeed Bus
a. Power is supplied to most electrical circuits through the two Primary Buses with an Essential Bus and a
Crossfeed Bus connected between them to support essential equipment
iii. Avionics Bus 1 and Avionics Bus 2
a. Each Primary bus is also connected to an Avionics bus

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b. Each Avionics bus is powered when the Master & corresponding Avionics switch are On
E. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g. Radio, Fuel
Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are
connected in series with their
respective circuit breakers
F. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Bus Voltage
a. VOLTS for the Main and Essential
buses is provided at the bottom of
the EIS bar (left margin of the MFD
or PFD), labeled M BUS E
 Main Bus voltage is shown
below the M. Essential Bus
voltage is shown below the E
 Normal bus voltages with the
alternator operating is about 28
volts
 Above 32 volts, the numerical
value and VOLTS text turns Red
a This indication, along with
the HIGH VOLTS
annunciation is an
indication that the
alternator is supplying too
high of a voltage
1. The ALT MASTER switch
should immediately be
positioned to OFF
 Below 24.5 volts, the numerical
value and VOLTS text turns Red
a This indication, along with
the LOW VOLTS
annunciation is an indication that the alternator is not supplying all the power required by the
aircraft
1. If the conditions causing the LOW VOLTS warning cannot be resolved, nonessential electrical
loads should be eliminated and the flight should be terminated as soon as practicable
ii. Amps
a. Current Amp indications for both the Main and Standby batteries is provided at the bottom of the EIS
bar (along the left margin of the MFD or PFD), labeled M BATT S
 Main Battery current is displayed below the M
a Main battery current greater than -1.5 amps is shown in White
 Standby Battery current is displayed below the S
a A positive current (battery is charging) is shown in White
b A negative current (battery is discharging) is shown in Amber
1. In the event the standby battery is discharging, normal steady discharge should be less than
4 amps

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a. The STBY BATT annunciator will come on when discharge rates are greater than 0.5
amps for more than 10 seconds – this is an indication that the alternator and main
battery are not supplying the power required by the essential bus
 In the event the alternator is not functioning, or the electrical load exceeds the output of the
alternator, the main battery ammeter indicates the main battery discharge rate
iii. Circuit Breakers and Fuses
a. Individual system circuit breakers are found on the circuit breaker panel below the pilot’s control wheel
b. All CBs on the Essential Bus, Avionics Bus 1 and Avionics Bus 2 are capable of being opened by pulling
straight out for emergency electrical load management
 Using a CB as a switch is discouraged since the practice will decrease the life of the CB
c. All CBs on the Electrical Bus 1, Electrical Bus 2, and Crossfeed Bus are not capable of being opened
d. Fuses
 A fast blow automotive type fuse is used at the standby battery
 The standby battery current shunt circuit uses two field replaceable fuses located on the standby
battery controller printer circuit board
7. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
B. G1000
i. PFD and MFD
a. PFD
 Displays
a Roll and pitch information, heading and course navigation information, plus attitude, airspeed,
and vertical speed
b All communication and navigation frequencies (controls and displays)
c Warning/Status annunciation of aircraft systems
b. MFD
 Large, scalable moving map that corresponds to the aircraft’s current location
a Various features can be displayed on the MFD (nearby aircraft, weather, lightning, etc.)
 Principle display for all engine, fuel, and electrical system parameters
c. Reversionary Mode
 Places the flight information and basic engine information on both the PFD and MFD
a Allows the pilot full access to all necessary information should either of the display screens
malfunction
ii. Audio Panel
a. Integrates all of the communication and navigation digital audio signals, intercom system, and marker
beacon controls in one unit
 Also controls the reversionary mode for the PFD and MFD
b. Installed on the instrument panel between the PFD and MFD
C. G1000 Background Components
i. Integrated Avionics Unit (GIA)
a. Two GIAs act as the main communications hub linking all of the other peripheral parts to the displays
 Each unit contains a GPS receiver, VHF nav receiver, VHF communication transceiver and the main
system microprocessors
b. Mounted in racks in the tailcone, behind the baggage curtain
ii. Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)

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a. Provides aircraft attitude and flight characteristics information to the displays and the integrated
avionics units (more info below)
iii. Air Data Computer
a. Compiles the information from the pitot-static system
iv. Engine Monitor
a. Responsible for receiving and processing the signals from the engine and airframe sensors
b. Transmits the information to the engine display computers
v. Transponder
a. Provides Mode A, C, and S functions
b. Control and operation are accomplished using the PFD
c. Mounted in the tailcone avionics racks
vi. Weather and Radio Data Link (GDL)
a. Provides weather information and digital audio entertainment in the cockpit
b. Mounted in the tailcone, behind the baggage curtain
vii. Avionics Cooling Fans
a. Four DC electric fans provide cooling for the G1000 avionics equipment
b. A single fan in the tailcone provides cooling to the integrated avionics units and the transponder
c. Power is provided to these fans when the BAT Master and Avionics (Bus 1 and Bus 2) switch are ON
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot Static
i. Pitot Head
a. Mounted on the lower surface of the left wing
b. Electrically heated via the PITOT HEAT switch
ii. External Static Port
a. Mounted on the left side of the forward fuselage
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. Provides static pressure from inside the cabin if the external static source becomes blocked
b. If erroneous instrument readings are suspected due to water or ice in the pressure line going to the
standard external pressure source, the alternate source valve should be opened
iv. Air Data Computer (ADC)
a. The brains of the system. Compiles information from the aircraft’s pitot-static system
b. Calculates and displays altitude, pressure altitude, airspeed, true airspeed, vertical speed, and outside
air temperature
B. Vacuum
i. The vacuum system provides the vacuum necessary to operate the standby attitude indicator
a. Consists of an engine driven vacuum pump, a vacuum regulator, the standby attitude indicator, a
vacuum system air filter, and a vacuum transducer
 Vacuum Transducer - provides the signal for the engine display on the EIS Engine page

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a Amber LOW VACUUM annunciates below 3.5 in h.g.

C. Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)

i. Provides aircraft attitude and flight characteristics to the G1000 display
a. Contains accelerometers, tilt and rate sensors that replace gyros used in other aircraft
 Heading Indicator, Attitude Indicator, Turn and Bank Indicator
b. Magnetometer interfaces with the AHRS to provide heading information and is located in the left wing
9. Environmental
A. Control
i. The temperature and volume of airflow into the cabin can be regulated by the push-pull CABIN HT and
CABIN AIR control knobs
ii. Cabin Ventilation
a. CABIN AIR control knob
iii. Cabin Heat
a. CABIN HT control knob
 ¼ to ½” for a small amount of heat
 Max heat – CABIN HT pulled full out, CABIN AIR pushed full in
 No Heat – CABIN HT pushed full in

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B. Supply
i. Front cabin heat and air is supplied by outlet holes spaced across a cabin manifold just forward of the pilot’s
and front passenger’s feet
ii. Rear cabin heat and air is supplied by two ducts from the manifold, one extending down each side of the
cabin to an outlet just aft of the rudder pedals at floor level
iii. Separate adjustable vents supply additional air
a. One near each upper corner of the windshield for the pilot and front passenger
b. Two ventilators for the rear cabin to supply air to the rear seat passengers
c. Various additional ventilators located in various positions in the cockpit

10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

A. Windshield Defrost
i. Defrost air is supplied by two ducts leading from the cabin manifold to defroster outlets near the lower edge
of the windshield. Two knobs control sliding valves in either defroster outlet to permit regulation of
defroster airflow
B. Pitot Heat

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i. Electrically heated
ii. Operated through the PITOT HT switch below the lower left corner of the PFD
iii. Pitot Heat circuit breaker is at the lower left side of the pilot panel

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Cirrus SR20

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. Prop Governor fails to Low Pitch, High RPM
3. Teledyne: 8 quart oil system / Lycoming: 7 quarts

Elements 1. Airframe
2. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
3. Flaps
4. Powerplant
5. Oil
6. Fuel
7. Propeller
8. Landing Gear
9. Electrical – G1, G2, Perspective, Perspective +
13. Avionics
14. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
15. Environmental
16. Deicing and Anti-Icing
17. Cirrus Airframe Parachute System (CAPS)

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers / References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Cirrus SR20. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

NOTE
With the various changes over the years (G1, G2, Perspective, Perspective +), the lesson attempts to differentiate
between the models. In some cases, general estimates are made due to variations between serial numbers and
models. Double check your POH to verify the proper information

How:
1. Airframe
A. Fuselage
i. Monocoque construction
a. Structural system in which loads are supported by an object’s external skin (similar to an egg)
b. French for “single shell”
c. All flight and static loads are transferred to the fuselage structure from the wings and control surfaces
through four wing attach points
ii. Primarily composite materials
iii. Composite roll cage within the fuselage provides roll protection for the occupants
iv. Floors are foam core composite
B. Wings
i. Constructed of composite materials producing a smooth and seamless surface
a. Constructed in a conventional spar, rib, and shear section (rear spars) arrangement
b. Upper and lower skins are bonded to the spar, ribs, and shear sections
 Forms a torsion box that carries all of the wing bending and torsion loads
ii. Wing spar is one piece, continuous from wing tip to wing tip
a. Shear web (rear spars) are similar in construction but do not carry through the fuselage
iii. Cross section is a blend of several high performance airfoils
iv. High aspect ratio for low drag
C. Empennage
i. Consists of
a. Horizontal stabilizer: Single composite structure from tip to tip

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b. Two-piece elevator: Aluminum

c. Vertical fin: Composite structure
d. Rudder: Aluminum
ii. All components are conventional spar (shear web), rib, and skin construction
2. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons
i. Provide roll control
a. Movement is controlled with the yokes
b. Push rods link the yokes to a centrally located pully sector
c. Single cable runs from the sector to the aft of the rear spar
d. From there, cables run through each wing to a crank arm that rotates the aileron
ii. Conventional design with aluminum skin, spar, and ribs
iii. Roll Trim
a. Trim Tab
 Ground adjustable trim tab installed on the right aileron
 Factory set and does not normally require adjustment
b. Electric Trim
 Electric motor adjusts the position of a spring cartridge on the left-wing pulley system
 Controlled by a trim button on the top of each yoke
a Moving the switch left = left wing down trim, and vice versa
 Neutral trim: Alignment of the line on the control yoke and the centering indication mark on the
instrument panel
 Provides a secondary means of roll control if the primary fails
a Will not work if ailerons are jammed
 Also used by the autopilot to control the ailerons
 Electric trim and autopilot inputs can be overridden with normal control inputs

B. Elevator
i. Provides pitch control
a. Elevator movement is generated by pushing the yoke forward or pulling it backward
b. A push-pull linkage is connected to a cable sector mounted on a torque tube
c. Single cable runs from the forward elevator sector to the aft elevator sector pulley
d. Push-pull tube connects the aft elevator sector pulley to the elevator
ii. Conventional design with aluminum skin, spar, and ribs
a. Two-piece elevator
b. Each elevator half is attached to the horizontal stabilizer at two hinge points and to the fuselage tail
cone

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iii. Pitch Trim

a. Trim Tab
 Provides small adjustments to neutral trim
 Factory set and does not normally require adjustment
b. Electric Trim
 Electric motor changes the neutral position of the elevator spring cartridge
 Controlled by the trim button on the top of the control yoke
 Switch forward = nose-down trim, and vice versa
 Neutral Trim: Alignment of a reference mark on the yoke tube with a tab attached to the instrument
panel bolster
 Provides a secondary means of pitch control if the primary fails
a Will not work if elevator is jammed

C. Rudder
i. Provides yaw control
a. Rudder pedals drive a single cable under the cabin floor
b. Cable runs to a sector next to the elevator sector pulley in the aft fuselage
c. Push-pull tube from the sector to the rudder bell crank moves the rudder right/left
d. Springs and a ground adjustable spring cartridge tension the cables & provide a centering force
ii. Conventional design with aluminum skin, spar, and ribs
a. Attached to the aft vertical stabilizer at three hinge points and to the fuselage tail cone
iii. Rudder-Aileron Interconnect (if included)
a. Installed to provide a maximum of 8o down aileron with full rudder deflection
b. Right rudder = right roll input, and vice versa
iv. Yaw Trim
a. Trim Tab
 Ground adjustable to provide small adjustments in neutral trim
 Factory set and does not normally require adjustment
b. Yaw Trim Spring Cartridge
 Provided by the spring cartridge
 Provides a centering force regardless of rudder deflection
 Only adjustable on the ground

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v. No control locks installed, the spring cartridges have sufficient power to act as a gust damper
3.
F

laps
A. Electrically controlled, single-slotted flap
i. Aluminum construction with 3 hinge points
B. 3 Positions: 0%, 50% (16o), 100% (32o)
i. Flap control switch positions the flaps through a motorized
linear actuator
a. Actuator is mechanically connected to both flaps by a
torque tube
b. Actuator proximity switches limit flap travel to the desired
position & provide position indication
C. Flap Control Switch
i. Located at the bottom of the vertical section of the center
console
ii. Marked and has detents at 3 positions (Up, 50%, 100%)
a. Corresponding VFR speed is marked at the 50% & 100%
positions
iii. Indicator light illuminates when the flaps reach the selected
position
a. Up = Green light, 50% & 100% = Yellow lights
4. Powerplant
A. Teledyne Continental IO-360-ES
i. 6 Cylinder
ii. Fuel Injected
iii. Normally aspirated (no turbo or super charger)
iv. Derated to 200 HP at 2700 RPM (sea level and ISA)
B. Perspective +: Lycoming IO-390-C3B6
i. 4 cylinder
ii. Fuel injected
iii. Normally aspirated
iv. 215 HP at 2,700 RPM
C. Air Induction System
i. Air enters through two cowling inlets, passes through a filter, through the throttle butterfly, into the engine
manifold, and then through the cylinder intake ports into the combustion chambers

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ii. If the filter becomes clogged, an alternate induction air door can be opened (details below)
D. Fuel Ignition
i. Two engine driven magnetos and two spark plugs in each cylinder provide fuel ignition
a. Right magneto fires the lower right and upper left spark plugs
b. Left magneto fires the upper right and lower left spark plugs
ii. Normal operation is conducted with both magnetos
a. More complete burn of the fuel-air mixture
iii. Perspective +: SlickSTARTTM
a. Changes ignition timing and adds energy to the spark to aid in starting
b. When the battery master is on, rotating the key to Start energizes the starter and SlickSTART TM
 Switch auto returns to Both when released and SlickSTARTTM is deactivated
E. Cooling
i. Engine heat is discharged to the:
a. Oil and then the air passing through the oil cooler (more info in Oil section)
b. Air flowing past the engine (air cooling)
ii. Air Cooling
a. Air enters through two inlets in the cowling
b. Aluminum baffles direct the incoming air to the engine and over the cylinder cooling fins
 Heat is transferred from the engine to the air
c. Air exits through two vents in the aft of the cowling
F. Exhaust
i. Exhaust gases are routed through the exhaust system
ii. After leaving the cylinders, exhaust is routed:
a. Through the exhaust manifold
b. Then to mufflers on either side of the engine
 Lycoming engine only has a single muffler on the left side of the engine compartment
c. Out exhaust pipe(s) in the lower cowling
iii. A heat exchanger, around the right muffler, provides cabin heat (more below)
a. Lycoming engine has the heat exchanger around the single muffler on the left side
G. Controls
i. Throttle
a. Adjusts engine throttle setting and automatically adjusts propeller speed
b. Mechanically linked by cables to the air throttle body / fuel metering valve and propeller governor
 Throttle toward Max: Opens air throttle butterfly and meters more fuel to the manifold
a Separate cable to the governor adjusts governor oil pressure to decrease prop pitch and
maintain engine RPM
b System maintains approx. 2500 RPM at cruise power and 2700 RPM at full power
 Throttle toward Idle does the opposite
ii. Mixture Lever
a. Adjusts proportion of fuel to air for combustion
b. Mechanically linked to the mixture control valve in the engine-driven fuel pump
 Moving lever forward (RICH): Repositions valve allowing greater proportions of fuel
 Moving lever aft (LEAN): Reduces proportion of fuel
 Full aft (CUTOFF): Closes the control valve
iii. Alternate Air
a. Installed on the left console near the pilot’s right knee
b. Used if the normal air source is suspected to be blocked

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c. Operation
 Depress the center lock button, pull the knob to the open position, release lock button
 Pulling the knob opens the alternate air induction door on the engine induction air manifold,
bypasses the air filter, allowing warm unfiltered air into the engine
iv. Friction Control Wheel
a. On the right side of the console
b. Used to adjust control lever resistance and feel and stability
5. Oil System
A. Wet sump, high pressure oil system provides engine lubrication and cooling
B. Operation
i. Teledyne: 8-quart capacity sump / Lycoming: 7-quart capacity sump
a. Wet Sump: The oil is located in a sump that is an integral part of the engine
 Usually located at the base of the engine
 Versus a dry sump, where the oil is stored outside the engine and pumped in
ii. Oil leaves the sump through a suction strainer screen and is directed to the oil cooler
a. Cooler is bypassed if oil temp is below 170o F or the pressure drop is below 18 PSI
iii. Oil then goes through an oil filter and a pressure relief valve to the engine
a. Oil is also directed to the propeller governor to regulate prop pitch
C. Oil filler cap and dipstick
i. Teledyne
a. Located at the left rear of the engine
b. Engine should not be operated with less than 6 quarts of oil
 7 is recommended for extended flights
ii. Lycoming
a. Accessed through a door on the top right side of the engine cowling
6. Fuel System
A. Tanks
i. G1 & G2
a. Each wing has a 28 usable gallon vented fuel tank
 30.3-gallon total capacity in each wing (2.3 gallons unusable)
b. 56 total usable gallons
ii. Perspective & Perspective +
a. Each wing has a 28 usable gallon vented fuel tank
 29.3-gallon total capacity in each wing (1.3 gallons unusable)
b. 56 total usable gallons
iii. Collector Tanks
a. Fuel is gravity fed to a left- and right-wing collector tank
b. Engine driven pump pulls fuel from the collector tanks to the engine
iv. Venting
a. Independent NACA-type vents in each tank
 Mounted in an access panel under each wing, near the wing tip
b. Essential to system operation
 Blockage would result in decreasing fuel flow and eventual engine shutoff
B. Fuel Pump
i. Engine driven pump
a. Primary fuel pump
b. Runs whenever the engine is operating

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c. Pulls fuel from the collector tanks to feed fuel under pressure to the engine
ii. Electric boost pump (Perspective + boost pump info is below)
a. Boost pump operation and engine prime is controlled through the BOOST-PRIME switch
 Located adjacent to the fuel selector valve
 Oil pressure-based system controls boost pump operation
b. PRIME position
 Prime switch position is momentary
 Allows the fuel pump to run at high speed when engine oil pressure is less than 10 PSI
 Exceeding 10 PSI, pressing PRIME has no effect
c. BOOST Position
 Boost switch position is selectable
 Energizes the boost pump in low-speed mode (regardless of oil pressure)
 Delivers continuous 4-6 PSI boost to fuel flow
iii. Perspective +
a. Single-speed emergency fuel pump
b. Energizes the fuel pump to deliver 23 psi boost to the fuel flow
c. Used for priming, emergency backup, and vapor suppression in a hot fuel condition
C. Fuel Level
i. Float-type fuel quantity sensors in each wing tank provide fuel level info to the quantity gauges
D. Fuel Selector
i. Located at the rear of the center console
a. Left: Allows fuel to flow from the left tank
b. Right: Allows fuel to flow from the right tank
c. Off: Cuts off fuel from both tanks
 To select off, first raise the selector knob, then rotate to Off
ii. Point the selector at the desired position
E. Drains
i. Valves at the system low points allow draining for maintenance and fuel examination
a. Fuel must be drained prior to every flight to check for contaminants and proper grade
b. Drain from the wing tanks, collector tanks, and gascolator
F. Operation (Diagrams below: Left is G1, G2, & Perspective Models, Right is Perspective +)
i. Fuel is gravity fed from each tank through strainers and a check valve to the collector tanks
ii. Engine driven fuel pump draws fuel through a filter and the selector valve
iii. Fuel is proportioned to the induction airflow (throttle), metered to a flow divider, and delivered to individual
cylinders
a. Perspective + (depicted below, on the right)
 From the Selector Valve, fuel is passed to the Fuel Servo where it is proportioned based on power
lever position
 Fuel is then directed to the fuel injector manifold and then individual injector nozzles
 System meters fuel flow in proportion to engine RPM, mixture setting and throttle angle
iv. Excess fuel is returned to the selected tank

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7.
P

ropeller
A. Constant speed, aluminum alloy propeller with a governor
i. Standard: Two blade 76” diameter
ii. Optional: Three blade 74” diameter
B. Perspective +: Constant speed, aluminum alloy propeller with a governor
i. Standard: Metal, 3-blade 74” diameter
ii. Optional: Composite, 3-blade 74” diameter
C. Governor
i. Automatically changes propeller pitch to regulate propeller and engine RPM
a. Uses high-pressure engine oil to adjust propeller pitch
ii. Throttle Forward
a. Governor meters less oil to the propeller hub
b. Centrifugal force acts on the blades to lower pitch for higher RPM operation
iii. Throttle Aft
a. Governor meters more oil to the prop hub forcing the blades to a higher pitch, lower RPM
iv. Stabilized Flight
a. Governor automatically adjusts prop pitch to maintain the RPM setting
b. Any change in airspeed or propeller load results in a change in propeller pitch
v. Loss of oil pressure will result in a low pitch, high rpm setting
8. Landing Gear
A. Main Gear
i. Gear struts are constructed of composite material (fatigue resistance, rugged, maintenance free)

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ii. Wheels and wheel pants are bolted to the gear struts
a. Wheel pants can be easily removed to access tires and brakes
iii. Each main gear has an independent, hydraulically operated, single-disc type brake
B. Nose Wheel
i. Tubular steel construction
ii. Free castering and can turn through an arc of approximately 170 o (85o to each side)
a. Serials 1005 thru 1885: 216 o (108o to each side)
iii. Steering
a. Accomplished by differential brake application
iv. Shock Absorption
a. Provided by polymer shock absorbing pucks
b. Oleo strut (Serials 2065 and later)
C. Wheel Brakes
i. Hydraulically operated, single-disc brakes on each main
ii. System consists of
a. Master cylinder for each rudder pedal
b. Hydraulic fluid reservoir
c. Parking brake valve
d. Single-disc brake assembly on each main gear
e. Hydraulic plumbing
iii. Individually activated by pressing the top half of the rudder
pedal (toe brake)
a. Pressing the right toe brake actuates the right main wheel
brake, and vice versa
iv. Temperature Sensor (Serials 2016 and later)
a. Temp sensor mounted to each brake assembly
b. Provides brake temps to the avionics system for caution/warning annunciations
D. Parking Brake
i. Park Brake knob is located on the left side of the console near the pilot’s right ankle
ii. Setting the Parking Brake
a. Set the brakes using the toe brakes, then pull the Park Brake knob out
b. When the handle is pulled out, hydraulic pressure is held, locking the brakes
c. With the knob pushed in, valve poppets are held open allowing normal brake operation
9. Electrical – G1
A. 28-VDC, negative ground electrical system
B. Power Generation
i. 75-amp alternator
ii. Provides:
a. Primary power to the aircraft electrical system during normal system operation
b. Constant charging current for the battery
iii. Voltage Regulator
a. Provides transient suppression and constant voltage regulation of the alternator power
C. Power Storage
a. Main Battery
 12-cell, lead-acid, 24-volt, 10-amp-hour battery
 Used for engine starting and as an emergency power source if the alternator fails

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D. Power Distribution
i. Consists of
a. Master Control Unit
 Electrical power Bus
b. Circuit Breaker Panel
 Main Bus 1
 Main Bus 2
 Non-Essential Bus
 Non-Essential Avionics Bus
 Essential Power Bus
 Essential Avionics Bus
ii. Operation
Note: POH text is a little difficult to follow so
the diagram is color coded to match the text
below
a. Main Bus 1 & 2 and the Non-Essential Bus are
powered by the power generation system (Alt
& Bat)
b. Main Bus 1 & 2 power Essential Bus
c. Main Bus 1 powers Non-Essential Avionics
bus
d. Essential Power Bus powers Essential Avionics
bus
iii. Protection
a. Over-Voltage Protector
 Monitors the primary power bus & limits
peak voltage to 28.5V
 Provides a warning to the pilot during sustained over- and under-voltage periods
E. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Volt / Amp meter
a. On the right instrument panel
b. Volt Pointer
 Scale from 16-32 volts
 Measured off the Essential Bus
c. Amp Pointer
 Scale from -60 to +60 amps
 Measured from current shunt in the MCU
 With the engine operating and the Master switch is On, the ammeter indicates the charging rate
applied to the battery
a If the alternator fails or the electrical load exceeds the alternator output, the ammeter indicates
battery discharge rate
ii. Low Volts Warning Light
a. Left side of the instrument panel
b. Low Volts warning light illuminates when the voltage drops below 25.5 ± 0.35 Volts
c. Operated by the alternator control unit in the MCU
 If there is an over voltage, the ACU shuts down the alternator
 Battery powers the system and discharge rate is displayed on the ammeter

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d. Low RPM can trigger the light (ex. Low RPM taxi)
 Master switch does not need to be cycled in this situation
 Increase RPM
10. Electrical – G2
A. 28-VDC, negative ground electrical system
B. Power Generation
i. Two alternators controlled by a Master Control Unit (MCU)
a. Alternator 1
 75-amp belt driven alternator
 Mounted on the right front of the engine
 Regulated to 28 volts
 Output is connected to the Main Distribution Bus in the MCU
b. Alternator 2
 20-amp gear driven alternator
 Mounted on the accessory drive at the rear of the engine
 Regulated to 28.75 volts
 Output is connected to the Essential Distribution Bus in the MCU
ii. Both alternators are self-exciting, but not self-starting
a. Battery voltage is required for field excitation to start up
b. The batteries and alternators should not be turned off in flight
C. Power Storage
i. Two batteries
a. Battery 1
 12-cell, lead-acid, 24-volt, 10-amp-hour battery
 Mounted on the right firewall
 Charged from the Main Distribution Bus in the MCU (ALT 1)
b. Battery 2
 Composed of two 12-volt, 7-amp-hour, sealed, lead-acid batteries connected in series to provide 24
volts
 Located in a vented, acid-resistant container behind the aft cabin bulkhead
 Charged from the circuit breaker panel Essential Bus
ii. In the event of an alternator failure, the battery provides the system with electrical power
D. Power Distribution
i. Consists of
a. The Main Distribution Bus and Essential Distribution Bus in the MCU
b. Associated buses in the Circuit Breaker (CB) panel
 Main Bus 1
 Avionics Non-Essential Bus
 Main Bus 2
 Non-Essential Bus
 Essential Bus
 Avionics Essential Bus
 A/C2 Bus

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ii. Operation
a. Essential Buses in the CB panel are powered from the Essential Distribution Bus in the MCU
 Essential Distribution Bus is normally powered by ALT 2
 BAT 2 is connected directly to the Essential Bus in the CB panel
a Bat 2 will power the bus if the voltage coming from the MCU distribution buses drops below the
battery voltage
 If ALT 2 fails, the CB panel Essential Bus will be powered from ALT 1
a Power comes through the Main Distribution and Essential Distribution buses in the MCU
b. Main Bus 1, Main Bus 2, and the equipment Non-Essential Bus are powered from ALT 1 through the
Main Distribution Bus in the MCU
 The Avionics Non-Essential Bus is powered from Main Bus 1
E. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g. radio, fuel pump, lights, etc.) are connected to the CB panel buses
F. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Combo Volts and Ampere meter
a. Mounted on the right instrument panel
b. Volt Pointer
 Scale from 16-32 volts

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 Voltage is measured off the Essential Bus

c. Amp Pointer
 Scale from -100 to +100 amps
 Amps are measured from current transducers located in the MCU
 Output from each alternator and BAT 1 is measured
a AMMETER SELECT switch is used to select the desired indication
 With the engine operating and the ALT 1 & 2 Master switches On, the ammeter indicates the
charging rate applied to the batteries
a If the alternators fail or the electrical load exceeds the alternator output, the ammeter indicates
BAT 1 discharge rate
ii. Serials 1582 and Subsequent
a. Main & Essential Bus voltages are shown as text in the electrical data block of the MFD
b. If Main Bus voltage is < 24.5v or > 32v, the MFD will display a “Check Main Bus” in a yellow box
c. If Essential Bus voltage is < 24.5v or > 32v, the MFD will display “Check Main Bus” in a red box
d. Alternator 1 & 2 output is shown as text in the electrical data block of the MFD
 If Alt 1 or 2 output is < 2 amps for 20 seconds or more, the MFD will display “Check ALT X” in a
yellow advisory box
iii. ALT Fail Caution Lights
a. Two ALT Fail caution lights (ALT 1 and ALT 2)
b. Illuminates for alternator failure or overcurrent condition
iv. Low Volts Warning Light
a. Illuminates when the voltage drops below 24.5 Volts
11. Electrical System – Perspective
A. 28-Volt DC electrical system
B. Power Generation
i. Two alternators controlled by a Master Control Unit (MCU)
a. Alternator 1
 75-amp belt driven alternator
 Mounted on the right front of the engine
 Output is connected to Main Distribution Bus 1 in the MCU
b. Alternator 2
 40-amp gear driven alternator
 Mounted on the accessory drive at the rear of the engine
 Output is connected to Main Distribution Bus 2 in the MCU
ii. Both alternators are self-exciting, but not self-starting
a. Battery voltage is required for field excitation to start up
b. The batteries and alternators should not be turned off in flight
C. Power Storage
i. Two batteries
a. Battery 1
 12-cell, lead-acid, 24-volt, 10-amp-hour battery
 Mounted on the right firewall
 Charged from Main Distribution Bus 1 in the MCU (ALT 1)
b. Battery 2
 Composed of two 12-volt, 7-amp-hour, sealed, lead-acid batteries connected in series to provide 24
volts
 Located in a vented, acid-resistant container behind the aft cabin bulkhead

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 Charged from the circuit breaker panel Essential Bus 1

D. Power Distribution
i. Power is supplied through 3 distribution buses in the MCU
a. Main Distribution Bus 1
b. Main Distribution Bus 2
c. Essential Distribution Bus
d. The 3 distribution buses power the associated buses on the CB panel
ii. Master Control Unit (MCU)
a. Controls Alt 1 & 2, the starter, landing light, external power, and power generation functions
b. Provides external power reverse polarity protection, alternator overvoltage protection and system
health annunciations
iii. Main Distribution Bus 1
a. Output from Alt 1 is connected to Main Distribution Bus 1
b. Directly powers the landing light & 3 CB buses:
 A/C Bus 1
 A/C Bus 2
 Main Bus 3
iv. Main Distribution Bus 2
a. Output from Alt 2 is connected to Main Distribution Bus 2
b. Powers 3 CB buses:
 Non-Ess Bus
 Main Bus 1
 Main Bus 2
v. Essential Distribution Bus
a. Fed by both Main Distribution Bus 1 & 2
b. Powers 2 CB buses
 Ess Bus 1
 Ess Bus 2
vi. Constant Power Bus (Serials 2241 & subs)
a. Fed by Bat 1 in the MCU
b. Just the Conv Lights CB (Convenience Lighting)
c. Depicted below, in the diagram on the right
E. System Protection
i. Essential Buses 1 & 2
a. Powered directly by Alt 1 & 2
b. If Alt 1 or 2 fails, the remaining alternator will continue to power the buses
c. If both Alt fail, Bat 1 will power both buses
d. If both Alt and Bat 1 fail, Bat 2 is connected directly to Ess Bus 1
ii. Main Buses
a. Main Bus 1 & 2 are powered by Alt 2
 If Alt 2 fails, Alt 1 & Bat 1 can power the buses from Main Distribution Bus 2 via the interconnecting
diode
b. Main Bus 3 is powered by Alt 1 and Bat 1
 If Alt 1 fails, Bat 1 will power the bus
 Alt 2 is prevented from powering the buses by the isolation diode between MC Distribution Bus 1 &
2 (power can only flow from Main Dist. Bus 1 to Main Dist. Bus 2)
iii. Non-Essential Buses

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a. Non-Ess Bus is powered by Alt 2

 If Alt 2 fails, Alt 1 & Bat 1 can power the bus from Main Distribution Bus 2 via the interconnecting
diode
b. A/C Bus 1 & 2 are powered by Alt 1 and Bat 1
 If Alt 1 fails, Bat 1 will power the buses
 Alt 2 is prevented from powering the buses by the isolation diode between MC Distribution Bus 1 &
2
F. Electrical Indicating

i. Displayed as bar graphs and text on the MFD’s Engine page

a. Engine Airframe Unit acquires the data and sends it to the Engine Indicating System for display
ii. If the Engine page is not active, or is in backup mode, Battery 1 amp output and Ess Bus Voltage output are
displayed on the left edge of the display
iii. Electrical System Annunciations
a. Health, caution & warning messages are displayed in the Crew Alerting System (CAWs) window
 Color coded
 Affected parameter on the Engine page changes to the same color as the CAWs alert
iv. More info in Section 3 – Emergency Procedures & 3A – Abnormal Procedures
12. Electrical – Perspective +

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A. 28-Volt DC electrical system

B. Power Generation
i. Two alternators controlled by a Master Control Unit (MCU)
a. Alternator 1
 100-amp belt driven alternator
 Mounted on the right front of the engine
 Output is connected to the Main Distribution Bus 1 in the MCU
b. Alternator 2
 70-amp gear driven alternator
 Mounted on the front left of the engine
 Output is connected to Main Distribution Bus 2 in the MCU
ii. Both alternators are self-exciting, but not self-starting
a. Battery voltage is required for field excitation to start up
b. The batteries and alternators should not be turned off in flight
C. Power Storage
i. Two batteries
a. Battery 1
 12-cell, lead-acid, 24-volt, 11-amp-hour battery
 Mounted on the right firewall
 Charged from Main Distribution Bus 1 in the MCU (ALT 1)
b. Battery 2
 Composed of two 12-volt, 7-amp-hour, sealed, lead-acid batteries connected in series to provide 24
volts
 Located in a vented, acid-resistant container behind the aft cabin bulkhead
 Charged from the circuit breaker panel Ess Bus 1
D. Power Distribution
i. Power is supplied through 3 distribution buses in the MCU
a. Main Distribution Bus 1
b. Main Distribution Bus 2
c. Essential Distribution Bus
d. The 3 distribution buses power the associated buses on the CB panel
ii. Master Control Unit (MCU)
a. Controls Alt 1 & 2, the starter, landing light, external power, and power generation functions
b. Provides external power reverse polarity protection, alternator overvoltage protection and system
health annunciations
iii. Main Distribution Bus 1
a. Output from Alt 1 is connected to Main Distribution Bus 1
b. Directly powers 3 CB buses:
 A/C Bus 1
 A/C Bus 2
 Main Bus 3
iv. Main Distribution Bus 2
a. Output from Alt 2 is connected to Main Distribution Bus 2
b. Powers 3 CB buses:
 Non-Ess Bus
 Main Bus 1
 Main Bus 2

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v. Essential Distribution Bus

a. Fed by both Main Distribution Bus 1 & 2
b. Powers 2 CB buses
 Ess Bus 1
 Ess Bus 2
vi. Constant Power Bus (CONV)
a. Fed by Bat 1 in the MCU
b. Just the Conv Lights CB (Convenience Lighting)
E. System Protection
i. Essential Buses 1 & 2
a. Powered directly by Alt 1 & 2
b. If Alt 1 or 2 fails, the remaining alternator will continue to power the buses
c. If both Alt fail, Bat 1 will power both buses
d. If both Alt and Bat 1 fail, Bat 2 is connected to and will power Ess Bus 1
ii. Main Buses
a. Main Bus 1 & 2 are powered by Alt 2
 If Alt 2 fails, Alt 1 & Bat 1 can power the buses from Main Distribution Bus 2 via the interconnecting
diode
b. Main Bus 3 is powered by Alt 1 and Bat 1
 If Alt 1 fails, Bat 1 will power the bus
 Alt 2 is prevented from powering the buses by the isolation diode between MC Distribution Bus 1 &
2 (power can only flow from Main Dist. Bus 1 to Main Dist. Bus 2)
iii. Non-Essential Buses
a. Non-Ess Bus is powered by Alt 2
 If Alt 2 fails, Alt 1 & Bat 1 can power the bus from Main Distribution Bus 2 via the interconnecting
diode
b. A/C Bus 1 & 2 are powered by Alt 1 and Bat 1
 If Alt 1 fails, Bat 1 will power the buses
 Alt 2 is prevented from powering the buses by the isolation diode between MC Distribution Bus 1 &
2
F. Electrical Indicating
i. Displayed as bar graphs and text on the MFD’s Engine page
a. Engine Airframe Unit acquires the data and sends it to the Engine Indicating System for display
ii. If the Engine page is not active, or is in backup mode, Battery 1 amp output and Ess Bus Voltage output are
displayed on the left-hand edge of the display
iii. Electrical System Annunciations
a. Health, caution & warning messages are displayed in the Crew Alerting System (CAWs) window
 Color coded
 Affected parameter on the Engine page changes to the same color as the CAWs alert
b. More info in Section 3 – Emergency Procedures & 3A – Abnormal Procedures

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13. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
14. Pitot-static, Vacuum/Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Total pressure is measured on the leading edge of a pitot probe mounted on the left wing
a. Pitot probe is electrically heated to maintain proper operation in possible icing conditions
 Operated by the Pitot Heat switch
 Amber Pitot Heat caution indicates switch is On but heater is not receiving current
ii. Static pressure is measured at dual static ports mounted in the fuselage
iii. Alternate Static Source
a. Static pressure inside the cabin can be used in the event the primary source becomes blocked
 Generally due to water or ice in the pressure line

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 Pressures in the cabin will vary with open heater/vents

 Reference Section 5 airspeed calibration and altitude for necessary corrections
b. Located to the right of the pilot’s leg
iv. Water traps with drains are installed at Pitot and static low point to collect moisture in the system
a. Drain trap at the annual inspection and when water in the system is known or suspected
v. Instruments
a. Airspeed Indicator
 Pitot and Static Pressure
b. Altimeter
 Static Pressure
c. Rate of Climb Indicator
 Static Pressure
B. Vacuum/Pressure
i. See III.C. Generic Aircraft Systems
C. Associated Flight Instruments
i. For more details, see III.C. Generic Aircraft Systems
15. Environmental
A. Ventilation
i. Provided by ducting ram air from air inlets to eyeball outlets for each occupant
B. Cabin Heat
i. An inlet in the engine compartment ducts air over the muffler heat exchanger
a. This air is mixed with fresh ram air and ducted to the cabin occupants or the windshield
b. Muffler type heat exchanger is on the right exhaust muffler
C. Blower
i. Serials 1639 and on: An optional 3-speed blower fan may be
installed to supplement ram airflow
D. Specifics
i. Serials 1005 to 1638
a. System Components
 Air inlet in the upper right-hand cowl
 Heat exchanger around right exhaust muffler
 Two fresh air inlets – one in each wing root
 Air mixing plenum (behind instrument panel)
 Windshield diffuser
 Air ducting
 Air vents
b. Air Selector
 Air from the mixing plenum can be
proportioned/directed to the windshield or
passengers
 Rotating Full Counterclockwise = Max airflow to the
windshield
 Full Clockwise = Max airflow to the passengers
c. Heat Control
 Controlled by rotating the Cabin Heat Control
 Mechanically linked to a door in a heater box
Serials 1005-1638 Environmental System

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 Full Counterclockwise (Heat Off) = Bypasses heated air

 Full Clockwise = Opens door in the heater box allowing heated air into the mixing plenum
d. Cooling Control
 Controlled by rotating the Cabin Cool Control
 Full Counterclockwise = Shuts down cooling airflow to the mixing plenum
 Full Clockwise (Cold) = Allows fresh cooling air to enter the mixing plenum
ii. Serials 1639 to 1885
a. System Components
 Air inlet in the upper right-hand cowl
 Heat exchanger around right exhaust muffler
 One fresh air inlet in the right-wing root
 Air mixing chamber (under right crew seat)
 Distribution manifold (behind inst. panel)
 Windshield diffuser
 Air ducting
 Air vents
b. Air Selector
 Regulates system airflow via a mechanical linkage to a
valve in the distribution manifold
 If installed, a blower fan is turned on if the selector
exceeds the full open position
c. Vent Selection
 Cabin vent selector is mechanically linked to valves at
the entrance to the windshield diffuser and cabin floor
ducting
 Far Left: Both valves are closed – max airflow to the
panel and armrest eyeball outlets
 ¼ Turn Clockwise: Opens cabin floor valve
 Another ¼ turn CW: Opens windshield diffuser valve Serials 1639-1885 Environmental System
a Allows shared airflow to windshield defrost and cabin floor outlets
 Far Right: Cabin floor valve is closed providing
maximum airflow to the windshield diffuser
d. Temperature Selection
 Temp selector is mechanically linked to the hot air
valve and fresh air intake valve
a Rotating the valve simultaneously opens and
closes the two valves
 CW Rotation: Allows warmer air to enter
 CCW Rotation: Allows cooler air to enter
iii. Serials 1886 and Subs
a. System Components
 Air inlet in the upper right-hand cowl
 Heat exchanger around right exhaust muffler
 One fresh air inlet in right lower cowl
 Air mixing chamber (on the firewall)
 Distribution manifold (behind instrument panel)
 Windshield diffuser

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 Air ducting
 Air vents
b. Air Selector
 Regulates system airflow via a mechanical linkage to a valve in distribution manifold
 When the selector is moved past Off, an electromechanical linkage actuates a valve in the mixing
chamber to full open
a Air is then distributed by ram air or optional blower fan to the distribution manifold
b Blower Fan: 0 = ram air, 1 = low fan, 2 = med fan, 3 = high fan
c. Vent Selection
 Cabin vent selector is mechanically linked to valves at the entrance to the windshield diffuser and
cabin floor ducting
 Far Left: Both valves are closed – max airflow to the panel and armrest eyeball outlets
 ¼ Turn CW: Opens cabin floor valve
 Another ¼ turn CW: Opens windshield diffuser valve Serials 1886 and subs
a Allows shared airflow to windshield defrost and cabin floor outlets
 Far Right: Cabin floor valve is closed providing maximum airflow to the windshield diffuser
d. Temperature Selection
 Temp selector is mechanically linked to the hot air valve and fresh air intake valve
a Rotating the valve simultaneously opens and closes the two valves
 CW Rotation: Allows warmer air to enter
 CCW Rotation: Allows cooler air to enter
iv. Perspective & Perspective +
a. System Components
 Fresh air inlet in the lower right-hand cowling
 Heat exchanger around the right exhaust muffler
 Air mixing chamber
 Distribution manifold
 Windshield diffuser
 Air ducting
 Air vents
 Optional 3-speed blower
 Optional AC system
a Engine driven compressor
b Condenser assembly
c Evaporator assembly
b. Heating
 Fresh air is ducted to the heat exchanger
 Heated air is routed to the hot air valve
a Hot air valve controls entry of hot air into the cabin distribution system
b Open Valve: Heated air flows into the cabin mixing chamber
c Closed Valve: Heated air exits into the engine compartment and is exhausted overboard
 Cabin heat is regulated by controlling the amount of hot air in the mixing chamber
a Amount of hot air and fresh air is dictated by the temp selector on the instrument panel
c. Cooling
 Provided by ram air through the fresh air cowl inlet
 When the fresh air valve is open, air flows into the mixing chamber
a Closed = Exits into the engine compartment and is exhausted overboard

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 Air Conditioning (Optional)

a Ram air from the fresh air intake flows into the evaporator assembly, is cooled as it passes
through the evaporator coils and then is ducted to the distribution manifold
b Air conditioning diagram shown below, on the right
d. Air Selector
 Regulates the volume of airflow in the cabin distribution system
 When the selector is moved past the Off position, an electromechanical linkage actuates a valve in
the mixing chamber to full open
a Air is then distributed by ram air or a blower fan (optional) to the distribution manifold
e. Vent Selection
 Distribution manifold air is proportioned and directed to pax and/or the windshield with the cabin
vent selector buttons
a Electrically actuate valves at the entrances to the windshield diffuser/cabin floor ducting
 Panel selector button: Both valves closed; max air to the panel and armrest eyeball outlets
 Panel-Foot: Opens cabin floor valve
 Panel-Foot-Windshield: Opens windshield diffuser valve; permits airflow to defrost and cabin floor
outlets
 Windshield: Cabin floor valve closes; max air to windshield diffuser
f. Temp Selection
 Electrically linked to the hot and cold air valves
 Rotating the selector simultaneously opens and closes the two valves
a Allows hot and cold air mix and enter the distribution system
b Clockwise: Permits warner air to enter the system
c Counterclockwise: Permits cooler air into the system
 Air Conditioning (Optional)
a Valve on firewall closes; AC is activated
b Recirculation Button: Fresh air valve closes; cabin air is recirculated
g. Diagrams
 Left: Standard environmental system
 Right: Optional air conditioning system

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16.
D

Standard Environmental System Optional Air Conditioning System

eicing and Anti-Icing
A. Canopy Heat
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
B. Pitot Heat
i. Used to prevent ice buildup on the pitot/static inlets
17. Cirrus Airframe Parachute System (CAPS)
A. Components
i. Parachute – 2400 sq ft round canopy
ii. Solid-propellant rocket
iii. Rocket activation handle
iv. Harness
B. System Description
i. Composite box containing the parachute and propellant is mounted immediately aft of the baggage
compartment bulkhead
ii. Parachute is in a deployment bag
a. Creates an orderly deployment process – canopy inflates only after the rocket pulls lines taut
iii. 3-point harness connects the fuselage to the parachute
a. Aft bulkhead, 2 firewall attach points
C. Activation Handle

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i. Installed in the ceiling on the airplane centerline, just above the pilot’s right shoulder
a. Placarded cover prevents tampering – Pull the black tab at the forward edge to remove it
ii. Pulling the handle activates the rocket and initiates the CAPS deployment sequence
a. To activate the rocket:
 Pull the T-handle from its receptacle
 Once slack is removed (about 2”), motion stops, and greater force is required to activate
 Clasp both hands around the T-handle and pull straight down (do a chin-up)
a Up to 45 pounds of force, or greater, may be required
b Serials 1005 to 2227
1. Greater force required occurs as cable arms and releases the rocket igniter firing pin
2. When the firing pin releases, two primers are discharged and ignite the rocket fuel
c Serials 2228 and subs
1. The greater force required occurs as the cable arms and then releases the igniter switch
plunger activating the electronic igniter
D. Deployment Characteristics
i. Parachute is extracted outward and rearward due to rocket thrust and relative wind
a. In approximately 2 seconds parachute begins to inflate
ii. As air fills the canopy, forward motion is dramatically slowed
a. Should be less than 3 Gs / Slight nose-up may be experienced
b. Nose will gradually drop until hanging nose low beneath the canopy
iii. 8 seconds after deployment the tail will drop to its final approximately level attitude
a. Rear riser snub line is cut
b. Airplane may yaw or oscillate slightly
iv. Descent rate is expected to be < 1700 fpm; Lateral speed = wind speed
v. Ground impact is equivalent to touchdown from a height of 10’
vi. Designed to work in a variety of attitudes
a. But deployment in an attitude other than level flight may change deployment characteristics

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Diamond DA20

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. Fuel Pump and Primer
3. *Electrical Failure – 30 min

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
*The main systems found on the DA20. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
*This lesson is based off the DA20 systems, and will need adjusted for your aircraft
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons - Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP)
i. Actuated via push rods
ii. Attached with stainless steel and aluminum hinges
B. Elevator - CFRP
i. Actuated via push rods
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
iii. Trim
a. Controlled by a Rocker Switch
 Switch forward = Nose Down; Switch aft = Nose Up
 Switch controls an electrical actuator beside the vertical push rod in the vertical stabilizer
a The actuator applies a load to compression springs on the elevator push rod
b. Trim circuit breaker can be tripped manually to disable the system
C. Rudder
i. Actuated via control cables
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
2. Flaps
A. Driven by an electric motor
i. Electric flap actuator is protected by a circuit breaker (5 Amp)
a. Located on the right side of the instrument panel and can be manually tripped to disable the system
B. Controlled by 3 position flap operating switch on the instrument panel
i. Top position – Cruise – 0o (Green Light)
ii. Middle Position – Approach – 15o (Yellow Light)
iii. Bottom Position – Landing – 45o (Yellow Light)
iv. When two lights are illuminated at the same time, the flaps are in-between positions
C. Cruise and Landing positions are equipped with position switches to prevent over-traveling

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3. Powerplant and Propeller

A. Powerplant
i. Continental IO-240-B Engine
a. Fuel Injected
b. 4 Cylinder
c. 4 Stroke
d. Horizontally Opposed cylinders and heads
e. Air cooled cylinders and heads
f. Propeller drive is direct from the crankshaft
g. 3.9 liters
h. 125 HP at 2800 RPM
ii. Engine Controls
a. Mixture Lever
b. Throttle
c. Alternate Air
 Full Forward = Primary Air Intake
 Full Aft = Alternate Air Intake
B. Propeller
i. Hoffmann HO-14HM-175-157
a. Diameter - 5’ 8.9”
b. Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
c. Wood and glass fiber
ii. Sensenich W69EK7-63, 63G, or W69EK-63
a. Diameter – 5’9”
b. Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
c. Wood prop
4. Landing Gear
i. Two main landing gear wheels (mounted to aluminum
spring struts)
B. Nose Wheel
i. 60o castering
ii. Suspension is provided by an elastomer spring
C. Wheel Brakes
i. Hydraulically operated disc brakes
ii. Operated individually using toe-brake pedals
D. Parking Brake
i. Repeated pushing of the toe-brake pedals will build up the required brake pressure, which will remain in
effect until the brake is released
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Aluminum Fuel Tank
a. Located behind the seats, below the baggage compartment
b. 24.5 Gallons fuel (24 Gallons Usable)
c. Operation
 Fuel is gravity fed to a filter bowl (gascolator) and then to the electric fuel pump
a Filter bowl must be drained before flight (black tube)
 Electric fuel pump primes for starting (Prime ON) and is used for low throttle operations
a When the pump is off, fuel flows through the pump’s internal bypass

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 From electric pump, fuel is delivered to the mechanical fuel pump by the fuel supply line
 Fuel is metered by the fuel control unit and flows via the fuel distribution manifold to the injector
nozzles
 Return line from mechanical fuel pump’s fuel vapor separator returns vapor/excess fuel to the tank
d. Electric Fuel Pump
 DUKES constant flow, vane type, two speed, electric fuel pump
a Fuel Prime
1. Pump’s high-speed setting, used for priming the engine prior to engine start
2. Turning the prime pump on while running will enrich the mixture considerably
a. At high throttle settings the effect is less noticeable
b. At low throttle settings may cause engine roughness or engine stoppage
b Fuel pump
1. Required for maintaining positive fuel pressures at low throttle settings
e. Fuel Shutoff Valve
 Closing will cause the engine to stop within a few seconds

B. Oil
i. High pressure wet sump lubrication system
a. Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a separate tank
ii. Oil is pumped by a mechanical, engine driven pump
iii. Oil must be between 4 and 6 quarts

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6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. 40 Amp Generator
a. Feeds the Main Bus via the Generator Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
ii. Generator Warning Light
a. Activated by internal voltage regulator monitoring circuit - illuminates if generator fault occurs
B. Power Storage
i. 12V battery
a. Connects to the Master Bus via the Battery Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
C. Power Distribution
i. Electrical Bus
D. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g. Radio, Fuel Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are connected in series with their
respective circuit breakers
E. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Voltmeter
a. Indicates the status of the Electrical Bus
b. Consists of a dial marked numerically from 8 – 16 volts in divisions of 2
 Scale
a RED for 8.0 - 11.0 volts
b YELLOW for 11.0 - 12.5 volts
c Green for 12.5 - 16.0 volts
d REDLINE at 16.1 volts
ii. Ammeter
a. Indicates the charging (+) and discharging (-) of the battery
b. Consists of a dial which is marked numerically from -60 to 60 amps
iii. Generator Warning Light
a. Illuminates during generator failure

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 No output from the generator

b. The only remaining power source is the battery (20 Amps for 30 min)
7. Avionics
A. Center of the instrument panel contains the radio and navigation equipment
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
B. Vertical Stabilizer contains the antenna for the VHF radio equipment
C. Horizontal Stabilizer contains the antenna for the NAV equipment (VOR)
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Pitot pressure is measured on the leading edge of a calibrated probe below the left wing
a. Airspeed indicating error, refer to Chapter 5 of POH
ii. Static pressure is measured by the same probe
a. Error of the static pressure system is negligible
iii. Instruments
a. Airspeed Indicator
 Pitot Pressure (Ram Air Pressure) and Static Pressure
b. Altimeter
 Static Pressure
c. Rate of Climb Indicator
 Static Pressure
B. Vacuum Pressure (Gyros)
i. Instruments
a. Heading Indicator
b. Attitude Indicator
C. Electrically Driven Instruments
i. Turn Coordinator
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Directs ram air through the exhaust heat shroud into the cabin heat valve
a. The air is directed to the window defrosting vents and to the cabin floor as selected by the lever
ii. The cabin heat selector is used to regulate the flow of heated air
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Defrost
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Diamond DA40

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. Prop Governor fails to Low Pitch, High RPM
3. Electrical Failure – 30 min

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the DA40. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant, propeller,
landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the environmental
system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons – Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic (GFRP)/Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) composite sandwich
i. Actuated via steel push rods
ii. Attached with stainless steel and aluminum hinges
B. Elevator – GFRP
i. Actuated via steel push rods
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
iii. Trim
a. Electric Trim - Controlled by a Rocker Switch
 Switch forward = Nose Down; Switch aft = Nose Up
 Switch controls an electrical actuator beside the vertical push rod in the vertical stabilizer
a The actuator applies a load to compression springs on the elevator push rod
 Trim circuit breaker can be tripped manually to disable the system
b. Manual Trim - Controlled by a black wheel in the center of the console
 Turn Wheel to the Front = Nose Down
 Turn Wheel to the Rear = Nose Up
C. Rudder – GFRP sandwich
i. Actuated via steel control cables
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
2. Flaps
A. GFRP/CFRP composite sandwich
B. Driven by an electric motor
i. Electric flap actuator is protected by a circuit breaker
a. Can be manually tripped to disable the system
C. Controlled by 3 position flap operating switch on the instrument panel
i. Top position – Cruise (UP), Totally retracted, upper green light
ii. Middle Position – Takeoff (T/O), 20o, center white light

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iii. Bottom Position – Landing (LDG), 42o, lower white light

iv. When two lights are illuminated at the same time, the flaps are in-between positions
D. The Up and Landing positions are equipped with position switches to prevent over-traveling
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming IO-360-M1A
a. Fuel Injected
b. 4 Cylinder
c. 4 Stroke
d. Horizontally Opposed cylinders and heads
e. Air cooled cylinders and heads
f. Propeller drive is direct from the crankshaft
g. 180 HP at 2700 RPM (sea level and ISA)
ii. Engine Controls
a. Throttle
 Left hand lever. Sets Manifold Pressure (MP).
a High MP = large quantity of fuel-air mixture being supplied to the engine
b. RPM Lever
 Central lever (blue). By means of this lever, the propeller governor controls the propeller pitch and
thus engine RPM (propeller RPM).
a A selected RPM in held constant by the propeller governor independent of airspeed and throttle
setting.
c. Mixture Lever
 Right hand lever (red). Used to set the proportions in the fuel-air mixture supplied to the engine
a Forward (Rich) = Mixture rich in fuel
1. At the forward stop, extra fuel is being supplied to the engine which at higher performance
settings contributes to engine cooling
b Rear (Lean) = Mixture lean in fuel
 To shut off the engine the mixture level is pulled to the rear (lean) stop. Air without fuel is drawn
into the cylinders and the engine dies
d. Alternate Air
 Full Forward = Primary Air Intake
 Full Aft = Alternate Air Intake
B. Propeller
i. Hydraulically Regulated constant speed propeller
 Various different models (MTV-12-B/180-17, MTV-12-B/180-17f. Different propeller options have
been introduced over the years)
b. Wood composite blades with fiber reinforced plastic coating and stainless steel edge cladding
 Lowest weight while minimizing vibration
ii. Governor
a. Changes the pitch of the propeller using oil from the engine
b. A loss of oil pressure will result in a low pitch, high rpm setting
4. Landing Gear
A. Main Gear
i. Two main landing gear wheels mounted to sprung steel struts
B. Nose Wheel
i. 60o castering

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ii. Suspension is provided by an elastomer spring

C. Wheel Brakes
i. Hydraulically operated disc brakes
ii. Operated individually using toe-brake pedals
D. Parking Brake
i. Repeated pushing of the toe-brake pedals will build up the required brake pressure, which will remain in
effect until the brake is released

5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic

A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. Aluminum Fuel Tanks
 Standard or Long Range Tanks
a Standard Tank – 20 Gallons per tank
1. Two aluminum chambers in each tank
2. Max quantity that can be indicated is 15 or 17 gallons depending on the serial number of the
aircraft. At a quantity above 15 or 17 gallons, the indication remains at 15/17 gallons. The
correct fuel quantity must be determined with the fuel quantity measuring device.
b Long Range Tank – 25 Gallons per tank
1. Three aluminum chambers in each tank
2. *Fuel readings vary based on avionics installed
a. G1000 vs AUS FUEL QTY switch

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 Two vents per tank

a One acts as a capillary to equalize pressure and provide a safety factor in the event of a failure
of the other vent
b Second is a check valve to allow air to enter the tank, but prevents flow to the outside
b. Fuel Pumps
 Electric and Mechanical Fuel Pump
a Mechanical fuel pump provides the normal supply
b Electric fuel pump is an auxiliary and emergency pump
1. Does not operate under normal circumstances – used as a safety backup during takeoff,
landing, and switching fuel tanks, as well as in the event of a decrease in fuel pressure
c. Fuel Tank Selector
 Left, Right, and OFF positions
a Off is reached by turning the selector to the right while pulling up to ensure it is not selected
unintentionally

B. Oil
i. High pressure wet sump lubrication system

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a. Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a separate tank
ii. Oil is pumped by a mechanical, engine driven pump
iii. Oil must be between 4 and 8 quarts

6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. 70 Amp Generator
a. Charges the battery
b. Driven by a V belt attached to the engine
c. In the event of an alternator failure, the battery provides the system with electrical power
B. Power Storage
a. Lead Acid, 10 amp-hour battery
 Connected to the electrical system via the main CB
 Located in the right side of the engine compartment
b. IFR Model – Also contains a Lithium Battery Pack
 1 hour 30 minutes of power for the attitude gyro and flood light
 Non-Rechargeable
C. Power Distribution
i. Main Bus
ii. And, if installed, the Essential Bus
a. Following an alternator failure, the essential bus (if installed) will shed unnecessary systems and power
the equipment on the essential bus for 30 minutes. After this, electrical power is available for only the
artificial horizon and flood light for another 1 hour 30 minutes if the emergency power pack is installed
and used
b. The essential bus powers:
 Nav/Com 1
 Transponder
 Flood Light
 Artificial Horizon

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 VM 1000 engine instrument

 Annunciator panel
 GPS
 Landing Light
 Pitot Heat
 Flaps
D. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g. Radio, Fuel Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are connected to the main bus/essential
bus via automatic circuit breakers
E. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Voltmeter
a. Indicates the status of the Main Bus
 If the alternator is operating, the alternator voltage is shown, otherwise the battery voltage is shown
ii. Ammeter
a. Displays the current with which the alternator is being loaded
b. Consists of a dial which is marked numerically from -60 to 60 amps
iii. Alternator Warning Light
a. Illuminates on alternator failure. The only source of electrical power remaining is the battery
iv. Low Voltage Caution Light
a. Illuminates when the voltage drops below 24 Volts

7. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum/Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments

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A. Pitot-Static
i. Total pressure is measured on the leading edge of a pitot probe below the left wing
ii. Static pressure is measured at the lower and rear edges of the pitot probe
iii. Pitot probe is electrically heated
iv. Alternate Static Source, if installed
a. Static pressure inside the cabin can be used in the event of a failure of the pitot-static system
v. Instruments
a. Airspeed Indicator
 Pitot Pressure (Ram Air Pressure) and Static Pressure
b. Altimeter
 Static Pressure
c. Rate of Climb Indicator
 Static Pressure
B. Electrically Driven Instruments
i. Directional Gyro (Main Bus)
ii. Turn & Bank Indicator (Main Bus)
iii. Artificial Horizon/Attitude (Essential Bus)
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Directs ram air through the exhaust heat shroud into the cabin heat valve
a. The air is directed to the window defrosting vents and to the cabin floor as selected by the lever
ii. The cabin heat selector is used to regulate the flow of heated air
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Canopy Heat
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
B. Pitot Heat
i. Used to prevent ice buildup on the pitot/static inlets

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

211
II.E. Piper Archer II (PA-28-181)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. 8-quart oil capacity
3. Useable fuel: 24 gallons per tank

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 4. Participate in discussion

5. Take notes
6. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Archer. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons, Horizontal Tail, and Rudder
i. General
a. Metal construction aircraft
 The basic airframe is of aluminum alloy construction
 The extremities – wing tips, cowling, tail surfaces – are of fiberglass or ABS thermoplastic
b. Cable systems are used between the controls and control surfaces
B. Horizontal Tail (Stabilator)
i. What is a Stabilator?
a. Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
b. A stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a given pitching moment with lower control force
c. Because they are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance to
increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo trim
tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force resisting the
pilot’s input
ii. From the POH:
a. The horizontal tail, stabilator, is of the all-movable slab type with a trim tab mounted on the trailing
edge to reduce the control system forces
b. The stabilator provides extra stability and controllability with less size, drag and weight than
conventional tail surfaces
C. Trim
i. Elevator Trim
a. As mentioned above, the trim tab is mounted on the trailing edge of the stabilator
b. The trim tab is actuated by a control wheel on the floor, between the seats
ii. Rudder Trim
a. Mounted on the right side of the pedestal, below the throttle quadrant
b. Permits directional trim as needed in flight

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2. Flaps
A. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the Up position
B. A past center lock holds the flap when it is in the Up position so that it may be used as a step on the right side
i. The flap will not support a step load except when in the full Up position. Must be completely retracted when
used as a step
C. 3 Positions – 10o, 25o, 40o
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming O-360 (-A4M or -A4A depending on the aircraft)
a. 4 Cylinder
b. 4 stroke
c. Air cooled
d. Direct Drive
e. Carbureted
f. Horizontally Opposed
g. 180 HP at 2700 RPM
ii. Engine Controls
a. Throttle and Mixture Control Levers
 Throttle adjusts RPM
 Mixture adjusts air to fuel ratio
 Operated via Teflon lined control cables
 Friction Adjustment located on the right side of the control quadrant
a Increases or decreases friction of the throttle/mixture or can be used to lock the controls in a
selected position
b. Carburetor Heat
 Located to the right of the control quadrant
 ON (down) / OFF (up) settings
B. Propeller
a. Fixed pitch propeller
b. One piece alloy forging
4. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Tricycle Gear
b. Steel landing gear struts
 Air-oil struts with a normal extension of 3.25” for the nose gear and 4.5” for the main gear
ii. Nose Gear
a. By using the rudder pedals and brakes, the nose gear is steerable through 30 o each side of center
 A bungee in the hose gear steering mechanism reduces steering effort and dampens bumps and
shocks during taxi
 Later aircraft have the bungee removed from the nose gear steering mechanism are only steerable
through 20o each side of center
b. Shimmy dampener is also included in the nose gear
iii. Main Gear
a. Main gear wheels have single disk hydraulic brake assemblies
iv. Brake System
a. Components
 Dual toe brakes attached to the rudder pedals

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 Hand lever
 Master cylinder
b. Operation
 The toe brakes and hand brake have their own brake cylinders, but share a reservoir
 The parking brake is incorporated in the master cylinder and is actuated by pulling back on the brake
lever, depressing the knob on the left side of the handle, and releasing the brake lever
a To release the parking brake, pull back on the brake lever to disengage the catch mechanism
and allow the handle to swing forward
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. 2 tanks. 24 gallons useable fuel in each, 25 gallons total
b. Each tank is equipped with a filler neck indicator tab to aid in determining fuel remaining when the tanks
are not full
 Usable capacity to the bottom of the indicator is 17 gallons
ii. Fuel Pumps
a. Two fuel pumps – An engine driven pump and an auxiliary electric fuel pump
 Aux electric pump is provided in case of failure of the engine driven pump and should be used for all
takeoffs and landings, and when switching tanks
iii. Operation
a. Main tanks Fuel Selector Electric Fuel Pump Engine Fuel Pump Carburetor
iv. Fuel Selector
a. Selections: Left Tank, Right Tank, OFF
 The button on the fuel selector must be depressed and held to select OFF
v. Engine Priming
a. Facilitates starting
 Can see Primer line in the fuel system schematic below
b. From Section 4, Starting Engine when Cold - If engine does not start within 10 seconds, prime the engine
and repeat
vi. Indications
a. Quantity and pressure are indicated in gauges located in a cluster on the left side of the instrument
panel

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B. Oil
i. Wet sump oil system
a. Oil is drawn from the sump to the oil cooler, then to the pressure relief valve, and on to the engine and
then by gravity back to the sump
 Oil Cooler – in the even that cold oil or an obstruction restricts flow to the cooler, and oil cooler
bypass is provided
 Oil Pressure Relief Valve – regulates the engine oil pressure by allowing excess oil to return to the
sump
ii. Capacity: 8 quarts
C. Hydraulic
i. The engine has no hydraulic system. See Brake System above for aircraft hydraulics
6. Electrical
A. General
i. 14 volt, 60 amp alternator
ii. 12 volt battery
a. Mounted in a plastic box immediately aft of the baggage compartment
iii. Additional Components: voltage regulator, overvoltage relay, and master switch relay
a. Regulator and overvoltage relay are located on the forward left side of the fuselage behind the
instrument panel

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B. Emergency Bus
i. An optional Radio Master switch can be installed to control power to the radios
ii. An emergency bus switch is also installed to provide auxiliary power to the avionics bus in event of a radio
master switch circuit failure
iii. Emergency Bus Switch is located behind the lower right shin guard, to left of the circuit breaker panel
C. Consumers
i. Standard accessories include: starter, electric fuel pump, stall warning indicator, cigar lighter, fuel gauge,
ammeter, and annunciator panel
ii. Optional accessories include: navigation lights, wing recognition lights, anti-collision light, landing light,
instrument lighting, and cabin dome light
iii. Circuits will handle the addition of communication and navigation equipment
D. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Ammeter
a. The ammeter displays the load placed on the alternator (it does not indicate battery discharge)
 With all electrical equipment off the ammeter will be indicating the amount of charging current
demanded by the battery

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 As each electrical item is turned on, the current will increase to a total appearing on the ammeter
(this total includes the battery)
 The average continuous load for night flight, with radios on, is about 30 amperes. The 3 ampere
value, plus approximately 2 amperes for a fully charged battery will appear continuously under
these flight conditions
b. The amount of current shown on the ammeter will tell immediately if the alternator system is operating
normally, as the amount of current shown should equal the total amperage drawn by the equipment
operating
ii. Annunciator Panel
a. Includes various indications provided as a warning to the pilot that a system may not be operating
properly, and the pilot should check and monitor the applicable system to determine if or when any
necessary action is required (i.e. alternator indicator light)
7. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
B. Radios are located on the upper right panel
i. Circuits are available for addition of optional radio equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Supplies pitot and static pressure for the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
ii. Components
a. Pitot head – picks up pitot and static pressures
b. Pitot and Static lines – carry pitot and static pressures through the wing and fuselage to the gauges on
the instrument panel
c. Alternate Static Source – If installed, allows the pilot to select an alternate static source from inside the
aircraft for the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator
 The storm window and cabin vents must be closed
 The cabin heater and defroster must be on
 The altimeter error is less than 50’ unless otherwise placarded
iii. Pitot Heat – optional equipment

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B. Vacuum Pressure (Gyros)

i. Designed to operate the air driven gyro instruments – directional gyro and attitude indicator
ii. Components - Engine driven vacuum pump, Vacuum regulator, Filter, and the necessary plumbing
iii. Vacuum Gauge
a. A decrease in pressure (low vacuum indicator light) that remains constant over an extended period may
indicate a dirty filter, dirty screens, a sticking vacuum regulator or a leak in the system
b. Zero pressure indicates a sheared pump drive, defective pump, a defective gauge, or a collapsed line
iv. Vacuum Regulator
a. Protects the gyros
b. The valve is set so normal operation reads 5.0 ± .1 inches of mercury
 Higher settings will damage the gyros, lower settings will result in unreliable indications
C. Electrically Driven Instruments
i. Turn and Bank indicator
ii. As necessary, other installed electrical equipment
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heat for the cabin and defrost is provided by a heater muff attached to the exhaust system
a. The amount of heat can be regulated with the controls on the far right of the instrument panel
B. Fresh Air Inlets
i. Located on the leading edge of the wing
a. Adjustable outlet is located on the side of the cabin near the floor of each seat, as well as overhead (if
installed)
C. Air Conditioning (if installed)
i. Recirculating air system
ii. Consists of: Evaporator, scoop, condenser, compressor, blower, switches, and temperature controls
iii. Controls are located on the lower right side of the instrument panel
a. Temp Control, Fan Speed, On/OFF
iv. Whenever the throttle is in the full forward position, it actuates a micro switch which disengages the
compressor and retracts the scoop to obtain maximum power and rate of climb
a. When the throttle is retarded approximately ¼”, the system will turn back on
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Defrost
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
B. Pitot Heat (if installed)
i. Helps to alleviate problems with icing and heavy rain

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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II.E. Piper Archer III (PA-28-181)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. 8-quart oil capacity
3. Useable fuel: 24 gallons per tank

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Archer. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons, Horizontal Tail, and Rudder
i. General
a. Metal construction aircraft
 The basic airframe is of aluminum alloy construction
 The extremities – wing tips, cowling, tail surfaces – are of fiberglass or ABS thermoplastic
b. Cable systems are used between the controls and control surfaces
B. Horizontal Tail (Stabilator)
i. What is a Stabilator?
a. Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
b. A stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a given pitching moment with lower control force
c. Because they are easier to move, to be certified, an aircraft must show an increasing resistance to
increasing pilot input
 To provide this resistance, stabilators contain an anti-servo trim tab that deflects in the same
direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force resisting the pilot’s input
ii. Horizontal tail, stabilator, is of the all-movable slab type with a trim tab mounted on the trailing edge to
reduce the control system forces
a. Stabilator provides extra stability and controllability with less size, drag and weight than conventional
tail surfaces
C. Trim
i. Elevator Trim
a. As mentioned above, the trim tab is mounted on the trailing edge of the stabilator
b. The trim tab is actuated by a control wheel on the floor, between the seats
ii. Rudder Trim
a. Mounted on the right side of the pedestal, below the throttle quadrant
b. Permits directional trim as needed in flight
2. Flaps

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A. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the Up position

B. A past center lock holds the flap in the Up position so it may be used as a step on the right side
i. Flap must be completely retracted when used as a step
C. 3 Positions: 10o, 25o, 40o
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming IO-360-B4A
a. 4 Cylinder
b. Direct drive
c. Air-cooled
d. Fuel injected
e. Horizontally opposed
f. 180 HP at 2700 RPM
ii. Engine Controls
a. Throttle and Mixture Control Levers
 Throttle adjusts RPM
 Mixture adjusts air to fuel ratio
 Operated via Teflon lined control cables
 Friction Adjustment located on the right side of the control quadrant
a Increases or decreases friction of the throttle/mixture or can be used to lock the controls in a
selected position
B. Propeller
a. Sensenich 76” diameter fixed pitch propeller
b. One piece alloy forging
4. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Tricycle Gear
b. Landing gear struts
 Air-oil struts with a normal extension of 3.25” for the nose gear and 4.5” for the main gear
ii. Nose Gear
a. Using the rudder pedals and brakes, the nose gear is steerable through 20 o each side of center
b. Shimmy dampener is also included in the nose gear
iii. Main Gear
a. Main gear wheels have single disk hydraulic brake assemblies
iv. Brake System
a. Components
 Dual toe brakes attached to the rudder pedals
 Hand lever
 Master cylinder
 Reservoir
b. Operation
 The toe brakes and hand brake have their own brake cylinders, but share a reservoir
 The parking brake is incorporated in the hand lever master cylinder and is actuated by pulling back
on the brake lever, depressing the knob on the left side of the handle, and releasing the brake lever
a To release, pull back on lever (disengages catch mechanism) and allow the handle to swing
forward
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic

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A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. 2 tanks. 24 gallons useable fuel in each, 25 gallons total
b. Each tank is equipped with a filler neck indicator tab to determine fuel status
 Usable capacity to the bottom of the indicator is 17 gallons
ii. Fuel Pumps
a. Two fuel pumps – An engine driven pump and an auxiliary electric fuel pump
 Aux electric pump is provided in case of failure of the engine driven pump and should be used for all
takeoffs and landings, and when switching tanks
iii. Operation
a. See diagram
b. Main tanks Fuel Selector Electric Fuel Pump Engine Fuel Pump Fuel Injector
c. Fuel Injection – Avstar RSA-5AD1 Injector
 Based on principal of differential pressure –
balances air pressure vs fuel pressure
 Servo valve establishes fuel pressure
a Meters fuel flow proportionally with airflow
and maintains mixture as set
b Fuel flow divider receives and distributes fuel
to each cylinder
iv. Fuel Selector
a. Selections: L, R, OFF
 Button on the fuel selector must be depressed
and held to select OFF
v. Indications
a. Displayed on G1000
b. After power-up, fuel on board should be
synchronized with fuel sensed in each tank
 FOB SYNC on MFD AUX-WEIGHT Planning page
 Necessary for accurate calculations (range,
endurance, range ring, etc.)
B. Oil
i. Wet sump oil system
a. Oil is stored in a sump that is part of the engine (usually at the bottom of the engine casing)
ii. Capacity: 8 quarts
iii. General Operation (POH doesn’t describe specific operation)
a. Oil is drawn from the sump to an oil cooler, to a pressure relief valve, to the engine, and then by gravity
back to the sump
 Oil Cooler – Bypassed if oil is cold or an obstruction restricts flow to the cooler
 Oil Pressure Relief Valve – regulates oil pressure by allowing excess oil to return to the sump
C. Hydraulic
i. See Brake System above for aircraft hydraulics
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. 28-volt, 70-amp alternator
B. Power Storage
i. 24-volt primary battery

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a. Mounted on a shelf in the aft fuselage

b. Provides power for engine starting and when the engine is not running
c. Battery master switch: Powers starter, essential bus, non-essential bus, and lighting bus
ii. 24-volt emergency battery
a. Mounted on a shelf in the aft fuselage, just forward of the primary battery
b. Provides power to the Emergency Bus in the case of a complete electrical failure
 Powers standby instruments, PFD functions (nav/com 1) and the audio panel
 Minimum of 30-minute duration (if voltage is greater than 23.3 volts prior to flight)
c. With Emerg Batt switch in Arm, power is automatically applied to emergency bus if power is lost
d. Isolated from emergency bus equipment via a relay controlled by Emerg Batt switch
 Diode allows the battery to be charged but prevents discharge when alternator is off
C. Distribution
i. Various electrical buses
a. Hot Battery Bus
b. Lighting Bus
c. Essential Bus
d. Non-Essential Bus
e. Avionics Bus
ii. Circuit breaker panel is located on the lower right side of the instrument panel

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D. Voltage Regulator
i. Regulate bus voltage to 28 volts & removes alternator if it exceeds 32 volts (preventing damage)
a. ALTR Fail warning CAS message

E. Electrical Monitoring Instruments

i. Alternator Amps
a. Displays the load placed on the alternator
 With all electrical equipment off the ammeter will be indicating the amount of charging current
demanded by the battery
 As each electrical item is turned on, the current will increase to a total appearing on the ammeter
(this total includes the battery)
ii. System Volts
iii. Battery Amps
iv. Crew Alerting System (CAS)
a. Various indications provided as a warning that a system may not be operating properly
 Check/monitor the applicable system to determine if or when action is required
b. Master Warning & Caution on lower right side of PFD
 CAS text messages appear in lower right area of the PFD (i.e., ALTR FAIL warning)
 Severity is categorized as: Warning, Caution, Advisory
7. Avionics
A. Avionics will vary based on model and options
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Supplies pitot and static pressure for the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator

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ii. Components
a. Pitot head – Pitot & static pressures
 Bottom of left wing
b. Pitot and Static lines – carry pitot and static pressures through the wing and fuselage to Garmin Air Data
Computer and standby instrument
c. Alternate Static Source – Alternate static source from inside the aircraft for the altimeter, vertical speed
indicator, and airspeed indicator
 The storm window and cabin vents must be closed
 The cabin heater and defroster must be on
 The altimeter error is less than 50’ unless otherwise placarded
iii. Pitot Heat
a. Alleviates problems with icing/heavy rain
B. Air Data Computer (ADC)
i. EFDs utilize the same instrument inputs as traditional gauges (pitot/static inputs), however the processing is
different
ii. The pitot static inputs are received by an ADC
a. The ADC computes the difference between the total pressure and the static pressure and generates the
information necessary to display the airspeed on the PFD
b. Altitude information is derived from the static port just as an analogue system does; however, the static
pressure does not enter a diaphragm
 The ADC computes the received barometric pressure and sends a digital signal to the PFD (primary
flight display) to display the proper altitude
C. AHRS
i. Electronic flight displays have replaced free-spinning
gyros with sold-state laser systems that are capable of
flight at any attitude without tumbling
ii. The AHRS sends attitude information to the PFD to
generate the pitch and bank information of the attitude
indicator
iii. Heading information is derived from a magnetometer
that senses the earth’s lines of magnetic flux
iv. All of the information is processed and then sent to the
PFD to be displayed
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Heat for the cabin and defrost is provided by a heater
muff attached to the exhaust system
a. Amount of heat can be regulated with the controls
on the far right of the instrument panel
B. Fresh Air Inlets
i. Located on the inboard portion of the leading edge of
the wing
a. Adjustable outlets are on the side of the cabin near
the floor and overhead at each seat
ii. Air is exhausted through an outlet in the rear seat
C. Cabin Air Blower (optional)
i. Optional overhead ventilating system with a cabin air blower is available on models w/o AC

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ii. 3 positions: Off, Low, High

D. Air Conditioning (if installed)
i. Recirculating air system
ii. Consists of: Evaporator, condenser, compressor, blower, switches, and temperature controls
a. Evaporator (behind left rear of baggage compt.) cools the air
b. Condenser is mounted on a retractable scoop (bottom of the fuselage, rear of baggage area)
iii. Blower pulls air from baggage area through evaporator and then is distributed to passenger outlets
iv. Switches are left of throttle quadrant & temp control is on right side of instrument panel
a. Switches: Fan speed, AC On/Off
v. Whenever the throttle is in the full forward position, it actuates a micro switch which disengages the
compressor and retracts the condenser door to obtain maximum power and rate of climb
a. Fan continues to operate – air will remain cool for about 1 minute
b. When the throttle is retarded about ¼”, the condenser door extends and the system turns back
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Defrost
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
B. Pitot Heat
i. Helps to alleviate problems with icing and heavy rain

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

227
II.E. Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the aircraft systems and
their operation as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Powerplant

2. 8-quart oil capacity
3. Useable Fuel: 36 gallons per tank

Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim

2. Flaps
3. Powerplant and Propeller
4. Landing Gear
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Avionics
8. Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
9. Environmental
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the operation of the aircraft systems.

Standards
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The main systems found on the Piper Arrow. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and the
environmental system.

Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem identification.
The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.

How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons, Horizontal Tail, and Rudder
i. General
a. The basic airframe is of aluminum alloy construction
b. The extremities – wing tips, cowling, tail surfaces – are of fiberglass or ABS thermoplastic
c. Cable systems are used between the controls and control surfaces
ii. Horizontal Tail (Stabilator)
a. What is a Stabilator?
 Stabilator – “All-moving tail.” A fully movable aircraft stabilizer
 A stabilator can allow the pilot to generate a given pitching moment with lower control force
 Because they are easier to move, to be certified an aircraft must show an increasing resistance to
increasing pilot input. To provide this resistance, stabilators on small aircraft contain an anti-servo
trim tab that deflects in the same direction as the stabilator, providing an aerodynamic force
resisting the pilot’s input
b. From the POH:
 The horizontal tail, stabilator, is of the all-movable slab type with a trim tab mounted on the trailing
edge to reduce the control system forces
 The stabilator provides extra stability and controllability with less size, drag and weight than
conventional tail surfaces
iii. Rudder
a. Conventional rudder with rudder trim
B. Trim
i. Elevator Trim
a. As mentioned above, the trim tab is mounted on the trailing edge of the stabilator
b. The trim tab is actuated by a control wheel on the floor, between the seats
ii. Rudder Trim
a. Permits directional trim as needed in flight

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b. Control is mounted on the right side of the pedestal, below the throttle quadrant
2. Flaps
A. Manually operated and spring loaded to return to the Up position
B. A past center lock holds the flap when it is in the Up position so that it may be used as a step on the right side
i. The flap will not support a step load except when in the full Up position. Must be completely retracted when
used as a step
C. 3 Positions – 10o, 25o, 40o
i. The aircraft will experience a pitch change during flap extension and retraction
a. This can be corrected either by stabilator trim or increased control wheel pressure
3. Powerplant and Propeller
A. Powerplant
i. Lycoming IO-360-C1C6
a. 4 Cylinder
b. 4 stroke
c. Air cooled
d. Direct Drive
e. Fuel Injected
f. Horizontally Opposed
g. 200 HP at 2700 RPM
ii. Engine Controls (Throttle, Prop, Mixture)
a. Throttle Lever - Adjusts manifold pressure
 Incorporates a gear up warning horn which is active during the last portion of travel of the throttle
lever to the low power position. The horn will sound until the gear is down and locked or power is
increased
b. Propeller Control Lever – Adjusts propeller speed from high rpm to low rpm
c. Mixture Control Lever - Adjusts air to fuel ratio
d. General
 Throttle, propeller, mixture are operated via Teflon lined control cables
 Friction Adjustment located on the right side of the control quadrant
a Increases or decreases friction of the levers
e. Alternate Air Control
 In the up/closed position, the engine is operating on filtered air
 In the down/open position, the engine is operating on unfiltered, heated air
B. Propeller
a. 2 blade, McCauley 90DHA-16
b. Constant speed, controllable pitch propeller
c. 74” diameter
4. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Retractable tricycle landing gear
 Hydraulically actuated by an electrically powered pump
 Approximately 7 seconds retraction/extension
b. Indications
 Gear down and locked is indicated by 3 green lights
 A red Warning Gear Unsafe light illuminates when the gear is in transit, or not in the full up or
locked down position
 Do not retract above 107 KIAS

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 Do no extend above 129 KIAS

ii. Nose Gear
a. Steerable through a 30o arc each side of center through the use of the rudder pedals
 As the nosewheel retracts, the steering linkage disengages to reduce rudder pedal loads in flight
b. Bungee assembly is also included to reduce ground steering effort and dampen shocks and bumps
during taxi
c. Oleo strut of the air-oil type. Normal extension is 2.75 ± 0.25” when at the empty weight of the aircraft
plus full fuel and oil
d. Equipped with a hydraulic shimmy damper to reduce nose wheel shimmy
iii. Main Gear
a. Main gear wheels have single disk hydraulic brake assemblies
b. Oleo strut of the air-oil type. Normal extension is 2.50 ± 0.25” when at the empty weight of the aircraft
plus full fuel and oil
iv. Emergency Extension
a. Holding the emergency gear lever in the down position manually releases hydraulic pressure and
permits the gear to free fall
 The nose gear is spring assisted

v. Gear Warning Horn

a. Warning horn and Warning Gear Unsafe light under the following conditions:
 Gear up and power reduce below approximately 14” of manifold pressure
 Gear selector switch UP while on the ground and throttle in the retarded position
 Whenever the flaps are extended beyond the approach position (10o) and the landing gear are not
down and locked

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vi. Brake System

a. Components
 Dual toe brakes attached to the rudder pedals
 Hand lever
 Master cylinder
b. Operation
 The toe brakes and hand brake have their own brake cylinders, but share a hydraulic reservoir
 The parking brake is incorporated in the lever brake and is operating by pulling back on the lever,
depressing the knob on the top of the handle, and releasing the brake lever
a To release the parking brake, pull back on the brake lever to disengage the catch mechanism
and allow the handle to swing forward
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Tanks
a. Two 38.5 gallon tanks, one in each wing (36 gallons usable)
 Of the 77 total gallons, 72 gallons are usable
 2.5 gallons unusable fuel per tanks
b. Each tank is equipped with a filler neck indicator tab to aid in determining fuel remaining when the tanks
are not full
 Usable capacity to the bottom of the indicator is 25 gallons
c. The tanks are vented individually by a vent tube protruding from the bottom of the wing at the rear
inboard corner of each tank
 Check vents periodically to ensure they are not obstructed
ii. Fuel Pumps
a. Two fuel pumps – An engine driven pump and an auxiliary electric fuel pump
 Aux electric pump is provided as a backup feature and should be on when switching fuel tanks, and
during takeoff and landing
iii. Operation
a. Main tanks Fuel Selector Filter and Drain Electric Fuel Pump Engine Fuel Pump Servo
Regulator Fuel Distributor
iv. Fuel Selector
a. Selections: Left Tank, Right Tank, OFF
 The selector also incorporates a safety latch to prevent inadvertent selection of OFF
v. Indications
a. Quantity and pressure are indicated in gauges located in a cluster on the instrument panel

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B. Oil System
i. Wet sump oil system
a. Oil is drawn from the sump to the oil cooler, then to the pressure relief valve, and on to the engine and
then by gravity back to the sump
 Oil Cooler – in the even that cold oil or an obstruction restricts flow to the cooler, and oil cooler
bypass is provided
 Oil Pressure Relief Valve – regulates the engine oil pressure by allowing excess oil to return to the
sump
ii. Capacity: 8 quarts
C. Hydraulic
i. The engine has no hydraulic system. See Brake System above for aircraft hydraulics
6. Electrical
A. General
i. 14 volt, 60 amp alternator
a. Provides full electrical power even at low engine RPM
b. Protected by an alternator control unit that incorporates a voltage regulator and overvoltage relay
ii. 12 volt, 35 amp hour battery
B. Consumers
i. Standard accessories include: alternator, starter, electric fuel pump, stall warning horn, ammeter, and
annunciator panel

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ii. Optional accessories include: navigation, ground recognition, anti-collision, landing, instrument panel, and
cabin dome lights
iii. Circuits will handle the addition of communication and navigation equipment
C. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Ammeter
a. The ammeter displays the load placed on the alternator (it does not indicate battery discharge)
 With all electrical equipment off the ammeter will be indicating the amount of charging current
demanded by the battery
 As each electrical item is turned on, the current will increase to a total appearing on the ammeter
(this total includes the battery)
 The average continuous load for night flight, with radios on, is about 30 amperes. The 3 ampere
value, plus approximately 2 amperes for a fully charged battery will appear continuously under
these flight conditions
b. The amount of current shown on the ammeter will tell immediately if the alternator system is operating
normally, as the amount of current shown should equal the total amperage drawn by the equipment
operating
ii. Annunciator Panel
a. Includes various indications provided as a warning to the pilot that a system may not be operating
properly, and the pilot should check and monitor the applicable system to determine if or when any
necessary action is required (i.e. alternator indicator light)

7. Avionics

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A. Avionics will vary based on model and options

i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
B. Radios are located in the center section of the panel
i. A ground clearance energy saver system is available to provide direct power to COMM 1 without turning on
the battery master, and radio master (if installed)
a. When the switch is ON, battery power is supplied to COMM 1 speaker and radio accessories
b. Ensure the GND CLC switch is off when not required to prevent depletion of the battery when the engine
is shutdown
ii. Circuits are available for addition of optional radio equipment
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Supplies pitot and static pressure for the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
ii. Components
a. Pitot head – located on bottom left of the wing
b. Static Vents – button type vents on each side of the aft fuselage
c. Pitot and Static lines – carry pitot and static pressures through the wing and fuselage to the gauges on
the instrument panel
d. Alternate Static Source – If installed, allows the pilot to select an alternate static source from inside the
aircraft for the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, and airspeed indicator
 The storm window and cabin vents must be closed
 The cabin heater and defroster must be on
 The altimeter error is less than 50’ unless otherwise placarded
iii. Pitot Heat – optional equipment

B. Vacuum Pressure (Gyros)

i. Designed to operate the air driven gyro instruments – directional gyro and attitude indicator
ii. Components - Engine driven vacuum pump, Vacuum regulator, Filter, and the necessary plumbing
iii. Vacuum Gauge
a. A decrease in pressure (low vacuum indicator light) that remains constant over an extended period may
indicate a dirty filter, dirty screens, a sticking vacuum regulator or a system leak

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b. Zero pressure indicates a sheared pump drive, defective pump, a defective gauge or collapsed line
iv. Vacuum Regulator
a. Protects the gyros
b. The valve is set so normal operation reads 5.0 ± .1 inches of mercury
 Higher settings will damage the gyros, lower settings will result in unreliable indications
C. Electrically Driven Instruments
i. Turn and Bank indicator
ii. As necessary, other installed electrical equipment
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
a. Components
 Heat shroud, Heat ducts, Defroster Outlets, Heat and Defroster Controls
b. Operation
 Cabin Heat: An opening in the front of the lower cowling allows ram air to the heater shroud. The
warmed air travels to the heater shut-offs on the right and left side of the firewall. When the shut-
offs are opened, the heated air enters the ducting along each side of the center console and to the
outlets in the cabin
a Cabin temperature is set by the heater control on the right side of the instrument panel
 Defrost: Heated air is ducted to shut-off valves at the firewall, then to the defroster outlets
a Airflow is regulated by a defroster control located below the heat control
 To aid in air distribution, cabin air is exhausted overboard by an outlet located on the bottom of the
fuselage
a This is removed if air condition is installed
B. Fresh Air Inlets
i. Fresh air is supplied from an air inlet on the side of the left aft fuselage beneath the dorsal fin
a. Amount and direction of air can be regulated at individual outlets
C. Blower (if installed)
i. Forces outside air through the overhead vents for ground use
D. Air Conditioning (if installed)
i. Recirculating air system
ii. Consists of: Evaporator, scoop, condenser, compressor, blower, switches, and temperature controls
iii. Controls are located on the lower right side of the instrument panel
a. Temp Control, Fan Speed, On/OFF
iv. Operation
a. Air from the baggage area is drawn through the evaporator by the blower and distributed through an
overhead duct to individual outlets located adjacent to each passenger
v. Whenever the throttle is in the full forward position, it actuates a micro switch which disengages the
compressor and retracts the scoop to obtain maximum power and rate of climb
a. When the throttle is retarded approximately 1”, the system will turn back on
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Defrost
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
B. Pitot Heat (if installed)
i. Helps to alleviate problems with icing and heavy rain

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A thorough understanding of the airplane’s systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to airplane performance and
limitations as required in the necessary ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Density

2. Density Altitude
3. Airplane Performance

Elements 1. Performance
2. Performance Factors
3. Aerodynamics
4. Performance Charts
5. Weight & Balance
6. Exceeding Limitations

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to calculate the airplane’s performance based on the current or
Standards expected conditions of a flight and decide whether or not the performance will suffice.
 II.F. Performance and Limitations

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
How exciting would it be to find out first hand, that the airplane actually doesn’t have the ability to takeoff from a
certain runway and that it also doesn’t have the ability to clear the obstacle at the departure end?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Performance and Limitations section of the POH contains the operating data for the airplane; that is, the data
pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing.

Why
The use of the operating data for the airplane is mandatory for safe and efficient operations

How:
1. Performance
A. Ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that make it useful for a certain purpose
i. Ex: Short takeoff and landing distance, the ability to carry heavy loads, long distance, high speed, etc.
B. Primary factors most affected by performance are:
i. Takeoff/landing distance, climb rate, ceiling, payload, range, speed, maneuverability, stability, fuel economy
ii. Focusing on one or more of these capabilities dictates differences between aircraft & their specialization(s)
C. Aircraft and powerplant design & characteristics dictate available performance
i. Manufacturer will match aerodynamic configuration with a powerplant to provide max performance for the
specific design conditions
D. POH charts and information are used to measure performance based on the specific flight’s conditions
i. Various factors affect the airplane’s performance on any given day
ii. To make practical use of the plane’s capabilities & limitations it is essential to understand performance data
2. Performance Factors
A. Atmospheric Conditions
i. Atmospheric Pressure
a. Though air is light, it has mass and is affected by gravity and therefore it has a force
b. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted is approx. 14.7 lbs. per sq. in
c. Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded
d. Density of the air has significant effects on the airplane’s performance
 As the density of the air increases, airplane performance increases and vice versa
ii. What Changes Air Density (DA)?
a. Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Altitude, and Humidity all affect air density
 Density varies directly with pressure - As pressure increases, density increases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with temperature – As temp increases, density decreases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with altitude - As altitude increases, density decreases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with humidity – As humidity increases, density decreases and vice versa
a More specifically: For a given volume of atmospheric air, as humidity increases some of the dry
air is replaced by water vapor

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1. The molecular weight of dry air is approximately 29 grams/mol, while the molecular weight
of water vapor (H20) is about 18 grams/mol
a. Grams/mol = Molar mass
2. As the proportion of water in the atmosphere (humidity) increases, the density (weight /
volume) of the particular volume of air decreases
iii. How it affects Performance
a. As the air becomes less dense, it reduces:
 Power, since the engine takes in less air
 Thrust, since the propeller is less efficient in thin air (less air is being moved for every rotation)
 Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
iv. High altitude, high temperature airports may not allow safe operation
a. Always be aware of the density altitude and accompanying performance when planning a flight
b. If necessary, delay until the performance is attainable, or reduce weight to attain the performance
B. RM: Pilot Technique & Airplane Configuration
i. Performance is based on specific aircraft configuration, procedures, airspeeds, etc.
ii. Any technique or configuration that differs from POH criteria will change (likely reduce) performance
iii. Essential to adhere to POH specified criteria and procedures to attain the performance described in the POH
a. Deviating from these procedures reduces safety and more or less moves into the realm of a test pilot
 No guarantees of published performance
C. Airport Environment
i. Airport Runways & Layout
a. Runway Surface
 Paved, grass, dirt, gravel, etc.
 Any surface that is not hard and smooth increases ground roll
a Increased friction and reduced acceleration
 Braking Effectiveness
a Soft surfaces will slow an aircraft much faster than smooth and slick surfaces
b Wet runways reduces braking effectiveness and can result in hydroplaning
 In regard to performance, landing tends to be less restrictive than takeoff
a Ensure you can takeoff from an airport prior to landing there
1. Ex: Landing on a short runway, then refueling and picking up a passenger, or a change in
winds may prohibit takeoff
b. Runway Gradient
 Amount of change in height over the length of the runway, expressed as a percentage
a 3% gradient means that for every 100’ of runway, the height changes by 3’
1. Takeoff: Down sloping aids in acceleration and reduces ground roll and vice versa
2. Landing: Down sloping increases landing distance and vice versa
c. Runways available based on wind conditions
 Headwind versus crosswind or tailwind
a Headwind provides the most favorable performance, tailwind the least favorable
b Be conservative: When calculating performance with varying winds, use the most restrictive
wind direction (i.e. winds variable from 090 to 150o, departing runway 36 – use 150o winds)
ii. Surrounding Terrain & Factors (Obstacles, towers, buildings, etc.)
a. Can the aircraft clear the obstacles based on the specific conditions?
b. Is a max angle versus max rate of climb required
c. Are there specific noise abatement departure/arrival procedures requiring specific performance
D. Loading and Weight and Balance

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i. Weight and Flight Performance

a. Any added weight reduces aircraft performance
b. Manufacturer’s limit maximum weights to ensure aircraft performance / structural abilities
 Verify required performance based on the airplane weight and current conditions
c. Effects of increased weight
 Higher takeoff speed and longer takeoff run
 Reduced rate and angle of climb
 Lower maximum altitude
 Slower cruise speed and reduced range, and increased fuel consumption
 Reduced maneuverability
 Higher stall speed
 Higher approach speed and longer landing roll
 Excessive weight on the nose / tail wheel
d. RM: Effects of Overloading
 Degraded climb performance, may not even be able to takeoff
a Even a minor overload may make it impossible to clear an otherwise normal obstacle
b May not be able to reach manufacturer’s published maximum altitudes
 Overheating during climbs, added wear on engine parts
 Overstressing the aircraft
ii. RM: Weight and Structure
a. In loading an aircraft, the structure must be considered
 Structural failures which result from overloading may be catastrophic but they often affect structure
progressively, making it difficult to detect or repair
 Airworthiness requirements prescribe that the structure of an aircraft can withstand a specific load
factor (3.8 Gs for normal category)
a This means the primary structure can withstand a load of 3.8 times the approved gross weight of
the aircraft without structural failure occurring
b Any overload is amplified in the case the aircraft is stressed to these G limits
1. For example, a 100 lb. overload imposes a potential structural overload of 380 lbs.
 Even seats, baggage compartments, and cabin floors are designed for a certain load
 Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines and placards in regards to weight
b. Habitual overloading tends to cause cumulative stress and damage that may not be detected and result
in structural failure at a later time, during normal operations
iii. Stability and Controllability
a. An airplane with forward loading
 A forward CG/nose-heavy condition causes problems controlling and raising the nose, especially at
slow airspeeds (takeoff and landing)
a During landing, exceeding the forward CG limit may result in excessive loads on the nosewheel,
higher stalling speeds and higher control forces
b In extreme cases, it may be difficult or impossible to flare for landing
 The airplane is “heavier” and consequently slower than the same airplane with a further aft CG
a Additional back pressure than normally would be required is necessary to maintain altitude
b The added back pressure requires the tail surfaces to produce a greater down force
c The greater down force adds to wing loading, increasing the total lift required from the wings

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d Thus, the nose heavy aircraft requires a

higher AOA to maintain altitude, which
results in more drag and, in turn, produces a
higher stalling speed
 The airplane is more controllable in a stall
a The longer arm from the CG makes the
elevator more effective
b The nose heavy loading results in a tendency
for the nose to drop, or assist in breaking
the stall
b. An airplane with aft loading
 A tail-heavy condition has serious effect upon
longitudinal stability, and reduces the capability
to recover from stalls and spins
a It also produces very light control forces, another undesirable characteristic
1. Very easy to overstress the airplane
 The airplane is “lighter” and consequently faster than the same airplane with a more forward CG
a Less back pressure than normally would be required is necessary to maintain altitude
b The reduced back pressure requires less down force from the tail surfaces
c The reduced down force reduces wing loading, decreasing the total lift required from the wings
d Thus, tail heavy loading requires a lower AOA to maintain altitude, which results in less drag,
and in turn, produces a lower stalling speed
 Although the stall speed is lower, the airplane less controllable in a stall as the CG moves aft
a The airplane is less controllable due to the shorter arm from the CG to the elevator
1. Greater deflection is required to produce the same result as with a farther forward CG
b The tail-heavy aircraft also has less of a tendency to pitch down in the case of a stall
1. There is a point in rearward loading of an aircraft at which a flat spin develops
a. A flat spin is impossible to get the nose down and recover from
c. The CG and Lateral Loading
 Unbalanced lateral loading (more weight on the right or left side of the aircraft centerline) may
result in adverse effects
a This can be caused by: fuel imbalance, people, baggage, etc.
 Compensate for any imbalance with trim (if available), or constant control pressure
a Places the aircraft in an out-of-streamline condition, increasing drag, and decreasing efficiency
d. RM: Operating outside of CG limits results in control difficulties
 Extremely nose or tail heavy – May not have control authority
3. Aerodynamics
A. Straight-and-Level
i. To maintain straight-and-level, lift must equal weight
and thrust must equal drag
a. Drag defines the thrust required to maintain
steady, level flight
ii. Parasitic drag predominates at high speed, induced
drag predominates at low speed (pictured, right)
a. If an aircraft at steady flight at 100 knots is
accelerated to 200 knots:
 Parasite drag becomes 4x as great

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 Power to overcome that drag is 8x the original value

 Induced drag is ¼ the original value
 Power to overcome that drag is ½ the
original value
iii. The max level flight speed is obtained when power
required equals max power or thrust available from
the powerplant (pictured, right)
iv. Min level flight speed is generally not defined by
thrust/power requirements since stall or stability
occur first (pictured, right)
B. Climb Performance
i. Mechanical energy comes in two forms: Kinetic and
Potential Energy
a. Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of speed
 Aircraft motion (KE) is described by airspeed
 Directly proportional to the square of the airspeed
1 2
 KE= × m× v
2
a m = mass, v = velocity
b. Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy
 Aircraft position (PE) is described by altitude
 Directly proportional to the altitude
 PE=m× g × h
 m = mass, g = gravity field strength, h = object height
ii. Power & Thrust
a. Power and thrust are not synonymous
b. Thrust: Force or pressure exerted on an object
 Measured in pounds or newtons
c. Power: Measurement of the rate of performing work or transferring energy (KE & PE)
 Measured in horsepower or kilowatts
 The motion (KE and PE) a force (thrust) creates when exerted on an object over a period of time
iii. Positive climb performance occurs when an aircraft gains PE by increasing altitude
a. Two factors contribute to gaining altitude:
 Factor One: Aircraft uses excess power above what’s required to maintain level flight
a Ex. 200 hp engine is only using 130 hp to maintain level flight (70 hp available to climb)
1. Increase power, maintains airspeed and climbs
 Factor Two: Aircraft converts airspeed (KE) to altitude (PE)
a Ex. Level airplane at 120 knots
1. Increase back pressure to climb, airspeed is reduced as altitude increases
iv. Two reasons to evaluate climb performance
a. Aircraft must climb over obstacles to avoid hitting them
b. Climbing to higher altitudes can provide better weather, fuel economy, etc.
C. Angle of Climb (AOC)
i. Comparison of altitude gained relative to distance traveled
a. For max AOC performance, the aircraft is pitched for VX
 Provides max altitude increase with minimum horizontal travel over the ground
ii. Max AOC occurs at the airspeed and AOA combination resulting in the maximum excess thrust

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a. Factor One, discussed above

b. The airspeed and AOA combination where max excess thrust exists differs amongst aircraft types
 Jet: Approximately L/DMAX
 Propeller Plane: Below L/DMAX and just above stall speed
iii. Ex: Short field takeoff surrounded by high obstacles

D. Rate of Climb (ROC)

i. Comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach that altitude
a. For max ROC performance, the aircraft is pitched for VY
 Provides max altitude increase over a given period of time (irrespective of distance)
ii. ROC performance depends on excess power (versus thrust for max AOC)
a. Airspeed and AOA combination where max excess power exists also differs among aircraft types
 Jet: At an airspeed > L/DMAX and an AOA < L/DMAX AOA
 Propeller Plane: Airspeed and AOA combination closer to L/DMAX

E. Climb Performance Factors

i. Weight, altitude and configuration changes affect excess thrust & power and therefore climb performance
a. Increased weight/altitude and lowering the flaps/gear decrease both excess thrust & power
 Maximum AOC and ROC decrease under any of these conditions
ii. Weight
a. Any added weight means the aircraft must fly at a higher AOA to maintain a given altitude & speed
 Increases induced drag and parasite drag
 Increased drag requires additional thrust

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 Additional thrust means there is less reserve thrust

available to climb
b. Designers go to great lengths to minimize weight due to
its marked affect on performance
iii. Altitude (pictured, right)
a. Increases power required & decreases power available
 Climb performance diminishes with altitude
b. The speeds for max ROC, AOC, and max/min level flight
airspeeds vary with altitude
 As altitudes increases, these speeds all converge at
the aircraft’s absolute ceiling
a At the absolute ceiling, there is no excess power
and only one speed allows level flight
 Service ceiling is the altitude at which the aircraft
cannot climb > 100 fpm
F. Range Performance
i. The ability to convert fuel into flying distance is one of the most important items of aircraft performance

ii. Range versus Endurance

a. Range involves the consideration of flying distance
b. Endurance involves the consideration of flying time
iii. Maximum Endurance (Time)
a. If max endurance is desired, the flight condition must provide minimum fuel flow (point B in the chart)
b. Point A (low speed, high fuel flow) is takeoff and climb
c. As airspeed increases, power and fuel requirements decrease due to aerodynamic factors up to Point B
d. Beyond Point B, you must pay to go faster (more airspeed requires more power at the cost of fuel)
iv. Maximum Range
a. Costs aside, max range is the flight condition providing max NM per pound of fuel (or specific range)
 Specific Range = NM / pounds of fuel
a Ex: Specific range of 1.89 means for every pound of fuel, the aircraft could fly 1.89 miles
b Can also be described as the maximum speed per fuel flow (knots / fuel flow)
b. Obtained at L/DMAX and varies with gross weight, altitude, and configuration
 As fuel is burned, gross weight changes, and therefore optimum altitude, airspeed, & power changes
 L/DMAX occurs at a specific AOA & lift coefficient, irrespective of weight
a Changes in weight alter the specific airspeed and power required to attain L/D MAX
 To maintain the maximum range, optimum conditions must be maintained

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a If fuel is a small part of weight (short range), could be as easy as setting one speed/altitude
b If fuel is considerable part of weight (long-range), airspeed & power changes are necessary
c. Headwinds & Tailwinds
 Theories say that speeding up in a headwind & slowing in a tailwind helps achieve max range
 May be true in many cases, but there are many variables to every situation – no catch all rule
d. Most long-range cruise flights are operated at 99% max specific range
 1% of range is traded for 3-5% higher speed
e. Reciprocating engine aircraft experience little, if any, variation in specific range up absolute altitude
4. Performance Charts
A. Using Performance Charts
i. Airplane performance is found in Section 5 of the POH (Performance and Limitations)
a. *Supplement 4, for the DA20 (any charts not shown in the supplement are found in Chapter 5)
ii. Using the performance charts, and the accompanying instructions, we can calculate
a. Cruise Performance
b. Stall Speeds based on airplane configuration
c. Wind Components (Crosswind and Headwind)
d. Takeoff Distance and Landing Distance
e. Climb Performance (In cruise and takeoff configurations as well as Balked Landing)
f. True Airspeed
g. Maximum Flight Duration (Pressure Altitude is combined with RPM to find % bhp, KTAS, GPH)
iii. To make use of these charts we need to know the Pressure Altitude (PA)
a. Pressure Altitude (PA) – The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is set to 29.92
 PA = 1,000(29.92-Current Altimeter Setting) + Elevation
a EX: Altimeter = 30.42 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 308’
b EX: Altimeter = 29.84 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 888’
b. From Pressure Altitude we can compute Density Altitude (DA)
 DA: PA corrected for non-standard temperature (Directly related to airplane performance)
 DA = 120(Current Temperature - ISA Temperature) + PA
a EX: Temp = 23oC, ISA = 15o C, PA = 308’, so DA = 1,268’
b EX: Temp = 03oC, ISA = 15 o C, PA = 308’, so DA = -1,132
c This is a very good estimate of DA, the equation is not perfect
iv. *Once we have PA, we can start at the temperature at the bottom of the chart and move up to the PA
a. From there, we move straight across until we reach the next stage of the chart
 Once we reach the next step, follow the trend line and then move straight across
v. This is done until we reach the performance number
B. Determining the Required Performance is Attainable
i. Use the performance charts and relate them to the airport information (runway lengths, etc.)
a. The charts will provide performance for all phases of flight
b. But remember, the charts don’t make allowance for pilot proficiency or mechanical deterioration
 Does the airplane have problems that may limit performance?
ii. There is always the possibility of changing weather resulting in useless original calculations
a. Just because the plane will perform well now doesn’t mean it will perform well later
b. Plan ahead
C. Inaccuracies
i. Many charts are imprecise, requiring you follow numerous small, detailed lines through various charts
ii. Be as accurate as possible, double check work and always ask if the performance information makes sense
D. RM: Calculated versus Actual Performance

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 II.F. Performance and Limitations

i. Calculated performance is based on the POH chart assumptions (configuration, airspeeds, etc.)
a. Anything different leads to different (generally, reduced) actual performance
 Changing weather/wind conditions, configuration, pilot technique and airspeeds flown, etc.
ii. Be conservative in performance calculations and precise in flying
5. Weight & Balance
A. Terms
i. Reference Datum (RD) - an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements of arm are taken
a. The datum may be located anywhere the manufacturer chooses
b. Common locations are the nose, the engine firewall, the wing’s leading edge, or ahead of the nose
c. Once the datum is selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured from this point
ii. Center of Gravity (CG) – the point at which an airplane would balance if it were suspended at that point
a. The distance of the CG from the RD is found by dividing the total moment by total weight
iii. Arm – the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the CG of an item
a. Plus (+) = measured aft of the datum
b. Minus (-) = measured forward of the datum
c. If the RD is ahead of the nose, all of the arms are positive
iv. Basic Empty Weight – the weight of the standard airplane, optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full
operating fluids (including oil)
v. CG Limits – the specified forward and aft points within which the CG must be located during the flight
vi. Maximum Landing Weight – the greatest weight that an aircraft is normally allowed to have at landing
vii. Maximum Ramp Weight – the total permitted weight of a loaded aircraft, including all fuel
a. It is greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during taxi and run-up
b. Also referred to as taxi weight
viii. Maximum Takeoff Weight – the maximum allowable weight for takeoff
ix. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight – the maximum weight, exclusive of usable fuel
x. Moment – the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm and expressed in pound-inches
a. Total moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the distance between the datum and CG
xi. Moment Index – a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000 or 10,000
a. The purpose is to simplify weight and balance computations
xii. Payload – the weight of the occupants, cargo and baggage
xiii. Standard Weights – established weights for numerous items in weight and balance computations
a. Gas – 6lbs; Jet Fuel – 6.8 lbs.; Oil – 7.5 lbs.; Water – 8.35 lbs. (All per gallon)
xiv. Station - a location in the plane identified by a number designating its distance in inches from the datum
a. The datum is, therefore, identified as station zero
b. An item located at station +50, would have an arm of 50”
xv. Unusable Fuel – the fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in flight or drained on the ground
xvi. Usable Fuel – the fuel in the tanks that can be used for flight
xvii.Useful Load – the basic empty weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight
B. Weight & Balance Control
i. The pilot is responsible
a. 14 CFR Part 23.2100 requires ranges of weights and CGs within which aircraft may be safely operated
 The manufacturer provides this information in the POH/AFM
b. Part 91.9 requires the PIC to comply with the operating limitations in the approved AFM
c. The pilot, therefore, is responsible for loading and fuel management of the aircraft
 Before every flight, determine the weight and balance condition and ensure it is within limitations
 Often it is not possible to fill all seats, baggage compartments, and fuel tanks and stay in limits
a The pilot will need to make adjustments to accommodate the required load
1. Remove passengers, reduce fuel load/baggage, etc.

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ii. The aircraft owner/operator should ensure up to date information is available to the pilot and the
appropriate entries are made in the records for repairs/modifications
C. Determining Weight and Balance
i. CG = Total Moment divided by Total Weight
a. Begin with the empty weight and make a list of everything that will be loaded in the airplane
 People, items, and fuel (note the weights of everything as well)
 Be sure the total weight of what you want to load is within the maximum weight limits
a If the total weight is too high, remove items/fuel/people to get within weight limits
b. Calculate the Moment of each item
 To find the moment, use the graph or multiply the weight by the arm in the POH
a Use the method provided in the AFM
b The weight/moment of the empty airplane are found in its weight and balance documents
c. Then calculate the CG – (Total Moment/Total Weight)
 *For the DA20, compare the Total Weight and Total Moment on the graph in Supplement 4
d. *Use the chart in Supplement 4 to determine whether the airplane is within limits
ii. Weight Change and/or CG Shift
a. Shifting Weight
¿ ∆ CG
 Formula: Weight ¿ be Shifted =
Total Weight Distance Weight is Shifted
a If you know 3 of the components, you can solve for the 4th
 For example, if the total weight of the aircraft is 8,000 pounds, and you move a 100 pounds of
baggage 120”, how much did the CG move?
100 ∆ CG 12000
a = 12,000 ¿ 8,000∗∆ CG ∆ CG= ∆ CG=1.5
8,000 120 8000
b In this case, the CG moved 1.5” (add or subtract it from the original CG as appropriate)
b. Adding or Removing Weight
Weight Added∨Removed ∆ CG
 Formula: =
New Total Weight Distance between the Weight∧old CG
a Just like above, solve for the missing component
 For example, if the airplane weighs 6,100 pounds, with a CG at 80”, where does the CG end up if 100
pounds is removed from station 150?
100 pounds ∆ CG 7,000
a = 7,000 ¿ 6,000∗∆ CG ∆ CG= ∆ CG=1.2
6,000 pounds 150 - 80 6,000
b If the CG is shifting aft, the ∆ CG is added to the old CG
c If the CG is shifting forward, the ∆ CG is subtracted from the old CG
d In this case, the CG moved 1.2” forward, and the new CG = 78.8” (80 – 1.2)
6. RM: Exceeding Limitations
A. Operating Limitations are in Chapter 2 of the POH
i. The limits here establish the boundaries in which the airplane can be safely operated
ii. Adverse Effects
a. Attempting to takeoff or land without enough runway
 Can result in a crash into an obstacle or over-running the runway also damaging the plane
b. Attempting to clear an obstacle that the airplane performance will not allow at a certain weight
 Can result in crashing into the obstacle
c. Not having enough fuel to reach the airport of intended landing
 Can result in an emergency landing, or ditching
d. Using the wrong type of fuel

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 Can result in detonation, causing significant damage to the engine, as well as engine failure
e. Exceeding the structural/aerodynamic limits (overweight or outside CG limits)
 Can result in airplane damage or structural failure
 Airplane control may be hampered, and stall speeds may be affected
f. Exceeding the maximum crosswind component (20 knots)
 This will greatly increase the difficulty of the landing, possibly resulting in a crash
 The airplane may not have the ability to stay aligned with the runway, resulting in a crash or
departing the landing surface

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is very important that before every flight, the pilot ensures the airplane can produce the required performance
depending on the airport and atmospheric conditions.

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II.G. National Airspace System

References: 14 CFR part 71, 91, AIM, Navigational Charts

Objectives To develop knowledge of the elements related to the National Airspace System.

Key Elements 1. Entry Requirements

2. Communications Requirements
3. Visibility Requirements

Elements 1. Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements

2. Special VFR
3. Special Use Airspace
4. Other Airspace areas
5. VFR Charts

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student displays the ability to differentiate between the different types of airspace and
Standards their respective weather minimums and requirements.
II.G. National Airspace System

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Each type of airspace is like a different country. Each type of airspace has its own controllers or rulers, its own rules
for those in their ‘territory,’ and its own benefits or services which are provided to those within its borders. Borders
are drawn and there are requirements and permission necessary to enter certain airspaces (e.g. Passport).

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What:
Airspace is defined as, “the portion of the atmosphere above a particular land area, especially above a nation.” The
atmosphere above the United States is divided into several sectors, or classes and in each different airspace class,
specific rules apply.

Why:
Different airspaces have been defined to efficiently manage the large amount of air traffic that traverses the sky each
day. To fly from place to place a pilot must know the rules and requirements regarding airspace.

How:
1. Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge; AIM 3-2-1) Class E
A. Class E Airspace Below 10,000’
i. Definition VFR Minimum MSL - 3 s.m.
a. Controlled airspace that is not designated A, B, C, or D Visibility Above 10,000’
b. Where the majority of your flying time will be MSL - 5 s.m.
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements Below 10,000’ -
500’ Below
a. Transponder Requirements (91.215) 1000’ Above
 At or above 10,000’ MSL VFR Min Cloud 2,000’ Horiz
a Excluding airspace below 2,500’ AGL Clearance Above 10,000’ -
b In the contiguous 48 states & D.C. 1,000’ Below
 Within 30 miles of a class B airspace primary airport, below 1,000’ Above
10,000’ MSL 1 s.m. Horiz
Min Pilot Student Pilot
 Within and above all Class C airspace, up to 10,000’ MSL
Qualifications
 Within 10 miles of certain designated airports As specified:
a Excluding airspace which is both outside the Class D Mode C
VFR Entry and
surface area and below 1,200’ AGL Equipment
Transponder
 Flying into, within, or across the ADIZ &
ADS-B
b. ADS-B Requirements (91.225(d)) IFR/IFR
 At and above 10,000’ MSL excluding at and below 2,500’ AGL Separation
 At and above 3,000’ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico within 12 ATC VFR advisories
nm of the coast on request
c. Airspeeds (91.117) (permitting)
 No more than 250 knots below 10,000’ MSL
 Below 2,500’ AGL within 4 nm of the primary class C, D airspace not over 200 knots

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 Underlying Class B airspace designated for an airport or in a VFR corridor designated through class B
airspace not over 200 knots
iii. Pilot Qualifications: Student Pilot
iv. ATC Services
a. There are no communication requirements flying VFR but you can request traffic advisory services from
ATC (Provided on workload-permitting basis)
b. Communication is required when flying IFR in Class E airspace
v. Vertical Limits
a. Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E Airspace begins at 14,500’ MSL up to, but not including,
18,000’ MSL overlying:
 The 48 contiguous states including the waters within 12 miles from the coast
 The District of Columbia
 Alaska
b. Extends from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled airspace
vi. Segments of Class E Airspace
a. Class E and the Low Altitude Airway System
 Connects one navaid to another
a VOR to VOR (Victor Airways)
 Unless otherwise specified, extend from 1,200’ AGL up to, but not including, 18,000’ MSL
a Mountainous terrain may have a floor above 1,200’
 Airways are usually 8 nm wide (4 nm on each side of the centerline)
b. Class E and Airports
 Extension to a Surface Area
a There are Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Class B, Class C, and Class D surface
areas designated for an airport. Such airspace provides controlled airspace to contain standard
instrument approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots
operating VFR
1. EX: Athens (KAHN) – Class E Surface Area
2. EX: Washington Wilkes – Class E extension
 Airspace Used for Transition
a Allows IFR traffic to remain in controlled airspace while transitioning between the enroute and
airport environments
b There are Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700’ or 1,200’ AGL used to transition
to/from the terminal or enroute environment
c. When needed for IFR control purposes
 Enroute Domestic Areas
a Provide controlled airspace in those areas where there is a requirement to provide IFR enroute
ATC services but the Federal Airway System is inadequate
b Airspace areas that extend upward from a specified altitude as an enroute domestic airspace
 Offshore Airspace Areas
a Provide IFR enroute ATC services
b Airspace areas extending upward from a specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000’ MSL to
provide controlled airspace beyond 12 miles from the coast of the US
B. Class D Airspace
i. Definition
a. Generally surface to 2,500 feet above airport elevation
b. Normally 4 nm radius

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 Changes depending on needs

Class D
c. These airports have a part time operational control tower
VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
 Class D only when the tower is in operation Visibility
 Otherwise Class E 500’ Below
VFR Min Cloud
d. Configured to the area’s operational needs/instrument procedures Clearance
1000’ Above
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements 2,000’ Horiz
Min Pilot Student Pilot
a. Pilot Certification Qualifications
 No specific certification required VFR Entry and Establish Radio
b. Equipment Equipment Communication
 Two-way radio ATC Services
IFR/IFR
a Must establish two-way radio communication with the tower Separation
prior to entering the airspace
C. Class C Airspace
i. Definition
a. Generally, extends from the surface to 4,000’ above airport elevation Class C
b. Have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
control, and have a certain number of IFR operations/passenger Visibility
500’ Below
flights VFR Min Cloud
1000’ Above
c. The airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that Clearance
2,000’ Horiz
extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above airport elevation, and a Min Pilot Student Pilot
10 NM radius shelf area that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet Qualifications
above the airport elevation Establish Radio
Communication
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
VFR Entry and Mode C
a. Pilot Certification Equipment Transponder
 No specific certification required
b. Equipment ADS-B
 Two-way radio IFR/IFR & VFR
a Must establish two-way radio communication prior to Separation
entering ATC Services VFR Traffic
 Operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude advisories
(permitting)
reporting equipment (Mode C)
 ADS-B (91.225(d))
a Required in Class C, and above the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries up to 10,000’ MSL
D. Class B Airspace
i. Definition
a. Generally, the airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports
b. The configuration of Class B airspace is individually tailored to the Class B
needs of a particular area and consists of a surface area and two or VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
Visibility
more layers
VFR Min Cloud Clear of Clouds
 Represents an upside-down wedding cake Clearance
 Designed to contain all instrument procedures Private Pilot
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements Min Pilot
Qualifications Student
a. For VFR Operations: w/Endorsement
 At least a Private Pilot Certificate is required ATC Clearance
a Exception: student/recreational/sport pilots with an VFR Entry and Mode C
endorsement Equipment Transponder
1. CFRs
ADS-B
All Aircraft
ATC Services
Separation
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a. Sport/Recreational Student - FAR 61.94

b. Student Pilot - FAR 61.95
c. Recreational - FAR 61.101
d. Sport- FAR 61.325
2. AIM 3-2-3b - Exception to the exception: Solo student, sport, and recreational pilot
operations are not permitted at any of the following airports:
a. Atlanta, GA (Hartsfield)
b. Boston, MA (Logan)
c. Camp Springs, MD (Andrews Air Force Base)
d. Chicago O’Hare
e. Dallas, TX (Dallas Fort Worth)
f. Los Angeles, CA (LAX)
g. Miami, FL (Miami Int)
h. Newark, NJ (Liberty)
i. JFK, NY
j. LaGuardia, NY
k. San Francisco, CA (SFO Int)
l. Washington DC (Ronal Reagan Airport)
 ATC Clearance is required before entering
a Specific clearance to enter Class B airspace is required
 Must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
 4096-code Mode C transponder
 Mode C Veil Class G
a Airspace within 30 nm of a primary Class B airport, from the Day: 1 s.m.
surface to 10,000’ MSL VFR min Vis & Clear of Clouds
b Must be equipped with automatic pressure altitude Clearance Night: 3 s.m.
reporting equipment having Mode C capability 1,200’ AGL or 500’ Below
less 1,000’ Above
 ADS-B (91.225(d))
2,000’ Horiz
a Required in Class B, and above the ceiling and within the Below 10,000’
lateral boundaries up to 10,000’ MSL MSL –
b From the surface to 10,000’ w/in 30 NM of the airports in Day: 1 s.m.
VFR Minimum Night: 3 s.m.
Part 91 Appendix D Section 1
Visibility
b. For IFR operations: At/Above
 An operable VOR or TACAN receiver or an operable and suitable 10,000 MSL –
5 s.m.
RNAV system
Below 10,000’ -
 An operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude 500’ Below
reporting equipment 1000’ Above
 ADS -B as described above VFR Min Cloud 2,000’ Horiz
E. Class A Airspace Clearance Above 10,000’ –
i. Generally, the airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600, 1,000’ Below
including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 NM of the coast of 1,000’ Above
1 s.m. Horiz
the 48 contiguous states and Alaska Min Pilot Student Pilot
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements Qualifications
a. All operations under IFR, unless otherwise authorized VFR Entry and None
F. Class G Airspace Equipment
i. Definition VFR advisories
ATC Services on request
a. Uncontrolled Airspace (permitting)

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b. Airspace that has not been designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E

ii. Extends from the surface to the base of overlying Class E airspace
iii. Although ATC has no authority/responsibility, there are VFR minimums which apply to Class G airspace
G. Airspace Summary
Class Minimum Pilot
Entry Requirements Equipment
Airspace Certificate
A ATC Clearance IFR Equipped Instrument Rating
Two-way radio
Transponder with altitude
B ATC Clearance Private – with exception
reporting capability
ADS-B
Two-way radio
Two-way radio communications Transponder with altitude
C No specific requirement
prior to entry reporting capability
ADS-B
Two-way radio communications
D Two-way radio No specific requirement
prior to entry
Transponder, as specified
E None for VFR No specific requirement
ADS-B, as specified
G None No specific requirement No specific requirement

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II.G. National Airspace System

VFR Weather Minimums Summary (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAR 91.155)
BASIC VFR WEATHER MINIMUMS
Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds
CLASS A ………………………………………………………………. Not Applicable Not Applicable
CLASS B ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles Clear of Clouds
CLASS C …………………………………………………………....... 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
CLASS D ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
CLASS E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL ………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
At or above 10,000 feet MSL …………………………… 5 Statute Miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 mile horizontal
CLASS G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of
MSL altitude)
Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) …….. 1 Statute Mile Clear of Clouds
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) …… 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less
than 10,000 feet MSL
Day …………………………………………………………………. 1 Statute Mile 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Night ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or 5 Statute Miles 1,000 feet below
above 10,000 feet MSL ………………………………………. 1,000 feet above
-Exception – 91.155 (b)(2) 1 mile horizontal

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2. Special VFR (FAR 91.157)

A. Clearance to operate under VFR with less than VFR weather minimums
i. Only in Class B, C, D, or E surface areas, below 10,000’ MSL
ii. Must be requested by the pilot
iii. Special VFR is on the basis of weather conditions at the airport of intended landing/departure
iv. Only approved if IFR traffic are not delayed
B. Special VFR may only be conducted
i. With an ATC clearance
ii. Clear of clouds
iii. With at least 1 statute mile flight visibility
iv. At night (sunset to sunrise):
a. With an instrument rated pilot and aircraft
C. May not takeoff or land under special VFR unless ground visibility is at least 1 statute mile
i. If not reported, flight visibility must be at least 1 statute mile
a. Flight visibility includes the visibility from the cockpit of an aircraft in takeoff position, if:
 Flight is conducted under Part 91, and
 The airport is a satellite airport without weather reporting capabilities
D. Special VFR is prohibited at certain airports (mostly large class B airports) shown in Part 91 Appendix D Section 3
3. Special Use Airspace
Special Use airspace exists where activities must be confined because of their nature. In special use airspace,
limitations may be placed on aircraft that are not a part of the activities.
A. Prohibited Areas
i. Airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited
ii. Established for security or other reasons associated with the national welfare
iii. Published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts
B. Restricted Areas
i. Areas where operations are hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which the
flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions
ii. Can contain unusual, often invisible hazards to aircraft (e.g. artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles)
iii. Penetration without authorization from the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous
a. IFR flights may be authorized to transit the airspace and are routed accordingly
iv. Restricted areas are depicted on aeronautical charts and are published in the Federal Register
C. Warning Areas
i. Airspace of defined dimensions, extending from 3 nm outward from the coast of the US, containing activity
that may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft
a. The activities may be much the same as those for a restricted area
ii. The purpose is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger
iii. They are depicted on aeronautical charts
D. MOAs (Military Operation Areas)
i. Consist of airspace with defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose of separating certain
military training activity from IFR traffic
ii. IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if ATC can maintain IFR separation, otherwise expect a reroute
iii. There is no restriction against a pilot operating VFR in these areas
a. A pilot should, although, be alert since training activities may include aerobatic and abrupt maneuvers
iv. MOAs are depicted on aeronautical charts
E. Alert Areas
i. Are to advise pilots that a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity is taking place
a. Exercise caution when transitioning alert areas

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ii. They are depicted on aeronautical charts

F. Controlled Firing Areas
i. Contain activities that, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to aircraft
ii. Activities are suspended when an aircraft might be approaching the area
iii. No need to chart since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path
4. Other Airspace Areas
A. Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA) (AIM 3-5-7)
i. Airspace governed by the rules described in Part 93
a. Normal rules do not necessarily apply – must abide by Part 93 rules
b. Be familiar with the specific SFRA rules
ii. Depicted on VFR sectional and terminal area charts as shown here
iii. Examples include:
a. Washington, DC (Part 93 Subpart V)
 Created post 9/11. Pilots must file a special flight rules flight plan, obtain a discrete transponder
code, be in contact with ATC, and accomplish specific training
b. Los Angeles (Part 93 Subpart G)
 Exceptions to allow VFR traffic to transit the class B airspace without contacting ATC
B. Local Airport Advisory (LAA)
i. Area within 10 SM of an airport without an operating control tower, but where an FSS is on the airport
ii. At these locations the FSS provides a complete local advisory service to arriving and departing aircraft
C. Military Training Routes (MTR)
i. Routes used by military aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical flying
a. Generally below 10,000’ MSL for operation at speeds in excess of 250 knots
ii. Routes are identified on the sectional chart as IFR (IR), and VFR (VR), followed by a number
a. MTRs with no segment above 1,500’ AGL are identified by four numbers (ex. IR1206, VR1207)
b. MTRs with one or more segments above 1,500’ AGL are identified by 3 numbers (ex. VR407)
D. Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)
i. An FDC NOTAM will be issued to designate a TFR
a. The NOTAM will begin with the phrase “FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS” followed by the location of the
temporary restriction, effective time period, area defined in statute miles, and altitudes affected
b. The NOTAM will also contain the FAA coordination facility and telephone number, the reason for the
restriction, and any other information deemed appropriate
ii. Purposes for establishing a TFR:
a. Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
b. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft
c. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident or event, which may generate a
high degree of public interest
d. Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian reasons in Hawaii
e. Protect the President, VP, or other public figures
f. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations
iii. Very important to check these before flying
a. www.tfr.faa.gov
E. Parachute Jump Areas
i. Published in the Chart Supplement
ii. Frequently used sites are depicted on sectional charts
F. Published VFR Routes
i. For transitioning around, under, or through some complex airspace
ii. Also called: VFR flyway, VFR corridor, VFR transition route, and terminal area VFR route

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iii. Generally found on VFR terminal area planning charts

G. Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA)
i. Areas where participating pilots can receive additional radar services
ii. The purpose is to provide separation between all IFR operations and participating VFR traffic
iii. The primary airport(s) within the TRSA become Class D Airspace
a. The remaining area of the TRSA overlies other controlled airspace, which is normally Class E Airspace at
700 or 1,200 feet and established to transition to/from the enroute terminal environment
iv. Depicted on VFR sectionals & terminal area charts with a solid black line and altitudes for each segment
a. The Class D portion is charted with a blue segmented line
v. Participation is voluntary, however VFR traffic is encouraged to use the service
H. National Security Areas
i. Consists of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations where there is a
requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities
ii. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through these depicted areas
iii. When necessary, flight may be temporarily prohibited
5. VFR Charts
A. Chart Symbology
i. Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide
a. Pgs. 17-19: Airspace, Special Use & Other Airspace
B. Chart Updates & Currency
i. Terminal Area & Sectional Charts
a. Updated every 56 days
ii. Wall Planning Chart
a. Updated annually
iii. Information changes rapidly, it is important to check the effective dates on each chart/publication
a. Always use current editions and discard obsolete charts and publications
b. Out of date charts may be missing crucial information
 Changes to airspace, new special airspace, change to procedures, etc.
iv. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use the FAAs Dates of Latest Editions to verify you have the most current edition
b. Prior to expiration, check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for any changes

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point
Overview of the differences based on airspace and traffic

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the navigation systems and
radar services provided by ATC as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. VOR

2. GPS
3. Radar Services

Elements 1. VOR / VORTAC

2. DME
3. ADF & NDB
4. Satellite Based Navigation
5. Radar Services and Procedures
6. ADS-B Basics
7. Transponder

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the operation of different navigation systems as well as their use
Standards in the airplane. The student also will understand and be able to utilize the radar services
provided by ATC.
 II.H. Navigation Systems and Radar Services

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding this will greatly decrease your chances of getting lost and provide more services for use.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson discusses the different navigation systems in use, as well as radar services provided by ATC when in radar
coverage and with established communication.

Why
It is important to understand how the navigation systems function to properly use them. It also is important to know
the services provided by ATC to pilots.

How:
1. VOR / VORTAC (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range)
i. What is it?
a. Omni means all
 An omnidirectional range is a VHF radio transmitting ground station that projects straight line
courses (or radials) from the station in all directions
a It can be visualized from the top as being similar to the spokes from the hub of a wheel
b. The radials projected are referenced to magnetic north
 A radial is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending outward from the VOR station
 The accuracy of course alignment with radials is excellent (± 1o)
c. VOR ground stations transmit within a VHF frequency band of 108.0 – 117.95 MHz
 RM: Because the equipment is VHF, the signals are subject to line-of-sight restrictions
a Range varies in proportion to altitude
d. The distance the radials are projected depends on Radius
Class Altitudes
the power of the transmitter (Miles)
e. VORs are classed according to operational use in 3 T 12,000’ and Below 25
classes with varying normal useful ranges: L Below 18,000’ 40
 T (Terminal); L (Low Alt); H (High Alt) H Below 14,500’ 40
ii. Three types of VORS H 14,500 – 17,999’ 100
a. VOR – The VOR by itself. Provides magnetic bearing H 18,000’ – FL 450 130
information to and from the station H FL 450 – 60,000’ 100
b. VOR/DME –DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is
installed with the VOR (more info below)
c. VORTAC – Military tactical air navigations (TACAN) equipment is installed with a VOR
 DME is always an integral part of a VORTAC
iii. VOR Components – Ground and Aircraft
a. Ground - The VOR station itself; transmits on an assigned frequency
b. Aircraft - Antenna, Receiver, and VOR navigation instrument

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 Antenna – Picks up the VOR signal

 Receiver – Processes the signal into navigation information
 VOR Instrument – Displays the navigation information
a OBS (Omnibearing Selector, or course selector)
1. Dial that is rotated to select the desired radial and/or
determine the radial on
b CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) Needle
1. Indicates position in relation to the selected course/radial
2. Full scale deflection = 12o or more off course ( 2o per dot)
c To/From Indicator
1. Shows whether the selected course takes the aircraft To or
From the VOR
2. Does not indicate whether the aircraft is currently heading To or From the VOR
d RM: Flags
1. OFF flag indicates an unusable/unreliable signal
B. VOR Basics
i. RM: TIM (Tune, Identify, Monitor)
a. Tune the VOR frequency
b. Identify
 Listen for the station’s morse code ID or voice stating the VOR name
 Look for the VOR 3 letter identifier on the PFD/MFD
 If the VOR is out of service, the ID is not transmitted (should not be used for navigation)
c. Monitor the signals/identifier to ensure consistent operation
 Loss of signal: If the morse code/identifier stops operating, do not use for navigation
ii. Orientation
a. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI needle - note the course and the TO or FROM indication
 Only shows direction from the station and has the same indications regardless of heading
 TO indication displays the course to fly to the VOR
 FROM indication displays the radial you’re currently on
b. Using a second VOR can provide an exact location at the intersection of the two radials
C. Tracking with the VOR
i. Tune the VOR frequency and check the identifier to verify the desired VOR is being received
ii. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI with a “TO” indication
a. If centered with a “FROM” indication, rotate 180o
iii. Turn to the heading indicated on the VOR azimuth dial or course selector
a. This will track directly to the station in a no wind situation
iv. If there is a crosswind, and heading is maintained, you will drift off course
a. If the crosswind is from the right, the airplane will drift to the left of course
 The CDI will gradually move right
b. To return to the desired radial, the heading must be altered to the right
 As the plane returns, the needle will move back to the center
c. When centered, the plane is on the selected course, and must be crabbed into the wind (right)
 This will establish wind correction (the amount necessary will depend on the wind strength)
a Trial and error will establish the necessary heading to maintain the desired track
b With a GPS, use the aircraft track to determine heading (eliminates the trial and error)
v. Upon arriving, and passing the VOR station, the TO indication will change to a FROM indication
a. Generally, the same procedures apply for tracking outbound as inbound

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 If the intent is to continue on the same heading, the course selector shouldn’t be changed
 If tracking outbound on a different course, the new course must be set into the selector
a Turn to intercept this course and track the same as previously discussed
vi. Reverse Sensing
a. If flying toward a VOR with a FROM indication, the CDI will indicate opposite the direction it should (this
does not apply to an HSI, it will not reverse sense)
 If the plane drifts to the right of course, the needle will show the opposite
b. And vice versa (from a station with a TO indication and opposite drift indications)
D. VOR Checks - FAR 91.171
i. The best assurance of maintaining an accurate VOR receiver is periodic checks and calibrations
a. VOR checks are not mandated for VFR flight
ii. Checks (checkpoints are listed in the Chart Supplement)
a. FAA VOR Test Facility (VOT)
b. Certified Airborne Checkpoints
c. Certified Ground Checkpoints located on airport surfaces
d. Dual VOR check
iii. Verifies the VOR radials the equipment receives are aligned with the radials the station transmits
iv. IFR tolerances required are ± 4o for ground checks and ± 6o for airborne checks
E. VOR MON (Minimum Operating Network)
i. National Airspace System is transitioning to performance-based navigation (PBN)
a. Number of VORs is being reduced (going from 896 to 590 by 2030)
b. Two new, larger service volumes will enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
ii. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS, to revert to conventional navigation procedures
iii. New Service Volumes
a. Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
b. High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW SERVICE VOLUMES

F. VOR Tips
i. Positively identify the station by its code or voice identification
ii. Remember, VOR signals are line-of-sight
iii. When navigating TO, determine the inbound course and use it (Don’t reset the course, correct for drift)
iv. When flying TO a station always fly the selected course with a TO indication
v. When flying FROM a station always fly the selected course with a FROM indication
2. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
A. Function – provides slant range distance from a station
i. With VOR and DME, a pilot can determine bearing and distance TO or FROM a station

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ii. Can be used to determine position along a radial or fly a constant distance from a station
B. How it Works
i. The aircraft DME transmits interrogating RF pulses which a DME antenna on the ground receives
ii. The signal triggers ground receiver equipment to respond back to the interrogating aircraft
iii. The aircraft DME measures the elapsed time between the sent signal and the reply signal
a. The time measurement is converted into NMs from the station
iv. Some receivers provide ground speed by monitoring the rate of change of position to the station
v. DME operates on UHF frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz
C. Components
i. Ground Equipment - VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME
a. Uses a “paired frequency” and auto selects the UHF DME frequency associated with the VHF VORTAC
frequency the pilot dials in
b. TIM (Tune, Identify, Monitor) the VOR
ii. Airborne Equipment - Antenna and Receiver
iii. Pilot Controllable Features
a. Channel (frequency) Selector: To select the proper channel/frequency desired
b. On/Off/Volume: Can be used to identify the DME (Morse code plays 1x for every 3-4x VOR)
c. Mode Switch: Cycles between Distance, GS and time to station
d. Altitude: Some receivers correct for slant range error
D. RM: Errors
i. DME signals are line-of-sight
ii. Slant Range Distance
a. The mileage readout is the straight-line distance from the aircraft to the ground facility
b. Not the same as the distance from the station to the point on the ground below the aircraft
c. This error is the smallest at low altitudes and long range
 Greatest when over the DME station, when it will display altitude above the station
 Negligible if 1 mile or more away from the facility for each 1,000’ above facility elevation
3. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) & Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
A. An NDB is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions
i. The ADF, when used with an NDB, determines the bearing from the aircraft to the station
B. The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to determine the relative bearing
i. Relative Bearing: The number of degrees measured clockwise between the heading of the aircraft and the
direction from which the bearing is taken
C. Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
i. Mary Had + Roast Beef= Mary Barfed
ii. Magnetic Heading: The direction an aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic North
iii. Magnetic Bearing: The direction to/from a station measured relative to magnetic North
D. NDB Components
i. The ground equipment: the NDB (transmits between 190 to 535 KHz)
ii. Aircraft must be in operational range of the NDB - dependent on the strength of the station
E. ADF Components
i. The airborne equipment: 2 antennas, a receiver, and the indicator instrument
ii. Two Antennas
a. Sense Antenna: (Non-directional) Receives signals nearly equally from all directions
b. Loop Antenna: (Bidirectional) Receives signals better from two directions
c. When combined, ADF can receive a signal from all directions except one, resolving directional ambiguity
iii. Indicator Instrument
a. 3 kinds: Fixed card, Movable Card, or the RMI (1 or 2 needles)

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b. Fixed Card ADF (or relative bearing indicator, RBI) (top picture)
 Always indicates 0 at the top; Needle indicates RB to the station
 Pilot must calculate MB based on MH and RB
c. Movable Card ADF (middle picture)
 Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
 Head of the needle indicates the MB to the station
 The tail indicates MB from the station
 Instrument provides MB, pilot doesn’t have to calculate it
d. RMI (bottom picture)
 Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
 Can have two needles which can be used for navigation information from
either ADF or VOR receivers
 ADF needle:
a Head indicates the MB To the station
b Tail indicates the MB From the station
 VOR needle: Indicates location radially with respect to the station
a Head of needle points the bearing TO the station
b Tail points to the radial the aircraft is currently on/crossing
F. Using the NDB
i. Orientation (Fixed Card ADF)
a. The ADF needle points TO the station, regardless of heading or position
 Therefore, the RB shown is the angular relationship between heading and the
station measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
b. Visualize the ADF dial in terms of the longitudinal axis
 When the needle points to 0o, the nose points directly to the station
 With the pointer on 210o, the station is 30o to the left of the tail
c. The RB must be related to aircraft heading to determine direction TO/FROM
 Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
ii. Movable Card/RMI
a. Turn toward the head of the needle indicating the MB to the station
b. Adjust for wind to maintain the desired course
4. Satellite Based Navigation
A. GPS (Global Positioning System)
i. 3 major elements
a. Space Segment
 Composed of a constellation of 31 satellites approximately 11,000 NM above the earth
a The US is committed to maintain 24 operational satellites 95% of the time
b Arranged so at any time, 5 are in view to any receiver (4 are necessary for operation)
c Each satellite orbits the Earth in approximately 12 hours
d Equipped with highly stable atomic clocks and transmit a unique code/nav message
 The satellites broadcast in the UHF range (meaning they are virtually unaffected by weather),
although they are subjected to line-of-sight references
a Must be above the horizon (as seen by the antenna) to be usable for navigation
b. Control Segment
 Consists of a master control station, 5 monitoring stations, and 3 ground antennas
 Monitoring stations/ground antennas are distributed around the earth
a Updates/corrections are uplinked as the satellites pass over the ground antennas

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c. User Segment
 Consists of all components associated with the GPS receiver
a Range from portable, hand-held receivers to those permanently installed in the plane
 The receiver utilizes the signals from the satellites to provide:
a Positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user
ii. Solving for Location
a. The receiver utilizes the signals of at least 4 of the best positioned satellites to yield a 3D fix
 3D - Latitude, longitude, and altitude
 Using calculated distance/position info from the satellite, the receiver calculates its location
iii. Navigating
a. VFR navigation with GPS can be as simple as selecting a destination and tracking the course
b. Course deviation is linear - there is no increase in sensitivity when approaching a waypoint
c. It can be very tempting to rely exclusively on GPS, but never rely on one means of navigation
iv. RM: RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
a. How the GPS verifies the integrity of the signals received from the satellites
 Without RAIM, there is no assurance of GPS accuracy
b. Requires at least 5 satellites in view (or 4 satellites and a barometric altimeter)
 At least one satellite, in addition to those required for navigation
 Some receivers can use a 6th satellite to isolate and remove a corrupt satellite
c. RAIM Messages (generally, two types)
 Not enough satellites available to provide RAIM integrity monitoring
 RAIM has detected a potential error exceeding the limit for the phase of flight
v. GPS for VFR
a. In VFR operations, GPS receivers can vary between full IFR installation to handheld receivers
 Many have no RAIM capability & antenna location is based on convenience instead of performance
 Loss of signal coupled with no RAIM capability could present erroneous with no indications
 Limitations of the individual installation must be understood
b. Database Currency
 AIM 1-1-1b3(b): Databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operations
a No requirements exist for VFR ops, however it is always a good idea to keep a current database
 Violations
a It is not FAA policy to initiate enforcement action against a pilot for having an expired database
b However, if involved in an enforcement investigation and there is evidence an out-of-date
database contributed to the situation, that information could be used in any enforcement action
c Bottom line, use current databases
B. WAAS (basically augmented GPS, to the point it may be used for precision approaches)
i. Designed to improve the accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals
a. Integrity is improved through real-time monitoring of the satellites
 Can provide warnings when the signal is providing misleading data that could be hazardous
 Extremely small chance an error would go undetected – equivalent of no more than 3 seconds of
bad data per year
b. Accuracy is improved by providing corrections to the satellites to reduce errors
 A network of ground-based stations measure small variations in satellite signals
 Measurements are routed to a master station
 Master station sends the correction messages to the satellites which broadcast the message
 Measurements have shown it can provide better than 1 meter laterally & 1.5 meters vertically
C. LAAS (now more commonly referred to as GBAS – Ground Based Augmentation System)

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i. Like WAAS, but with more ground augmentation

ii. All-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal.
iii. Local reference receivers located around the airport send data to a central location at the airport
a. Data is used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF Data Link
iv. Information is used to correct GPS signals, and provide an ILS-style display while flying a precision approach
5. Radar Services and Procedures (AIM 4-1-17 & 18)
A. Radar equipped ATC facilities provide radar assistance & navigation services (vectors) to VFR aircraft, provided:
i. You can communicate with ATC, are within radar coverage, and can be radar identified
B. RM: Limitations
i. Based on controller discretion
a. Radar limitations, traffic volume, controller workload/frequency congestion may prevent the service
b. Controller’s reasoning for not providing the service is not subject to question or necessary to explain
ii. Guidance information is advisory and responsibility for safe flying remains with the pilot
iii. Cannot determine if flight into IMC will results from their instructions
iv. Can only work with the information and aircraft on hand
a. Limited information on aircraft that are not participating and where they’re going/what they’re doing
C. Other services include:
i. Basic Radar Service – Safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited radar vectoring (workload permitting), and
sequencing at certain locations
ii. TRSA Service - Radar sequencing and separation for VFR aircraft in a TRSA
iii. Class C services - Separation between IFR/VFR and sequencing of VFR traffic to the airport
iv. Class B services - Separation based on IFR, VFR and/or weight and sequencing VFR arrivals
6. ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) Basics
A. What is it?
i. Foundation for NextGen moving from ground radar to satellites
a. More precise tracking: Broadcasts every second vs a radar sweep every 5-12 seconds
b. Radar waves are limited to line-of-sight and installation sites
 ADS-B combines ground stations/satellites for better visibility regardless of terrain/obstacles
 ADS-B ground stations are much easier to install than radars
ii. ADS-B
a. Automatic: Automatically transmits information
b. Dependent: Position/velocity are derived from GPS/FMS
c. Surveillance: Allows 3D position and identification
d. Broadcast: Transmits the information to anyone with appropriate receiving equipment
iii. ADS-B Out
a. Broadcasts GPS location, altitude, ground speed and more to ground stations/other aircraft
iv. ADS-B In
a. General
 Pilots can see what controllers see in the air as well as on the ground (taxiways/runways)
 Provides weather and traffic position information directly to the cockpit
a Graphical weather displays, advisories (NOTAMs, weather, terrain, TFRs, etc.)
b. FIS-B (Flight Information Service Broadcast – available on 978 MHz UAT equipment)
 Like XM weather, but more information
 Textual/graphical weather products/flight info (SIGMET, PIREP, turbulence, lightning, etc.)
c. TIS-B (Traffic Information Service Broadcast – available to 1090ES and UAT equipment users)
 Provides traffic information on all transponder-based aircraft in the vicinity of the ADS-B
B. Who Needs it?

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i. FAR 91.225 – ADS-B OUT is required in:

a. Class A, B, and C airspace
 Above the ceiling of Class B and C airspace up to 10,000’ MSL
b. Class E airspace at and above 10,000’ MSL excluding at and below 2,500’ AGL
 At and above 3,000’ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico within 12 nm of the coast
ii. ADS-B IN is voluntary
iii. ADS-B Deviation Authorization
a. ADAPT, or ADS-B Deviation Authorization Preflight Tool – Must meet the following:
 Must be equipped with operational transponder and altitude encoder
 Submit no more than 24 hours before flight and no less than 1 hour before flight
C. What do I need?
i. Straight from the FAA: Equip ADS-B Installation
ii. FAR 91.227 – ADS-B Out Equipment Performance Requirements
7. Transponder
A. Modes
i. A: Transmits 4-digit code that identifies an aircraft and its position
ii. C: Mode A + ATC can see the aircraft’s altitude
iii. S: Transmits a variety of information to ATC & other aircraft
a. Unique ICAO address (assigned to each aircraft)
b. Heading, speed, other flight related data
c. Integral to TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) and ADS-B
B. See lesson II.G. National Airspace System for transponder requirements
8. RM: EFBs & Automation (Navigation & Flight Systems)
A. Pilots are responsible for proper use of an EFB and installed avionics
i. Pilots may be evaluated on the use and interpretation of an EFB or installed avionics
B. Although not required, always maintain current EFB charts and publications
C. Understand the abilities and limitations of the system(s) on your aircraft
2. Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. Distractions
i. Distractions can be dangerous
a. Navigation systems, especially GPS/moving maps, can consume the pilot’s attention
ii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA)
i. Navigation systems and radar services can be huge for situational awareness
ii. Don’t be overdependent on a single system (like the GPS), if the GPS/VOR fails, have a backup
iii. If SA is lost, admit it and find a way to regain
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between flying/navigating, scanning, and communicating
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
When navigating with a VOR and you wish to head toward the station ensure the flag indicates “TO” and follow the
indicated heading. When it is necessary to track away from the station, ensure the flag indicates “FROM” and follow the
heading indicated. Failing to do this could result in reverse sensing (not applicable to an HSI). GPS is a satellite-based
navigation system. WAAS and LAAS are also satellite based navigation systems, but they augment the GPS system with

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ground-based stations allowing for more precise location information as well as vertical guidance. The radar services
provided by ATC can be very helpful in almost any flight.

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to navigation and flight
planning as required in the applicable tasks in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Time, Distance, and Fuel Calculations

2. Navigation
3. Lost Procedures

Elements 1. Terms
2. Aeronautical Charts
3. Navigation
4. Using a Flight Log
5. Flight Planning
6. Completing the Nav Log
7. VFR Flight Plan
8. Weather Check
9. GPS Navigation
10. Diversion to an Alternate
11. Lost Procedures
12. Intercept Procedures

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Aeronautical Charts (Sectional and Terminal Area Chart)
4. Navigation Log
5. Flight Computer

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly and confidently plan and execute a cross country flight to any chosen
Standards destination. The student also understands the procedures for diversions and lost situations.
 II.I. Navigation and Flight Planning

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This is what leads into using everything you have learned so far and flying yourself somewhere!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Navigation and flight planning is the process of planning and executing cross country flights.

Why
This information will make planning flights easier and more organized, while providing procedures for different
situations that may arise during the flight.

How:
1. Terms
A. Navigation Terminology
i. True North – Points directly to the geographic north pol
ii. Magnetic North – Aligns with Earth’s magnetic field and points directly to the magnetic north pole
iii. Variation – The angular difference between true north and magnetic north; isogonic lines on charts
iv. True Course – The direction of flight as measured on a chart clockwise from true North
v. True Heading – The direction the longitudinal axis of the airplane points with respect to true North
a. True heading equals true course plus or minus any wind correction angle
vi. Magnetic Course – True course corrected for magnetic variation
vii. Magnetic Heading – Magnetic Course corrected for wind (direction and speed)
viii. Compass Heading – Aircraft heading read from the compass
a. Derived by applying correction factors for variation, deviation, and wind to your true course
ix. Deviation – Compass error due to magnetic disturbances from electrical/metal parts in the plane
a. The correction for this is displayed on a compass correction card near the magnetic compass
B. Atmospheric Terminology
i. Standard Pressure – 29.92” Hg (at sea level)
ii. Standard Temperature – 15o C / 59oF (at sea level)
C. Altitude Terminology
i. Indicated Alt –Altitude read directly from the altimeter after it’s set to the current altimeter setting
ii. Pressure Alt – Height above the standard pressure level of 29.92 in Hg - 1,000 ( 29.92− Alt ) + Elev
a. Obtained by setting 29.92 in the barometric pressure window and reading the altimeter
iii. Density Alt – Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperatures - 120(℃−15 ℃)+ PA
a. The equation above is not exact
b. Directly related to an aircraft’s takeoff, climb, and landing performance
iv. True Altitude – The true vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level
a. Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations found on aeronautical charts are true altitudes
v. Absolute Altitude – The vertical distance of the aircraft above the surface of the earth (AGL)
D. Airspeed Terminology
i. Indicated (IAS) – The speed of an aircraft as shown on the airspeed Indicator

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ii. Calibrated (CAS) – Indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for installation and instrument errors
iii. Equivalent (EAS) – CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude
iv. True (TAS)– The speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the surrounding air
a. Equal to CAS corrected for density altitude
v. Groundspeed (GS) – The speed of the aircraft in relation to the ground
a. Equal to TAS corrected for wind(tailwind/headwind)
2. Aeronautical Charts
A. The roadmap for a pilot flying VFR
i. Provide info which allows pilots to track their position and to enhance safety
a. Shows things such as: terrain/elevation, VFR checkpoints, water, cities, airports, power lines, obstacles,
airspace, airways, navaids, etc.
ii. FAA Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide
iii. Chart Downloads
B. Sectional Charts (Most commonly used by pilots)
i. Information provided:
a. Airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography
ii. Scale is 1:500,000 (1” = 6.86 NM)
iii. Revised every 56 days
C. VFR Terminal Area Charts
i. Helpful when flying in or near Class B airspace
ii. They provide a more detailed display of topographical info
iii. Scale is 1:250,000 (1” = 3.43 NM)
iv. Revised every 56 days
D. VFR Wall Planning Chart
i. Designed for VFR preflight planning
ii. Provides aeronautical and topographic information of the conterminous US
a. Airports, navaids, Class B airspace, Special use airspace
iii. Scale is 1:3,100,000 (1” = 43 NM)
iv. Revised annually
E. Proper and Current Aeronautical Charts
i. Information changes rapidly, it is important to check the effective dates on each chart/publication
a. Always use current editions and discard obsolete charts and publications
b. Out of date charts may be missing crucial information
 Frequency changes, airport/runway changes, obstacles, etc.
ii. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
iii. Also check NOTAMs for important updates
3. Navigation
A. Pilotage – Navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints
i. A method of navigation that can be used on any course with adequate checkpoints, but is more commonly
used in conjunction with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation
a. It becomes difficult in areas lacking prominent landmarks or in low visibility
ii. The checkpoints used should be prominent features common to the area of flight
a. Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks,
lakes, and power lines
 Roads shown are usually the most traveled/easily visible from the sky
a New roads and structures are constantly being built and may not be on the chart
iii. If possible, select features that will make useful boundaries on each side of the course
a. Keep from drifting too far off course be referring to, and not crossing selected brackets

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iv. Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint, choose ample checkpoints
a. If one is missed, look for the next one while maintaining the necessary heading
b. Turn based on time if the checkpoint is not in sight, do not continue blindly
B. Dead Reckoning – Navigation solely by computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction
i. The products derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed and velocity, are heading and
ground speed (GS)
a. The predicted heading will guide the airplane along the intended path and the GS will establish the time
to arrive at each checkpoint and destination
C. Radio Navigation – Navigation by which a predetermined flight path is followed
i. There are three primary navigation systems available: VOR, NDB, and GPS
a. Aircraft equipment and preference will dictate which system to use
 GPS and VOR are the most common
 NDBs are almost non-existent
b. LORAN-C used to be a navigation source but was discontinued in 2010/2011
c. For more detailed information, see II.L. Navigation Systems and Radar Services
D. VOR Minimum Operating Network (VOR MON)
i. National Airspace System is transitioning to performance-based navigation (PBN)
a. Number of VORs is being reduced (going from 896 to 590 by 2030)
b. Two new, larger service volumes will still enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
 Coverage will exist lower, but may not be guaranteed
ii. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS, to use conventional navigation procedures
a. Can use VOR station to station nav to reach a MON airport and fly a conventional approach
 ILS, LOC, VOR, etc.
 MON airport assured within 100 nm
iii. New VOR Service Volumes
a. Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
b. High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW MON SERVICE VOLUMES

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c. New DME Service Volumes

E. Ideally, pilotage, dead reckoning, and radio navigation should be used together
i. Exceptions include over water, featureless terrain at night, etc. (no pilotage)
ii. Heading and GS are constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage as observed from checkpoints
iii. Radio navigation further confirms the course flown
F. Magnetic Compass Errors
i. Variation
a. Caused by the difference in the locations of the magnetic and geographic north pole
 The magnetic north pole is not collocated with the geographic north pole
 They’re approximately 1300 miles apart
b. Isogonic Lines: Lines used to connect points with the same magnetic variation
c. Agonic Line: The line along which the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation

ii. Deviation
a. Caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft
 Not affected by geographic location (like variation)
b. Degrees of deviation is shown on a compass correction card
 Different on each heading; can be minimized by “swinging the compass”
c. Compensator units (magnets that compensate for deviation) can also help
iii. Finding the Compass Course – True Course corrected for Variation and Deviation
a. True Course ± Variation = Magnetic Course; Magnetic Course ± Deviation = Compass Course
b. Remember: East is Least, West is Best
 East: Subtract variation from true course; West: Add variation to true course
iv. Dip Errors
a. What’s Going On
 Lines of magnetic flux leave the Earth at the magnetic N pole/enter at magnetic S pole
a At both poles the lines are perpendicular to the surface
b Over the equator the lines are parallel to the surface
 Magnets align with these fields and near the poles they dip/tilt the float and card
b. Northerly and Southerly Turning Errors (basically, the compass pulls toward the North)
 Starting a turn from a Southerly heading (turning to a Northerly direction):
a Compass Leads – initially shows a more aggressive turn in the same direction

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b As the aircraft banks, the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the card in the
direction of the turn (toward the North)
c Undershoot Northerly headings to compensate (30o- N; 20o- 030/330; 10o- 060/300)
 Starting a turn from a Northerly heading (turning to a Southerly direction):
a Compass Lags – initially shows a turn in the opposite direction
b As the aircraft banks the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the card
opposite the direction of turn (back toward the North)
c Overshoot Southerly headings to compensate (30o- S; 20o- 150/210; 10o- 120/240)
 Remember: Undershoot North, Overshoot South (no compensation needed for E/W)
c. Acceleration Error (only applicable on East and West headings)

 Due to the pendulous-type mounting, the aft end of the compass tilts up when accelerating and
down when decelerating
 On an E or W heading, acceleration appears
as a turn to the North, and deceleration
indicates a turn toward the South
 Remember: ANDS – Accelerate North,
Decelerate South
v. Oscillation Error
a. A combination of all the other errors as well as
the movement of the plane
 It results in the compass card swinging back
and forth around the heading being flown
b. Use the average indication
4. Using a Flight Log
A. The flight log provides the pilot an organized, point by point plan of the flight
i. The pilot can monitor the progress of the planned flight vs the actual conditions and make adjustments to
course, fuel burn, time calculations, etc. to ensure an safe, timely arrival or to realize the need for a
diversion (for example, due to stronger headwinds and a higher fuel requirement)
ii. Necessary frequencies, waypoints, headings, etc. are in order and easy to find for the pilot’s use
5. Flight Planning
A. Plotting a Course
i. First, draw the route
a. Draw a line (or lines depending on your course) from Point A to Point B
 If the route is direct, the course will consist of a single straight line

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 If not, it will consist of 2 or more straight line segments

a For example, a VOR station which is off the direct route but will make navigating easier
b. Always consider terrain, airspace, navigation capabilities, performance, etc. when choosing the route
 Ensure you meet and understand the requirements for different classes and types of airspace
c. Note alternate airports & the type of terrain in case of an emergency landing (water, mountains, etc.)
 Have a plan in case of an emergency at different points of the flight
ii. Decide what altitude you will fly based on the direction of flight, terrain, fuel, etc.
a. FAR 91.159
 When more than 3,000’ above the surface, and below 18000’ MSL:
a On a magnetic course of 0-179o, fly any odd thousand-foot MSL altitude + 500’
1. 3,500, 7,500, 13,500, etc.
b On a magnetic course of 180-359o, fly any even thousand-foot MSL altitude + 500’
1. 2,500, 8,500, 16,500, etc.
 When operating above 18,000’ (Class A airspace), maintain the
altitude/flight level assigned by ATC
b. Factors Affecting Altitude
 Terrain
a Ensure the required performance to safely clear terrain
b Reference Maximum Elevation Figures (depicted, right)
c Avoid particularly rugged terrain, if possible
 Glide Distance
a Ensure the ability to glide to an alternate airport or safe landing area
1. Especially important when over water – ensure the ability to glide back to land
 Weather & Wind
a Weather
1. Cloud Cover & Storms
a. Navigate over or around storms, as possible (VFR permitting)
b. This can change planning the day of a trip – adjust as required for safety
2. Icing
a. If flying in rainy/hazy conditions check the freezing level to avoid icing
b Wind varies with altitude
1. Check winds aloft to find the most favorable winds (tailwind)
 Unique Factors
a Analyze the flight for any other unusual factors that will affect the altitude flown
 Combine all factors with the FAR requirements to choose the most beneficial altitude
B. Checkpoints – Recognizable points along your route of flight used to maintain your course
i. Top of Climb (TOC)
a. First, map out your top of climb waypoint, this will provide a reference for the time, and distance using a
climb power setting (increased fuel burn)
b. Based on Rate of Climb information and desired cruising altitude, calculate the distance to reach the top
of climb
 Rate of Climb can be calculated in the AFM (ex. 1,000 fpm)
 Altitude to climb: Cruise altitude minus Airport Elevation (ex. 6,500’ -500’ = 6,000’ to climb)
 6,000’ to climb at 1,000 fpm = 6 minutes of climbing
 Use your groundspeed (GS) in the climb (TAS adjusted for wind) to compute the distance it will take
to climb to 6,500’ MSL
a Ex. If your GS is 90 knots in the climb, then it will take 9 nm to reach your altitude

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1. 6 min/60 min = 1/10 of an hour of climbing

2. Every hour the aircraft travels 90 nm, therefore (90 nm/hr.)(1/10 hr.) = 9 nm
c. Label the TOC on your course 9 nm from the departure airport
 Attempt to find a checkpoint that corresponds with the TOC
a The visual checkpoint may not coincide perfectly with the 9 nm point
b Be creative, for example, abeam a lake, or portion of a highway
ii. Top of Descent (TOD)
a. Second, map out your top of descent waypoint, this will provide a point to start the descent into the
terminal area of your destination
b. Based on Rate of Descent info and cruising altitude
 Rate of Descent is up to you and your particular aircraft (we’ll use 1,000 fpm as an example)
 Altitude to descend (Cruising altitude – Airport Elevation)
a Ex. 6,500’ – 1,200’ = 5,300’ to descend
b Note: Rather than making the calculation based on descending to the airport elevation (the
ground) it may be more beneficial to use pattern altitude instead
 Time to descend: 5,300’ to descend at 1,000 fpm
a How many minutes will it take to descend 5,300’ when you’re descending at 1,000 fpm
1. 5,300/1,000 = 5.3 minutes
 Distance to descend
a Using your ground speed calculate how far you will travel in 5.3 minutes
b If Ground speed = 150 kts, then you need to start your descent 13-14 nm from the airport
1. 5.3 minutes/60 minutes = 0.088 hours (convert minutes to hours)
2. 0.088 hours x 150 kts/hr. = 13.25 nm
3. Therefore, plan to start your descent about 14 nm from the airport
c. Mark this point (14 nm before your destination) on the course
 Find a visual checkpoint nearby to remind you to start your descent
iii. Find additional checkpoints along the route to bridge the gap between the TOC and TOD
a. These will be used to ensure you maintain the desired route (don’t get lost)
b. Distance between checkpoints can vary based on the trip and personal comfort
 A checkpoint every 10-25 nm is good to prevent getting lost
 Don’t overburden yourself
c. Checkpoints should be easy to locate points like large towns, lakes and rivers, or combinations of
recognizable points like towns with an airport, or a network of highways or railroads, geographic
features like mountain ranges are also helpful
 Normally choose towns indicated by splashes of yellow on the chart
 Do not choose towns signified by a small circle - they may be only a half-dozen homes
a In isolated areas, although, this can be a prominent, usable checkpoint
iv. Record your TOC, TOD, and additional checkpoints on your Nav Log
C. Fuel Stops
i. Longer flights will have to incorporate multiple legs for fuel stops
a. Create a separate nav log for each leg of the flight
ii. FAR 91.151 requires fuel to fly to the point of intended landing and, at normal cruise power, fly for at least
a. 30 min during the day, or 45 min during the night
6. Completing the Nav Log
A. Chooser a power setting
i. Use the chart provided in the POH based on desired speed, fuel burn, altitude, etc.
B. Based on the power setting, find the True Airspeed and record it on your Nav Log

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i. Use the chart provided in the aircraft POH

C. Now that the course is drawn and the checkpoints are marked, find the distance between each of the
checkpoints by measuring the course on the map
i. Input these distances in the Nav Log
D. Next, find the true course for each leg of the flight plan
i. True Course (TC) – Direction of the line connecting two points drawn on the chart and measured clockwise
in degrees from True North
a. North is always straight up when measuring true course
b. Use your plotter to find the True Course
E. Adjust True Course for wind to get True Heading
i. On the back of the flight computer, calculate the Wind Correction Angle and add/subtract it to/from the
True Course to get True Heading
a. Add West, subtract East corrections (Memory Aid: East is least, West is best)
b. Also make a note of the Ground Speed for each leg of the flight on the Nav Log
F. Finally, adjust the True Heading to obtain the Magnetic Heading
i. Magnetic Heading - Magnetic variation is applied to True Heading
a. Using the isogonic lines on the sectional, add or subtract the necessary number of degrees to find the
magnetic heading required to maintain your course
G. If necessary, get Compass Heading by adjusting for Deviation with the correction card near the compass
H. At this point your Nav Log should have all the checkpoints listed, each with a distance, a True Course, True
Heading, Magnetic Heading, Compass Heading, as well as an altitude and Ground Speed
I. Next is the Time and Distance Information
i. Since you already have the Distance and Ground Speed between each point, calculate the estimated amount
of time for each leg
a. Distance = Rate x Time, so Time = Distance/Rate (or Ground Speed)
ii. Based on expected departure time, you can calculate an expected arrival time
a. Convert to UTC

iii. Finally, use the Time for each leg to find the fuel burn for each leg
a. Using the POH find your fuel burn for Climb, Cruise, and Descent
 It will be shown in Gallons per hour
 Convert your time for each leg into hours and then find the gallons burned per leg
a This can be done using the flight computer or a calculator
b For example, a 10-minute leg at 15 gallons per hour
1. Convert minutes to hours (10 min / 60 min per hour = .167 hours)
2. Convert 15 gallons per hour to the number of gallons used in .167 hours
a. 15 * 0.167 = 2.5 gallons
iv. Of course, all of this should be entered in the Nav Log
J. Planned Calculations versus Actual Results
i. Planned calculations are never perfect
a. Numerous factors can change performance
 Winds may be slightly off or change, TAS may be different, altitude may have to be adjusted for
various reasons leading to different winds and airspeed, etc.
ii. Compensate for changes
a. Recognize deviations in airspeed, expected winds, time to checkpoints, fuel burn, etc.
 The more familiar with the route, flight planning, & waypoints, the easier to recognize deviations

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b. If the time to waypoints is too fast or slow, power and airspeed may be adjusted
 If power/increased fuel burn is a concern, accept the speed and adjust the time to each waypoint
a Use the new GS to estimate the time at each fix
 Use tools at your disposal
a GPS and tablets can make calculations extremely quick and easy
b If necessary, calculate by hand (estimate as able to save time and maintain awareness)
1. Fly first
c Deviate if the new performance warrants (insufficient fuel, etc.)
c. Ignoring the problem only makes it worse
 Invalid fuel and time calculations
 Potential for loss of situational awareness, and/or getting lost
 Recognize the differences, and adjust
7. VFR Flight Plan
A. Not required but it is a good operating practice since the info can be used for search and rescue
B. Filing can be done on the ground or in the air
i. On the ground: Call the FSS (1 800-WX BRIEF), various apps such as ForeFlight have this ability as well
(assuming you have a Wi-Fi or data connection)
ii. After takeoff, contact the FSS by radio and give them the takeoff time to activate the flight plan
iii. Once filed, the flight plan will be held for an hour after the proposed departure time
a. The departure time can be revised, if necessary
C. Don’t forget to close the flight plan
i. This should be done via telephone to avoid radio congestion
ii. The FAA will assume you are lost/didn’t make it to the destination and institute a search 30 min after the
scheduled arrival time if the flight plan is not closed
D. ICAO Flight Plans
i. Here we’ll go over the more complicated and detailed portion of the ICAO flight plan
a. For details on every aspect of the flight plan, see:
 AIM 5-1-5 Flight Plan – VFR Flights
 Appendix 4. FAA Form 7233-4 – International Flight Plan
ii. Flight Rules
a. Flight rules are always required.
b. Flight rules should indicate:
 I for IFR
 V for VFR
 For a composite flight, (IFR then VFR or VFR then IFR), submit separate flight plans for the IFR and
VFR portions of the flight. Filing a single flight plan for a composite flight (flight rules “Y” or “Z”) is
not supported currently. The IFR plan will be routed to ATC, and the VFR flight plan will be routed to
a Flight Service for Search and Rescue services.
iii. Type of Flight
a. Entering the type of flight is entirely optional for flights wholly within US Domestic Airspace
b. In the case that you do need to include the type of flight, indicate it as follows:
 G - General Aviation
 S - Scheduled Air Service
 N - Non-Scheduled Air Transport Operation
 M – Military
 D - DVFR
 X - other than any of the defined categories above

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iv. Wake Turbulence Category

a. Include the wake turbulence category as follows:
 H - HEAVY, indicates an aircraft type with a max certificated take-off mass of 300,000 lbs. or more
 M - MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft type with a maximum certificated take-off mass of less than
300,000 lbs. but more than 15,500 lbs.
 L - LIGHT, indicates an aircraft type with a maximum certificated take-off mass of 15,500 lbs. or less
v. Aircraft Equipment
a. Whereas the FAA Domestic flight plan used single letter designations to represent entire avionics
packages (for example, G = RNAV capability with GNSS and without RVSM), the ICAO system lets the
pilot pick and choose the equipment and capabilities specific to their aircraft.
b. Equipment and capabilities that requires indication include:
 Navigation
 Transponder
 ADS-B
 Additional information may be required in the Remarks section for:
a PBN
b RVSM
c Data Communications
d More on this below
c. There are two parts to the Equipment box. The first part is the Aircraft Equipment followed by a slash
and the second portion, the Transponder Capability.
 Aircraft Equipment
a Standard Capability (S)
1. To simplify filing, the code “S” can be included to indicate Standard Capability, which
includes VHF radio, VOR, and ILS
2. The use of S removes the need to list these 3 capabilities separately
b No Capability (N)
1. When there is no navigation, communications, or approach capability file the letter N

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c More Capabilities

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 Transponder Capability

d. Example
 If your aircraft had:
a A VHF Radio, VOR and ILS S
b An IFR approved GPS G
c PBN Capable R
1. If you can accept PBN routes and procedures. PBN is a new concept encompassing both
RNAV and RNP. If you’re using RNAV or RNP for any phase of the flight, this applies to you.
d Mode C Transponder C
 The final entry into Box 10 would be SGR/C

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 We mentioned earlier that Remarks may be required for PBN aircraft. By listing PBN (R) in your
equipment, you only notified ATC that your equipment is PBN approved. Since PBN describes many
different types of equipment, you must specify what you’re equipped with in the Remarks, box 18.
a Most general aviation piston aircraft will enter: PBN/B2C2D2
1. B2= RNAV 5 capability, C2 = RNAV 2 capability, D2 = RNAV 1 capability
2. By listing this code, you are telling ATC you are capable of handling RNAV based procedures
for the enroute structure and terminal procedures.
vi. For more information:
a. A great, short ICAO flight plan instructional video from AOPA
b. ICAO Flight Plan instructions
c. FAA Aircraft Type Designators
d. ICAO Flight Plan Form
e. AIM 5-1-9 – International Flight Plan - IFR Flights
8. Weather Check
A. Obtaining a preflight weather briefing is the first step to determine if the flight can be conducted safely
i. Often done in conjunction with filing the flight plan
a. See III.C. Weather Information for more details
ii. It also shows where problems may occur during the flight
B. FAR 91.103 requires familiarity with weather reports and forecasts for the flight
C. Go/No Go
i. Good judgment is necessary in deciding whether or not to take the flight
a. A gutsy, dangerous condition could end badly
ii. RM: Use the PAVE risk management checklist
a. Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External pressures
b. Can the plane and equipment handle the flight as planned?
c. Is the route safe?
iii. Set limits and don’t bend them
a. Ex: numerous conditions may be an automatic no go (thunderstorms, icing, moderate or greater
turbulence, fog, etc.)
b. Personal limitations will vary based on the pilot and the aircraft
 These must always meet or exceed any FARs or aircraft limitations
 Ex: have personal crosswind limitations, visibility requirements, rest requirements, etc.
iv. Physical/Mental condition
a. Sick, tired, upset, depressed – These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any problem
b. IMSAFE checklist
v. Recent Flight Experience
a. Don’t go beyond your abilities or the aircraft’s abilities
b. Ex: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you haven’t flown in a while
vi. Flying is a continual process of decision making before and also throughout the entire flight
a. Cancel, discontinue the flight/divert, if necessary
9. GPS Navigation
A. Before flight, enter the flight plan waypoints into the GPS
i. VFR waypoints shown on the sectional and terminal charts can be used as waypoints in the GPS
a. The GPS identifier for these waypoints is shown near the waypoint on the chart (5 characters)
B. The GPS will provide information similar to the Nav Log and update distances, time enroute, fuel burn, etc. as
changes are made to the flight plan
i. Saves you tons of work and time, especially in the case of a diversion or emergency
C. An extremely useful tool, and should be used once the pilot is capable of competently navigating without it

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i. Great for situational awareness

a. Don’t get complacent with the GPS and lose awareness, a GPS failure in this case could be hazardous
b. If the GPS fails you must be able to safely continue along the route by means of pilotage, dead
reckoning, and radio navigation (VOR, etc.)
10. Diversion to an Alternate
A. There will probably come a time when you cannot make it to the planned destination
i. This can result from weather, malfunctions, poor planning, fuel, fatigue/illness, etc.
B. Before flight, check the route for suitable landing areas and for nav aids that can be used in a diversion
C. Take advantage of all shortcuts/rule of thumb computations when computing course/speed/distance
i. Use your thumb to estimate distance
a. Using the scale on your map, figure out approximately how far from the fingertip of your thumb (toward
the knuckle) 10 nm is
b. In the case of a diversion use your thumb to quickly measure the number of 10 nm increments to the
alternate airport
c. This will provide a rough distance estimate for quicker, less stressful time and fuel calculations
ii. Use a compass rose, airway or any other reference on the chart to determine the approximate new heading
a. Also, a rough estimate to get the airplane heading in the general direction while handling the situation
D. Choose an alternate shown on your sectional or use the ’Nearest’ page in the GPS
E. Procedure
i. Find your position on the sectional chart
ii. Divert immediately toward the alternate using shortcuts/rule of thumb calculations (above)
a. Completing all measuring, plotting, computations first may aggravate the situation
iii. Once established on course, note the time
iv. Use the winds aloft nearest the diversion point to calculate a heading and GS
a. Once determined, calculate a new arrival time and fuel consumption
b. Give priority to flying while dividing attention between navigation and planning
v. When determining an altitude, consider cloud heights, winds, terrain, radio reception, etc.
11. Lost Procedures
A. Plan ahead to avoid getting lost
i. The better the planning, the more familiar you’ll be with the route
ii. Use multiple sources to monitor location
a. Use pilotage, dead reckoning, as well as radio navigation/GPS to navigate
iii. Flight Following
a. As much as possible, use flight following
b. Controller workload/radar limitations prevent flight following from being used 100% of the time
B. If Lost
i. Don’t Panic
ii. The Five C’s
a. Climb – This will allow you to see more ground, increasing chances of spotting a landmark
 Improves radio reception, extends the transmitter range, and increases radar coverage
b. Communicate – use the frequencies on the chart, including RCO frequencies at VOR stations
 A controller can provide radar vectors
 Use 121.5 if the situation becomes threatening and squawk 7700
c. Confess – Tell any ATC facility the situation
d. Comply – Comply with any ATC suggestions
e. Conserve – Reduce power/airspeed for max endurance or range (whichever is appropriate)
iii. In addition,
a. Check the heading indicator against the magnetic compass

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 If there is an error, note the direction of error before resetting the heading indicator
 This can help determine whether you are right or left of course
b. Ex: if the compass indicates 10o > than the heading indicator, you may be to the right of course
iv. Use navigational radios (VOR/ADF) to attempt to plot your position in relation to two navaids
a. GPS can also be used to determine location
v. If near a town the name of the town may be visible on a water tower
12. Flight Following & Intercept Procedures
A. Flight Following
i. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide radar assistance & navigation services to VFR aircraft, provided:
a. You can communicate with ATC, are within radar coverage, and can be radar identified
b. Highly beneficial and should be used whenever available
ii. RM: Limitations
a. Based on controller discretion
 Radar limitations, traffic volume, controller workload/frequency congestion may prevent the service
 Controller’s reasoning for not providing the service is not subject to question or necessary to explain
b. Guidance information is advisory and responsibility for safe flying remains with the pilot
c. Cannot determine if flight into IMC will results from their instructions
d. Can only work with the information and aircraft on hand
 Limited info on aircraft that are not participating and where they’re going/what they’re doing
B. Intercept Procedures (AIM 5-6-13 Interception Procedures)
i. In conjunction with the FAA, Air Defense Sectors monitor air traffic and can order an intercept in the interest
of national security or defense – reasons include to:
a. Identify, track, inspect, divert, or establish communications with an aircraft
ii. AOPA Intercept Procedures Card
iii. Intercept Signals (pictured below)

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Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Cross country flight planning requires a lot of preflight work but the flight itself is worth the time. It also helps to prevent
getting lost and keeps us away from potentially dangerous or bad weather.

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References: 14 CFR Parts 1, 61, 91, NTSB Part 830, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to federal aviation regulations
and publications.

Key Elements 1. Chart Supplement

2. ACs
3. NOTAMs

Elements 1. FARs
2. NTSB Part 830
3. Aviation Publications

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the purpose and content of the FARs as well as useful
Standards publications.
 II.J. 14 CFR and Publications

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Where everything you’ve been looking for and will ever need to know is kept.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) and publications relevant to every pilot.

Why
This will provide a better understanding of these publications and their use in flying.

How:
1. FARS (1, 61, 91, 21, 39, 43, 67)
A. Part 1 – Definitions and Abbreviations
i. Provides general definitions as well as abbreviations and symbols
ii. Contents
a. General Definitions
b. Abbreviations and Symbols
c. Rules of Construction
B. Part 61 – Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
i. Requirements for issuing pilot, flight instructor, and ground instructor certificates, ratings, and
authorizations
ii. Conditions under which those certificates, ratings, and authorizations are necessary
iii. Privileges and limitations of the certificates, ratings, and authorizations
iv. Subparts
a. General
b. Aircraft Ratings and Pilot Authorization
c. Student Pilots
d. Recreational Pilots
e. Private Pilots
f. Commercial Pilots
g. Airline Transport Pilots
h. Flight Instructors
i. Ground Instructors
j. Sport Pilots
k. Flight Instructors with a Sports Pilot Rating
C. Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
i. Prescribes rules governing the operation of aircraft within the United States, including the waters within 3
nautical miles of the US coast
ii. Subparts
a. General
b. Flight Rules (General, VFR, IFR)

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c. Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements

d. Special Flight Operations
e. Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
f. Large and Turbine Powered Multiengine Airplanes and Fractional Ownership Program Aircraft
g. Additional Equipment and Operating Requirements for Large and Transport Category Aircraft
h. Foreign Aircraft Operations and operations of US Registry Civil Aircraft Outside of the US; and rules
Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft
i. Operating Noise Limits
j. Waivers
k. Fractional Ownership Operations
D. Part 21 – Certification Procedures
i. Requirements for issuing and changing design approvals, production approvals, airworthiness certificates,
and airworthiness approvals
E. Part 39 – Airworthiness Directives
i. Provides a legal framework for the FAA’s system of Airworthiness Directives
F. Part 43 – Maintenance
i. Rules governing maintenance, preventive maintenance, and rebuilding
G. Part 67 – Medical Standards and Certification
i. Medical standards and certification for issuing medical certificates
2. NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) Part 830
A. Part 830 contains rules pertaining to:
i. Initial notification and reporting of aircraft incidents and accidents
a. Immediately (most expeditious means available) notify the nearest NTSB office for:
 Accident or serious incident (listed in 830.5a)
 Aircraft is overdue and believed to have been involved in an accident
b. Information to be provided described in 830.6
ii. Preservation of aircraft wreckage, mail, cargo, and records involving all civil and certain public aircraft
accidents
B. Subparts include:
i. General: 830.1Applicability; 830.2Definitions
ii. Initial Notification of Aircraft Accidents, Incidents, and Overdue Aircraft: 830.5Immediate Notification;
830.6
Information to be Given in Notification
iii. Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and Records: 830.10Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail,
Cargo and Records
iv. Reporting of Aircraft Accidents, Incidents, Overdue Aircraft: 830.15Reports and Statements to be Filed
3. Aviation Publications
A. Chart Supplement
i. Links
a. FAA Chart Supplement description
b. Digital Chart Supplements
ii. Provides the most comprehensive information on a given airport
a. Contains information on airports, heliports, and seaplane bases that are open to the public
b. Also contains information such as:
 Special notices
 FAA, National Weather Service (NWS), and facility phone numbers
 Preferred IFR routes
 VFR waypoints

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 VOR receiver checkpoints

 Aeronautical chart bulletins
 Land and Hold Short Operation (LAHSO) for selected airports
 Airport diagrams for selected airports
 Parachute jump areas
iii. Published in 7 books organized by region (NW, SW, NC, SC, EC, NE, SE),
iv. Revised every 56 days
B. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
i. The official guide to basic flight information and ATC procedures for the aviation community flying in the
NAS of the United States
a. Basically, the “pilot’s bible”
ii. Contains information such as health and medical facts, flight safety, a pilot/controller glossary, information
on safety, accidents, and reporting of hazards
a. Chapter 1: Navigation
 Nav aids, PBN/RNAV
b. Chapter 2: Lighting and Airport Visual Aids
 Lighting aids, obstruction lighting, airport markings and signs
c. Chapter 3: Airspace
 Controlled, Class G, Special use, other
d. Chapter 4: Air Traffic Control
 Services, communication phraseology and techniques, airport operations
e. Chapter 5: Air Traffic Procedures
 Preflight, departure, en route, arrival procedures, pilot and controller responsibilities
f. Chapter 6: Emergency Procedures
 Emergency services, distress/urgency procedures, radio comm failure, rescue comms
g. Chapter 7: Safety of Flight
 Cold weather altimeter errors, wake turbulence, flight hazards
h. Chapter 8: Medical Facts for Pilots
 Medical certification, illness, medication, alcohol, aeromedical factors, fitness for flight
i. Chapter 9: Charts and Related Publications
 Types and descriptions of charts
C. FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
i. FAA Advisory Circular Search
ii. An informational document that the FAA wants to distribute to the aviation community
a. Information only and are not regulations
iii. May be needed to:
a. Provide an acceptable, clearly understood method for complying with a regulation
b. Respond to a request from a government entity (NTSB, Office of the Inspector General, etc.)
c. Expand on standards needed to promote aviation safety, including the safe operation of airports
iv. Issued in a number system corresponding with the subjects in the FARS:
00 – General 140 – Schools and Other Certificated Agencies
10 – Procedural Rules 150 – Airport Noise Compatibility Planning
20 – Aircraft 170 – Navigation Facilities
60 – Airmen 180 – Administrative Regulations
70 – Airspace 190 – Withholding Security Information
90 – Air Traffic and General Operating Rules 210 – Flight Info (Aeronautical charts, doesn’t relate to the FARs)
120 – Air Carriers, Air Travel Clubs, and Operators
for Comp/Hire: Certification and Ops

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v. Commonly used ACs: The Backseat Pilot – Advisory Circulars

D. INFOs & SAFOs
i. InFO (Information for Operators)
a. Contains valuable information for operators to help meet certain administrative, regulatory, or
operational requirements with relatively low urgency or impact on safety
 Example: Updates to Cold Temperature Airports Program
b. Links
 FAA Introducing InFO document
 InFO Database
ii. SAFO (Safety Alert for Operators)
a. Designed to share important safety information broadly and quickly, may include recommended actions
 Especially valuable to air carriers and their duty to provide service with the highest degree of safety
 Although primarily useful to air carriers, there are SAFOs useful and applicable to GA flying
 Example: Recognizing & Mitigating GPS/GNSS Disruptions
b. Training center managers should pay attention to any SAFO bearing directly on their operation and
consider immediate implementation of any applicable actions recommended
c. Links
 FAA Introducing SAFO document
 SAFO Database
E. NOTAM – Notice to Air Mission (AIM 5-1-3)
i. Time critical aeronautical information either temporary in nature or not sufficiently known in advance to
permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications
a. This information receives immediate dissemination via the NOTAM system
b. NOTAMs contain current notices to airmen that are considered essential to the safety of flight, as well as
supplemental data affecting other operational publications
c. Can affect go / no-go decision
d. NOTAM Search
ii. Types of NOTAMs
a. NOTAM (D)
 Disseminated for all nav facilities and all public use aerodromes in the Chart Supplement
 Given distant dissemination beyond the area of responsibility of the Flight Service Station
 Types
a Aerodrome activity and conditions (taxiway closures, personnel and equipment, etc.)
b Airspace
c Visual and radio navigational aids
d Communications and services
e Pointer NOTAMs – Point to additional aeronautical information
 Also includes (U) and (O) NOTAMs
a (U) NOTAM: Unverified NOTAM received from a source other than airport management and
have yet to be confirmed by management personnel
b (O) NOTAM: Other aeronautical information which does not meet NOTAM criteria but may be
beneficial to aircraft operations
b. FDC NOTAMs
 Regulatory information
 Chart and IAP changes, Laser activity, TFRs, WAAS / GPS, ADS-B availability, Special Notices
 Center Area NOTAM
a FDC NOTAM issued for a condition not limited to one airport

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b Filed under the ARTCC that controls the airspace

c Very important when looking for NOTAMs on your own
1. Ex: Must retrieve ZAN FDC NOTAMs for flights in Alaska because ZAN is the code for
Anchorage ARTCC which is the controlling center for all of Alaska
 Security NOTAM
a FDC NOTAM informing pilots of security activities or requirements
b Found on the federal NOTAM system under the location designator KZZZ
c. International NOTAMs
 Published in ICAO format and distributed to multiple countries
 Not included in a weather briefing unless specifically requested
d. Military NOTAMs
 AF, Army, Marine, Navy NOTAMs pertaining to military use airports / navaids / airspace
F. Domestic and International Notices
i. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) was discontinued as of June 2020
ii. Information for the international and domestic notices have been transferred to new websites:
a. Domestic Notices
 Contains special notices and notices pertaining to almost every aspect of domestic aviation, such as
military training areas, large scale sporting events that may attract media attention or draw large
crowds of aircraft, air show information, and airport-specific information.
 Includes:
a General Information
b General Notices
c Airport and Facility
d Special Military Operations
e Major Sporting and Entertainment Events
f Airshows
b. International Notices
 Features significant international information and data which may affect a pilot's decision to enter
or use areas of foreign or international airspace
 Includes:
a Flight Prohibitions Notices
b International Oceanic Airspace Notices
G. Airman Certification Standards (ACS) / Practical Test Standards (PTS)
i. PTS/ACS Concept
a. PTS: FAR Part 61 specifies the Areas of Operation in which knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by
the applicant before issuance of a certificate
 The FARs provide the flexibility that permits the FAA to publish practical test standards containing
Areas of Operation and specific Tasks in which competency must be demonstrated
b. The ACS integrates the elements of knowledge, risk management, and skill listed in FAR Part 61 for each
airman certificate or rating
ii. Current PTS for Airplanes
a. Sport, Flight Instructor Instrument, and Type Rating
iii. Airman Certification Standards (ACS)
a. Essentially an “enhanced” version of the PTS
b. Updated and modernized certification standards
c. So far, the FAA has released the Private Pilot, Instrument Rating, Commercial, ATP, and Instructor ACS
 The rest will be transitioned/released at a later date

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H. Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)

i. The POH describes the specific airplane and its operation
ii. Standard sections include:
a. General
b. Limitations
c. Emergency Procedures
d. Normal Procedures
e. Performance
f. Weight and Balance
g. Airplane and Systems Description
h. Handling, Preventative and Corrective Maintenance
i. Supplements
I. Expired Publications
i. FAR 91.103 requires each PIC to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight
a. Although it doesn’t specifically require it, you should always carry current publications
ii. Information changes rapidly, out of date publications may be missing crucial information
iii. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use the FAAs Dates of Latest Editions to verify you have the most current edition
b. Prior to expiration, check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for any changes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The FARs and publications provide many resources to help in flying, obtaining licenses, as well as building aeronautical
knowledge.

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References: 14 CFR part 61, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors (AC 61-65), Currency Requirements
and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check (AC 61-98), Flight Instructor Refresher Course (AC
61-83), WINGS Pilot Proficiency Program (AC 61-91), FAA Order 8900.1 (FSIMS)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to logbook entries and
endorsements as required by the CFI ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. AC 61-65

2. Endorsements
3. Required Records

Elements 1. Logbook Entries

2. Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements
3. Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation
4. Additional Ratings
5. Reapplying for a Practical Test
6. Time Limits
7. Flight Review Endorsements
8. Flight Instructor Records
9. Maintaining your CFI Certificate

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands what is necessary in student’s logbooks, what is necessary for
Standards student pilot certificates and preparing a student for a practical test, as well as the
requirements for flight review endorsements and flight instructor records.
 II.K. Endorsements & Logbook Entries

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Don’t get stuck with your student at a check ride without the proper endorsements! And, don’t get stuck not
retaining the necessary records in the case that the FAA comes knocking!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Logbook entries and certificate endorsements discusses the necessary entries instructors must make in their
student’s logbooks as well as the endorsements required for different situations.

Why
It is important that the instructor understand the requirements to keep the student’s logbook and training in order,
not only for the student’s well-being, but also to comply with the FARs.

How:
1. Logbook Entries (FAR 61.189)
A. A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person that instructor has given flight/ground training
B. Logbook entries must include (FAR 61.51):
 Date  Aircraft Identification
 Airplane Make and Model  Type of Experience (Solo, PIC, etc.)
 Total Flight Time  Flight Conditions (Day, Night, Instrument, etc.)
 Location of Departure and Arrival  Name of safety pilot, if required
2. Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements (Including appropriate logbook entries)
A. Student Pilot Endorsements (Examples shown in AC 61-65)
Solo Flight Endorsements XC Endorsements
 Pre-solo Aeronautical Knowledge: 61.87(b)  Solo XC Training: 61.93(c)(1) and (2)
 Pre-solo Flight Training: 61.87(c)  Solo XC Planning: 61.93(c)(3)
 Pre-solo Flight Training at Night: 61.87(c) & (o)  Repeated Solo XCs not > 50 nm from the departure: 61.93(b)(2)
 Solo Flt (1st 90-days): 61.87(n) / Additional 90 days: 61.87(p) Class B Endorsements
 Solo T/O & LDGs at an Airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1)  Solo Flight in Class B Airspace: 61.95(a)
 TSA US Citizenship: 49 CFR 1552.3(h)  Solo Flight, to/from/at a Class B airport: 61.95(b) & 91.131(b)(1)
B. Pre-Solo
i. AC 61-65 A.3: Pre-solo Aeronautical Knowledge: 61.87(b)
ii. AC 61-65 A.4 Pre-solo Flight Training: 61.87(c)(1) & (2)
iii. AC 61.65 A.5 Pre-solo Flight Training at Night 61.87(o)
C. Solo Flight
i. Endorsement for the specific make & model aircraft by the instructor who gave the training within the
preceding 90 days
a. AC 61-65 A.6: Solo Flight (first 90 calendar-day period): 61.87(n)
b. AC 61-65 A.7: Solo Flight (each additional 90 calendar0day period): 61.87(p)
D. Cross Country
i. AC 61-65 A.8: Solo Takeoffs and Landings at another Airport withing 25 NM: 61.93(b)(1)
ii. FAR 61.93(c): Solo Cross Country

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a. Must have a solo cross-country endorsement from the authorized instructor who conducted the training
that is placed in the person’s logbook for the specific category of aircraft to be flown
b. Must have a solo cross-country endorsement from an authorized instructor that is placed in that
person’s logbook for the specific make and model of aircraft to be flown
c. For each cross-country flight, the authorized instructor who reviews the cross-country planning must
make an endorsement in the person's logbook after reviewing that person's planning
d. AC 61-65 A.9: Solo Cross Country Flight: 61.93(c)(1) & (2)
e. AC 61-65 A.10: Solo Cross-Country Flight: 61.93(c)(3)
 Required for each cross-country flight
E. TSA US Citizenship
i. Instructor must keep a copy of the documents used to provide proof of citizenship for 5 years, or
ii. Make the following endorsement:
a. AC 61-65 A.14: Endorsement of US Citizenship recommended by the TSA: 49 CFR 1552.3(h)
3. Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation
A. Endorsements
i. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisites for a Practical Test: 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
a. Except as provided by 61.39, each applicant must have received an endorsement from an authorized
instructor who certified that the applicant received and logged the required flight time/training in
preparation for the practical test within 2 calendar months preceding the month of application of the
test and is prepared for the practical test
ii. AC 61-65 A.2: Aeronautical Knowledge Test Deficiencies: 61.39(a)(6)(iii)
a. As required
b. Endorsement stating the applicant has satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas they were deficient in
as shown by the Knowledge Test Report
c. Sometimes included in the above endorsement (Ex. AC 61-65 A.40: Instrument rating)
iii. Part 61 required endorsements for the category, class, rating, or privilege of certification sought
a. Vary by rating, shown below
B. Example Endorsement – Single Engine Private Pilot
i. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisite for a Practical Test: § 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
ii. AC 61.-65 A.2: Aeronautical Knowledge Test Deficiencies: § 61.39(a)(6)(iii)
iii. AC 61-65 A.32: Aeronautical Knowledge Test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105
a. Part 61 required endorsement specific to the private pilot required knowledge training
iv. AC 61-65 A.33: Flight Proficiency/Practical Test: §§ 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109
a. Part 61 required endorsement specific to the private pilot certificate
C. Endorsement References
Sport Pilot Flight Instructors (w/o Sport Rating)
Knowledge Test - 61.307(a) FOI Knowledge Test - 61.183(d), 61.185(a)(1)
Practical Test - 61.307(b) Practical Test - 61.183(g), 61.187(a) & (b)
Recreational Pilot Spin Training - 61.183(i)(1)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), 61.97(b) CFII Practical Test - 61.183(g), 61.187(a) & (b)(7)
Practical Test - 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) & (b), 61.99 Flight Instructors (with Sport Rating)
Private Pilot FOI Knowledge Test - 61.405(a)(1)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), 61.105 Sport Pilot Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.405(a)
Practical Test - 61.103(f), 61.107(b), 61.109 Practical Test - 61.409, 61.411
Instrument Rating (CFII is Required) Spin Training - 61.405(b)(1)(ii)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.65(a) & (b) Additional Qualifications
Practical Test - 61.65(a)(6) Additional Category/Class Rating (Not ATP) - 61.63(b) or (c)
Commercial Pilot Additional Type Rating Only (Not ATP) - 61.63(d)(2) & (3)

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Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), 61.125 Type Rating & Category/Class Rating - 61.63(d)(2) & (3)
Practical Test - 61.123(e), 61.127, 61.129 Additional Aircraft Rating (ATP) - 61.157(b)(1)
-You may complete the endorsement in the space at the bottom Type Rating Only (ATP) - 61.157(b)(2)
of the computer test report in the case of a knowledge test Practical Test Prerequisites Completion - 61.39(a)(6)
failure. You must sign the block provided for the instructor’s
endorsement on the reverse side of the 8710 for each retake of a
Retesting for Knowledge/Practical - 61.49
practical test. An applicant may retake a practical or knowledge Home Study Curriculum - 61.35(a)(1)
test after receiving additional instruction and an instructor’s Ground Instructor Experience Reqs - 61.217(b)
endorsement.
D. The instructor and student must complete the IACRA rating application online (iacra.faa.gov)
i. Or the instructor/student must complete and sign a Form 8710-1
a. This is given to the examiner at the practical test
b. Most examiners no longer use this method, IACRA is heavily preferred
E. Except in certain instances, applicant must hold at least a current 3rd class medical: FAR 61.123(a)(3)(iii)
4. Additional Ratings (FAR 61.63)
A. Category and Class Ratings
i. Additional category and/or class (other than ATP), must have:
a. Instructor recommendations
b. Appropriate endorsements
 Vary by specific FAR 61 requirements
ii. Applicant must:
a. Comply with the requirements of FAR 61.63 (described below)
b. Pass the practical test appropriate for the aircraft category, and if applicable, class rating sought
B. Additional Class Requirements – FAR 61.63(c)
i. Endorsement stating competence in knowledge areas and proficient in areas of operation
a. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional Aircraft Category or Class Rating (other than ATP)
b. AC 61-65 A.1: Practical test endorsement
c. Other endorsement(s) as required, see example
ii. Pass practical test
iii. No need to meet the time requirements that apply to the class rating (see FAR for exception)
iv. No knowledge test, provided applicant holds a rating at the certificate level
C. Additional Category Requirements – FAR 61.63(b)
i. Complete training and have the applicable aeronautical experience required by FAR part 61
ii. Endorsement stating competence in knowledge areas and proficient in areas of operation
a. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than ATP)
b. AC 61-65 A.1: Practical Test Endorsement
c. Other endorsement(s), as required
iii. Pass practical test
iv. No additional knowledge test, provided applicant holds a rating at the certificate level
D. Solo Flight Requirements (without the appropriate category/class rating) – FAR 61.31(d)(2)
i. Must have received the FAR required training for the aircraft
ii. AC 61-65 A.72 – Solo PIC when the pilot doesn’t hold appropriate category/class
E. Additional Rating Example
i. Single engine private pilot wants to add multiengine class rating
ii. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisite for a Practical Test: 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
iii. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional Aircraft Category or Class Rating (other than ATP): 61.63(c)
iv. AC 61-65 A.68: To act as Pilot in Command in a Complex Aircraft: 61.31(e)
5. Reapplying for a Practical Test
A. Following a Notice of Disapproval

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i. A practical test, whether satisfactory or not, uses up the endorsement for that test
ii. Must have another endorsement in accordance with FAR 61.43(f) & 61.49(a)(2) stating the necessary
training has been given and they are prepared for the test
a. AC 61-65 A.73 – Retesting after failure of a knowledge or practical test: 61.49
iii. Instructor recommendation (8710/IACRA) is required for a retest
iv. Applicant may receive credit for the Areas of Operation they passed if the remainder of the test is
completed within 60 calendar-days after the date that the test was discontinued
B. Following a Letter of Discontinuance
i. No additional endorsements are required
ii. Applicant gets credit for the areas of operation that were passed if the test is completed within 60 calendar-
days after the discontinuation date
a. If more than 60 calendar-days has passed, the entire practical test must be accomplished
6. Time Limits (Two Calendar Months vs 60 Calendar-Days)
A. 60 Calendar-Day Time Limit
i. FAR 61.43(e) – Practical test can be discontinued for 4 reasons:
a. Fail one or more areas of operation
b. Inclement weather
c. Airworthiness
d. Safety of flight concern
ii. FAR 61.43(f) – If a test is discontinued per 61.43(e), the applicant gets credit for the areas that they already
passed, but
a. FAR 61.43(f)(1) – the remainder of the test must be completed within 60 calendar days
 After 60 calendar days, all areas of operation must be tested
B. 2 Calendar Month Time Limit
i. FAR 61.39(f) – If all increments of a practical test are not completed on the same date, all remaining
increments must be completed within 2 calendar months
a. Increment may be because the test was discontinued for reasons stated in 61.43(e), or because it was
planned to be conducted in increments
b. FAR 61.43(g): After 2 calendar months, the entire test must be accomplished
ii. Separate time limit from the 60 calendar-day limit
7. Flight Review Endorsements
A. After a satisfactory completion of a flight review, the instructor must endorse the pilot’s logbook
i. AC 61-65 A.65: Completion of a Flight Review: 61.56(a) & (c)
B. Instrument Proficiency Checks (IPC)
i. CFII is required to perform an IPC for instrument rated pilots
ii. AC 61-65 A.67: Completion of an Instrument Proficiency Check: 61.57(d)
C. No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on either flight review is necessary
i. But a logbook entry for the instruction given should be made
8. Flight Instructor Records (FAR 61.189)
A. Must maintain a record in a logbook or a separate document that contains the following:
i. Name of each person endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement
ii. Name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, with the kind of test, date, results
B. Must retain the records required for at least 3 years
9. Maintaining your CFI Certificate
A. Duration
i. FAR 61.19(d): A flight instructor certificate expires 24 calendar months from the month in which it was
issued, renewed, or reinstated, as appropriate (Except as specified in FAR 61.197(b))
ii. Although it expires, you never lose the certificate. It can be renewed (more below)

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B. Renewal (FAR 61.197)

i. If the certificate has not expired:
a. Pass a practical test for:
 One of the ratings listed on your flight instructor certificate
 An additional flight instructor rating
b. Submit a signed application with the FAA for one of the following requirements:
 Endorsed 5 or more students for a checkride in the past 24 calendar months with an 80% or better
pass rate on their first attempt
a Gold Seal Instructor Certificate (apply for renewal/gold seal together if desired)
1. Requires 10 or more checkride endorsements and an 80% or better first attempt pass rate in
the past 24 months
2. Additional options/information are in FAA Order 8900.1, Vol 5, Chap 2, Section 13
a. Section 13, Paragraph 5-571(E) shows requirements
 Served as a company check pilot or check airman, chief flight instructor, Part 121 or 135 instructor,
or in a position involving the regular eval of pilots in the past 24 calendar months
 Completion of an approved instructor refresher course in the past 3 calendar months
a AC 61-83: Flight Instructor Refresher Course
 Passed a military instructor pilot or pilot examiner proficiency check in an aircraft in the past 24
calendar months (considerably more detail to this - reference FAR 61.197(4))
c. WINGS Program
 Requires evaluating/endorsing at least 15 WINGS-accredited flight activities (min of 5 pilots)
 FAAST Team Notice – WINGS CFI Renewal Opportunity
 AC 61-91: WINGS – Pilot Proficiency Programs. See page 5, paragraph 6(e)
ii. Reinstatement of an expired certificate:
a. Submit a signed application with the FAA for one of the following requirements
 An instructor practical test for one of the ratings on the expired certificate per 61.183(h)
 A practical test for an additional flight instructor rating
 Passed a military instructor pilot or pilot examiner proficiency check
 Completed a military instructor pilot/pilot examiner training course and received an additional
rating appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is important to know the necessary endorsement and logbook requirements for many common situations. This way,
the instructor has an idea of what is necessary prior to sending a student to take a test.

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II.M. Night Operations

References: Airplane Flying Handbook , Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to night operations and will
understand the unique factors inherent to night flight.

Key Elements 1. Off Center Viewing

2. Instrument Indications
3. Maintain Orientation

Elements 1. Eyes at Night

2. Lighting
3. Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
4. Pilot & the Plane
5. Engine Start & Taxi
6. Takeoff & Climb
7. In-Flight Orientation
8. Traffic Patterns
9. Approach and Landing
10. Go Around
11. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student is comfortable their understanding of the factors involved in night operations and
Standards can confidently and safely pilot an aircraft at night.
 II.M. Night Operations

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
A lot of people prefer night flying to day flying. The air tends to be smoother, the radios tend to be quieter, there’s
less traffic, and it’s more relaxing.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Night operations are the factors dealing with the operation of the airplane at night.

Why
Night flying is very different from day flying - The eyes function differently at night, references available in the day are
no longer available at night, there are many illusions that can affect a pilot at night, and more. Flying at night presents
unique situations which, if ignored, can lead to dangerous situations.

How:
1. Eyes at Night

A. Rods and Cones

i. Light enters the eye through the cornea, travels through the lens, and falls on the retina
ii. The retina contains light sensitive cells that convert light into electrical impulses which are sent to the brain
a. There are two types of light-sensitive cells, Rods and Cones:
 Cones - Responsible for color, detail, and far away objects
a The cones are located in the center of the retina
 Rods – Function when something is seen in the peripherals and provide vision in dim light
a The rods are located in a ring around the cones (peripherals)
iii. The rods and cones are used differently depending on the ambient light conditions

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a. Types of vision: Photopic, Mesopic, Scotopic

b. Both the cones and rods are used for vision in the day
 But, without normal light, the process of night vision is placed almost entirely on the rods
iv. Rods, Cones, and Night Vision
a. Cones are located in the center of the retina (the layer upon which all images are focused)
 There is a small pit called the fovea where almost all the light sensing cells are cones
a This is the area where most looking occurs (your center of vision)
b. The Rods
 Make night vision possible
 During daylight, objects can be seen by looking directly
at them, using the fovea, but at night off center viewing
is more effective
1. The cones need light to function, without
sufficient light (at night, for example) the cones
are effectively a blind spot
 Rods are concentrated around the cones and are used
to see in dim light
a Since cones are only useful with sufficient light and
the rods lie outside the fovea (outside the center of
vision), off-center viewing is used for night flight
b When attempting to find traffic do not stare
directly at it, look slightly off to the left or right to
allow the rods to see the aircraft
 The problem with rods is that a large amount of light
overwhelms them and they take a long time to reset
and adapt to the dark again (Ex: stepping out of a dark
movie theatre into the daylight)
a The rods can take approximately 30 minutes to
fully adapt to the dark
1. Once fully adapted, the Rods are about 10,000x
more sensitive to light
b After the rods have adapted to the dark, the
process is reversed when exposed to light
1. Eyes adjust to the light in a matter of seconds
2. If a dark room is reentered, the 30-min process to adapt is started again
a. Important to avoid bright lights before and during a flight
b. Why red flashlights are recommended in flight, they do not disrupt dark adaptation
c. Summary: Night vision is based on the rods and off-center viewing is necessary
C. RM: Collision Avoidance
i. Staring directly at an object at night could result in not seeing the object at all since the cones in the center
of your vision are considerably less effective without sufficient light

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ii. It is important to avoid bright lights before and during a flight to maintain adequate night vision
D. Cockpit Lighting
i. Should be at a minimum to allow reading instruments/switches without hindering outside vision
2. Lighting
A. Taxiway Lighting
i. Taxiway Edge Lights: Steady blue lights outlining the edges of taxiways
ii. Taxiway Centerline lights: Steady green lights installed along the centerline of the taxiway
iii. Clearance Bar Lights: Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights
a. Installed at holding positions on taxiways to increase visibility of the holding position
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
b. Installed at taxiway/runway intersections
c. Enhance conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights across the entire taxiway at the runway
holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
b. A controlled stop bar operates in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
B. Runway Lighting
i. Runway Edge Lights: White lights except on instrument runways they’re yellow for the last 2,000’ or half of
the runway, whichever is less
a. Lights marking the end of the runway emit red toward the runway (takeoff) and green outward (landing)
b. Classified based on brightness: High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium (MIRL), and Low (LIRL)
ii. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS): If installed, white in-pavement lights every 50’ until the last
3,000’ of the runway at which point they alternate red and white for 2,000’ and are red for the last 1,000’
iii. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL): If installed, two rows of light bars set symmetrically about the centerline
a. Steady burning white lights starting 100’ beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000’ beyond the
threshold or the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
iv. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights: Alternate green & yellow lights from the runway centerline to one light
position beyond the holding position or ILS critical area holding position
v. Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights: Same as lead-off lights but leading onto the runway
vi. Land and Hold Short Lights: Row of pulsing white lights across the runway at the hold short point
a. Off when LAHSO is not in effect
C. Obstruction Lighting
i. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights: Flashing red beacons and steady-burning red lights
ii. Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Lights: Flashing white obstruction lights
a. Not normally installed on structures less than 200’ AGL
iii. High Intensity White Obstruction Lights: Flashing white lights
iv. Dual Lighting: Combination of flashing red beacons and steady burning red lights
v. Catenary Lighting: Light markers for high voltage transmission line catenary wires
vi. High intensity flashing white lights are being used to identify some supporting structures of overhead
transmission lines located across rivers, chasms, gorges, etc. as well as tall structures (chimneys, towers)
a. Beamed toward the companion structure and identify the area of the wire span
3. RM: Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
A. In addition to night vision limitations, night vision illusions can cause confusion
B. Combatting Disorientation / Illusions

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i. Verify Attitude by Reference to Instruments

a. Best way to cope with disorientation &
illusions
ii. Use vertical guidance as much as possible
a. If making an approach and an ILS or VASI
is available, use it
iii. Visual references are limited – incorporate
the instruments in your scan more often
than normal
iv. If at any time the pilot is unsure of their position, a go around should be executed
C. Autokinesis
i. Caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for over a few seconds
ii. The light appears to move on its own
iii. Prevent this by focusing the eyes on objects at varying distances and avoid fixating
a. Keep the eyes moving and offset/use peripherals
D. Reversible Perspective Illusion
i. At night, an aircraft may appear to be moving away when it is, in fact, approaching
ii. Often occurs when flying parallel to another’s course
iii. Observe the aircraft lights and their position on the horizon
a. If the light intensity increases, the aircraft is approaching
b. If they dim, it is moving away
E. Size-Distance Illusion
i. When viewing a source of light that is getting brighter or dimmer, pilots may instead interpret it as
approaching or retreating
F. Flicker Vertigo
i. A light flickering between 4 and 20 cycles per second can produce unpleasant, dangerous reactions
a. Examples: nausea, vomiting, and vertigo. Convulsions/unconsciousness are possible but rare
ii. Proper scanning techniques at night can prevent pilots from flicker vertigo
G. Featureless Terrain
i. An absence of ground features can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is
ii. This results in a tendency to fly a lower-than-normal approach
a. Elements that can cause visual obscurity can do the same (rain, haze, dark runway environment)
H. Ground Lighting
i. Regularly spaced lights along a road/highway/etc. can appear to be runway lights
ii. Lights on moving trains have been mistaken for runway/approach lights
iii. Bright runway or approach lights can create the illusion the airplane is closer to the runway
iv. Mitigate this as much as possible by maintaining situational awareness
a. Know what to expect to see (type of airport/runway lighting), where you expect to see it and know
where you are (use navaids, GPS, landmarks, etc.)
I. False Horizon
i. Caused when the natural horizon is obscured/not readily apparent
a. Generated by confusing bright stars and city lights
J. Disregard false sensations and trust the instruments
4. Pilot & the Plane
A. Night Currency (FAR 61.57(b))
i. 3 takeoffs/landings (full stop) in the last 90 days to act as PIC from 1 hour after sunset-1 hour before sunrise
ii. RM: Current doesn’t imply proficient
a. Proficient and safe is based on pilot ability, experience, and training

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b. Ensure proficiency in addition to currency

B. Equipment
i. Red and/or white light Flashlight
a. White light is used to preflight the aircraft
b. Red light is used when performing cockpit operations as it will not impair night vision
 Be cautious, when using a red light on an aeronautical chart, the red colors will wash out
ii. Aeronautical Charts
a. If the intended course of flight is near the edge of a chart, the adjacent chart should be available
 City lights can be seen at far distances and confusion can result without the necessary charts
b. Colors at night
 Course lines should be drawn in black to be more distinguishable
 Using a red/green flashlight will wash out the red/green on the map
iii. Regardless of equipment, organization eases the burden on the pilot
C. Preflight Inspection (FAR 91.205)
i. RM: Required equipment for VFR flight at night
a. TOMATO FFLAMES (day VFR) and FLAPS (additional night VFR requirements)
 Fuses (if applicable)
 Landing Light
 Anti-Collision Lights
 Position Lights
 Source of Power
b. Instrument required equipment doesn’t hurt (safer is smarter)
ii. Walk Around
a. The preflight inspection is still necessary
b. White light flashlight is good for the inspection (red light inside the cockpit)
c. Check all aircraft lights
d. Check the ramp for obstructions
5. Engine Start & Taxi
A. Engine Start
i. Take extra precaution to be sure the propeller area is clear
a. Turn on position and anti-collision lights prior to start
b. Announce “Clear Prop”
ii. To avoid battery drain, leave all unnecessary electrical equipment off until after engine start
B. Taxiing
i. Before Taxi
a. Take care of all heads down activities while parked with the brake set
 Verify GPS operation and database currency - Load all necessary waypoints
 Setup navaids and frequencies as required
ii. Taxiing
a. Turn on the taxi and/or landing light
 Continuous use of the landing light at low power settings may put a drain on the electrical system
 Overheating of the landing light is also possible because of inadequate airflow to keep it cool
 When using any lights (especially strobes), consideration should be given to not blinding other pilots
b. Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas (collision hazards)
 Use a speed that allows you to stop if something were to suddenly appear in front of the aircraft
c. Look closely for taxiway markings (especially hold short lines)
 Some airports have lights in the ground along with hold short lines, some don’t

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 Use lights/lighted signs along taxiway edges to maintain position

d. Perform an instrument check to ensure proper operation prior to takeoff
e. Crossing a Runway: Turn on all lights
iii. RM: Orientation & Situational Awareness
a. Airport diagram (always have one out)
b. Understand the taxiway markings, lights, and signs
 The airport can look very different at night
 Even when familiar, airport lighting/layouts can be disorienting (especially large airports)
c. Taxi slowly to allow time to maintain situational awareness
 Always be aware of where you are and where you’re going
d. If there is a loss of situational awareness, conflicting information or doubt, stop and ask for clarification
 A wrong turn or wrong-surface takeoff can have catastrophic results
e. RM: Be very cautious to avoid an incursion
 See II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance
C. Run-up
i. The before takeoff run-up should be performed with the checklist as usual
ii. Forward movement of the airplane may not be easy to detect at night
a. Hold/lock the brakes and be alert that the airplane could creep forward without being noticed
iii. Be extra cautious
6. Takeoff & Climb
A. General
i. Night flying demands more attention than day flying
ii. The most noticeable difference is the limited availability of outside visual references. Therefore, flight
instruments should be used to a greater degree at night than in the day
iii. Dim the cockpit lighting so the instruments are readable, without hindering night vision
B. Clear the runway and final approach area for traffic
i. Uncontrolled airport
a. Radios are not required, just because you don’t hear anyone doesn’t mean they aren’t there
C. Entering the runway
i. Turn on all lights, except the landing light
ii. Recommended to align 3’ off the centerline to prevent blending in with the runway lights
iii. Check to ensure the magnetic compass and heading indicator match the runway intended
a. Always check you’re on the proper runway
b. Accidents have occurred due to crews lining up on the wrong runway at night
D. After receiving takeoff clearance or starting the roll at an uncontrolled field
i. Turn on the landing light
ii. Night takeoff procedures are the same as day takeoffs, except many runway visual cues are not available
a. As airspeed reaches normal lift-off speed, establish a normal climb with outside and inside references
b. Check the flight instruments frequently during takeoff
E. Climb
i. After becoming airborne, the darkness makes it difficult to note if the airplane is climbing or descending
ii. To ensure a climb, check the airspeed indicator, VSI, and altimeter
iii. Necessary pitch / bank adjustments should be made by referencing the attitude / heading indicators
a. Turns should not be made until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude
7. In-Flight Orientation
A. Clouds/Restricted Visibility
i. It is difficult to see clouds at night – be cautious to avoid flying into MVFR/IFR weather conditions
a. 1st indication - Gradual disappearance of ground/ground lights

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b. Ground fog can be indicated by glowing or a halo around the ground lights
c. Remember, if a pilot must descend through clouds, haze, etc. the horizontal visibility is considerably less
than when looking down through clouds, haze from above
ii. Be conservative, don’t expect to pop out the other side, take action to avoid flying into the clouds
B. Crossing Large Bodies of Water
i. Very easy to become disoriented
a. Little to no horizon (black water blends with the black sky)
b. Stars, lights (from boats, buoys, land, etc.) can blend together to produce false horizons and confusion
 Stars can reflect off the surface of the water creating even more confusion
ii. The pilot must rely more heavily on the instruments
iii. Can be potentially hazardous
a. In the event of an engine failure, the pilot may not have any option other than ditching
C. Ground Based Lighting
i. Lighted runways, buildings, etc. may cause illusions when seen from different altitudes
a. At 2,000’, a group of lights may be seen individually
b. At 8,000’, the same group could appear as a solid mass
D. RM: Nav Lights (Collision Hazards)
i. Red on Left Wing, Green on Right Wing, White on the Tail
a. Used to orient another aircraft’s direction relative to yours
E. Navigating at Night
i. Although numerous day references are unavailable, numerous night
references can be used instead
a. Anything with bright or a lot of lights - City light patterns, highways,
airport beacons, etc.
ii. NAVAIDS/GPS should also be used whenever possible
8. Traffic Patterns
A. Identify runway/airport lights as soon as possible
i. It may be difficult to find the airport or runways (especially if they’re buried within a city)
a. Fly towards the beacon until you identify runway lights
 White and Green: Lighted civilian land airport
 White and Green (two quick white flashes, then green): Lighted military airport
 White and Yellow: Lighted water airport
 Green, Yellow, and White: Lighted heliport
 Red flashing beacons indicate obstructions or areas considered hazardous
b. Compare the runway lights with heading indicator to ensure you are in the right place
c. If possible, tune the localizer for course guidance to the runway and/or use the OBS function of a GPS to
view an extended runway centerline
d. Use any additional means available to help orient yourself and maintain situational awareness
ii. Pilot Controlled Lighting
a. Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the aircraft’s microphone
 Often at airports without specified lighting hours, with no tower/FSS, or if the airport is closed
b. All lighting systems which are radio controlled at an airport operate on the same frequency
 Frequency is in Chart Supplement and the standard instrument approach procedures publications
c. The CTAF is used to activate the lights at most airports (illuminate for 15 minutes)
d. 3-step, 2-step, or 1-step brightness operation
 3-step: 7 clicks for bright, 5 for medium, 3 for low
e. Techniques

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 7 clicks to start, and then dim if required

 Due to close proximity of airports, you may have to be close to the airport to activate the lights
a Even if the lights are on, key the mike when overflying/close to landing to ensure 15 mins
B. Distance may be deceptive at night due to limited light conditions
i. A lack of references on the ground and the inability to compare their location and size causes this
ii. Altitude and airspeed are also difficult to estimate
iii. More trust must be put on the instruments (particularly the altimeter and airspeed indicator)
C. RM: Ensure appropriate lights are on for collision avoidance
i. Be attentive to the radios for other aircraft and their location/intentions
D. Fly a normal traffic pattern
i. Know the location of the runway/threshold lights at all times
ii. When entering, allow for plenty of time to complete the before landing checklist
a. Execute the approach in the same manner as during the day
9. Approach and Landing
A. A stabilized approach should be made in the same manner as during the day
B. Use flight instruments more often (especially altimeter/airspeed indicator)
i. Distance, height, etc. may be deceptive
ii. Maintain specified airspeeds on each leg and watch the VSI to keep the approach under control
iii. A low, shallow approach is definitely not appropriate during a night landing
C. Final Approach
i. If there are no centerline lights, align the airplane between the edge lights
a. Note and correct any wind drift
ii. Apply power and pitch corrections to maintain a stabilized approach
a. Use any visual aids to assist in maintaining a proper glideslope (vasi, papi, etc.)
b. Tune the glideslope if available for additional guidance
D. Roundout/Touchdown
i. A smooth, controlled roundout and touchdown should be made in the same manner as in the day
a. Judgment of height, speed, and sink rate may be impaired due to lack of visual references
 There is often a tendency to round out too high
ii. A good rule is to start the roundout when the landing lights reflect on the tire marks on the runway
a. In the case you have no landing light/can’t see tire marks, start the roundout when the runway lights at
the far end appear to be rising higher than the nose of the airplane
10. Go Around
A. A prompt decision is even more necessary at night due to the restricted visibility
i. Be prepared in case the maneuver is necessary
B. Fly a normal go around with a greater emphasis on the instrument crosscheck if outside references are lacking
11. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Weather Considerations
i. Narrow Temperature/Dewpoint Spread
a. Indicates the possibility of fog
b. More difficult to see at night - Can unexpectedly fly into fog as well as cloud cover
 Indications: Strobe flash reflecting in the fog/clouds
ii. Wind direction and Speed
a. The wind’s effect on the airplane cannot be as easily detected at night as during the day
B. Night Emergencies
i. General
a. As with any emergency, the pilot should not panic, maintain control of the airplane and attempt to fix
the problem/proceed with any emergency procedures

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b. In the case of a night emergency, the pilot will have to expend more energy maintaining airplane control
 As the checklist is completed, crosscheck the outside visual references (if any), and the instruments
to ensure a safe flight attitude is maintained based on the situation at hand
ii. Electrical Failure
a. In the case of a suspected problem, follow the checklist in the POH
 Generally, reduce the electrical load as much as possible
b. If total failure is expected, land at the nearest airport immediately
 Transition to backup instruments if applicable
 Increase the scan as necessary
iii. Engine Failure
a. Don’t Panic - Establish a normal glide and turn toward an airport or suitable landing area
 Away from congested areas
 Consider an emergency landing area near public access (don’t land where no one can get to you)
b. Check to determine the cause and correct it immediately, if possible (Engine restart checklist)
c. If no restart – Maintain positive control of the airplane at all times!
 Maintain orientation with the wind – don’t land downwind unless there is no other choice
 Check the landing lights and use them on landing, if they work
d. Announce the emergency to ATC, UNICOM, and/or guard
 If already on a frequency, talk to them, don’t change unless instructed to
e. Before landing checklist
f. Touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed
g. After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate as quickly as possible
C. Situational Awareness & Task Prioritization
i. Situational Awareness
a. Plan ahead and have backups
 Taxi diagram
 Pilotage and dead reckoning backed up by VOR and/or GPS, alternate airport options
 Ask for help
ii. Task Prioritization
a. On the ground, clearing takes precedence – take care of all heads down activities while stopped
b. Airborne, divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
c. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
d. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
 Prioritize them based on importance and time available
 Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
e. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
 If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
 Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
 “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iii. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Night operations present unique situations to a pilot and require diligence to maintain orientation and safety. Night
flying is not inherently dangerous, but it can require more effort. Overall, though, it is very enjoyable.

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References: 14 CFR Part 91, AC 61-107, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), AIM, POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to high altitude operations and
be able to explain the necessary elements as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Regulations

2. Aviator’s Oxygen
3. Decompression and Hypoxia

Elements 1. The High-Altitude Flight Environment

2. Regulatory Requirements
3. Physiological Factors
4. Types of Oxygen Systems
5. Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen
6. Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands and can explain the elements involved with high altitude operations.
Standards
 II.N. Supplemental Oxygen

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
So, you want to fly really high? It’s not just that simple. A lot changes as the altitude increases.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The required equipment, how it functions, the unique hazards and regulations associated with flying at high altitudes.

Why
There are many advantages to flying at high altitudes (jet engines are more efficient, weather and turbulence can be
avoided, etc.). Many modern GA airplanes are being designed to operate in the high-altitude environment, therefore
it is important that pilots be familiar with at least the basic operating principles.

How:
1. The High-Altitude Flight Environment
A. FAR 61.31(g) considers all flight operations conducted above 25,000’ MSL to be high altitude, however many
effects of higher altitudes can be felt well below 25,000’
2. Regulatory Requirements (FAR 91.211)
A. No person may operate a civil aircraft of US registry at cabin pressure altitudes above:
i. 12,500’ MSL up to/including 14,000’ unless the required minimum flight crew is provided with and uses
supplemental oxygen for the part of the flight at those altitudes over 30 minutes
ii. 14,000’ unless the required min flight crew is provided with and uses supplemental oxygen during the entire
flight time at those altitudes
iii. 15,000’ unless each occupant of the aircraft is provided with supplemental oxygen
B. No person may operate a civil aircraft of US registry with a pressurized cabin at flight altitudes above:
i. FL 250 unless at least a 10-minute supply of supplemental oxygen, in addition to any oxygen required to
satisfy the paragraph above, is available for each occupant of the aircraft for use in the event that a descent
is necessitated by a loss of cabin pressure
ii. FL 350, unless one pilot at the controls of the airplane is wearing and using an oxygen mask that is secured
and sealed (and that either supplies oxygen at all times or automatically whenever the cabin pressure
exceeds 14,000’ MSL)
a. Exception: One pilot need not wear and use an oxygen mask while at or below FL 410 if there are two
pilots at the controls and each pilot has a quick donning type of oxygen mask that can be placed on the
face with one hand from the ready position within 5 seconds, supplying oxygen and properly secured
and sealed
b. Above FL 350: If for any reason at any time, one pilot leaves the controls the remaining pilot shall put on
and use an oxygen mask until the other pilot has returned
3. Physiological Hazards
A. The human body functions normally from sea level to 12,000’ MSL
i. Brain oxygen saturation is at a level for normal function (Optimal functioning is 96% saturation)
a. At 12,000’, oxygen saturation is approx. 87%, which gets close to a performance affecting level
b. Above 12,000’ oxygen saturation continues to decrease and affect performance

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B. Hypoxia (Reduced Oxygen, or not enough oxygen)

i. A state of oxygen deficiency in the blood, tissues, and cells sufficient to cause an impairment of functions
ii. The concern is getting enough oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to deprivation
a. Any reduction in mental function while flying can result in life-threatening errors
iii. Types
a. Hypoxic Hypoxia (Insufficient oxygen available to the lungs)
b. Hypemic Hypoxia (The blood cannot transport enough oxygen to the tissues/cells)
c. Stagnant Hypoxia (Oxygen rich blood isn’t moving to the tissues)
d. Histotoxic Hypoxia (“Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “Toxic” means poison)
iv. Symptoms
a. Cyanosis; Headache; Decreased reaction time/Impaired judgment; Euphoria; Visual Impairment;
Drowsiness/Lightheaded or dizzy sensation; Tingling in fingers or toes and Numbness
 Even with all of these symptoms, hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of security
v. Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness
a. Max time to make and carry out
rational, lifesaving decisions at a given 45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
altitude 40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
b. > 10,000’, symptoms increase in 35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
severity, and TUC rapidly decreases 30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
vi. Treatment 28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
a. Flying at lower altitudes (emergency 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
descent) and use supplemental oxygen 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
vii. For more details, see II.A.2. Hypoxia 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more
C. Vision Deteriorates with Altitude
i. Sharp, clear vision requires significant oxygen, especially at night
a. Unaided night vision depends on optimum function and sensitivity of the rods of the retina
 Lack of oxygen to the rods (hypoxia) significantly reduces their sensitivity
 Above 4,000’, without supplemental oxygen, night vision measurably declines
D. Hyperventilation
i. An increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exchanges gas in the lung beyond volumes necessary to
maintain normal levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide
a. Hyperventilation can occur as an early adaptive mechanism to hypoxia at altitude
b. Hyperventilation and hypoxia symptoms are very difficult to distinguish
ii. Treatment
a. Breathe supplemental oxygen and slow the breathing rate
b. Hypoxia and hyperventilation are treated the same
4. Types of Oxygen Systems
A. Continuous Flow
i. Most common in GA planes
ii. Usually for passengers and has a reservoir bag which collects oxygen from the system while exhaling
iii. Ambient air is added to the oxygen during inhalation after the reservoir oxygen supply is depleted
iv. Exhaled air is released into the cabin
B. Diluter Demand
i. Supply oxygen only when the user inhales through the mask
ii. Depending on the altitude, the regulator can provide 100% oxygen or mix the cabin air and oxygen
iii. The mask provides a tight seal and can be used safely up to 40,000’
C. Pressure Demand

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 II.N. Supplemental Oxygen

i. Similar to diluter demand, except that oxygen is supplied to the mask under pressure at cabin altitudes
above 34,000’
ii. Provide a positive pressure application of oxygen that allow the lungs to be pressurized with oxygen
iii. Safe at altitudes above 40,000’
iv. Some systems include the regulator on the mask to eliminate purging a long hose of air
5. Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen (Introduction to Aviation Physiology document)
A. Aviator’s oxygen must meet a minimum purity requirement, excluding moisture content, of 99.5% and may not
contain more than 0.005 mg of water vapor per liter
i. Different limits are established for oxygen from different sources in recognition of the different ways oxygen
is stored, dispensed, and used
ii. Recommended to use aviator’s breathing oxygen all times, medical/industrial oxygen may not be safe
6. RM: Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles
A. If the airplane does not have a fixed installation, portable oxygen equipment must be accessible in flight
B. Oxygen is usually stored in high pressure containers at 1,800 – 2,200 psi
i. When the ambient temperature surrounding the cylinder decreases, pressure within will decrease
a. This occurs because pressure varies directly with temperature if the volume of a gas remains constant
b. A drop in the indicated pressure may be due to the container being stored in an unheated area of the
aircraft, rather than depletion of the oxygen supply
ii. High pressure containers should be marked with the psi tolerance before filling to that pressure
a. The oxygen used should meet or exceed SAE AS8010, Aviation Breathing Oxygen Purity Standard
C. Be aware of the danger of fire when using oxygen
i. Materials that are nearly fire proof in ordinary air may be susceptible to combustion in oxygen
a. Oils and greases may catch fire if exposed to pure oxygen and cannot be used in oxygen systems
ii. Smoking during any kind of oxygen equipment use is prohibited
D. Before each flight, thoroughly inspect and test all oxygen equipment
i. Examine the equipment - available supply, operational check, and assure it is readily available
E. To assure safety, periodic inspections and servicing should be done

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The fundamental concept of cabin pressurization is that it is the compression of air in the airplane’s cabin to maintain a
cabin altitude lower than the actual flight altitude. If your airplane is equipped with a pressurization system, you must
know the normal and emergency operating procedures.

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II.O. Pressurization

References: 14 CFR Part 91, AC 61-107, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), AIM, POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to high altitude operations and
be able to explain the necessary elements as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Regulations

2. Aviator’s Oxygen
3. Decompression and Hypoxia

Elements 1. High-Altitude Flight Environment

2. Physiological Factors
3. Pressurization in Airplanes
4. Rapid Decompression

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands and can explain the elements involved with high altitude operations.
Standards
 II.O. Pressurization

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
So, you want to fly really high? It’s not just that simple. A lot changes as the altitude increases.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The required equipment, how it functions, the unique hazards and regulations associated with flying at high altitudes.

Why
There are many advantages to flying at high altitudes (jet engines are more efficient, weather and turbulence can be
avoided, etc.). Many modern GA airplanes are being designed to operate in the high altitude environment, therefore
it is important that pilots be familiar with at least the basic operating principles.

How:
1. High-Altitude Flight Environment
A. FAR 61.31(g) considers all flight operations conducted above 25,000’ MSL to be high altitude, however many
effects of higher altitudes can be felt well below 25,000’
2. Physiological Hazards
A. The human body functions normally from sea level to 12,000’ MSL
i. Brain oxygen saturation is at a level for normal function (Optimal functioning is 96% saturation)
a. At 12,000’, oxygen saturation is approx. 87%, which gets close to a performance affecting level
b. Above 12,000’ oxygen saturation continues to decrease and affect performance
B. Hypoxia (Reduced Oxygen, or not enough oxygen)
i. A state of oxygen deficiency in the blood, tissues, and cells sufficient to cause impairment of body functions
ii. The concern is getting enough oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to deprivation
a. Any reduction in mental function while flying can result in life-threatening errors
iii. Types
a. Hypoxic Hypoxia (Insufficient oxygen available to the lungs)
b. Hypemic Hypoxia (The blood cannot transport enough oxygen to the tissues/cells)
c. Stagnant Hypoxia (Oxygen rich blood isn’t moving to the tissues)
d. Histotoxic Hypoxia (“Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “Toxic” means poison)
iv. Symptoms of Hypoxia
a. Cyanosis; Headache; Decreased
Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness
reaction time/Impaired judgment;
Euphoria; Visual Impairment; 45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
Drowsiness, lightheaded or dizzy 40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
sensation; Tingling in fingers or toes, 35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
Numbness 30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
 Even with all of these symptoms, 28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
false sense of security 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
v. Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more

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 II.O. Pressurization

a. Max time to make and carry out rational, lifesaving decisions at a given altitude
b. > 10,000’, symptoms increase in severity, and TUC rapidly decreases
vi. Treatment
a. Flying at lower altitudes (emergency descent) and use supplemental oxygen
vii. For more details, see II.A.2. Hypoxia
C. Vision Deteriorate with Altitude
i. Sharp, clear vision requires significant oxygen, especially at night
a. Unaided night vision depends on optimum function and sensitivity of the rods of the retina
 Lack of oxygen to the rods (hypoxia) significantly reduces their sensitivity
 Above 4,000’, without supplemental oxygen, night vision measurably declines
D. Hyperventilation
i. An increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exchanges gas in the lung beyond volumes necessary to
maintain normal levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide
a. Hyperventilation can occur as an early adaptive mechanism to hypoxia at altitude
b. Hyperventilation and hypoxia symptoms are very difficult to distinguish
ii. Treatment
a. Breathe supplemental oxygen and slow the breathing rate
b. Hypoxia and hyperventilation are treated the same
E. Trapped Gas
i. Gases expand with any decrease in pressure – if you reduce the pressure, as you ascend to altitude, gases
increase in volume, and then decrease in volume during descent
ii. The body has several cavities that contain varying amounts of gas
a. Most cavities can allow the gas to escape, but if the gas gets trapped it can result in pain
b. Problem areas include: middle ear, sinuses, teeth, and GI tract
F. Nitrogen Absorption (Decompression Sickness - DCS)
i. One of the more dangerous problems
a. At sea level, the nitrogen inside the body and outside the body is in equilibrium
b. When atmospheric pressure is reduced, the equilibrium is upset and nitrogen leaves the body
c. If the nitrogen leaves too quickly, bubbles may form causing a variety of symptoms
ii. Evolving and expanding gases in the body are known as decompression sickness. There are 2 groups:
a. Trapped Gas: expanding or contracting gas in certain body cavities during altitude changes can result in
abdominal pain, toothache, or pain in ears and sinuses if unable to equalize pressure changes
b. Evolved Gas: When the pressure on the body drops sufficiently, nitrogen comes out of solution and
forms bubbles which can have adverse effects on some body tissues
iii. Scuba diving and Nitrogen
a. Scuba diving results in a significant increase in the amount of nitrogen dissolved in the body
 The deeper the dive, the greater the nitrogen
b. After diving, if not enough time is allowed to eliminate excess nitrogen, DCS can occur as low as 5,000’
 In normal conditions, most cases of DCS occur at altitudes of 25,000’ or higher
3. Pressurization in Airplanes
A. Cabin pressurization is the compression of air to maintain a cabin altitude lower than the flight altitude
i. This removes the need for full-time use of supplemental oxygen
ii. A cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000’ is maintained and prevents rapid changes of cabin altitude
that may be uncomfortable or cause injury to passengers/crew (prevents against hypoxia)
iii. Differential Pressure – the difference in pressure between the pressure acting on one side of a wall and the
pressure acting on the other side of the wall (the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric
pressure)
a. The degree of pressurization is limited by several design factors

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 II.O. Pressurization

b. Each fuselage is designed and rated to withstand a maximum differential pressure

B. How it Works
i. The cabin, flight and baggage compartments are incorporated into a sealed unit capable of containing air
under a higher pressure than the outside atmospheric pressure
ii. Air is brought into the fuselage
a. Turbine powered aircraft – bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the cabin
b. Piston-powered airplanes often use air supplied from each
engine turbocharger
c. Air is compressed, conditioned & sent to the fuselage
iii. Air is released from the fuselage through an outflow valve
a. By regulating the air exiting the airplane, the outflow valve
can maintain a constant pressure and allow for a constant
inflow of air to the pressurized area
iv. The cabin pressure control system is what provides pressure
regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and the means for
selecting the desired cabin altitude
a. A cabin pressure regulator, an outflow valve, and a safety
valve are used to accomplish these functions
 Cabin Pressure Regulator – controls cabin pressure
a Typically, a cabin pressure altitude of 8,000’ is
maintained at the maximum cruising altitude
1. Lower altitudes maintain lower cabin pressures
b Reaching the maximum differential pressure, any
further increase in altitude results in a
corresponding increase in cabin altitude
 The flow of compressed air is regulated by an outflow
valve which keeps pressure at the desired setting by
releasing excess pressure into the atmosphere
a The valve will open and close to maintain the desired pressurization
 The Safety Valve is a combination of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
a Pressure Relief prevents the cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined differential
pressure by allowing pressure to be released into the atmosphere if necessary
b Vacuum Relief prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by allowing external
air to enter when ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure
c The Dump Valve dumps cabin air to the atmosphere (switch in the cockpit)
1. This equalizes the cabin pressure to the outside air pressure
v. Instruments
a. Cabin differential pressure gauge indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure
b. Cabin Altimeter shows the altitude inside the airplane
 Differential pressure gauge and cabin altimeter can be combined into one instrument
c. Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent
 This shows how quickly the cabin altitude is changing during a climb or descent
vi. Malfunction
a. Reference the POH checklist
b. Be prepared for reduced pressurization or decompression
 Potential for supplemental oxygen and/or emergency descent

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 II.O. Pressurization

4. Rapid Decompression
A. Decompression is the inability of the pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure differential
i. This can be caused by a malfunction in the pressurization system or structural damage to the plane
a. If the turbo charger fails, not only will the airplane descend, but pressurization will be lost
B. Two categories of decompression
i. Explosive Decompression: A change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress (
a. < 0.5 seconds. Possibly leading to lung damage
ii. Rapid Decompression: A change in cabin pressure where the lungs can decompress faster than the cabin
a. No likelihood of lung damage
C. Indications of a Rapid or Explosive Decompression
i. During explosive decompression, there may be noise and one may feel dazed for a second
ii. During most decompressions, the cabin will fill with fog, dust, flying debris
a. Fog is the result of the rapid change in temperature and change of relative humidity
iii. Air will rush from the mouth and nose due to the escape of air from the lungs
a. Normally, the ears clear automatically
D. Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
i. Rapid decompression reduces TUC because oxygen is exhaled rapidly, reducing pressure on the body
ii. This decreases partial pressure of oxygen in the blood and reduces TUC by 1/3 to ¼ its normal time
a. Oxygen mask should be worn at very high altitudes (35,000’ or higher)
 Recommended to select 100% oxygen
E. Primary Danger of Decompression is Hypoxia
i. Quick, proper utilization of oxygen equipment is necessary to avoid unconsciousness
ii. Another potential danger is decompression sickness, as discussed above
F. Supplemental oxygen and a rapid descent from altitude is necessary to minimize the problems associated with
decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The fundamental concept of cabin pressurization is that it is the compression of air in the airplane’s cabin to maintain a
cabin altitude lower than the actual flight altitude. If your airplane is equipped with a pressurization system, you must
know the normal and emergency operating procedures.

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III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Pilot Qualifications

References: 14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to certificates and documents.
Knowledge will be gained regarding the necessary requirements for each license, medical
certificate, and recent flight experience.

Elements 1. Medical Certificates & Basic Med

2. Certification & Training Requirements
3. Logbook Entries & Records
4. Privileges and Limitations
5. Pilot Currency
6. Required Documents

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student knows what to expect with each license issued and understands the requirements
Standards in logging time as well as obtaining a medical.
 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding what is required with each certificate and document that a pilot may obtain is essential to obtaining
that certificate.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Certificates and Documents cover the knowledge necessary to obtain and maintain the recreational, private, and
commercial license. This also covers medical certificates and required logbook entries.

Why
Each certificate and medical has different rules. The pilot should know what is required to obtain and maintain the
desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with each certificate. It is also necessary to
know how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.

How:
1. Medical Certificates (FAR 61.23) & Basic Med
A. Medical Certificates
i. What is it?
a. Routine medical exam from an FAA authorized Aviation Medical Examiner (AME)
b. 3 different classes depending on what you intend to fly – 1st, 2nd, 3rd class
 Exam requirements increase with increased responsibilities
ii. Who Needs it? (More details / requirements in FAR 61.23)
a. A First-Class Medical Certificate is required when:
 Exercising the PIC privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate
 Exercising the SIC privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate that requires 3 or more pilots, or
when serving as a required flight crewmember under Part 121 and 60 years old or older
b. A Second-Class Medical Certificate is required when exercising:
 Second-in-command privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate under Part 121
 Privileges of a commercial pilot certificate
c. A Third-Class Medical Certificate is required when:
 Exercising the privileges of a Private, Recreational, or Student pilot certificate
 Exercising the privileges of CFI certificate as PIC or required crewmember
 Taking a practical test for recreational, private, commercial, ATP, CFI certificates
 When performing the duties as an Examiner in an aircraft when administering a practical test or
proficiency check
d. A medical is not required when:
 Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate if the person is not acting as PIC or serving as
a required flight crewmember
 Exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate
 When a military pilot of the US Armed Forces can show evidence of an up-to-date medical
examination authorizing pilot flight status issued by the US Armed Forces and

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 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

a The flight does not require higher than a 3rd class medical certificate
b The flight conducted is a domestic flight within US airspace
iii. Class and Duration (FAR 61.23(d))
a. First Class
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 1st class activities
b 12th month for 2nd class activities
c 60th month for 3rd class activities (under 40 years old)
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 6th month for 1st class activities
b 12th month for 2nd class activities
c 24th month for 3rd class activities (over 40 years old)
b. Second Class
 When exercising the privileges of Commercial certificate
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 2nd class activities
b 60th month for 3rd class activities
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 2nd class activities
b 24th month for 3rd class activities
c. Third Class
 When exercising the privileges of a CFI, Private, Recreational, Student certificate, etc.
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 60th month
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 24th month
iv. How to find an AME
a. FAA Directory of AMEs can be found at:
 FSDOs, FSSs, FAA Offices
a Online: FAA.gov Find an AME
v. Once you have a medical, how is it regulated?
a. FAR 61.53 (Prohibition on operations during medical deficiency) prohibits flying if you:
 Know of any medical condition that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
 Are taking medication/receiving treatment that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
b. Once a medical is obtained, it is self-regulating
 Can you fly with an injury, possible sickness?
a It’s the pilot’s judgment (be safe, and conservative)
vi. Medical Certificate with a Possible Medical Deficiency
a. Even with a medical deficiency, a medical certificate may be able to be issued
 Students with physical limitations may be issued a “student privileges only” certificate
a Special equipment may need to be installed in the airplane
b Some disabilities require limitations on the certificate
 When all the knowledge, experience, and proficiency requirements have been met, and the student
can demonstrate the ability to operate with the normal level of safety, a “statement of
demonstrated ability” (SODA) will be issued
a Remains valid as long as the impairment doesn’t worsen
 Obtain assistance from the local FSDO as well as an AME

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 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

b. The FAA specifies 15 medical conditions that are disqualifying (listed here)
 If ever diagnosed with one of these conditions, the only way to receive a medical certificate is
through a Special Issuance Authorization (FAR 67.401)
c. With few exceptions, all disqualifying medical conditions may be considered for special issuance
 Chances are good if you can present satisfactory documentation that the condition is stable
B. BasicMed & Using a Driver’s License – FAR 61.23(c)
i. Overview
a. A way to operate without an FAA medical certificate
b. A pilot is required to complete a medical education course, undergo a medical examination every four
years, and comply with aircraft and operating restrictions
c. FAA BasicMed Info; FAA BasicMed FAQ
ii. Applicable when:
a. Exercising the privileges of a student, recreational or private pilot certificate if the flight is conducted
under FAR 61.113(i)
b. Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate and acting as PIC or a required crewmember if
the flight is conducted under FAR 61.113(i)
iii. A person using their driver’s license must:
a. Comply with all medical requirements associated with the license
b. Have held a medical certificate after July 14, 2006
c. Have completed the medical education course in the last 24 months
d. Have received a medical exam in the past 48 months using the directed exam checklist
e. Have not had the most recently held medical certificate revoked, suspended, or withdrawn
f. Be under the care of a physician if diagnosed with a condition that may affect flight abilities
iv. FAR 61.113(i) requires:
a. Aircraft: Authorized for no more than 6 occupants, Max takeoff weight of 6,000 lbs.
b. Flight: In the US, not more than 18,000’ and 250 knots, not for compensation/hire
c. Pilot: Has medical exam checklist and certificate of course completion in logbook
2. Certification & Training Requirements
A. Recreational Certificate (FAR 61.99)
i. Must receive and log at least 30 hours of flight time that includes at least:
a. 15 hours from an authorized instructor in the areas listed in FAR 61.98 that consists of at least:
 2 hours of training enroute to an airport more than 25 nm from the airport where the applicant
normally trains and includes at least 3 takeoffs and landings at the destination
 3 hours of flight training for the rating sought in preparation of the practical test (within the
preceding 2 calendar months of the test)
 3 hours of solo flying
B. Student Pilot Certificate
i. As of April 2016, the medical certificate is no longer used as the student pilot certificate
ii. Eligibility - FAR 61.83
a. At least 16 years old
iii. Application - FAR 61.85
a. Submit an application to a Flight Standards District Office, a designated pilot examiner, an airman
certification representative associated with a pilot school, a flight instructor, or other person authorized
by the Administrator
b. The FAA estimates it will take approx. 3 weeks to approve and return the new plastic student pilot
certificates to applicants by mail
iv. Here’s more info than you’ll ever need: Student Pilot Application Requirements
C. Private Certificate (FAR 61.109)

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 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

i. For an airplane single engine rating

a. Must log at least 40 hours of flight time
 At least 20 of which must be flight instruction from an authorized instructor
 At least 10 hours must be solo flight including:
a 5 hours of solo cross-country time
b One solo cross-country flight of at least 150 nm total distance with full stop landings at a
minimum of 3 points and one segment of the flight consisting of a straight-line distance of at
least 50 nm between the T/O and LDG locations
c 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower
b. The training must include at least:
 3 hours cross-country flight training in a single engine plane
 3 hours of night flight training which includes:
a Once cross-country flight over 100 nm total distance
b 10 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport
 3 hours of flight training on the control/maneuvering solely by reference to instruments
 3 hours of flight training in prep for the practical test (within the preceding 2 calendar months from
the month of the test)
ii. For an airplane multiengine rating the same requirements apply but in a multiengine airplane
a. Except, the 10 hours of solo time must be in an airplane (does not have to be multiengine)
D. Commercial Certificate (FAR 61.129)
i. Recent Changes
a. Effective April 24, 2018, the FAA issued FAA Notice 8900.463 and made a change to the Commercial
Pilot-Airplane ACS to reflect that the practical test for a single-engine rating no longer requires the
applicant to supply a complex airplane.
 The FAA has determined that any airplane may be used to accomplish the tasks prescribed in the
initial commercial pilot with an airplane single-engine rating practical test, provided that airplane is
capable of accomplishing all areas of operation required for the practical test and is the appropriate
category and class for the rating sought. Therefore, the airplane used for the practical test must still
meet the requirements specified in FAR 61.45.
 There is no change to the complex airplane training and endorsement requirements of FAR 61.31(e)
or to the commercial pilot aeronautical experience requirements of FAR 61.129(a)(3)(ii) or Part 141
appendix D
b. Effective August 27, 2018, the FAA has approved the use of Technically Advanced Aircraft (TAA) to
satisfy the 10 hours of training required for the Commercial Airplane, Single Engine Rating in FAR 61.129
ii. For an airplane single engine rating
a. Must log at least 250 hours of flight time as a pilot that consists of at least:
 100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in airplanes
 100 hours of PIC flight time, which includes at least:
a 50 hours in airplanes; and
b 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes
 20 hours of training in the areas of operation (61.127(b)(1)) that includes at least:
a 10 hours of instrument training; at least 5 hours must be in a single engine airplane
b 10 hours of training in a complex aircraft, a turbine powered aircraft, or a technically advanced
aircraft (TAA) that meets the requirements in FAR 61.129(j), or any combination of these
aircraft.
1. The TAA must be equipped with an electronically advanced avionics system that includes
the following:

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 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

a. An electronic PFD that includes, at a minimum, an airspeed indicator, turn coordinator,

attitude indicator, heading indicator, altimeter,
b. An electronic MFD that includes, at a minimum, a moving map using GPS navigation
with the aircraft position displayed
c. A two-axis autopilot integrated with the navigation and heading guidance system
d. The display elements of the PFD and MFD must be continuously visible
c One 2-hour cross-country flight in a single engine airplane in day VFR conditions
1. The total straight-line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original point of
departure
d One 2-hour cross-country flight in a single engine airplane in night VFR conditions
1. The total straight-line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original point of
departure
e 3 hours in a single engine airplane with an instructor in preparation for the practical test within
the preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test
 10 hours of solo flight time (or flight time performing the duties of PIC) in a single engine airplane on
the areas of operation in FAR 61.127(b)(1) which includes at least:
a One cross-country flight not less than 300 nm total distance with landings at a minimum of 3
points, one of which is a straight-line distance of at least 250 nm from the original departure
point
b 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings at an airport with an operating
control tower
iii. For an airplane multiengine rating (differences to the single engine rating are shown in red)
 100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in airplanes
 100 hours of PIC flight time, which includes at least:
a 50 hours in airplanes; and
b 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes
 20 hours of training in the areas of operation (61.127(b)(1)) that includes at least:
a 10 hours of instrument training; at least 5 hours must be in a multiengine airplane
b 10 hours of training in a multi-engine complex or turbine powered airplane
c One 2-hour cross-country flight in a multiengine airplane in daytime conditions
1. The total straight-line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original departure point
d One 2-hour cross-country flight in a multiengine airplane in nighttime conditions
1. The total straight-line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original departure point
e 3 hours in a multiengine airplane with an instructor in preparation for the practical test within
the preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test
 10 hours of solo flight time (or flight time performing the duties of PIC) in a multiengine airplane on
the areas of operation in FAR 61.127(b)(2) which includes at least:
a One cross-country flight not less than 300 nm total distance with landings at a minimum of 3
points, one of which is a straight-line distance of at least 250 nm from the original departure
point
b 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings at an airport with an operating
control tower
3. Logbook Entries & Records
A. Required Logbook Entries (FAR 61.51 & 61.189)
i. 61.189: A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person they have given flight or ground training
ii. 61.51: Must document and record training and aeronautical experience used to meet the requirements for a
certificate, rating, or review
iii. In the logbook, you must enter:

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 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

a. General,
 Date, Total flight/lesson time; location of departure/arrival (for a simulator, the location where the
lesson occurred); type and identification of aircraft, simulator, or training device; and the name of
the safety pilot (if necessary)
b. Type of pilot experience or training
 Solo, PIC, SIC, Flight and ground training received, training in a simulator or flight training device
c. Conditions of Flight
 Day/Night, Actual Instrument, Simulated Instrument in flight or a simulator /FTD
iv. FAR 61.51 also specifies the conditions for types of flight time (i.e., PIC time, instrument time)
B. Flight Instructor Records (FAR 61.189)
i. Must maintain a record in a logbook or a separate document that contains the following:
a. Name of each person endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement
b. Name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, with the kind of test, date, results
c. Must retain the records required for at least 3 years
4. Privileges and Limitations
A. Student – FAR 61.89
i. May not act as PIC of an aircraft
a. Carrying a passengers
b. Carrying property for compensation or hire
c. In furtherance of a business
d. On an international flight (exceptions in FAR 61.89(
e. With a flight or surface visibility of less than 3 statute miles during the day or 5 SM at night
f. When the flight cannot be made with visual reference to the surface
g. In a manner contrary to any limitations placed in the pilot’s logbook by an authorized instructor
h. May not act as a required crewmember on any aircraft that more than 1 pilot is required
B. Sport – FAR 61. 89(c) & 61.315
i. Student Pilot seeking a Sport Certificate (61.89(c))
a. Must comply with the Student pilot provisions above, and may not as PIC
 Of an aircraft other than a light-sport
 At night
 > 10,000’ MSL or 2,000’ AGL, whichever is higher
 In Class B, C, and D airspace, at an airport in Class B, C, or D airspace, and to/from/through/on an
airport with an operational control tower without receiving FAR 61.94 ground & flight training
 Of a light-sport aircraft without the ground & flight training and endorsements in 61.327(a) & (b)
ii. Sport Pilot (61.315)
a. May act as PIC of a light-sport, except for the limitations in bullet c., below
b. May split the operating expenses of a flight with a passengers (fuel, oil, airport expenses, rental fees)
c. May not act as PIC of a light-sport aircraft:
 Carrying a passenger or property for hire
 For compensation or hire
 In furtherance of a business
 Carrying more than 1 passenger
 At night
 In Class A, B, C, or D airspace
 At an airport in Class B, C, or D airspace
 To, from, through, or at an airport with an operational control tower without meeting the 61.325
requirements

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 Outside the US, unless you have permission from the country
 To demonstrate the aircraft in flight to a buyer if you are a salesperson
 In a passenger-carrying airlift sponsored by a charitable organization
 > 10,000’ MSL or 2,000’ AGL, whichever is higher
 When flight or surface visibility is < 3 statute miles
 Without visual reference to the surface
 If the aircraft:
a Has a VH > 87 knots CAS (unless you’ve met the requirements of 61.327(b))
b Has a VH less than or equal to 87 knots CAS *unless you’ve met the requirements of 61.327(a), or
logged flight time as PIC before April 2, 2010)
 Contrary to any operating limitation on the airworthiness certificate
 Contrary to any limit on your pilot certificate/medical certificate or any other limit/endorsement
 Contrary to any restriction or limitation on your US driver’s license
 While towing an object
 As a pilot flight crewmember on any aircraft for which more than 1 pilot si required
C. Recreational Certificate (FAR 61.101)
i. A person who holds a recreational pilot certificate may:
a. Carry no more than one passenger; and
 Not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight with a passenger, provided
the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenses, or aircraft rental fees
b. Act as PIC on a flight within 50 nm from the departure airport, if that person has:
 Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient to make the trip, and
received an endorsement permitting flight within 50 nm from the departure airport
c. Act as PIC on a flight exceeding 50 nm from the departure airport, if that person has:
 Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient, and received an
endorsement for the cross-country training requirements
d. Act as PIC in Class B, C, and D airspace, if that person has:
 Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient, and received an
endorsement
ii. A person who holds a recreational pilot certificate may NOT act as PIC of an aircraft:
a. For more than 4 occupants
b. With more than one powerplant
c. With a powerplant of more than 180 horsepower
d. With retractable landing gear
e. That is classified as a multiengine airplane
f. For compensation on hire (with or without passengers or property)
g. In furtherance of a business
h. Between sunset and sunrise
i. In class A, B, C, and D airspace, at an airport in class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or at an
airport having an operation control tower
j. Above 10,000’ MSL or 2,000’ AGL (whichever is higher)
k. When flight or surface visibility is less than 3 statute miles (sm)
l. Without visual reference to the surface
m. On a flight outside the US
n. To demonstrate the aircraft in flight as an aircraft salesperson to a prospective buyer
o. That is used in a passenger carrying airlift and sponsored by a charitable organization
p. That is towing any object

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iii. A recreational pilot may not act as a flight crewmember on an aircraft with a type certificate requiring more
than one pilot except when:
a. Receiving flight training, and no one other than the required flight crewmember is onboard
iv. A recreational pilot with < 400 flight hours, who has not logged PIC in an aircraft within the preceding 180
days shall not act as PIC until receiving flight training and an endorsement certifying PIC proficiency
D. Private Pilot (FAR 61.113)
i. May not act as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire
ii. May act as PIC for compensation/hire if incidental to the business and no passengers or property
iii. May not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight provided the expenses involve
only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees
iv. May be reimbursed for operating expenses directly related to search and location operations
v. May act as PIC for a charitable, nonprofit, or community event (FAR 91.146)
vi. May be reimbursed for operating expenses directly related to search and rescue
vii. May demo an aircraft to a potential buyer if have over 200 hours and are an aircraft salesman
viii. May act as PIC of an aircraft towing a glider (under FAR 61.69)
ix. May act as PIC to conduct a production flight test in a light-sport aircraft intended for light sport certification
provided that:
a. Aircraft is a powered parachute or weight shift control aircraft
b. The person has at least 100 hours of PIC time in the category and class of aircraft flown
c. The person is familiar with processes/procedures applicable to flight testing
E. Commercial Privileges and Limitations (FAR 61.133)
i. Privileges
a. May act as PIC of an aircraft carrying persons or property for compensation/hire
b. May act as PIC of an aircraft for compensation/hire
ii. Limitations
a. Without an instrument rating in the same category and class, the carriage of passengers for hire on
cross-country flights over 50 nm or at night is prohibited
F. Flight Instructor Privileges – FAR 61.193
i. Authorized within the limits of their certificate to train and issue endorsements required for a(n):
a. Student pilot certificate
b. Pilot certificate
c. Flight instructor certificate
d. Ground instructor certificate
e. Aircraft rating
f. Instrument rating
g. Flight review, operating privilege, or recency of experience requirement of part 61
h. Practical test
i. Knowledge test
ii. Authorized to
a. Accept an application for a student pilot certificate
 Or, for an applicant who holds a pilot certificate (other than student pilot) issued under part 61 and
meets the flight review requirements in 61.56, a remote pilot certificate with a small UAS rating
b. Verify the identity of the applicant
c. Verify that an applicant for a student pilot certificate meets the eligibility requirements in FAR 61.83
 Or an applicant for a remote certificate with a small UAS rating meet the requirements in 107.61
G. Flight Instructor Limitations & Qualifications – FAR 61.195
Numerous details and exceptions to the rules described in this FAR. Follow the link for more detail
i. Hours of Training

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a. May not conduct more than 8 hours of flight training in any 24-consecutive-hour period
ii. Aircraft Ratings
a. May not conduct flight training in any aircraft (instrument rating exception below), unless they:
 Hold a flight instructor certificate with the applicable category and class rating
 Hold a pilot certificate with the applicable category and class rating
 Meet the requirements of 61.195(e) Training in an Aircraft that Requires a Type Rating
iii. Instrument Rating
a. Must hold an instrument rating appropriate to the aircraft used for the training, and
 Meet the Aircraft Ratings requirements above, or
 Hold a commercial or ATP certificate with the appropriate category and class ratings for the aircraft
the instrument training is being conducted in, provided the pilot receiving training has the category
& class ratings on their certificate
b. If the training is in a multiengine airplane, the CFI must hold an instrument rating appropriate to the
aircraft used and meet the Aircraft Ratings requirements above
iv. First-Time Flight Instructor Applicants
a. Initial applicant ground training requires an instructor who:
 Has held a ground/flight instructor certificate with the appropriate rating for at least 24 calendar
months and has given at least 40 hours of ground training, or
 Holds a ground or flight instructor certificate with the appropriate rating, and has given at least 100
hours of ground training in an FAA-approved course
b. Initial applicant training requires a CFI who:
 Holds the appropriate flight instructor certificate & rating
 Has held a flight instructor certificate for at least 24 months
 Has given at least 200 hours of flight training as an instructor
c. Flight instructor at an FAA-approved course for the issuance of the flight instructor rating must
 Hold a flight instructor certificate with the appropriate rating and pass the required initial and
recurrent proficiency tests, and
a Meet the requirements in b. (above), or
b Have trained and endorsed at least 5 applicants for a practical test with at least an 80% first
attempt pass rate, and given at least 400 hours of flight training
v. Training for Flight Solely by Reference to the Instruments
a. Instructor must hold a flight instructor certificate with the applicable category & class rating, or
b. Hold an instrument rating appropriate to the aircraft used on their CFI certificate, and hold a commercial
or ATP certificate with the appropriate category and class ratings for the aircraft being used
 Provided the pilot receiving training holds a pilot certificate with category & class ratings
appropriate to the aircraft being used
vi. Self-Endorsements
a. Can’t do it
vii. Limitations on Endorsements
a. A CFI may not endorse a:
 Student pilot’s logbook for solo flight privileges, unless they have
a Given the student the flight training required for solo flight privileges
b Determined the student is prepared to conduct the flight safely, subject to any limitations
 Student pilot’s logbook for a solo cross-country flight unless the CFI has determined the flight
preparation, planning, equipment, and proposed procedures are adequate for the flight
 Student pilot’s logbook for a solo flight in Class B airspace/at an airport in Class B unless they CFI
a Has given the student ground & flight training in that Class B airspace/at the airport and

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b Determined the student is proficient to operate safely

 Recreational pilot’s logbook, unless the CFI has
a Given the pilot the required FAR ground & flight training
b Determine they are proficient to operate the aircraft safely
 Logbook of a pilot for a flight review/IPC unless they conducted the review per 61.56(a)/61.57(d)
viii. Training in an Aircraft Requiring a Type Rating
a. May not give flight instruction, including instrument training, in an aircraft that requires the PIC to hold a
type rating unless the CFI holds a type rating for the airplane
ix. Position in Aircraft & Required Pilot Stations
a. Aircraft must comply with 91.109
 Must have dual controls (exceptions), safety pilot requirements, etc.
b. Aircraft must have at least 2 pilot stations and be of the same category, class, and type, if appropriate,
that applies to the certificate or rating sought
c. For single place aircraft, the pre-solo training must have been done in an aircraft with 2 pilot stations
and is of the same category, class, and type, if appropriate
5. Pilot Currency (FAR 61.57)
A. Pilot in Command
a. To carry passengers, a pilot must have made 3 takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days, and:
 Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
 Tailwheel landings must be to a full stop
ii. To carry passengers 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise, a pilot must have 3 takeoffs and landings
within the preceding 90 days to a full stop during that time period, and:
a. Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
ii. FAR 61.57(c) & (d) - To act as PIC under IFR or weather conditions less than VFR minimums, within the
preceding 6 months (preceding the month of the flight), you must have performed and logged at least:
a. 6 instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting/tracking courses
b. If the pilot has failed to meet the instrument experience requirements (above) for more than 6 calendar
months, currency may only be reestablished through an instrument proficiency check (IPC)
 An IPC must consist of the areas of operation and instrument tasks required in the instrument rating
practical test standards
 The IPC must be given by an examiner, a company check pilot, an authorized instructor, or a person
approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument practical tests
B. Flight Reviews (FAR 61.56)
i. No person may act as PIC unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months he has:
a. Accomplished a flight review and received a log book endorsement certifying it was completed
b. Flight review must be given by an authorized instructor
ii. Consists of a MINIMUM of 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training and must include:
a. A review of the current general operating rules and flight rules of Part 91 and a review of those
maneuvers and procedures necessary for to demonstrate the safe exercise of the certificate
iii. A flight review is not necessary, if in the past 24 calendar months, the pilot has passed any of the following:
a. A pilot proficiency check or practical test for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege
b. A practical test for the issuance of a flight instructor certificate, an additional rating on a flight instructor
certificate, renewal of a flight instructor certificate, or reinstatement of a flight instructor certificate
iv. If one or more phase of an FAA sponsored pilot proficiency award program has been accomplished a flight
review is not required
iii. A student pilot undergoing training for a certificate and who has a current solo flight endorsement does not
need a flight review

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B. RM: Proficiency versus Currency

i. Currency is the minimum required by law to legally fly
a. Although legal, more practice may be needed to be proficient and safe
ii. Proficiency is a level of understanding and ability that creates a safe and competent pilot
a. Just because you are current does not mean you are proficient
b. Ensure proficiency and competency in all aspects
 Come up with a plan to ensure proficiency
a Get more training, fly more consistently, fly with a CFI if proficiency is lacking
c. Even in the air, your mistakes can affect others
iii. RM: Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft
a. Ensure proficiency in new or unfamiliar aircraft , system or avionic setup
 Just because you are certified to fly a specific aircraft, doesn’t mean you’re proficient or safe
 Get checked out by a CFI, study the POH/manual, etc.
6. Required Documents
A. FAR 61.3 Requirement for Certificates, Ratings, and Authorizations
i. Pilot Certificate
ii. Government Issued Photo Identification
iii. Medical Certificate
iv. Flight Instructor Certificate (if exercising privileges)
B. FAR 61.51(i) Presentation of Documents
i. Must present pilot certificate, medical, logbook, or any other record required by part 61 upon request by
a. The administrator, Authorized NTSB representative, Federal, State, or local law enforcement officer
ii. A student pilot must carry the following on solo cross-country flights as evidence or required instructor
clearances & endorsements:
a. Pilot logbook
b. Student pilot certificate
c. Any other certificate required by Part 61
iii. Sport pilot must carry
a. Their logbook or other evidence of required instructor endorsements on all flights
iv. Recreational pilot must carry:
a. Logbook with the required instructor endorsements on all solo flights:
 That exceed 50 nm from the airport at which the training was received
 Within airspace requiring communication with ATC
 Conducted between sunset & sunrise, or
 In an aircraft for which the pilot doesn’t hold an appropriate category or class rating
v. Instructor with a sport pilot rating must carry:
a. Logbook or other evidence of required instructor endorsements when providing flight training

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Each certificate and medical has different rules. It is therefore important to know what is required to obtain and
maintain the desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with it. It is also necessary to know
how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.

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III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - General Overview

References: 14 CFR part 23, 39, 43, 91, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), Min Equipment
Requirements for GA Ops under Part 91 (AC 91-67), Sample Type Certificate, Sample MEL

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. CFR 91.205 – Required Instruments

2. CFR 91.213(d) – Deferral without MEL
3. Required Inspections

Elements 1. Airworthiness without a MEL

2. Airworthiness with a MEL
3. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
4. Appropriate Record Keeping
5. Preventive Maintenance

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary, locate, the
Standards elements and documents related to airworthiness requirements.
 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are what
must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and therefore legal to fly.

Why:
In order for an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections must
be completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight and therefore
un-airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown.

How:
1. Airworthiness without a MEL (Required Instruments and Equipment)
A. Widely used by most pilots due to the simplicity and minimal paperwork
B. When inoperative equipment is found prior to flight, decide whether to:
i. Cancel the flight
ii. Obtain maintenance prior to the flight, or
iii. Defer the item or equipment - 91.213(d)
a. To defer, it must not be required by the documents discussed in part C. i, ii, iii, iv
iv. If the item is not required, it can be deferred
a. Inoperative equipment is deactivated (or removed) and placarded INOPERATIVE
 Any necessary maintenance must be accomplished by certified maintenance personal
 The item/equipment must be placarded INOPERATIVE
C. Required Equipment - 91.213(d)(2) – Follow these steps to decide whether equipment is required:
i. 14 CFR 91.205: Required Instruments and Equipment for Day and Night VFR Flight
a. Visual-Flight Rules (Day), The following instruments and equipment are required:
 Remember: TOMATO FFLAAMES
 Tachometer for each engine
 Oil pressure gauge for each engine
 Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
 Airspeed Indicator
 Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine
 Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
 Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank
 Flotation gear (if operated for hire over water beyond power-off glide distance from shore)
 Landing gear position indicator
 Altimeter
 Anti-Collision Lights (if certified after March 11, 1996)

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 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements

 Magnetic compass
 Emergency Locator Transmitter
 Safety belts/Shoulder Harnesses
b. Visual-Flight Rules (Night), The following instruments and equipment are required:
 All Instruments and equipment needed for VFR day flight are required, as well as:
 Remember: FLAPS
 Fuses (if required)
 Landing Light (Electric)
 Anti-Collision Lights
 Position Lights
 Source of electricity for all installed electrical and radio equipment
ii. Kinds of Equipment List and Equipment List
a. Kinds of Equipment List
 Lists the manufacturer required equipment based on the type of flight (VFR Day, IFR, etc.) intended
 Located in Chapter 2 of the aircraft POH
b. Equipment List
 Furnished with the aircraft is an equipment list that specifies all the required equipment approved
for installation in the aircraft. The weight and arm of each item is included on the list, and all
equipment installed when the aircraft left the factory is checked
 It is usually found in the weight and balance data
iii. Type Certificate
a. Definition
 The Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) is a formal description of the aircraft, engine or propeller. It
lists limitations and information required for type certification including airspeed limits, weight
limits, thrust limitations, etc.
b. Can be found on the FAA TCDS Website
c. The type certificate will specify things like the type of engine, the propeller, the number of seats in the
aircraft, etc.
 Things on the TC cannot be changed without a supplemental type certificate
a You can’t just decide to put a turbine engine in your Cessna 172
iv. Airworthiness Directives (AD)
a. Definition
 The means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to
specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated
 Like a recall on a car
b. ADs may be divided into two categories:
 Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight
 Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specific period of time
c. ADs are regulatory in nature and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted
 AD Database: FAA Dynamic Regulatory System
d. It is the aircraft owner/operator’s responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs
 If an AD is not complied with by the designated date/time period the aircraft is not airworthy and
may not be flown
e. Compliance Records
 14 CFR part 91.417 requires a record to be maintained showing the status of applicable ADs.
a For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in
the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records

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f. Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB)

 Information tool that alerts, educates, and makes recommendations to the aviation community
 Non-regulatory or mandatory info & guidance for safety issues that don’t meet the criteria for an AD
a Keep in mind, ADs will not be issued for aircraft without a type certificate (Ex: amateur built)
1. Although SAIBs are not regulatory, they may be very important
 SAIB Overview: Order 8110.100
 SAIB Database: FAA Dynamic Regulatory System

D. Required Inspections
i. 14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner/operator for maintaining an aircraft in an
airworthy condition
a. After aircraft inspections have been made and defects repaired, the PIC is responsible for determining
whether the aircraft is in condition for safe flight
ii. Inspections: Remember AV1ATE
a. Annual Inspection
 Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/turbo-propeller powered small aircraft
(less than 12,500 pounds) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for compensation or hire is
required to be inspected at least annually
 Must be done by an airframe and powerplant mechanic (A&P) who holds an Inspection
Authorization (IA)
 An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit for the
purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the inspection can be performed
 All applicable ADs that are due must be complied with
 An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100 hr. inspection
b. VOR
 The VOR must have been checked within the preceding 30 days. A record must be kept in a bound
logbook (IFR Requirement)
c. 100 Hour Inspection
 All aircraft under 12,500 lbs. (except for turbo powered), used to carry passengers for hire or, used
for flight instruction for hire, must have received a 100-hour inspection

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 The inspection must be performed by an FAA certificated A&P mechanic, and appropriately rated
FAA certificated repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer
a No IA necessary (like for the annual)
 An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection
 The 100-hour limit may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while enroute to reach a place
where the inspection can be done
a The excess time used must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service
d. Altimeter/Pitot Static Inspection
 FAR 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related system be tested and
inspected in the preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace under instrument
flight rules
 FAR 91.411 - The pitot/static system must be checked within the preceding 24 calendar months. A
record must be kept in the aircraft logbook (IFR Requirement)
e. Transponder Inspection
 FAR 91.413 requires that before a transponder can be used under FAR 91.215(a), it shall be tested
and inspected within the preceding 24 months
f. ELT Inspection
 FAR 91.207(d) – If operations require an ELT, it must be inspected every 12 calendar months
E. Required Documents
i. Remember ARROW
a. Airworthiness
b. Registration
c. Radio Operators License (if international)
d. Operating Limitations (POH)
e. Weight and Balance (specific to the aircraft tail number)
ii. Standard & Special Airworthiness Certificates
a. Standard
 White and issued for normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter or transport category aircraft
 Issued by the FAA after an aircraft is found to meet Part 21 requirements and is safe for operation
 Remains in effect as long as the aircraft receives required maintenance and is registered in the US
a Safety relies in part on aircraft condition, which is verified by required inspections/maintenance
b. Special
 Pink and issued for Primary, Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional and Light-Sport Aircraft
 In general, aircraft with a special certificate, cannot be operated for hire, in some cases can’t carry
passengers, and may be restricted to operations only over sparsely populated areas or water
 FAR 91.325 Primary Aircraft Operating Limitations
 FAR 91.319 Experimental Aircraft Operating Limitations
 FAR 91.313 Restricted Aircraft Operating Limitations
 FAR 91.315 Limited Aircraft Operating Limitations
 FAR 91.317 Provisional Aircraft Operating Limitations
 FAR 91.327 Light Sport Aircraft with Special Airworthiness Certificate
2. Airworthiness with an MEL
A. An MEL is a precise listing of instruments, equipment, and procedures that allows an aircraft to be operated with
inoperative equipment
i. Basically, it combines FAR 91.205, the Kinds of Equipment List, ADs and Type Certificate into one
authoritative document

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ii. Considered to be a supplemental type certificate and therefore becomes the authority to operate that
aircraft in a condition other than originally type certificated
iii. A MEL must be requested from the FAA
iv. The FAA approved MEL includes only those items of equipment which may be inoperative and yet maintain
an acceptable level of safety based on conditions and limitations
B. Required Equipment
i. If equipment or an instrument is found to be broken the pilot would refer directly to the MEL as to whether
it is required for the type of flight
ii. Ex: If the position lights were discovered inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would make an entry
in the maintenance record
a. The item is then either repaired or deferred in accordance with the MEL
 If the MEL states that position lights are not necessary for a daytime flight then the aircraft is
airworthy, the pilot would follow the instructions in the MEL regarding the position lights (e.g., pull
the circuit breaker/do not use the lights, etc.) and the flight may continue
 If it were a night flight and the MEL requires the position lights then the aircraft is not airworthy and
the flight may not continue until repairs are made
iii. Should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL as deferrable (tachometer, flaps, stall warning device,
etc.) then repairs are required to be performed prior to departure
iv. If maintenance parts are not available at your location, a special flight permit can be obtained
C. Required Inspections (same as above)
D. Required Documents (same as above)
3. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
A. FAR 21.197: A Special Flight Permit is an authorization that may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently
meet applicable airworthiness requirements, but is safe for a specific flight
B. Issued for the following reasons:
i. Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs, alterations or maintenance are to be performed
ii. Delivering or exporting an aircraft
iii. Production flight testing new production aircraft
iv. Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
v. Conducting customer demonstration flights
vi. To allow the operation of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range where adequate landing
facilities or fuel is not available.
C. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
i. If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary forms may be obtained from the local FSDO
or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR)
ii. FAR 21.199: an applicant for a special flight permit must submit a statement indicating:
a. The purpose of the flight
b. The proposed itinerary
c. The crew required to operate the aircraft and its equipment, e.g., pilot, co-pilot, navigator, etc.
d. The ways, if any, in which the aircraft does not comply with the applicable airworthiness requirement
e. Any restriction the applicant considers necessary for safe operation of the aircraft
f. Any other information considered necessary by the FAA for the purpose of prescribing limitations
iii. FAA Special Flight Permit Instructions (specific to the Allentown Office. Adjust as required)
iv. Form 8130-6
v. FAA Special Flight Permit Regs & Policies
4. Appropriate Record Keeping (FAR 91.417)
A. The 100-Hour/Annual inspection as well as the inspections required for instruments and equipment necessary
for legal VFR/IFR flight are located in the aircraft and engine logbooks

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 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements

B. Removing/Installing equipment not on the Equipment List

i. The AMT must change the weight and balance record to indicate the new empty weight and empty weight
center of gravity (EWCG), and the equipment list is revised to show which equipment is actually installed
C. Repairs and Alterations
i. Major
a. 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A: Major alterations shall be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337,
Major Repairs and Major Alterations, by an appropriately rated certificated repair station, an FAA
certificated A&P mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization, or a representative of the Administrator
ii. Minor
a. May be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an FAA
certificated A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificated repair station
5. Preventive Maintenance (AC 43-12)
A. Who can Perform Preventive Maintenance?
i. FAR 43.3(g): The holder of a pilot certificate issued under Part 61 may perform preventive maintenance
a. Aircraft cannot be used under part 121, 129, or 135
b. Sport Pilot: May perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft owned or operated by that pilot and
issued a special airworthiness certificate in the light-sport category
ii. Part 43 Appendix A paragraph (c)(30): The tasks must be performed by the holder of at least a private pilot
certificate who is the registered owner (or co-owner) of the aircraft
B. Preventive Maintenance
i. FAR 1.1: Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving
complex assembly operations
ii. Part 43 Appendix A paragraph (c) Provides an exhaustive list of authorized preventive maintenance
a. If a task is not on the list, it’s not preventive maintenance
b. Due to differences in aircraft, preventive maintenance on one aircraft is not the same as another
 To account for this, “provided it does not involve complex assembly operations” is included
 Use good judgement when determining if a function classifies as preventive or not
c. Ex: Replenishing hydraulic fluid, replacing batteries, replacing spark plugs, repairing broken circuits
iii. FAR 43.13 Performance Rules - Requires that those performing the maintenance adhere to the following:
a. Use acceptable methods, techniques, and practices. Normally set forth in the maintenance manual
b. Use tools, equipment, and test apparatus necessary to ensure accordance with industry practices
c. Use any special equipment, or the equivalent, recommended by the manufacturer
d. The work and materials should be of a quality at least equal to its original condition
iv. Conduct a self-analysis as to whether you have the ability to perform the work satisfactorily & safely
v. FAR 43.9(a) Maintenance Record Entries - Any work done requires an entry in the logbook and must include:
a. Description of the work done, Completion date, & Signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate
C. Return to Service
i. FAR 43.7(f): A person holding at least a private pilot certificate may approve an aircraft for return to service
after performing preventive maintenance under the provisions of 43.3(g)
D. Helpful Content
i. AC 43-12 Preventive Maintenance
ii. FAASafety.gov Maintenance Aspects of Owning Your Own Aircraft

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point
The requirements and precautions mandated by the FAA are necessary to ensure the aircraft is in a safe condition for
flight not only for legal reasons, but also for the safety of those onboard.

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III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

References: 14 CFR Part 91

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective ACS/PTS.

Elements 1. FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC

2. FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
3. FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
4. FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
5. FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
6. FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
7. FAR 91.400’s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
8. FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary locate, the
Standards elements and documents related to airworthiness requirements.
 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly. Unlike in a car, we do
not have the option to pull over to the side of the road in the case of a problem.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are
requirements that must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and legal to fly.

Why:
For an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections must be
completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight and therefore un-
airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown. Determining airworthiness can be very complex.
This lesson is designed to provide a basis to make a decision regarding whether or not the airplane is airworthy.

How:
1. FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC
A. The PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the plane
B. In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required
C. Each PIC who deviates from a rule under paragraph (b) of this section shall, upon the request of the
Administrator, send a written report of that deviation to the Administrator
2. FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
A. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition
i. Airworthiness: Read the Airworthiness Certificate (Best definition of airworthiness)
a. Authority and Basis for Issuance
 States the aircraft must conform to the type certificate
a The aircraft cannot be changed from its type certificate; must be in the condition it left the
factory in
1. The only way the airplane can be changed is with a supplemental type certificate
b. Terms and Conditions
 States that the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with the FARS
B. The PIC of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe flight and
shall discontinue the flight when un-airworthy mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur
i. This is the only FAR which mentions a visual inspection, i.e., Condition for safe flight
3. FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
A. No person may operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft:
i. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is required by FAR 21.5 of this chapter unless there is
available in the aircraft a current, approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual or the manual provided for
in FAR 121.141(b); and
a. The Weight and Balance is included in the AFM, but is part of the type certificate and therefore required

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 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

ii. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is not required by FAR 21.5 of this chapter, unless there is
available in the aircraft a current approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual, approved manual material,
markings, and placards, or any combination thereof
B. FAR 91.9 states that the AFM is required in the airplane for planes registered after 1979
i. The AFM is not required for an airplane before 1979, unless the manufacturer submitted an AFM to the FAA,
then it is required in the airplane
C. FAR 91.9 also states that without the AFM, all placards, markings, etc. must be in the aircraft
4. FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
A. Except as provided in FAR 91.715, no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it has within it the following:
i. An appropriate and current airworthiness certificate…
a. It must be displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance so that it is legible to passengers or crew
ii. An effective U.S. registration certificate issued to its owner…
5. FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
A. The bare minimum instruments and equipment required for day/night VFR flight and IFR flight
i. VFR – TOMATOFFLAAMES (day) and FLAPS (night)
ii. IFR - GRABCARD
6. FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
A. MEL
i. An FAA approved listing of instruments/equipment that may be inoperable and remain airworthy
B. Without an MEL – FAR 91.213(d)
i. Follow the flow provided in AC 91-67 (AC 91-67 has been cancelled)
a. Is it required by the aircraft’s equipment list or the kinds of equipment list?
b. Is it required by the VFR type certificate requirements prescribed in the airworthiness certification
requirements?
c. Is it required by an AD?
d. Is it required by FAR 91.205, 91.207, etc.?
e. If no, the inoperative equipment must be removed or deactivated and placarded as inoperative
 FAR 91.405 - Inoperative equipment must be repaired, replaced, removed at the next required
inspection
f. Finally, the PIC decides whether the equipment creates a hazard for the anticipated flight
7. FAR 91.400’s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
A. FAR 91.401 - Applicability
i. Rules governing maintenance, preventative maintenance, alterations of US registered civil aircraft
B. FAR 91.405 - Maintenance Required
i. Each owner or operator of an aircraft:
a. Shall have that aircraft inspected as prescribed in subpart E of this part and shall between required
inspections, have discrepancies repaired as prescribed in part 43 of this chapter
b. Shall ensure that maintenance personnel make appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records
indicating the aircraft has been approved for return to service
c. Shall have any inoperative instrument/equipment, permitted to be inoperative by FAR 91.213(d)(2) of
this part, repaired, replaced, removed, or inspected at the next required inspection
d. When listed discrepancies include inoperative instruments or equipment, shall ensure that a placard has
been installed as required by FAR 43.11 of this chapter.
C. FAR 91.409 - Inspections
i. Annual Inspection requirement
ii. 100-hour inspection requirement, if for rent or for hire

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 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

D. FAR 91.411 - Altimeter system and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections
i. Static Pressure System and Altimeter tests required for IFR flight
a. Required every 24 calendar months
E. FAR 91.413 - ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections
i. Transponder tests and inspections required
a. Required every 24 calendar months
8. FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
A. Inspection requirements
i. Every 12 calendar months
B. The batteries must be replaced (or recharged)
i. When the transmitter has been in use more than 1 cumulative hour
ii. When 50% of their useful life has expired

Conclusion:
Through the FARS mentioned here, we find that the PIC is the final authority as to the safety of the flight. Airworthiness
requires conforming to the type certificate, as well as the required maintenance and inspections. To be airworthy, the
documents required onboard are the airworthiness certificate, the registration, operating limitations (AFM), as well as
the weight and balance (part of the type certificate). We have found the required equipment as well as the process for
determining whether the airplane is airworthy in the case of inoperative equipment. Finally, the FARs provided the
necessary inspections needed to maintain airworthiness.

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III.C. Weather Information

References: 14 CFR Part 91, Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-
28), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to weather information with the
ability to interpret several weather sources and make a well-educated Go/No Go decision.

Key 1. Information Sources

Elements 2. FSS - 122.2
3. Go/No Go Decision

1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability 12. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing

Elements 2. Wind 13. Weather Information Sources
3. Temperature 14. Weather Reports and Charts
4. Moisture & Precipitation a. METAR, TAF, and GFA
5. Weather System Formation b. Model Output Statistics (MOS)
6. Clouds c. Surface Analysis Chart
7. Turbulence d. Ceiling & Visibility Chart
8. Thunderstorms e. Radar Summary Chart
9. Frost & Icing f. Winds and Temperature Aloft Chart
10. Fog & Mist g. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
11. Obstructions to Visibility h. Convective Outlook Chart
i. Surface Weather Observations
15. In-Flight Weather Advisories
16. Recognizing Weather Hazards
17. Go/No Go Decision
Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives
2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s 1. Discuss lesson objectives

Actions 2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s 1. Participate in discussion

Actions 2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions
Completio The student can effectively interpret the necessary weather information and has the ability to
n make a competent Go/No Go decision based on the information.
Standards
III.C. Weather Information

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Instead of getting ourselves stuck, in the air, in a thunderstorm or some sort of extreme weather we should have a
good understanding of weather information to know when to and not to fly.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Through a complex system of weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers, pilots are
given vast information regarding weather patterns, trends, and characteristics in the form of up-to-date weather
reports and forecasts

Why
These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed decisions regarding weather and flight safety.

How:
1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability
A. Atmospheric Composition
i. Composition
a. 4 gases make up 99.998% of the atmosphere - Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon and Carbon Dioxide
ii. Vertical Structure
a. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into 5 concentric layers based on the vertical profile of average air
temperature changes, chemical composition, movement and density
 Troposphere
a Begins at the Earth’s surface and extends up to about 36,000’ high. As the gases decrease
with height, the air becomes thinner, and temperature also decreases with height. Almost
all weather occurs in this region
b The vertical height of the troposphere varies due to temperature variations. The transition
layer between the troposphere and they layer above is called the tropopause
 Stratosphere
a Extends from the tropopause up to 31 miles above the Earth’s surface. This layer holds 19%
of the atmosphere’s gases, but very little water. Temperature increases with height due to
the absorption of UV radiation
b Commercial aircraft often cruise in the lower stratosphere to avoid atmospheric turbulence
and convection in the tropopause
1. Disadvantages of flying in this layer include increased fuel consumption due to warmer
temperatures, increased radiation, and increased ozone concentrations
 Mesosphere
a Extends from the Stratopause to about 53 miles above the Earth. Gases continue to thin so
warming becomes less pronounced leading to a decrease in temperature with height
 Thermosphere
a Extends from the Mesopause to 430 miles above the Earth. This layer is known as the upper
atmosphere. The gases become increasingly thin compared to the mesosphere and only

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III.C. Weather Information

high energy UV and X-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed - temperature increases with
height and can reach 2,000 degrees Celsius near the top of the layer
1. Surprisingly, this layer would still feel very cold to us due to the extremely thin air
 Exosphere
a The outermost layer of the atmosphere - extends from the thermopause to 6,200 miles. In
this layer, atoms and molecules escape into space, and satellites orbit the Earth
iii. Standard Atmosphere (59oF/15oC, 29.92” Hg)
a. Continuous fluctuations of atmospheric properties create problems for engineers and
meteorologists who require a fixed standard for reference. To solve this problem, they defined a
standard atmosphere, which represents an average of conditions throughout the atmosphere for all
latitudes, seasons, and altitudes. Standard atmosphere is a hypothetical vertical distribution of
atmospheric temperature, pressure, and density that, by international agreement, is taken to be
representative of the atmosphere
2. Wind
A. Air in motion relative to the surface. Wind causes the formation/dissipation/redistribution of weather
B. Wind also affects aircraft in all phases of flight
i. Adverse wind is responsible for many weather-related accidents
a. Crosswinds, gusts, tailwind, variable wind, sudden wind shift, wind shear, mountain wind hazards
C. Forces that Affect the Wind – Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, Friction
i. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
a. Wind flows from areas of high to low pressure. These different pressures create the PGF
b. Whenever a pressure difference develops over an area, the PGF makes the wind blow in an attempt
to equalize the differences
 This force is identified by height contour gradients on constant pressure charts and by isobar
gradient on surface charts
c. PGF is directed from higher pressure to lower pressure and is perpendicular to contours/isobars
d. Wind speed is proportional to PGF which is proportional to the contour/isobar gradient
 Closely spaced contours/isobars indicate strong winds; widely spaced indicates light winds
e. Wind would simply flow from high to low pressure if the PGF was the only force acting on it, but
because of the Earth’s rotation, the Coriolis force affects the direction of wind flow as well
ii. Coriolis Force
a. Air is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern
b. A moving mass travels in a straight line until acted on by some outside force. However, if one views
the moving mass from a rotating platform, the path of the moving mass relative to his platform
appears to be deflected or curved.
 To illustrate, consider a turntable. If one used a pencil and a ruler to draw a straight line from
the center to the outer edge of the turntable, the pencil will have traveled in a straight line.
However, stopping the turntable it is evident that the line spirals outward from the center. To a
viewer on the turntable, some apparent force deflected the pencil to the right.

c. Deflects air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere & left in the Southern Hemisphere

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III.C. Weather Information

 At a right angle to wind direction

 Directly proportional to wind speed
a If wind speed doubles, Coriolis doubles
 Coriolis varies with latitude
a Zero at the equator & maximum at each pole
iii. Friction
a. Friction between the wind and the terrain surface slows
the wind. The rougher the terrain, the greater the
frictional effect, and the stronger the wind speed, the
greater the friction
b. The frictional drag of the ground normally decreases
with height and becomes insignificant above the lowest
few thousand feet or so
c. Above the friction layer, only the PGF and Coriolis force
affect the horizontal motion of the air

3. Temperature
A. Temperature
i. Temperature represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules in matter. Higher indicates a higher
average kinetic energy and vice versa - temp is an indicator of the internal energy of air
ii. Heat Transfer
a. Heat transfer is energy transfer as a consequence of temperature difference
 When an object/fluid is at a different temperature than its surroundings heat transfer occurs
such that the object/fluid and the surroundings reach thermal equilibrium (balance)
b. The heat source for the planet is the sun. Energy from the sun is transferred to the Earth’s surface.
There are 3 ways heat is transferred into and through our atmosphere:
 Radiation
a Ex. Being near a fireplace - the side of your body nearest the fire warms
b The sun radiates heat to the Earth
 Conduction
a Transfer of energy by molecular activity from one substance to another in contact
1. Heat always flows from the warmer substance to the colder substance
2. Warmer substance cools/loses heat while the cooler substance warms/gains energy
 Convection
a The transport of heat within a fluid, such as air or water, via motions of the fluid itself
1. Water boiling in a pot is an example of convection
b Because air is a poor thermal conductor, convection plays a vital role in the Earth’s
atmospheric heat transfer process
B. Temperature & the Earth/Atmosphere
i. Thermal Response
a. Water is much more resistant to temperature changes than land

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III.C. Weather Information

 It warms and cools more slowly than land and helps moderate nearby air temperature
 This is why coastal cities experience smaller seasonal temperature variations than inland
ii. Temperature Variations with Altitude
a. Temperature generally decreased at an average of 2 degrees Celsius per 1,000’
 But in the troposphere, temperature can remain constant or increase with altitude changes
a Isothermal Layer: An atmospheric layer where temperature remains constant with height
b Temperature Inversion: A layer in which the temperature increases with altitude
1. If the base is at the surface, it is a surface-based inversion
a. Typically occurs over land on clear nights with light wind.
b. Ground radiates faster than the overlying air
c. Air in contact with the ground cools, while air a few hundred feet stays the same
2. If it is not at the surface, it is an inversion aloft
a. Ex: a current of warm air aloft overrunning cold air near the surface
3. Principle characteristic of an inversion layer is its marked stability – very little turbulence
4. Moisture & Precipitation
A. Necessary Ingredients
i. Water Vapor
ii. Sufficient Lifting - condenses the water vapor into clouds
iii. Growth Process - allows cold droplets to grow large and heavy enough to fall as precipitation
a. All clouds contain water, but only some produce precipitation. This is because cloud droplets and/or
ice crystals are too small and light to fall to the ground as precipitation.
b. Two growth processes allow cloud droplets to grow large enough to fall as precipitation
 Collision-Coalescence (warm rain process)
a Collisions between droplets of varying size and fall speeds coalesce to form larger drops
b Drops become too large to be suspended in the air and fall to the ground as rain
c Primary growth process in warm, tropical air masses with a very high freezing level
 Ice Crystal Process
a Occurs in colder clouds with both ice crystals and water droplets
b Water vapor deposits directly on the ice crystals which eventually become heavy enough to
fall
c Thought to be the primary growth process in mid and high latitudes
B. Precipitation Types
i. The vertical distribution of temperature often determines the precipitation at the surface
ii. Rain
a. Deep layer of above freezing air based at the surface
iii. Snow
a. Occurs when the temperature is below freezing throughout the entire depth of the atmosphere
iv. Ice Pellets
a. Require a shallow, above freezing layer aloft, and a deep, below freezing layer at the surface
 As snow falls into the shallow, warm layer, the snowflakes partially melt. As the precipitation
enters the below freezing surface air it freezes into ice pellets
v. Freezing Rain
a. Occurs with a deep, above freezing layer aloft and a shallow, below freezing layer at the surface
 Rain falls into the below freezing air, but since the depth is shallow it doesn’t have time to
freeze into ice pellets. The drops freeze on contact with the ground or exposed objects
5. Weather System Formation (including Air Masses and Fronts)
A. Air Masses

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III.C. Weather Information

i. A large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity.

ii. Area from which an air mass originates is called a source region
a. Range from extensive snow-covered polar areas to deserts to tropical oceans
b. The longer an air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire its properties
iii. Classified according to temperature and moisture properties of the source region
a. Temperature Properties
 Arctic: Extremely deep cold air mass; develops mostly in winter over arctic ice/snow
 Polar: A relatively shallow cool to cold air mass which develops over high latitudes
 Tropical: A warm to hot air mass which develops over low latitudes
b. Moisture Properties
 Continental: A dry air mass which develops over land
 Maritime: A moist air mass which develops over water
c. Types of Air Masses (Temperature + Moisture Properties)
 Continental Arctic: Cold, dry
 Continental Polar: Cold, dry
 Continental Tropical: Hot, dry
 Maritime Polar: Cool, moist
 Maritime Tropical: Warm, moist
 Maritime Arctic seldom, if ever, forms
iv. Air Mass Modification
a. As an air mass moves around the Earth, it can acquire different attributes
 Ex: In the winter, an arctic air mass (cold and dry) can move over the ocean, picking up warmth
and moisture from the warmer ocean and become a maritime polar air mass
B. Fronts
i. Air masses can control weather for a relatively long-time period ranging from days to months. Most
weather occurs along the periphery of these air masses at boundaries called fronts
ii. A front is a boundary or transition zone between two air masses
a. Fronts are classified by which type of air mass (cold or warm) is replacing the other
iii. Fronts are usually detectable at the surface in several ways:
a. Significant temperature gradients
b. Converging winds
c. Pressure typically decreases as a front approaches and increases after it passes
iv. Fronts do not only exist at the surface, but also have a vertical structure described here:

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III.C. Weather Information

Cold Front Warm Front

Cold fronts have a steep slope, and the warm air is Warm fronts have a gentle slope, so the warm air
forced up abruptly. rising along the frontal surface is gradual.
If the warm rising air is unstable, this often leads to a This favors the development of widespread layered
narrow band of showers and thunderstorms along, or or stratiform cloudiness and precipitation along, and
just ahead of, the front. ahead of, the front if the warm rising air is stable.

Stationary Front Occluded Front

Stationary frontal slopes can vary, but clouds and Cold fronts typically move faster than warm fronts, so
precipitation would still form in the warm rising air in time they catch up to warm fronts. As the two
along the front. fronts merge, an occluded front forms.
The cold air undercuts the retreating cooler air mass
associated with the warm front, further lifting the
already rising warm air
Clouds and precipitation can occur in the areas of
frontal lift along, ahead of, and behind the surface
position of an occluded front

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6. Clouds
A. Vertical Motion & Cloud Formation
i. Air cools as it rises
a. As pressure decreases the air parcel expands, which requires energy, cooling the air
 Adiabatic process: No heat transfer into, or out of, the parcel of air
b. Temp decreases 3o C per 1,000’ (dry adiabatic lapse rate), dewpoint decreases 0.5o C per 1,000’
 Temperature-dewpoint spread decreases while relative humidity increases
c. Reaches a point where temp and dewpoint are equal and the particle becomes saturated
ii. Lifted Condensation Level (LCL): Level at which a parcel of air becomes saturated
a. Temp-dewpoint spread is zero and relative humidity is 100%
iii. Lifting above the LCL results in condensation, cloud formation and heat release
a. Heat added during condensation offsets some cooling due to expansion
 Moist lapse rate varies between 1.2o C per 1,000’ for very warm particles & 3o for cold particles
a This is where the average 2o C per 1,000’ lapse rate is derived
iv. As the air parcel expands and cools, water vapor content decreases
a. Some water vapor is condensed to droplets or deposited into ice crystals to form a cloud
b. Process is triggered by microscopic cloud condensation (and ice) nuclei
 Dust, clay, soot, sulfate, and sea salt particles
c. The cloud grows vertically as the parcel continues to rise
v. Opposite occurs as a particle descends

B. Sources of Vertical Motion

i. Orographic Effects
a. Wind blowing across mountains and valleys causing the air to ascend/descend
ii. Frictional Effects
III.C. Weather Information

a. In the Northern Hemisphere, surface wind spirals clockwise and outward from high pressure and
counterclockwise and inward into low pressure due to frictional force
b. Winds diverge away from high pressure causing air to sink, compress, & war, dissipating clouds
c. Winds converge into low pressure causing air to rise, expand, & cool, favoring clouds & precipitation
iii. Frontal Lift
a. Cold, denser air wedges under warm, less dense air, forcing it upward
b. Warm air rides up and over cold air in a process called overrunning
iv. Buoyancy
a. Air near the ground can warm at different rates
 Ex. Newly plowed field will warm faster than an adjacent lake
b. Temperature differences result in different air densities, allowing warm air to rise and cold to sink
C. Clouds
i. Cloud Forms
a. Cirri-form
 High level clouds above 20,000’ usually composed of ice crystals
 Typically thin and white
 Occur in fair weather and point in the direction of air movement
b. Nimbo-form
 Nimbus comes from the Latin word meaning rain
 Typically, between 7,000 and 15,000’ with steady precipitation
 As clouds thicken and precipitation begins to fall, the bases tend to
lower toward the ground
c. Cumuli-form
 White, fluffy cotton balls (show the vertical motion in the atmosphere)
 Flat cloud base indicates the level of condensation/cloud formation
 Height depends on humidity of rising air –more humid = lower cloud
base
 Tops can reach > 60,000’
d. Strati-form
 Stratus is Latin for layer or blanket
 Featureless low layer that can cover the entire sky, like a blanket
 Usually only a few hundred feet AGL – over hills/mountains they can
reach the ground and are fog
 As fog lifts due to daytime heating, it can form a layer of low stratus
clouds
ii. Cloud Levels
a. High, Middle, and Low
b. In each level, the clouds may be divided by type

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III.C. Weather Information

iii. Cloud Types

a. High Clouds
Cirrus Cirrocumulus Cirrostratus

Detached cirriform elements in the A cirriform type appearing as a Appears as a whiteish veil, usually
form of white, delicate filaments thin, white patch, sheet, or layer of fibrous but sometimes smooth,
of white patches, or narrow bands. could without shading, and is that may totally cover the sky, and
composed of very small elements that often produces halo
Many of the ice crystal particles in the form of grains, ripples, etc. phenomena.
are sufficiently large to acquire
appreciable speed of fall; May be composed of highly super May be so thin and transparent as
therefore, the clouds often trail cooled water droplets, as well as to render it nearly indiscernible –
downward in well-defined wisps small ice crystals, or a mix of both. the existence of a halo around the
called mares’ tails. sun or moon may be the only
Pilots can expect some turbulence revealing feature.
Cirrus clouds in themselves have and icing
little effect on aircraft and contain Composed primarily of ice crystals
no significant icing or turbulence. and contain little, if any, icing and
no turbulence.

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 b. Middle Clouds
Altocumulus Altocumulus Lenticularis Altostratus

White and/or grey in color, that Commonly known as Altocumulus A cloud type in the form of a gray
occurs as a layer or patch with a Standing Lenticular, they are an or bluish sheet or layer of striated,
wave aspect, the elements of orographic cloud. fibrous, or uniform appearance.
which appear as laminae, rounded
masses, rolls, etc. They often form in patches in the It very often totally covers the sky.
shape of almonds or wave clouds. Portions of the layer are thin and it
Small liquid water droplets These formations are caused by can have irregularly shaped and
compose the major part of the wave motions in the atmosphere, spaced gaps and rifts.
composition of altocumulus. This and are frequently seen in
results in sharp outline and small mountainous or hilly areas. The Layers in the cloud:
internal visibility. At very low cloud as a whole is usually  Upper - mostly ice crystals
temperatures ice crystals may stationary or slow moving.  Middle - mixed ice crystals
form. and/or snowflakes and super
The clouds do not necessarily give cooled water droplets
Pilots can expect some turbulence an indication of the intensity of  Lower- mostly super cooled
and small amounts of icing turbulence or strength of updrafts or ordinary water droplets
and downdrafts.
Pilots can expect little to no
turbulence, but light to moderate
icing in the super cooled water.

Nimbostratus
A gray cloud layer, often dark, rendered diffuse by more or less
continuously falling rain, snow, ice pellets, etc. which in most cases
reaches the ground. Not accompanied by lightning, thunder, or hail.

Composed of suspended water droplets, sometimes super cooled, and

failing raindrops/snow crystals or snowflakes. Nimbostratus has no well-
defined base. A false base may occur where snow melts into rain.

It produces very little turbulence, but can pose a serious icing problem if
temperatures are near or below freezing.

c. Low Clouds
 III.B. Weather Information

Cumulus and Towering Cumulus Stratocumulus Stratus

Individual, detached elements that Predominantly stratiform, in the A cloud type in the form of a gray
are generally dense. They develop form of a gray/whiteish layer or layer with a fairly uniform base.
vertically, appearing as rising patch, which nearly always has The composition is quite uniform,
mounds, the upper parts of which dark parts and is non-fibrous. usually of fairly widely dispersed
often resemble cauliflower. Sunlit Rounded/roll-shaped, and usually water droplets, and at lower
parts are white, while their bases are arranged in orderly groups. temperatures, ice crystals (rare).
are darker and nearly horizontal.
The first stage of a thunderstorm. Composed of small water droplets, Doesn’t often create precipitation,
and sometimes larger droplets, but when it does, it is in the form
If rain occurs, it is usually showery. soft hail, even snowflakes. The of minute particles, such as drizzle,
highest liquid content is in the tops ice crystals, or snow grains.
For cumulus with little vertical (icing potential). Virga may form
development, pilots can expect under the cloud. Precipitation Stratus produces little or no
some turbulence and no significant rarely occurs. turbulence, but temperatures near
icing. For towering cumulus, or below freezing can create
expect very strong turbulence and Pilots can expect some turbulence hazardous icing conditions.
clear icing above the freezing level. and possible icing. Ceiling and
visibility are usually better with
low stratus.

Cumulonimbus
Exceptionally dense and vertically developed cloud, occurring either as
isolated clouds or as a line or wall of clouds. The upper part often is in
the form of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base (often dark) there
frequently exists virga, precipitation, and low, ragged clouds.

Composed of water droplets/ice crystals. Also contains large water

drops, snowflakes, snow pellets, even hail. The water may be super
cooled. Precipitation is often heavy/showery. Lightning is common.

Cumulonimbus contains nearly the entire spectrum of flying hazards,

including extreme turbulence.

7. Turbulence
A. Turbulence is caused by convective currents, obstructions in the wind flow, and wind shear
B. Convective Turbulence
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 III.B. Weather Information

i. Turbulent vertical motions that result from convective currents and the subsequent rising and sinking of
air. For every rising current, there is a compensating downward current
ii. Billowy cumuliform clouds, usually seen overland during sunny afternoons, are signposts in the sky
indicating convective turbulence
iii. A pilot can expect turbulence beneath or in the clouds
a. When air is too dry for cumuliform clouds, convective currents can still be active. A pilot has little or
no indication of their presence.
C. Mechanical Turbulence
i. Caused by obstructions to the wind flow, such as trees, buildings, mountains, and so on. Obstructions to
the wind flow disrupt smooth wind into a complex snarl of eddies
ii. Mountain Waves: When stable air flow passes over a mountain or ridge, developing waves above and
downwind of mountains. These can extend 600 miles or more downwind and (incredibly) vertically up to
200,000’ and higher
iii. Mountain waves often produce violent down drafts on the immediate leeward side of the mountain
barrier and if the air is moist enough, cap clouds, cirrocumulus standing lenticular, altocumulus standing
lenticular and rotor clouds are a clear sign of mountain waves.
D. Wind Shear Turbulence
i. Wind shear is the rate of change in wind direction and/or speed per unit distance and may be associated
with either a wind shift or a wind speed gradient at any level in the atmosphere
ii. Temperature Inversion
a. A layer of the atmosphere in which temperature increases with altitude. Strong wind shears often
occur across temperature inversion layers, which can generate turbulence
iii. Clear Air Turbulence
a. A higher altitude turbulence phenomenon occurring in cloud-free regions associated with wind
shear, particularly between the core of a jet stream and the surrounding air
8. Thunderstorms
A. Ingredients
i. Sufficient Water Vapor
a. Commonly measured using dew point, must be present to produce unstable air
ii. Unstable Air
a. Virtually all showers/thunderstorms form in an air mass that is classified as conditionally unstable
iii. Lifting Mechanism
a. A conditionally unstable air mass requires a lifting mechanism strong enough to release the
instability. These include:
 Converging winds around surface lows and troughs, fronts, upslope flow, drylines, outflow
boundaries generated by prior storms, and local winds, such as sea breeze, lake breeze, land
breeze, and valley breeze circulations
B. Life Cycle
i. Towering Cumulus
a. A strong convective updraft. The updraft is a bubble of warm, rising air concentrated near the top of
the cloud which leaves a cloudy trail in its wake
ii. Mature
a. The cell transitions to the mature stage when precipitation reaches the surface. Precipitation
descends through the cloud and drags adjacent air downward, creating a strong downdraft
alongside the updraft. The downdraft spreads out along the surface as a mass of cool, gusty air
iii. Dissipating
a. The dissipating stage is marked by a strong downdraft embedded within the area of precipitation.
Subsiding air replaces the updraft throughout the cloud, effectively cutting off the supply of
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 III.B. Weather Information

moisture provided by the updraft. Precipitation tapers off and ends. The convective cloud gradually
vaporizes from below
C. Types of Thunderstorms
i. Single Cell
a. Consists of only one cell. Easily circumnavigated, except at night or when embedded in other clouds.
Single cell thunderstorms are rare; almost all are multicell
ii. Multicell
a. Consists of a cluster of cells at various stages of their life cycle. As the first cell matures, it is carried
downwind, and a new cell forms upwind to take its place. New cells will continue to form as long as
the ingredients exist.
b. More difficult to circumnavigate due to its size
c. A line of thunderstorms can extend laterally for hundreds of miles. New cells continually reform at
the leading edge and the line can persist for many hours as long as the necessary ingredients exist.
These are often too high to fly over, too long to fly around and too dangerous to fly under (the
storms in the line can also be supercells)
iii. Supercell
a. A dangerous convective storm that consists of primarily a single, quasi-steady rotating updraft that
persists for an extended period of time. It has a very organized internal structure that enables it to
produce especially dangerous weather for pilots who encounter them (updrafts may reach 9,000
fpm). A supercell may persist for hours; new cells will continue to form as long as the necessary
ingredients exist
D. Hazards
i. Lightning, strong wind, downburst, turbulence, icing, hail, rapid altimeter changes, static electricity,
tornado
9. Frost & Icing
A. Frost
i. On cool, clear nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can cause temperatures
of the surrounding air to drop below the dew point. When this occurs, the moisture in the air condenses
and deposits itself on the ground, buildings, and other objects like aircraft
a. The moisture is dew. If temperature is below freezing, the moisture is deposited in the form of frost
b. While dew poses no threat to aircraft, frost poses a definite flight safety hazard
 Disrupts the smooth airflow over the wing and can drastically reduce lift. It also increases drag,
which when combined with lowered lift production, can adversely affect the ability to takeoff
ii. An aircraft must be thoroughly cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a flight
B. Types of Icing
i. Rime Icing
a. Rough, milky, and opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small, super cooled water
droplets after they strike the aircraft
b. Rime icing formation favors colder temperatures, lower liquid water content and small droplets. It
grows when droplets rapidly freeze upon striking an aircraft. The rapid freezing traps air and forms a
porous, brittle, opaque, and milky colored ice.
ii. Clear Icing
a. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by relatively slow freezing of large, super cooled water
droplets
b. Clear icing conditions exist more often in an environment with warmer temperatures, higher liquid
water contents, and larger droplets
c. Clear ice forms when only a small portion of the drop freezes immediately while the remaining
unfrozen portion flows or smears over the aircraft surface and gradually freezes
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 III.B. Weather Information

d. Clear ice is more hazardous than rime ice

 It tends to disrupt airflow considerably more than rime icing
 It is clear and more difficult to see and therefore can be difficult to recognize
 It is difficult to remove since it can spread beyond the deice/anti-ice capabilities
iii. Mixed Icing
a. A mixture of clear and rime ice
b. Poses a similar hazard to an aircraft as clear ice
C. Hazards of Icing
i. Structural icing degrades engine performance
ii. It destroys the smooth flow of air over the wing, increasing drag while decreasing the ability to create lift
a. As power is added to compensate for the additional drag, and the nose is lifted to maintain altitude,
the angle of attack is increased allowing the underside of the wings & fuselage to accumulate
additional ice
b. Wind tunnel and flight tests have shown that ice accumulations no thicker than a piece of coarse
sandpaper can reduce lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%
 Larger accretions can reduce lift even more and increase drag by 80% or more.
c. Aircraft may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles of attack than normal
iii. The actual weight of ice on an aircraft is insignificant when compared to the airflow disruption it causes
D. Freezing Level
i. Be alert for icing anytime the temperature approaches 0 degrees Celsius and visible moisture is present
ii. When carried above the freezing level, water becomes supercooled
a. Supercooled water freezes on impact with an aircraft
 When the temperature cools to about -15o C, much of the remaining water vapor sublimates as
ice crystals. Above this level, the amount of supercooled water decreases
b. Clear icing can occur at any level above the freezing level, but at high levels icing from smaller
droplets may be rime or mixed rime and clear ice
c. The abundance of large, supercooled water droplets makes clear icing very rapid between 0 & -15 o C
10. Fog & Mist
A. Fog
i. A visible aggregate of minute water droplets that are based at the surface and reduce visibility to less
than 5/8 statute mile. Differs from cloud only in that it’s base must be at the surface
B. Types of Fog
i. Radiation Fog
a. Produced over a land area when radiational cooling reduces the air temperature below its dew point
 Generally, a nighttime occurrence and often does not dissipate until after sunrise
 Terrestrial radiation cools the ground, the ground cools the air and when the air reaches its dew
point, fog forms
b. Factors favoring formation: Shallow surface layer of relatively moist air beneath a dry layer, clear
skies, and light surface winds
 Restricted to land because water surfaces cool little from nighttime radiation.
 Fog is shallow when wind is calm
a Winds up to about 5 knots mix the air slightly and tend to deepen the fog by spreading the
cooling through a deeper layer
b Stronger winds disperse the fog or mix the air through a still deeper layer with stratus clouds
forming at the top of the mixing layer
c. Ground fog usually burns off rapidly after sunrise. Other radiation fog generally clears before noon
(unless clouds move in over the fog)

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 III.B. Weather Information

ii. Mountain/Valley Fog

a. Ground cools overnight and the denser, cooler mountaintop air sinks into valleys and collects there
b. Through the night, the valley fills from the bottom with cold layers of air (known as “cold air
drainage”)
 Cooler air lowers surrounding temperatures toward the dewpoint/saturation
 If there is sufficient moisture, fog forms in the valleys
c. Most common in fall and spring
d. Densest around sunrise when surface temperatures are the lowest
iii. Advection Fog
a. Moist air moves over a colder surface, cooling the air to below its dew point
 Most common along coastal areas, but often moves deep in continental areas.
 Deepens as wind speed increases up to 15 knots; winds much stronger than 15 knots lifts the fog
into a layer of low stratus or stratocumulus clouds.
 West coast of the US is quite vulnerable to advection fog which frequently forms offshore
because of cold water and then is carried inland by the wind.
a Can remain for weeks, moving over land at night and retreating over water in the morning
b. A pilot will notice little difference flying over advection and radiation fog
iv. Upslope Fog
a. Forms as a result of moist, stable air being adiabatically cooled to or below its dewpoint as it moves
up sloping terrain
b. Wind speeds of 5-15 knots are most favorable; stronger winds tend to lift the fog into a low layer of
stratus clouds
c. Common along the eastern slopes of the Rockies, and somewhat less frequent east of the
Appalachians
 Often quite dense and extends to high altitude
v. Frontal Fog
a. Formation
 When warm, moist air is lifted over a front, clouds, and precipitation may form
 If the cold air below is near its dewpoint, evaporation may saturate the cold air and form fog
 Result is a continuous zone of condensed water droplets from the ground through the clouds
b. Mostly associated with warm fronts but can occur with others as well.
c. Can be quite dense and continue for an extended period
vi. Steam Fog
a. When very cold air moves across relatively warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from the
water surface to produce saturation. As the rising water vapor meets the cold air, it immediately
recondenses and rises with the air being warmed from below. Because the air is destabilized, fog
appears as rising streamers that resemble steam
b. Steam fog is often very shallow; as the steam rises, it reevaporates in the unsaturated air above
c. Expect convective turbulence flying through it
vii. Freezing Fog
a. Tiny, supercooled liquid water droplets in fog freeze instantly on exposed surfaces when
temperatures are at or below freezing
b. Can form on the aircraft, making flight very dangerous if not removed
C. Mist
i. Visible aggregate of minute water droplets of ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere that reduces
visibility to less than 7 SM, but greater than, or equal to, 5/8 SM
ii. Forms a thin grayish veil covering the landscape

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iii. Intermediate between fog and haze

a. Lower relative humidity than fog and doesn’t obstruct visibility to the same extent
11. Obstructions to Visibility
A. Haze
i. Suspension in the air of extremely small particles individually invisible to the eye, but numerous enough
to give the air an opalescent appearance
a. Reduces visibility by scattering shorter wavelengths of lights
ii. Produces bluish color when against a dark background and yellowish against a light background
a. Versus mist which only yields gray
iii. Occurs in stable air and is usually only a few thousand feet thick, but may extend upwards of 15,000’
iv. Visibility varies greatly depending on whether you’re facing into or away from the sun
B. Smoke
i. Suspension of small particles in the air produced by fires, industrial burning, etc.
a. May transition to haze after traveling 25-100 miles and the larger particles have settled
ii. Can reduce visibility to zero and contains many highly toxic compounds, like carbon monoxide (CO)
iii. Must be dispersed by movement of air
C. Volcanic Ash
i. Made up of fine particles of rock powder from a volcano
a. Ash is composed of silica (glass)
b. Eruptions can send ash into the upper atmosphere
ii. Ash may not be visible at night or in IMC, even if visible, it’s hard to distinguish from ordinary clouds
a. Use aviation reports for ash clouds
iii. Very hazardous to aircraft
a. Jet engine: Ash turns to a soft, sticky molten adhering to the engine parts
 Without air in the engine, the engine flames out
 Exiting the ash cloud, the silica becomes dislodged and the engine can attempt a restart
b. Piston aircraft: Less likely to lose power, but severe engine damage is likely
c. Causes abrasive damage
 Particles impacting the windshield can sandblast it into a frosted finish obscuring visibility
a Also removes paint and pit metal on the nose and leading edges
 Contaminates aircraft ventilation, hydraulic, instrument, electronic and air data systems
D. Blowing Snow
i. Snow lifted from the surface by the wind to a height of 6’ or more
ii. Reduces horizontal visibility to less than 7 SM
iii. Whiteout: Strong winds keep the snow suspended up to 50’ or so, obscuring the sky and reducing
visibility to near zero
iv. Visibility improves rapidly when the wind subsides
E. Dust Storms, Sandstorms, & Haboob
i. Dust Storms
a. Severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air over an extensive area
b. Originate over regions when fine-grained soils, rich in clay and silt, are exposed to strong winds
 Commonly found in dry lake beds, river flood plans, ocean sediments and glacial deposits
 Most common in the Southwest US
c. Reduce visibility to near zero
d. Creation & Dissipation
 Extreme heating of barren ground + turbulent unstable air mass
a Surface winds 15 knots or greater (35 knots over desert rock fragments)

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 III.B. Weather Information

b Average height is 3,000 to 6,000’, but they can reach up to 15,000’

 Strong cooling after sunset settles the dust (temperature inversion)
a Without turbulence, dust settles at a rate of 1,000’ per hour (can take hours or days to
settle)
e. Hazards
 Visibility can drop to zero in a matter of seconds
 Dust can clog intakes, damage systems, and affect human health
 Slant range visibility is greatly reduced compared to report surface visibility
a May not be possible to see an airport from above even if surface visibility is 3 SM or more
ii. Sandstorms
a. Particles of sand carried aloft by a strong wind
b. Similar to dust storms but on a more localized level since the sand particles are heavier
 10’ to 50’ above the ground
iii. Haboob
a. Dust storm that forms as cold downdrafts from a thunderstorm lift dust and sand into the air
b. Often short lived, but can be intense
 Dust wall can extend for 60 miles and rise to the base of the thunderstorm
 Lage dust/sand whirls frequently form along the edge of the turbulent cold air outflow
12. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing
A. FAR 91.103 – As PIC, you are required to become familiar with the weather reports and forecasts
B. The weather briefing allows the pilot to make a more educated and competent go/no go decision
i. Alerts the pilot to any potentially hazardous conditions along the route of flight while providing a big
picture overview of the conditions prior to stepping foot in the airplane
ii. More specific information is also attained
iii. The weather briefing can go beyond just weather, providing the pilot information on NOTAMs, ATC
delays, and other information that may affect the flight
C. The pilot knows what to expect and can be alert to any changing conditions while enroute
13. Weather Information Sources
A. General awareness of the overall weather
i. Internet, Weather Apps, TV, etc.
B. Detailed Briefing (Specific to the flight)
i. FSS (1-800-WX BRIEF or 1800wxbrief.com)
a. Primary source for preflight weather
b. Provides NOTAM, weather, and filing of flight plans
ii. NWS – National Weather Service
a. Aviationweather.gov
b. Provides weather only (vs FSS with NOTAM, and filing of flight plans)
iii. ForeFlight
a. Briefings are timestamped and stored to comply with FAR 91.103
iv. AIM 7-1-2-C
a. Pilots can receive a regulatory compliant briefing without contacting flight service
b. Encouraged to use automated resources & review AC 91-92 – Pilot’s Guide to a Preflight Briefing
 Provides a roadmap for self-briefings and guidance for FAR 91.103 required preflight actions
 Briefing types and sources, sample preflight checklists, Do’s and Don’ts, and more
C. RM: Inflight Weather Sources
i. FSS Frequencies
a. Provides information/services before, during, and after flights,

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 III.B. Weather Information

b. Unlike ATC, FSS is not responsible for giving instructions, clearances or providing separation
c. Frequency is as published, or 122.2
ii. ForeFlight, or other apps (with data connection)
iii. Satellite Weather
a. Current weather available to appropriately equipped aircraft
 i.e. G1000 with XM WX satellite capability and subscription
iv. FIS-B
a. Flight Information Service Broadcast – Part of the ADS-B system
b. Available to aircraft who can receive 978 MHz (UAT) flying within ADS-B coverage
 Automatically transmits a wide range of weather products to all aircraft equipped to receive the
data, and flying within ADS-B coverage
 Includes AIRMET, Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, METAR, SPECI, National NEXRAD, Regional
NEXRAD, D-NOTAM, FDC-NOTAM, PIREP, SUA Status, TAF, AMEND, Winds and Temperatures
Aloft, TIS-B Service Status, Lighting, Turbulence, Icing, Cloud Tops, Graphical AIRMET, Center
Weather Advisory
c. Capability and availability will vary based on individual ADS-B avionics
14. Weather Reports and Charts
A. METAR, TAF, and GFA
i. METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report)
a. Observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format
b. Contains the following information:
 Type of Report – 2 types:
a Routine METAR report, transmitted hourly
b Aviation selected special weather report (SPECI)
1. Published when necessary to update a METAR for changing weather, mishaps, etc.
 Station Identifier – Four letter code (ex. KAHN). K is the country ID and AHN is the airport ID
a Alaska begins with “PA” and Hawaii begins with “PH”
 Date and Time of Report – (161753Z) Six-digits: First 2 digits are date; last 4 are time (UTC)
 Modifier – Denote that the METAR came from an automated source or was corrected
a “AUTO” indicates the report came from an automated source
b “AO1” and “AO2” indicate the type of precipitation sensors at the station
c “COR” identifies a corrected report.
 Wind – (14021G26)
a Reported with 5 digits unless speed is > 99 knots, then it is 6
1. The first 3 digits indicate wind direction in tens of degrees
2. The last 2 digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots
a. Gusting winds (G) show with the peak gust after the “G”
3. If wind varies more than 60 degrees and the speed > 6 knots, a separate group of
numbers, separated by a “V” (variable) will indicate the extremes of the directions
 Visibility – (3/4SM)
a Reported in statute miles
b RVR is sometimes reported following the visibility
1. RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the runway in a moving aircraft.
2. Shown with an “R” then the runway number, a slant, and the visual range in feet
 Weather – (-RA BR) Two different categories: Qualifiers and Weather Phenomenon
a Qualifiers show intensity or proximity as well as descriptor codes
1. Ex: -, +, VC, SH, TS, FZ, etc.

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 III.B. Weather Information

b Phenomena describe the different precipitation, obscuration, and other phenomena

1. Ex: DZ, RA, HZ, SS, DS, SN, etc.
 Sky Condition – (BKN008 OVC012)
a Always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type
1. Heights are depicted with three digits in hundreds of feet above ground
a. Clouds above 12,000 ft. are not detected
2. TCU and CB clouds are reported with their height
a. Amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the sky from horizon to horizon
< 1/8 1/8 – 2/8 3/8 – 4/8 5/8 – 7/8 8/8
Sky Cover
Clear Few Scattered Broken Overcast
Contraction SKC/CLR/FEW FEW SCT BKN OVC
 Temperature and Dewpoint – (18/17)
a In degrees Celsius (Temp below 0 degrees Celsius are preceded by the letter “M”)
 Altimeter Setting – (A2970)
a Preceded by the letter “A” and reported as inches of mercury in a four-digit number
b “PRESRR” or “PRESFR” represent rising or falling pressure
 Remarks – RMK
a May include wind data, variable visibility, begin/end times of phenomenon, pressure info,
and various other necessary info
EXAMPLE:
METAR BTR 161753Z 14021G26 ¾SM –RA BR BKN008 OVC012 18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR

EXPLANATION:
Type of Report: Routine METAR
Location: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Date: 16th day of the month
Time: 1753 Zulu
Modifier: None shown
Wind Information: Winds 140 at 21 knots gusting to 26 knots
Visibility: ¾ SM
Weather: Light rain and mist
Sky Conditions: Skies broken 800 ft., Overcast 1,200 ft.
Temperature: Temp 18 degrees C, Dewpoint 17 degrees C
Altimeter: 29.70 in. Hg.
Remarks: Barometric pressure is falling

ii. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

a. A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 s.m. radius around an airport
b. Valid for a 24-hour or 30-hour period, updated four times a day: 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z
c. The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as the METAR.
d. Includes the following information in sequential order:
 Type of Report – Can either be a routine forecast (TAF) or an amended forecast (TAF AMD)
 ICAO Station Identifiers – (KAHN) Same as METAR
 Date and Time of Origin – Six number code. First 2 are the date; last four are the time (UTC)
 Valid Period Date and Time – Six-digit number group. First 2 are the date, the next 2 are the
beginning time for the valid period and the last 2 are the end time
 Forecast Wind – Wind direction and speed forecasts are given in a five-digit number group
 Forecast Visibility – Given in statute miles (Greater than 6 SM is shows as “P6SM”)
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 III.B. Weather Information

 Forecast Significant Weather – Same as a METAR (No sig weather forecast “NSW” shown)
 Forecast Sky Condition – Given same as the METAR. Only “CB” clouds are forecast
 Forecast Change Group – For any significant weather change forecast to occur, the expected
conditions and time period are included, this information can be shown as:
a FM - From - A rapid/significant change, usually within an hour, is expected
b BECMG - Becoming - A gradual change is expected over no more than 2 hours
c TEMPO - Temporary - Temporary fluctuations expected to last less than an hour
 Probability Forecast – Probability (%) of thunderstorms/precipitation in the coming hours
EXAMPLE:
TAF
KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090
TEMPO 1214 5SM BR
FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB
FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=

EXPLANATION
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota. On the 11th day of the month, at 11:30Z. Valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on the 11th
to 1200Z on the 12th. Wind from 150 at 12 knots. Greater than 6 SM visibility. Broken clouds at 9,000 ft.
Temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist.
From 1500Z winds from 160 at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots. Visibility greater than 6SM, and clouds broken at 8,000 ft.,
overcast at 15,000 ft. Between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is a 40 percent probability of visibility 3 statute miles,
thunderstorms with moderate rain showers, clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds.
From 0400Z winds are from 140 at 08 knots, visibility greater than 6 SM. Clouds at 4,000 ft. scattered and overcast at
8,000’. Temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z, visibility 3 SM, thunderstorms with moderate rain. Clouds overcast at
3,000 ft. with cumulonimbus clouds.
Becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z, wind from 320 at 7 knots. End of report =

iii. Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) – replaced the Area Forecast (FA)
a. GFA Tool – Aviationweather.gov/gfa
b. Tools
 GFA User’s Guide - Weather.gov
 GFA Tutorial Video – Youtube.com
 Product Description Doc – National Weather Service
c. Scope
 Describes conditions produced by weather systems such as high- and low-pressure areas, air
masses, and fronts. Predicts conditions that may affect flight over relatively large areas
d. Purpose
 Provides a forecast for the enroute phase of flight and for locations without a TAF
 Provide the ability to obtain forecast data previously available from the area forecast
e. Description
 Web-based displays providing observations/forecasts of safety critical weather phenomena
 Covers continental US, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, portions of the Atlantic (shown below)

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 III.B. Weather Information

 Includes observational data, forecasts, and warnings

a Can be viewed from 14 hours in the past to 15 hours in the future
 Hourly model data and forecasts, including information on clouds, flight category, precipitation,
icing, turbulence, wind, and graphical output are available
a Wind, icing and turbulence forecasts are available in 3,000 ft. increments from the surface
up to 30,000’ MSL, and 6,000’ increments from 30,000 MSL to FL 480
b Turbulence forecast graphics for LO (below 18,000 MSL) and HI (FL180 and above)
c A maximum icing graphic and maximum wind velocity graphic are also available
f. Advantages
 Displays for non-meteorologist users
 Single source for multiple products
 Temporal resolution 1 hour.
 Available continuously
 Updated continuously
 Display scalable and customizable
g. Limitations
 Not intended to cover every phenomenon
 No amendments
 Primarily low altitude products (below FL180)
 Automated; may not be as accurate as forecast with human involvement
 Displays may suffer from clutter
 Users may disable certain overlays, eliminating areas of hazardous weather
B. Model Output Statistics (MOS)
**Note: Not required by the PTS/ACS, but becoming popular, especially on ForeFlight. If used/presented during the
checkride, the examiner may ask questions about it
i. What is it?
a. Takes a weather model (big picture forecast) and applies statistical methods and historical
observations to produce a specific point forecast (airport, town, etc.)
b. Completely automated
 Removes systematic model biases
 Quantifies uncertainty – displays probability forecasts
 Updated hourly

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 III.B. Weather Information

c. Detailed prediction of temp, chance and type of precipitation/thunderstorms, cloud cover and
height, wind speed and direction at specific points across the country
d. Displayed and commonly used in ForeFlight
ii. Uses
a. Forecasters use it to:
 Create more accurate local forecasts
 Construct and amend TAFs
b. Better weather picture for aviation planning purposes
 More detailed than GFA
 More or less provides a TAF for airports that don’t have TAF information
a According to ForeFlight, TAFs cover 666 airports, MOS covers over 2100
iii. Limitations
a. Not a legal weather source
 Great for planning, but should not be used for legal requirements
a i.e., alternate requirements, required weather briefing, etc.
 Used for guidance
b. Cannot forecast
 Multiple cloud layers
 Forecast showers or fog in the vicinity
 Precipitation intensity
 Non-convective LLWS
 No significant weather
 Variable winds
c. Can’t discriminate between
 Rain and drizzle
 Mixed precipitation
d. Currently only in the US
iv. Where to find it
a. ForeFlight – Airport weather tab
b. NWS MOS Text Bulletins
c. Raw MOS data breakdown: JetStream Max: MOS
 NWS resource if you’re not using ForeFlight, or want to pull up and read raw MOS data
C. Surface Analysis Chart
i. Depicts an analysis of the current surface weather
ii. Computer prepared report transmitted every 3 hours covering
contiguous 48 states/adjacent areas
iii. Shows high/low pressure, fronts, temp/dewpoint, wind
direction/speed, weather, visual obstruction
iv. Surface weather observations for reporting points across the US
are also depicted on this chart. Each of these reporting points is
illustrated by a station model. A station model will include:
a. Type of Observation – Round indicates official weather
observer, square is automated station
b. Sky Cover – Shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, or obscured/partially obscured
c. Clouds – Represented by specific symbols. Low cloud symbols are placed beneath the station model,
middle and high cloud symbols are placed directly above the station model. Typically, only one type
of cloud will be depicted with the station model.

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d. Sea Level Pressure (SLP) – Given in 3 digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar. For 1000 mbs or
greater, prefix a 10 to the 3 digits; for less than 1000 mbs, prefix a 9 to the 3 digits
e. Pressure Change/Tendency – In tenths of mbs over the past 3 hours, shown directly below SLP
f. Precipitation – Precip that has fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest hundredth of an inch
g. Dewpoint – In degrees Fahrenheit
h. Present Weather – Many different weather symbols are used to describe the current weather
i. Temperature – Given in degrees Fahrenheit
j. Wind – True direction of wind is given by the wind pointer line, indicating the direction from which
the wind is coming (Short barb is 5 knots, long barb is 10 knots, a pennant is 50 knots)
D. Ceiling & Visibility Chart (CVA)
i. https://aviationweather.gov/gfa/#cigvis
ii. Use the Ceiling, Visibility, of Flight Category (Low IFR, IFR, Marginal IFR) drop down to provide a large-
scale overview of ceiling and visibility information
a. Drop down at top right (icon depicted to the right)
b. Use the legend icon at the bottom right to view color meanings
iii. Combines satellite and surface observations to produce ceiling & visibility conditions across the US
a. Used for big picture planning and to avoid hazardous ceiling and visibility conditions
b. Useful for a knowledge of where VFR conditions should exist
E. Radar Summary Chart
i. A graphically depicted collection of radar weather reports (SDs) displaying areas of precipitation as well
as information regarding the characteristics of precipitation
ii. The chart is published hourly at 35 min past the hour
iii. A radar summary chart includes:
a. No information – If info isn’t reported it will say “NA.” if no echoes are detected, it will say “NE”
b. Precipitation Intensity Contours – Described as one of 6 levels and shown by 3 contour intervals
c. Height of Tops – The heights of the echo tops are given in hundreds of feet MSL
d. Movement of Cells –Indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of movement, speed in knots is
at the top of the arrow heard (“LM” indicates little movement)
e. Type of Precipitation - Marked using specific symbols (not those used on the METAR)
f. Echo Configuration – Echoes are shown as being areas, cells, or lines
g. Weather Watches – Depicted by boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines
iv. Limitations
a. Only depicts areas of precipitation
b. Will not show areas of clouds and fog with no appreciable precipitation,
c. Will not show the heights of the tops and bases of the clouds
v. Depiction of current precipitation, should be used with current METAR and weather forecasts
F. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart (FB)
i. Provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations
ii. The forecasts are made twice a day based at 0000Z and 1200Z
iii. Through 12,000 ft. are true altitudes and above 18,000 ft. are pressure altitudes
iv. Wind
a. Direction is always in reference to true north and wind speed is always given in knots
b. No winds are forecast when a given level is within 1,500 ft. of station elevation
c. Wind direction and speed are listed together in a four-digit code
 The first two numbers indicate the direction the wind is blowing from in tens of degrees
 The second two numbers indicate the speed of the wind
d. If wind is forecast to be 100-199 knots, 50 is added to direction/100 is subtracted from speed
 To decode, the reverse must be accomplished
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a EX: For 7319 - Subtract 50 from direction, add 100 to speed to get 230 o at 119 knots
e. If the wind speed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots
 EX: For 7799 - Subtract 50 from direction, add 100 to 99 to get 270 at 199 knots or greater
f. Light and Variable wind is coded “9900”
v. Temperature
a. Temperature is always given in Celsius
b. No temperatures are forecast for any station within 2,500 feet of station elevation
c. Temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative.

EXAMPLE:

EXPLANATION:
The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th of the month at 1640Z and is based on the 1200 Zulu
radiosonde. The valid time is 1800 Zulu on the same day and should be used for the period between 1700Z and 2100Z.
The heading also indicates that the temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative. Since the temperatures above
24,000 feet are negative, the minus sign is omitted. A 4-digit data group shows the wind direction in reference to true
north, and the wind speed in knots. The elevation at Amarillo, TX (AMA) is 3,605 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is
6,000 feet for the forecast winds. In this case, “2714” means the wind is forecast to be from 270° at a speed of 14 knots.
A 6-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft. The elevation at Denver (DEN) is 5,431 feet, so the lowest
reportable altitude is 9,000 feet for the winds and temperature forecast. In this case, “2321-04” indicates the wind is
forecast to be from 230° at a speed of 21 knots with a temperature of -4°C.
G. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
i. General - Portray forecasts of selected weather conditions over large areas at specified valid times
a. Each chart depicts a “snapshot” of the weather elements expected at the chart’s valid time
ii. Surface Chart

a. Used to obtain an overview of surface weather features over the next 2 ½ days
 Five forecast periods: 12, 18, 24, 48, and 60 hours
b. Depicts: Pressure systems, fronts, precipitation, and squall lines
c. Issued: 2x a day, based on the product

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 III.B. Weather Information

iii. Low Level Chart (FL240 and below)

a. Overview of certain aviation weather hazards up to FL240 at 12 and 24 hours into the future
 Two charts: 12 hour and a 24 hour prog
 Big picture overview, more detailed and timely products should be used for flight planning
b. Depicts (legend shown on the right):
 Flying categories: IFR, MVFR, VFR
 Turbulence intensities and altitudes
 Freezing level in hundreds of feet MSL (if multiple exist, lines are drawn to the highest level)
c. Sometimes combined with surface prognostic charts for a four panel display
 Left side: 12 hour Low Level and Surface; Right Side: 24 hour Low Level and Surface
d. Issued 4x per day

iv. M
i d
/
M e
d iu
m

Level Chart (10,000’ MSL to FL450) (depicted below, left)

a. Used to determine an overview of flight weather conditions between 10,000’ and FL450
 Single 24-hour chart
 Used by airline dispatchers for flight planning /
weather briefings and flight crew during flight
b. Depicts: Thunderstorms / cumulonimbus clouds,
moderate or severe turbulence and icing, jet streams,
tropopause heights, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions,
sandstorms / dust storms, and non-convective clouds with moderate or severe icing and / or
moderate or severe turbulence
c. Issued 4x per day

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 III.B. Weather Information

v.

High Level Chart (FL250 to FL630) (above, right)

a. Provided for enroute portion of international flights
 Used by airline dispatchers and flight crew
b. Depicts: Same as mid, minus non-convective clouds with moderate or severe icing / turbulence
c. Issued: 4x a day
vi. Alaska Charts
a. Graphical overview of forecast weather primarily for lower flight altitudes
b. Depict: Surface pressure systems and fronts, IFR / MVFR weather conditions, freezing levels, low-
level turbulence, and thunderstorms
c. Issued: 2x a day - 0530 / 1330Z (Alaska Standard Time), and 0430 / 1230Z (Alaska Daylight Time)
 Four forecasts (24, 36, 48, and 60 hour) valid at specific times
H. Convective Outlook Chart
i. Overview
a. Depicts areas forecast to have severe and non-severe (general) convection over 8 days
 Severe: Tornado, wind gusts 50 knots or greater, or hail 1 inch diameter or greater
b. Covers 8 days with 4 charts
 Day 1 Chart, Day 2 Chart, Day 3 Chart, Days 4-8 Chart
c. 5 levels of risk + general thunderstorm depict coverage and intensity of severe weather
d. Aviation Weather Convective Outlook Chart
ii. Levels of Risk (Day 1-3 Charts)
a. Thunderstorm area (TSTM)
 Areas of general thunderstorms
 ≥ 10% probability of storms
b. Marginal (MRGL) – Dark Green
 Severe storms of limited organization / longevity or low coverage and marginal intensity
c. Slight (SLGT) – Yellow
 Organized severe storms expected, but usually in low coverage with varying intensity
d. Enhanced (ENH) – Orange
 Greater concentration of organized severe thunderstorms with varying levels of intensity

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 III.B. Weather Information

e. Moderate (MDT) – Red

 Potential for widespread severe weather
with several tornadoes and/or numerous
thunder
f. High (HIGH) – Magenta
 Severe weather outbreak is expected
from numerous and long-track tornadoes
or a long-lived derecho system with
hurricane force winds producing
widespread damage
a Derecho: Widespread, long-lived,
straight-line wind storm associated
with a fast-moving group of severe
thunderstorms
g. Day 4-8 Chart Depictions
 Two probabilistic thresholds of 15% and 30% can be forecast
a Highlighted areas are equivalent to slight, or enhanced on the Day 1-3 charts
 If no 15% areas forecast, you’ll see:
a Predictability too low, or
1. Severe storms may be possible, but the location is in doubt
b Potential too low
1. 15% or greater severe probabilities appear highly unlikely
iii. Additional Information
a. Days 1 & 2: Contain individual severe probabilities for tornadoes, wind, and hail
b. Day 3: Combined probability of all three types of severe weather
c. Probabilities are within 25 miles of any point
d. Probability requirements vary based on the day
 Graphic Probability Requirements
iv. Issuance Schedule

v. Using the chart

a. A flight planning tool used to determine forecast areas of thunderstorms
I. Surface Weather Observations
i. Overview

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 III.B. Weather Information

a. Surface observations are fundamental to all meteorological services

 Three general types of surface weather observations: Manual, Automated, Augmented
b. Manual Observation
 Made by a human weather observer certified by the FAA
 Were primary prior to the mid-1990s, automated and augmented are now primary
c. Automated Observation
 Derived from instruments and algorithms without human input or oversight
 Two main kinds: ASOS and AWOS
 Contain AUTO in the report unless augmented by a human observer
d. Augmented Observation
 Automated observation with human input/oversight
 Humans report elements beyond system abilities or operationally significant elements
 Auto is not used in augmented reports
ii. ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)
a. Continuous min-by-min observations to generate a METAR and other info
b. Transmits a SPECI report whenever it determines a significant change in conditions
c. Types of Observations
 Every ASOS contains:
a Cloud height indicator
b Visibility Sensor
c Precipitation identification sensor
d Freezing rain sensor (at select sites)
e Pressure sensors
f Ambient temperature and dew point temp sensors
g Anemometer (wind direction & speed)
h Rainfall accumulation sensor
 Some include precipitation discriminator which differentiates liquid/frozen precipitation
a If it has this capability, it’s designated as A02 in the remarks section (otherwise A01)
 Lightning detection equipment is installed at select ASOS installations
d. Limitations
 ASOS cannot distinguish between stratus and cumulonimbus clouds
 Limited in its ability to identify restrictions to visibility
a No prevailing, sector, tower visibility (Input from a trained observer is integral)
e. Levels of service
 LEVEL A- The highest – typically available at major airports like those in or near Class B
 LEVEL B – Has human observers available 24 hours a day
 LEVEL C – Airports with part-time tower (Human augmentation ends when tower closes)
 LEVEL D – Smaller, nontowered airports meeting the FAA or NWS criteria for the ASOS
a Unattended, and will always contain the AUTO designation when in a METAR
iii. AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System)
a. First widely installed automated weather data gathering system at US airports
b. AWOS is available in lesser configurations without all the types of observations listed above
c. Levels of service:
 AWOS-A: Only reports the altimeter setting
 AWOS-1: Also measures/reports wind speed, direction, gusts, temperature, and dew point
 AWOS-2: Adds visibility information
 AWOS-3: Most capable – also includes cloud/ceiling data (essentially equivalent to ASOS)

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 III.B. Weather Information

a Like ASOS, AWOS-3 can include precipitation discrimination sensors indicated by A02
b Lightning detection is also an enhancement for selected AWOS-3 sites
d. Difference between ASOS/AWOS is ability to detect/report significant changes in sfc weather
 AWOS transmits 3 reports per hour at fixed intervals and cannot issue a special report
iv. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
a. A continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in busier terminal areas
b. Contains essential info - weather, active runways/approaches, other required info (NOTAMs)
 Data may be entered by hand, come from a METAR, or be taken directly from sensors
c. In its simplest form, ATIS is a continuously played recording of a person reading the information
d. Updated when there is a significant change in the information; given a letter designation
e. Re-recorded at every update (often several times per hour)
f. Modern systems are automated and only require a controller for failures/unusual activities
g. Some airports have separate ATIS for arriving/departing aircraft, each on its own frequency
15. In-Flight Weather Advisories
A. Forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather
B. AIRMET (WA)
i. Issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates as needed
ii. Info is of interest to all, but the weather section contains phenomena dangerous to light aircraft
iii. 3 Types
a. SIERRA: Denotes IFR and mountain obscurement
b. TANGO: Denotes turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-level wind shear
c. ZULU: Denotes icing and freezing levels
C. SIGMET (WS)
i. In flight advisory concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft
ii. Severe icing/extreme turbulence/Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) not associated with Thunderstorms;
dust/sand storms lowering visibility to less than 3 miles and volcanic ash
iii. Unscheduled forecasts valid for 4 hours (hurricane SIGMET is valid for 6 hours)
D. Convective SIGMENT (WST)
i. Weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of every flight
ii. Issued for:
a. Severe Thunderstorms with
 Surface winds greater than 50 knots
 Hail at the surface ≥ ¾ inch in diameter
 Tornadoes
b. Embedded thunderstorms
c. A line of thunderstorms
d. T-storms with heavy or greater precipitation affecting at least 40% of a 3,000 mi2 or greater area
E. PIREPS
i. A pilot generated report concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight
a. Aircraft in flight are the only way to observe cloud tops, icing and turbulence
ii. PIREPS fill the gaps between reporting stations
F. Onboard Weather Equipment
i. Understand the operation and limitations of any onboard weather equipment
16. Recognizing Weather Hazards
A. Hazards can be recognized through proper interpretation of aviation weather charts, reports, etc.
i. GFA, WST, WS, WA, Significant Weather Prognostic charts
B. Also, utilizing weather information resources will allow hazards to be recognized
i. LLWAS, PIREPS, Convective Outlook, METARs, etc.
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 III.B. Weather Information

C. Wind Shear
i. What is it?
a. A sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a very small area
b. While wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to the
proximity to the ground
 Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing frontal systems, thunderstorms,
temperature inversions, and strong upper-level winds (greater than 25 knots)
ii. Why is it dangerous?
a. Can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts/downdrafts, and abrupt changes to horizontal movement
b. It can rapidly change performance and disrupt the normal flight attitude, for example:
 A tailwind can quickly change to a headwind causing an increase in airspeed and performance
 A headwind can quickly change to a tailwind causing a decrease in airspeed and performance
c. Microbursts
 The most severe type of wind shear
a Associated with convective precipitation into dry air at cloud base
 Typical Microburst
a Horizontal diameter of 1-2 miles
b Depth of 1,000’
c Lifespan of 5-15 minutes
d Downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute
e Headwind losses of 30-90 knots (seriously degraded performance)
f Strong turbulence and hazardous wind direction changes
 Flying through a Microburst
a During an inadvertent takeoff into a microburst, the plane may first experience a
performance-increasing headwind (1)
b Followed by performance-decreasing downdrafts (2)
c Followed by a rapidly increasing tailwind (3)
1. This can result in terrain impact or flight dangerously close to the ground (4)
d An encounter during approach involves the same sequence of wind changes and could force
the plane to the ground short of the runway

 Indications
a Visual
1. Intense rain shaft at the surface, but virga at cloud base
2. Ring of blowing dust
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 III.B. Weather Information

b Alerting Systems
1. The FAA has invested in substantial microburst accident prevention
2. LLWAS-NE, TDWR, and ASR-9 WSP systems installed at major airports
a. Very few false alerts, and detect microbursts well above 90% detection rate
requirement established by congress
3. Many airports, especially smaller airports, have no wind shear systems
a. Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
i. Formerly AC 00-54, which was incorporated into Aviation Wx Handbook
ii. Includes information on how to recognize the risk of a microburst encounter,
how to avoid an encounter, and the best strategy for escape
iii. Handling Wind Shear
a. If at all possible, avoid it
 Never conduct traffic pattern operations in close proximity to an active thunderstorm
a Be alert for visual cues and any alerting systems
b Do not takeoff if wind shear is in the area
 LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System)
a If available can warn of impending wind shear
 PIREPS
a Can be very informational/helpful if a pilot has reported wind shear in the area
17. RM: Go/No Go Decision
A. Weather factors must be considered in relation to the route of flight, aircraft and equipment to be used, as
well as the pilot
i. Can the plane and equipment handle the flight as planned?
ii. Is the route safe?
B. Set limits and don’t bend them
i. For example, numerous weather conditions may be an automatic no go
a. Thunderstorms/squall lines, icing, moderate or greater turbulence, fog, etc.
ii. Personal limitations will vary based on the pilot and the aircraft
a. These must always meet or exceed any FARs or aircraft limitations
b. Ex: have personal crosswind limitations, visibility requirements, rest requirements, etc.
C. Physical/Mental condition
i. Sick, tired, upset, depressed – These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any problem
ii. IMSAFE checklist
D. Recent Flight Experience
i. Don’t go beyond your abilities or the aircraft’s abilities
ii. Ex: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you haven’t flown in a while
E. Flying is a continual process of decision making throughout the entire flight
i. If you reach a “No Go” decision in flight, return home or divert, as necessary
a. Reduced visibility (temp/dewpoint), hazardous weather, PIREPs, conditions dropping below your
personal minimums, etc. may lead to the decision to divert

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is very important to be able to interpret and make a Go/No Go decision based on the information attained. A safe
flight begins with a thorough weather briefing to ensure the pilot understands the meteorological factors that may
affect the flight.

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IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson

The evaluator asks the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to
a student and determines the outcome of this Task before the flight portion of the practical test. Previously developed
lesson plans from the instructor applicant's library may be used.

All necessary information for this lesson is found in sections VII through XII

ACS Requirements:
The applicant demonstrates instructional knowledge by describing and explaining:
1. Purpose of the maneuver.
2. Elements of the maneuvers and the associated common errors.
3. Desired outcome(s), including completion standards.

Deliver instruction on the selected maneuver using a lesson plan, teaching methods, and teaching aids, as appropriate.
V. Preflight Procedures
V.A. Preflight Assessment

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a comprehensive preflight
inspection. The student will understand what to look for during each part of the inspection and
can perform the preflight inspection as required by the checklist and the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Aircraft Specific Checklist

2. Airworthy and Safe
3. Fuel Grade and Contamination
4. *Oil Level (4-6 Quarts)

Elements 1. Big Picture Preflight

2. Preflight Checklist
3. Preflight Overview
4. What to Inspect
5. Detecting Problems
6. Ice and Frost
7. Loading and Securing
8. Determining the Airplane is Safe

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a comprehensive preflight inspection, understanding what to look for
Standards at each part of the inspection. The student will be able to determine whether or not the
airplane is airworthy and in a condition for safe flight.
 V.A. Preflight Inspection

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
We don’t want to find a problem with the airplane while we’re in the air. For that reason, we perform a thorough
preflight on the ground, allowing us to find and fix any problems before getting airborne, where issues are
considerably more difficult to deal with.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The preflight inspection is a thorough check of the airplane to ensure airworthiness and safety prior to flight.

Why
The accomplishment of safe flight begins with a careful preflight inspection. The preflight inspection determines the
airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in a condition for safe flight.

How:
1. RM: Big Picture Preflight (PAVE Checklist)
A. Pilot
i. Mitigate risk by determining your own physical and mental readiness for flight - IMSAFE
a. Illness – Symptoms?
b. Medication – Taking any?
c. Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
d. Alcohol – Been drinking?
e. Fatigue – Well rested?
f. Emotion – Emotionally upset?
B. Aircraft
i. Required documents/inspection, preflight checklist
ii. Equipment and systems operation
iii. Proper loading (baggage, fuel, people, weight & balance)
iv. Performance capabilities
C. enVironment
i. Current and anticipated weather versus planned weather
a. Wind, clouds, density altitude, storms, frontal zones, icing, PIREPs, AIR/SIGMETs, etc.
ii. Terrain requirements
iii. Departure, route, destination, alternate(s) (weather, terrain, airspace, TFRs, NOTAMs)
iv. Day or night
v. Aviation security concerns - Congressional Research Service: Securing General Aviation
a. Threats
 Terrorists seek to exploit GA assets to attack critical infrastructure/high profile targets
 Terrorists may exploit GA to gain knowledge and/or access to the US airspace system
b. Vulnerabilities
 Minimal to nonexistent security at many small GA airports

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 V.A. Preflight Inspection

 Unattended airports
c. Mitigating GA Security Risks
 Airport watch program: Similar to a neighborhood watch; be alert
a Pilots, airport tenants, and workers report suspicious activity (1-866-GA SECURE)
b Call 911 if there is an immediate threat
 Limit airport access when able
a Don’t provide flight line access to unauthorized people
b Ask to see required credentials if they’re not visible
 Flights School Specific
a TSA computer-based flight school security awareness training program
1. Annual requirement
b Background checks for prospective employees
c Formal written security procedures for employees and customers
d Display of employee identification
e Limit access to aircraft and their keys to authorized personnel
1. Keep aircraft locked
2. Monitor keys and secure/lock them up when away
D. External Pressures
i. Based on the particular flight
ii. Stick to your standards and personal minimums – assess and attempt to mitigate risk
2. Preflight Checklist
A. Reasons for the Preflight Checklist
i. To ensure the plane meets airworthiness standards & is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight
a. Airworthy: The aircraft and its components meet the airplane’s type design or is in a properly altered
configuration and is in a condition safe for operation
B. The POH must be the reference for conducting the visual preflight inspection
i. Preflight checklist is in Chapter 4 of the POH
ii. Each manufacturer has a specified sequence to follow for their specific aircraft
iii. Using a different checklist will result in missing equipment and confusion
C. Always have the checklist to be used as a reference to ensure everything is checked
D. CE: Failure to use, or the improper use, of a checklist
i. Always use the manufacturer’s checklist to prevent missing or skipping important steps
E. CE: Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
i. Distractions can result in the pilot accidentally skipping steps/missing parts of the inspection
ii. If distracted, the safest option is to start over. Otherwise, find a step you are sure has been completed and
continue from there
3. Preflight Overview
A. The preflight will logically move around the airplane to ensure it is in a condition for safe flight
B. It should begin while approaching the airplane on the ramp
i. Make a note of the appearance, looking for obvious problems
a. Gear out of alignment, structural distortion, skin damage, dripping fuel/oil leaks, etc.
C. Upon reaching the airplane, all tie downs, control locks, and chocks should be removed
4. What to Inspect
A. Inside the Cockpit
i. Airworthiness - Required Documents (AROW)
ii. Logbooks – To ensure the required tests and inspections have been completed (logbooks are not usually
kept in the airplane)
a. Annual (91.409(a))

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b. 100-hour (91.409(b))
c. Static/Transponder/Altimeter (every 24 months) (91.411 & 91.413)
d. ELT (every 12 months) (91.207)
e. Airworthiness Directives are complied with
iii. Required equipment for the flight (Ex: Mode C transponder in Class B/C Airspace, Instruments)
iv. Inspect the items inside the airplane (Instruments, Switches, Lights, Mixture, etc., as listed on the checklist)
B. Outside the Airplane
i. Inspect the items outside the airplane (Structure, Controls, Engine, Prop, Gear, Struts, everything)
ii. Defects are detected by following the checklist and looking for something wrong in each item
iii. CE: Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
a. Be familiar with the POH procedures, and know what you are looking at and looking for
5. Detecting Problems
A. Visible Structural Damage
i. Check for dents, cracks, bending, separating, etc.
a. *Diamond aircraft cannot be flown if a dent is found due to the composite structure
ii. Check for leaks/stains as they are signs of potential problems
iii. Look for missing rivets, bolts, etc.
iv. Inspect the propeller for damage including nicks and cracking
B. Flight Controls
i. Ensure the flight controls move freely/correctly and are attached securely/properly
ii. Check the flap movement and connections
C. Fuel Quantity and Contamination
i. *Quantity - Confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the gauge by a visual inspection (DA20: Fuel stick)
a. Airplane attitude, gauge malfunctions, etc. can result in incorrect readings
ii. Contamination
a. Type, Grade of Fuel – Critical to safe flight
 Looking for 100LL (AVGAS) – Blue with a familiar gasoline scent
 Jet-A is clear, has a kerosene scent, and has disastrous effects when in reciprocating engines
a A reciprocating engine operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the plane for enough
time to become airborne only to fail catastrophically in flight
b The engine will be destroyed from detonation
1. Detonation - The uncontrolled explosive combustion of the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder’s
combustion chamber
c Refueling trucks are marked with JET-A placards
 Supervise fueling to ensure the right type, and grade of fuel, and that the fuel caps are in place
 Never substitute a lower grade of fuel for a required higher grade (detonation will result)
a 80 is Red; 100LL is Blue; 100 is Green; Jet Fuel is Clear
b. Water and Other Sediment – Usually from condensation in partially filled tanks or bad seals
a Water is heavier than fuel and therefore accumulates in the low points
b Prevented by minimizing the opportunity for condensation – fill the tanks after each flight, or at
least after the last flight of the day
 Sediment can arise from dust/dirt entering the tanks
c. Checking the Grade and Removing the Water and Other Contamination
 Drain the fuel from the gascolator/tank sumps checking for color, smell, water, and contamination
a Water is usually in bubble, or bead-like droplets, different in color, in the bottom of the sample
b If water/contaminants are found, drain until they have been removed
D. Oil Quantity and Contamination
i. *Check the oil level on the oil dip stick to ensure it is at an acceptable amount (4-6 quarts)

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a. The plane will use a small amount each flight, if a large amount is used there may be a problem
b. If the engine is cold, oil levels on the dipstick show higher than if the engine is warm and recently
shutdown after a flight
ii. Contamination can be detected by discoloration
a. Oil darkens as operating hours increase, however rapidly darkened oil may point to cylinder problems
E. CE: Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
i. Monitor the fueling process, when possible
ii. Always drain a sample of fuel to ensure the proper grade
iii. When adding oil, verify it is the type called for in the POH
F. Leaks (Fuel, Oil, Hydraulic)
i. Check to see there are no leaks under the airplane, inside the cowling, or on the wheel struts
ii. The fuel vent may appear to be a leak, but its purpose is to allow air into the tank or vent excess fuel
depending on pressure differences
6. Ice and Frost
A. Small amounts of ice/frost can disrupt the airflow over the wing, increase stall speed, and reduce lift
B. Do not fly unless the ice/frost is removed in accordance with the requirements in the POH
7. Loading and Securing
A. Ensure everything is properly loaded and secured prior to flight
i. Verify the weight and balance calculations agree with the actual position loaded
a. Ex. If the baggage was planned to be in the nose compartment but was loaded in the aft cargo
B. Secure everything properly to prevent movement during flight
i. This not only could damage the airplane, but could change the CG, or affect the pilot
C. CE: Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment
8. Determining the Airplane is Safe
A. During the preflight inspection, note any issues with the airplane to make an educated go/no go decision
i. If there are any questions as to whether the airplane is safe, ask for help
a. Find a Chief Instructor, CFI, Maintenance/AMP, etc.
b. Don’t take a plane that is probably safe
B. Follow the recommendations in the POH, as well as those learned from experience to make a determination as
to whether the airplane is safe for flight
i. Do not let emotion, outside pressure, or any other undue influence sway you from doing what is safe
C. For inoperative equipment, follow the procedures in III.B. Airworthiness Requirements and 91.213(d)
D. Remember, in FAR 91.3: The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority
as to, the operation of that aircraft

Common Errors:
 Failure to use or the improper use of a checklist
 Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
 Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
 Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
 Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A safe flight begins with a thorough preflight as prescribed in the airplane’s POH. This preflight inspection ensures the
airplane is both airworthy and safe for flight.

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V.B. Flight Deck Management

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to cockpit management. The
student should maintain an organized cockpit and properly position all controls for correct use.
All equipment should be fully understood to assist in utilizing all possible resources.

Key Elements 1. Good Housekeeper

2. Passenger Briefings
3. Internal and External Resources

Elements 1. Occupant Briefing

2. Seat Position & Controls
3. Occupant Briefing
4. Navigation Data Currency
5. Checklists Usage
6. Resource Utilization
7. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can efficiently and safely complete a flight as described in cockpit management.
Standards
 `V.B. Flight Deck Management

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
All pilots need to learn to be good housekeepers. The airplane is your house and you need to be sure it stays clean
and organized.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Cockpit management (single pilot resource management) is a process that combines you, the airplane, and the
environment for safer and more efficient operations.

Why
Understanding the elements behind cockpit management (single pilot resource management) provides for a
considerably more efficient and safer flight.

How:
1. Occupant Briefing
A. Safety Belts
i. FAR 91.107 - Each person must be briefed on how to fasten and unfasten their safety belt/shoulder harness
a. Cannot taxi, takeoff, land without ensuring each person has fastened their safety belt/shoulder harness
B. Briefing Topics
i. Combination of FAR 91.519 (Briefing requirements for Turbine-Powered Multiengine Airplanes and
Fractional Aircraft), FAASafety Passenger Briefing and common topics
a. Identify the PIC
b. Safety belts and harnesses
c. Exits (how to operate the doors and emergency exits_
d. Additional pertinent emergency procedures
 Fire extinguishers
 Specific exit procedures, if necessary
 Avoiding propeller blades
 Gathering point in case of an evacuation
e. Passenger Conduct
 Talking (i.e. sterile cockpit/not during taxi, takeoff, landing unless safety requires it)
 See and avoid (pointing out other aircraft)
f. Location of survival equipment
g. Ditching procedures/flotation equipment
h. Systems
 Use of oxygen systems (normal and/or emergency)
 Heat/Air
i. No smoking
j. Questions
i. FAASafety passenger briefing discussion and briefing card – Passenger Briefing
2. Arranging & Securing

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A. Arranging
i. Ensure that all the necessary equipment, documents, checklists & navigation charts are on board
a. Materials should be neatly arranged and organized to make them readily available for use
ii. Any equipment with wires should not interfere with the motion or operation of any controls
B. Securing
i. Secure all cargo to prevent movement during flight
a. Loose cargo could be hazardous to people and/or aircraft CG/balance
ii. Check for loose articles which might be tossed about during flight, or in turbulence
C. Form the habit of “good housekeeping;” in the long run, it will pay off in safe and efficient flying
3. Seat Position & Controls
A. Seat Belt/Harnesses
i. When seated, the seat belt/harness should be adjusted to a comfortable, snug fit
a. Shoulder harness must be worn at least for taxi, takeoff, and landing
b. The safety belt must be worn all times at the controls
B. Seats
i. On each flight, the pilot should be seated in the same position
ii. Adjust height for the proper viewing height as directed in the POH
a. The pilot(s) must be able to see inside and outside references
iii. If the seat is adjustable, it is important to ensure that the seat is locked in position
a. Many accidents have occurred as the result of the seat suddenly moving with acceleration/deceleration
C. Rudder Pedals
i. Adjust the rudder pedals forward or backward
a. Knees should be slightly bent
b. With heels on the floor and balls of the feet on the pedals full movement should be available
c. Using toes, the brakes should be able to be actuated
4. Navigation Data Currency
A. Charts
i. FAR 91.103 requires each PIC to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight
a. Although it doesn’t specifically require it, you should always carry current charts
ii. Information changes rapidly, out of date charts may be missing crucial information
a. Ex: Changes to airspace, new special airspace, change to procedures, frequencies, etc.
iii. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use the FAAs Dates of Latest Editions to verify you have the most current edition
b. Prior to expiration, check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for any changes
B. Database Currency
i. AIM 1-1-1b3(b): Databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operations
a. No such requirements exists for VFR ops, however it is always a good idea to keep a current database
C. Violations
i. It is not FAA policy to initiate enforcement action against a pilot for having an old chart or no chart, or for
having an expired navigation database
ii. However, if a pilot is involved in an enforcement investigate and there is evidence that an out-of-date
chart/database (or no chart) contributed to the situation, then that information could be used in any
enforcement action that might be taken
iii. Bottom line, use current charts/databases
5. Checklist Usage
A. Ensure the proper and orderly use of the manufacturer’s checklist
i. Ensures every item is completed and checked in a logical order
ii. Don’t go on memory, always backup your actions with a checklist

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a. Sooner or later you will make a mistake without a checklist

6. Resource Utilization
A. Resources can be found both inside and outside the cockpit. Be aware of all available resources at the pilot’s
disposal, and when necessary, think outside the box to get the information/help you need
i. These resources should be used before, during and after flight
B. Internal Resources
i. POH is essential for accurate flight planning and resolving equipment malfunctions
ii. Checklists verify instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating properly and ensure the proper
procedures are performed in the case of an emergency
iii. Satellite data, if equipped
iv. App data (such as ForeFlight), if equipped for in-flight updates
v. Equipment - A thorough understanding of the equipment is necessary to fully utilize all resources
a. Program any info ahead of time (radio frequencies, fixes, etc.)
b. If you do not understand equipment, or rely on certain equipment (like GPS) excessively it can be unsafe
 Ex: If the GPS fails and you do not have a good understanding of VOR navigation, how will you
maintain situation awareness and return home or divert to another field?
vi. Passengers can look for traffic, and provide helpful information (strange sound/scent, checklist help)
vii. Charts, other pilots, and your own ingenuity, knowledge and skill are also excellent resources
C. External Resources
i. ATC, maintenance technicians, and flight service personnel
ii. 1800 WX Brief
iii. Internet research (before flight – weather, NOTAMs, TFRs, airport procedures, etc.)
iv. ATC/Flight Service specialists can decrease work with traffic advisories, vectors and emergency assistance
a. May be able to access maintenance personnel, or other assistance in an emergency
v. FSS can provide weather, airport conditions
vi. Other airplanes can provide PIREPs as well as radio communications
a. Occasionally other aircraft may be able to hear your transmission, but not the controller
 In this case, other aircraft can relay messages between you and the controller
vii. ASOS/AWOS can also provide weather conditions in flight
D. Utilize all available resources during preflight planning as well as during flight
7. RM: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
A. Don’t allow systems/equipment, people, inoperative systems to distract you from flying the airplane
i. Ensure understanding of equipment, systems, automation, electronic devices
B. Multi-pilot airplanes have crashed due to minor distractions
i. Eastern Airlines 401 (December 29, 1972) crashed while the pilots were preoccupied with the light bulb and
didn’t realize the autopilot turned off
a. YouTube Video (48 mins)
C. Extremely important in a single pilot aircraft that you divide attention and maintain situation awareness

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
By combining all the elements of cockpit management (single pilot resource management), the pilot will have a safer
and more efficient flight due to a reduced workload and reduced mental stress and fatigue.

386
V.C. Engine Starting

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Reduction of Electrical System Failures Following Aircraft Engine Starting (AC 91-55), Cold Weather Operation of Aircraft
- Cancelled (AC 91-13), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to engine starting as required
in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Checklist

2. Safety
3. Hand on the Throttle

Elements 1. POH Checklists

2. Safety Precautions
3. Normal Start Checklist
4. Atmospheric Conditions
5. Starting with External Power
6. Hand Propping Safety

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to safely start the engine using the appropriate checklist and
Standards understands different conditions and their effect on starting.
 V.C. Engine Starting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Starting the engine of an airplane is not as simple as starting the engine of your car. A plane can’t just be turned on
anywhere at any time, the proper precautions and procedures must be followed for safety reasons.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Engine Starting discusses the safety precautions necessary when starting an airplane, the different conditions which
affect starting the engine, as well as different ways to start the engine.

Why
Proper engine starting is necessary for the safety of people and property, as well as to prevent engine damage. There
are certain situations which require special procedures, and some procedures can be dangerous. It is very important
to know the proper engine starting procedures and precautions.

How:
1. POH
A. Always use Manufacturer Checklists
i. Ensures every item is completed and checked in a logical order
a. Covers the Before Starting checklist and the Starting Engine Checklists
 Especially important with different checklists for varying situations (Flooded, Cold, Normal, Hot, etc.)
ii. Don’t go on memory, always backup your actions with a checklist
a. Sooner or later you will make a mistake without a checklist
B. RM: Limitations
i. Check the Limitations section of the POH for applicable engine start limits
a. Starter limits, cooling limits between starts, etc.
2. Safety Precautions
A. Set the parking brake (ensuring they are pumped) and hold the brakes with your toes
i. Look outside to ensure you are not moving
ii. Too much heads down time (checklists, checking indications, etc.) can result in unrecognized movement and
an accident or damage to the aircraft
B. RM: Ensure the ramp area surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and other hazards
i. Be aware of what is in front of, and behind the airplane
a. Check all directions to ensure nothing is/will be in the vicinity of the propeller, or propeller blast
ii. Propeller thrust can damage to property and injure people
C. Anti-collision lights should be turned on prior to any start, at night use position lights too
D. Always call “CLEAR” out of the side window and wait for a response from someone who may be nearby
E. When activating the starter, the wheel brakes must be depressed
i. Set the parking brake, if installed (and directed in the POH)
ii. Proper brake application ensures the airplane does not lunge forward upon starting the engine
F. Keep one hand on the throttle for prompt response if RPM is excessive or a hazardous situation presents itself
i. Ensure the propeller area is clear of any obstructions (debris, people, obstacles, etc.)

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 V.C. Engine Starting

ii. Doublecheck the area behind the aircraft is clear

3. Normal Start Checklist
A. Review the normal start checklist in the POH
B. Engine Controls During Start
i. Always keep one hand on the throttle to manage the initial engine starting speed
a. After the engine is started, set the throttle to the RPM setting specified in the POH
b. Other controls (mixture, prop, carb heat, boost pump, etc.) should be set/adjusted as specified in the
POH/checklist
ii. Monitor the oil pressure after engine start
a. Ensure the pressure is increasing toward the POH specified value
 If normal oil pressure is not reached and maintained, serious internal engine damage is likely
 In most conditions, oil pressure should reach at least the lower limit within 30 seconds
b. If oil pressure does not rise to the POH values in the specified time, shutdown the engine
iii. Check all other instruments to ensure they are operating within limits
iv. Avoid excessive engine RPM and temperatures
a. Adjust the engine controls to maintain the POH recommended RPM, fuel, propeller, etc. settings
b. Monitor the instruments and use the checklist if the engine temperature begins to rise abnormally
4. Atmospheric Conditions
A. Cold Weather
i. Low temperatures may cause a change in the viscosity of engine oils (they congeal, or become thicker),
batteries may lose a higher percentage of their effectiveness, and instruments may stick
a. Preheat of the engine(s) (and cabin) before starting is desirable
 Preheat by storing the airplane in a heated hangar, if possible
 Use only heaters that are in good condition and do not refuel the heater while it is operating
 Do not leave the aircraft unattended and keep a fire extinguisher handy
 Do not place the heat ducting so it will blow hot air directly on combustible parts of the aircraft
(upholstery, canvas engine covers, flexible fuel, oil, and hydraulic lines)
ii. Starting the Engine
a. In moderately cold weather, preheat may not be necessary
 Use care, oil may be congealed and turning the engine with the starter or by hand is difficult
a If approved by the POH, the pilot may rotate the prop by hand to loosen the congealed oil
1. Follow the POH procedures, and be positive the engine is OFF to avoid an accidental start
b. Cold Engine Start Problems
 Tendency to overprime, which washes down cylinder walls and may result in scoring of the walls
a Also results in poor compression and consequently causes hard starting
b Aircraft fires have been started by overpriming
1. Have a fireguard/extinguisher ready
 In a cold engine, icing over the sparkplug electrodes can cause problems
a Engine only fires a few revolutions and then quits
1. Sufficient combustion to cause water in the cylinders, but not enough to heat them up
2. The water condenses on the sparkplug electrodes, freezes to ice, and shorts them out
b Avoid prolonged idling
1. Engines may quit because sufficient heat is not produced to keep the plugs from fouling out
c The only remedy is heat
1. If a heater is not available, the plugs should be removed from the engine and heated to the
point where no moisture is present
iii. Starting

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 V.C. Engine Starting

a. Prime the engine with fuel first (over-priming can result in an aircraft fire – AC 91-13)
 AC 91-13 is still available to read but has been cancelled and incorporated into various other ACs
b. After start, follow the POH procedures to allow the engine, and engine oil to warm and circulate
 As mentioned, engines may quit with long idling
B. Hot Weather
i. Hot Start procedures in the POH
a. Generally, little to no priming is needed, but if the engine doesn’t catch, use minimum priming
ii. In the case of an overprimed engine (common with hot starts), use the flooded start checklist to clear the
excess fuel and start the engine
iii. Vapor lock (fuel injected engines)
a. Fuel delivery lines tend to be on the top of the engine, directly over the cylinder fins
b. Heat from the engine/outside can boil the fuel out of the lines creating vapor which prevents starting
 Hot start generally attempts to purge/minimize the vapor in the system with the fuel boost pump
5. *Starting with External Power (Supplement 1 in POH)
A. RM: Ensure proper use and understanding of the external power unit
i. Follow steps in the owner’s manual
ii. Besides not being able to start the plane, there is the risk of damaging the unit or aircraft systems
B. In addition to those items in Section 4, Normal Operating Procedures, check the following items:
i. Caution Lights (EPU) - Illuminated if power is available
ii. During preflight, check that the EPU connector is inserted and secure
C. Before Engine Starting
i. Engine Starting Checklist, plus:
a. EPU Light: ON; EPU Switch: ON; Voltmeter: Check 12 - 14 Volts
ii. Start the engine as normal (Cold/Warm/Flooded)
D. After Engine Start
a. Select EPU switch to OFF: EPU light ON
b. Signal ground crew to pull the EPU cord: EPU light OFF
c. Master Switch (GEN): OFF and Check Battery Voltage: Approximately 12 volts
d. Master Switch (GEN) ON and Check Battery Voltage: Approximately 14 volts
ii. GEN warning light: Check OFF
6. RM: Hand Propping Safety
A. Basic requirements BEFORE attempting a hand prop
i. Do not hand prop unless two people, both familiar with hand propping techniques are available
a. Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls to occupy the pilot’s seat when hand propping
ii. The person pulling the propeller blades through directs all activity and is in charge of the procedure
a. Chocks can be an additional precaution, or tie down the tail (Be careful removing them)
iii. The second person must be seated in the plane to ensure the brakes are set, the controls are properly
exercised, and to follow the direction of the person pulling the propeller
iv. The ground surface near the prop should be stable and free of debris (otherwise relocate)
a. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, etc. might cause the person pulling the prop to slip into the blades
v. Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on voice commands and expected action
B. *Engine Starting Set-up
i. The fuel system/engine controls (pump, primer, throttle, mixture) should be set for a normal start
ii. Check to ensure the ignition/magneto switch is OFF
iii. The descending prop blade should be rotated to a position slightly above horizontal
iv. The person doing the propping should face blade squarely and stand less than an arm’s length away
a. Too far away and it would be necessary to lean forward in an unbalanced condition
C. *Procedures and Commands for Hand Propping

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i. Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET”
a. Person IN ensures - Fuel: ON, Mixture: RICH, Ignition: OFF, Throttle: CLOSED, Brakes SET, and repeats
ii. Person out front checks the brakes by pushing on the prop
iii. Person out front, after pulling the prop through to prime the engine says, “BRAKES AND CONTACT”
a. Person in the pilot’s seat checks the brakes SET and turns the ignition switch ON, then repeats
iv. The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward rapidly as hard as possible
a. Push with the palms
 If the blade is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s body may be drawn into the propeller
blades should the engine misfire and rotate in the opposite direction
v. If it does not start, the prop should not be moved until certain the ignition/magneto switch is OFF

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Always ensure safety when starting the engine.

391
V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to taxiing an airplane as
required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Fast Walk

2. Crosswind Corrections
3. Taxi Diagram

Elements 1. Taxi Instructions

2. Plan, Review, Brief
3. Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
4. Taxiing
5. Wind Corrections
6. Night Operations
7. Low Visibility
8. Runway Incursions
9. Airport Markings
10. Airport Signs
11. Airport Lighting & Visual Aids

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely maintain positive control of the airplane with the proper crosswind
Standards corrections. The student understands the elements related to safely and effectively taxiing.
 V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Taxiing is one of the basic skills required anywhere you fly. At some airports with many taxiways it can be intimidating
and therefore is very important to understand how to safely and efficiently taxi an airplane.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the ground.

Why
Since the airplane is moved by its own power between the parking area and runway, the pilot must thoroughly
understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.

How:
1. Taxi Instructions
A. Communicating with ATC (Big Picture)
i. Always use standard ATC phraseology to facilitate clear and concise communication
ii. When making initial contact, state who you are, where you are on the airport, what you want
iii. Focus on the ATC clearance
a. Don’t perform any nonessential tasks while communicating with ATC
b. RM: Eliminate expectation bias – Don’t assume you will be given the same clearance as before
iv. Read back all clearances and verify the route/clearance on the taxi diagram
B. Controlled Airports (AIM 4-3-18 Taxiing)
i. Clearance is required:
a. To taxi onto the movement area
 Movement Area: Runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport under ATC control
 Non-Movement area: Loading ramps, parking areas/aprons not controlled by ATC
b. To taxi on a runway, take off, or land when an ATC tower is in operation
c. Prior to crossing any runway (ATC will issue an explicit clearance for all runway crossings)
ii. Prior to entering the movement area, contact Ground control for a taxi clearance
a. Frequencies & Procedures
 Chart Supplement: Airport specific information
a Airport remarks, frequencies, tower times of operation, etc.
 Airport Diagram
a Review for frequencies and airport familiarity
 Check NOTAMs for changes, taxiway/runway closures, etc.
b. Taxi Request
 Aircraft identification, location, type of operation (VFR/IFR), first point of intended landing
 Ex: “Washington ground, Beechcraft 123, at hangar 8, ready to taxi, IFR to Chicago”
iii. When assigned a takeoff runway, ground will:
 Specify the runway (or point to taxi to)
 Issue taxi instructions

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 State any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances

a Does not authorize you to enter or cross the assigned departure runway at any point
 Ex: Beechcraft 123, Washington ground, runway 27 taxi via C & D, hold short runway 33L
iv. After taxi instructions are received, always read back:
a. Runway assignment
b. Any clearance to enter a specific runway
c. Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait
 Controllers are required to request readback of hold short instructions if not received
d. Ex. Beechcraft 123, runway 27 taxi via C & D, hold short of runway 33L
 Per the AIM example, in 4-3-18 d.1., you’re not technically required to readback “taxi via C & D” but
it helps catch errors and prevent incursions
v. Example After Landing Radio Call
a. “XXXX ground, Beechcraft 123, clearing runway 24R on taxiway P3, request clearance to ABC FBO”
b. Ground: Beechcraft 123, XXXX ground, taxi to ABC FBO via taxiways P3, D, and B
c. “Beechcraft 123, taxi to ABC FBO via P3, D and B”
C. Uncontrolled Airports
i. Planning
a. Be familiar with the local procedures, runway use, traffic pattern direction and altitude
 During calm wind conditions, flight operations may occur at more than one runway at the airport
b. Be aware instrument approaches may be flown to runways other than the VFR runway in use
c. Be alert, communicate intentions on the CTAF and listen for other aircraft
ii. Communication
a. Monitor/communicate on the CTAF from engine start, taxi, and until 10 miles from the airport
b. Announce taxi intentions on the CTAF
iii. Maintain situational awareness
a. Be aware of the route and know where you and other aircraft are at all times
b. Not all aircraft are radio-equipped; therefore, before entering or crossing a runway, scan the full length
of the runway, including the final approach and departure paths
2. Plan, Review and Brief
A. Route Planning
i. Have a current copy of the Airport Diagram
ii. Large airports often have pre-designated, or standard, taxi routes, review these for familiarity
a. Used to reduce frequency congestion and streamline taxi procedures
iii. Based on the runway in use and usable taxiways, review the expected routes, hot spots, etc.
B. Record & Review
i. Always write down ATC taxi instructions to prevent mistakes
a. Helps ensure you follow ATC’s instruction, rather than what you expected or planned
ii. Review the route given by ATC, ask for help in case of confusion
a. Progressive Taxi
 If unfamiliar with the airport or confusion exits, you can request progressive taxi instructions
 Step-by-step routing directions
b. Be aware of hold short lines and ILS critical areas (if in use) on your route of taxi
 Without explicit clearance, do not cross either of these (only required if ILS critical areas are in use)
iii. Benefits
a. Recording taxi instructions
 Prevents mistakes and forgetfulness
 RM: Combats expectation bias

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a Expectation Bias: Your expectations can influence behavior

1. Ex: You always taxi C, D to runway 27, so when ground clears you a different route (A, F, D),
out of habit/expectation you hear what you expect to hear (C, D) and taxi the wrong route
 Verifies what you heard is what the controller said
b. Reviewing the taxi instructions & route
 Increases situational awareness
 Allows the pilot to recognize any confusion/questions prior to moving
 Allows the pilot to operate with their head up/eyes outside to the max extent
C. Taxi Briefing (AC 91-73)
i. Taxi operations briefings should include the following (prior to taxi, and prior to landing)
a. Ground Procedures
 Timing and execution of checklists/communications that will not interfere with taxiing
 Expected route/any abnormalities or unusual procedures
 Identify critical locations on the taxi route (hold short, hot spots, etc.)
 Address previous experience/unusual procedures or techniques
 During low visibility operations, brief the requirements and considerations
b. Expectations of others (pilots of passengers) in the plane
 Sterile cockpit procedures - encourage others to speak up if they see a potential conflict
 Use of airport diagrams (pilots)
c. Cell phones/electronic devices should be off
3. RM: Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
A. For safety reasons the pilot’s workload should be at a minimum during taxi operations
i. This can be accomplished through SOPs that direct attention only to essential tasks while taxiing
ii. Complete pre-taxi checklists and data entry prior to taxi
iii. All heads down activities should be done only when the aircraft is stopped
B. A sterile cockpit should be implemented from taxi through climb to focus on taxiing/ATC instruction
C. Taxiing Near Other Aircraft
i. Use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location
a. Know your present location and mentally calculate the next location that will require increased attention
(crossing traffic, hot spot, etc.)
ii. Awareness is enhanced by understanding the clearance issued to pilots, other aircraft, and vehicles
a. Listen to other aircraft on the radio and the instruction they are given, develop a picture of other aircraft
in relation to you, maintain situational awareness!
b. Don’t set expectations, listen to, and comply with, the clearance(s) you receive
iii. Be especially vigilant if another aircraft with a similar call sign is on frequency
a. Care should be taken to avoid inadvertently executing a clearance for another aircraft
b. Ask if you’re unsure of who the radio call was for
4. Taxiing
A. Basics
i. Steering
a. Accomplished with the rudder pedals and brakes
b. To turn, apply rudder toward the desired turn and use power/brake to control the taxi speed
 Add brake pressure to the brake on the inside of the turn to decrease turn radius
c. Rudder should be held until just short of the point where the turn is to be stopped
ii. Speed
a. Controlled 1st with power and 2nd with brake pressure (use the toe pedals to apply brakes)
 Brakes should be applied smoothly and evenly

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b. Primary speed requirement is safe, and under positive control (be able to stop, turn when desired)
 Taxi as though the brakes are inoperative – At the speed of a fast walk
 Taxiing too fast can be dangerous – Ground loop, incursion, loss of control, etc.
c. Don’t ride the brakes
 If too fast, allow the aircraft to accelerate, then brake to slow below a normal taxi, and repeat
 Prevents overuse and excessive wear on the brakes
iii. Centerline
a. *Keep the centerline between your outside leg and the stick
 Adjust the sight picture as necessary if this sight picture does not work for you or the specific aircraft
iv. Stop with the nose wheel straight to prevent side loading and to make moving again easier
B. Taxi Checks
i. Obtain taxi clearance and review and brief the route
ii. Brake Check
a. Test the brakes for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion
b. Gently apply power to start moving forward slowly, then retard the throttle and simultaneously apply
just enough pressure to one side, then the other to confirm proper function/reaction
c. If braking performance is unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately
iii. Apply taxi basics and appropriate flight deck activities
iv. Taxi Check
a. While moving, verify proper instrument indications and operation
b. Attitude Indicator - No more than 5o of pitch or bank indicated
c. Turn and Slip Indicator - Wings move with the turn/Ball opposite the turn/Inclinometer is full of fluid
d. Magnetic compass and heading indicator are moving toward known headings
 Magnetic compass has no cracks, leaks, or bubbles
5. Wind Corrections
A. Recognizing Wind Direction
i. ATIS, ATC, FSS can provide wind direction
ii. Wind Indicators
a. Windsock or Cone: Wind direction is opposite the direction the sock is pointing
 Generally, each ring (orange/white) indicates a wind speed of 3 knots (max 15 knots)
 Gusts can be recognized by the sock extending out and moving down
b. Tetrahedron & Wind Tee: Move freely and align with the wind direction
 May be manually positioned to align with the runway in use (instead of showing wind direction)
a Verify with the windsock, if available
c. Generally, located in a central location near the runway
 May be placed in the center of a segmented circle, which identifies the pattern direction

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iii. Use the heading indicator/heading bug to visualize wind in relation to the airplane
a. Heading bug: as the airplane turns, the heading bug moves with it
B. Downwind Taxiing
i. Usually, will require less engine power after the initial ground roll is begun
ii. To avoid overheating the brakes, keep engine power at a minimum and only apply them occasionally
C. Taxiing with a quartering headwind
i. Ailerons are turned into the wind and the elevator is held neutral
a. To prevent the wind from lifting the upwind wing, aileron should be held into the wind
 Upwind aileron is UP, reducing the effect of the lifting action
b. The downwind aileron will be DOWN
 A small amount of lift/drag is put on this wing keeping the upwind wing down
D. Taxiing with a Quartering Tailwind
i. Flight controls are positioned to dive with the wind
a. Ailerons are turned with the wind, and the elevator is DOWN
b. The upwind aileron is DOWN in this case (opposite of a head wind)
c. These control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to nose the plane over
E. These corrections help minimize weathervaning and make the airplane easier to steer
6.
N

ight Operations
A. Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft on the airport surface easier to see
i. Engines Running: Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running
ii. Taxiing: Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
a. Turn on the taxi light when moving or intending to move on the ground
b. Turn it off when stopped or yielding or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel
c. Strobe lights should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
iii. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
iv. Entering the Departure Runway for Takeoff or Line Up and Wait: Pilots should make their aircraft more
visible to aircraft on final and to ATC by turning on all lights, except for landing lights
a. Strobe lights should not be illuminated if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots

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v. At Night, and When Cleared to Line Up and Wait: Line up slightly (approximately 3’) off the centerline to
enable a landing aircraft to differentiate you from the runway lights
vi. Takeoff: Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff clearance is received, or when commencing
takeoff roll at an airport without an operating control tower
B. Be more cautious at night
i. Reduced visibility makes taxiing more difficult
a. Ensure you remain on the assigned route; it is easier to get confused and miss a turn at night
b. Taxi slower, allow yourself ample time to stop if something suddenly appears in front of you
 Not necessarily another airplane (animal, debris, FOD, etc.)
c. Look closely for taxiway markings (especially hold short lines)
 Some airports have lights in the ground along with hold short lines, some don’t
 Use lights/lighted signs along taxiway edges to maintain position
7. Low Visibility
A. Taxi During Low Visibility (AIM 4-3-19)
i. Focus entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving
a. Taxi slowly
b. Focus should be outside
c. Sterile cockpit
d. Withold checklists and nonessential communication until stopped with the brakes set
ii. Notify the controller of difficulties or at the first indication of becoming disoriented
iii. Lack of visibility from the tower can prevent visual confirmation of adherence to taxi instructions
8. RM: Runway Incursions
A. Taxi First
i. Maintain a sterile cockpit
ii. If a checklist needs to be completed, or attention needs to be diverted from taxiing, wait until stopped
iii. In the case of an emergency, stop the aircraft immediately and proceed as required
B. Maintain Situational Awareness
i. Know where you are and where you’re going – have a taxi diagram
ii. Build a mental picture of other traffic on the airport
a. Listen to the ground/CTAF frequency and be alert to other traffic taxiing
iii. Review NOTAMS prior to taxi for information on runway/taxiway closures and construction areas
C. Communication Matters
i. Read back all runway/taxiway crossing and hold instructions using proper phraseology/good discipline
ii. Write down complex instructions, especially at unfamiliar airports
a. Before taxiing, ask yourself whether the instructions make sense – Contact ground if they don’t
b. Request progressive taxi, if necessary
D. Be Conservative
i. Taxi at a safe speed (fast walk)
ii. Apply the Right-of-Way rules (right-of-way is the same as in the air)
E. RM: Route and/or Runway Change
i. Ask for a safe place to stop, if necessary
ii. Copy the new taxi instructions and review the route
iii. Request progressive, if necessary
F. Hold Lines
i. Indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway
ii. Unauthorized crossing of hold lines could result in an incursion with an aircraft taking off or landing
a. At the high speeds associated with TO/LDG, incursions are much more hazardous
iii. During taxi:

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a. Approaching from the dashed side, cross (no clearance necessary) and stop fully passed the solid lines
b. If approaching hold lines from the solid side, do not cross without a clearance
 If you arrive at hold short lines without a clearance (or are unsure), stop and request clearance
 Clarify confusion, never assume
G. Landing and Rollout
i. Brief the landing/rollout plan
a. Know where you will stop, what taxiways are appropriate to use/not use, and potential hot spots
b. Taxi slow, don’t exit at high speeds
ii. If stopped between parallel runways, only cross when cleared to cross
a. Never cross the solid side of hold short lines without a clearance
iii. After landing, ensure that the entire aircraft, has crossed the landing runway’s hold short line
a. If you can’t clear the landing runway, stop and immediately advise ATC
iv. Maintain a sterile cockpit
H. Night Operations
i. Be Visible
a. Engines Running: Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running
b. Taxiing: Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
 Turn on the taxi light when moving or intending to move on the ground
 Turn it off when stopped or yielding or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel
 Strobe lights should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
c. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
d. Entering the Departure Runway for Takeoff or Line Up and Wait: Pilots should make their aircraft more
visible to aircraft on final and to ATC by turning on all lights, except for landing lights
 Strobe lights should not be illuminated if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots
e. Line Up and Wait: Line up about 3’ off centerline so a landing aircraft can differentiate you from the
runway lights
f. Takeoff: Landing lights on when takeoff clearance is received/commencing takeoff roll (uncontrolled)
ii. Be more cautious at night, reduced visibility makes taxiing more difficult
a. Ensure you remain on the assigned route; it is easier to get confused and miss a turn at night
b. Taxi slower, allow ample time to stop if something suddenly appears in front of you
c. Look closely for taxiway markings (especially hold short lines)
 Some airports have lights in the ground along with hold short lines, some don’t
 Use lights/lighted signs along taxiway edges to maintain position

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9. Airport Markings
A. Runway Markings
i. General
a. There are three types of markings for runways:
 Visual; Nonprecision Instrument; Precision Instrument

Marking Element Visual Runway Nonprecision Instrument Runway Precision Instrument Runway
Designation X X X
Centerline X X X
Threshold X1 X X
Aiming Point X2 X X
Touchdown Zone X
Side Stripes X
1
On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.
2
On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.

ii. Runway Designators

a. Purpose - To identify/differentiate runways from the approach end
a The whole number to the nearest one-tenth of the magnetic azimuth of the runway
1. To Magnetic North
b Letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), and center (C) runways
b. Markings - Large white numbers
iii. Runway Centerline Marking
a. Purpose - Identifies the center of the runway providing alignment guidance for takeoff and landing
b. Markings - A line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps
iv. Runway Aiming Point Markings
a. Purpose - Serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft
b. Markings - Broad white stripe on each side of the centerline, approximately 1,000’ from the threshold
v. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
a. Purpose - Identifies touchdown zone for landing operations and provide distance info in 500’ increments

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b. Markings - Groups of 1, 2, and 3 rectangular bars in pairs about the runway centerline
vi. Runway Side Stripe Markings
a. Purpose - Delineate the edges of the runway providing a contrast between the runway and shoulder
b. Markings - Continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway
vii. Runway Shoulder Markings
a. Purpose - May be used with side stripes to identify pavement areas not intended for aircraft use
b. Markings - Yellow stripes
viii. Runway Threshold Markings
a. Purpose - Identifies the beginning of the runway available for landing
b. Markings - 8 longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions placed about the centerline
 The number of stripes is related to runway width:
Runway Width Stripes
60 feet 4
75 feet 6
100 feet 8
150 feet 12
200 feet 16
c. The threshold can be displaced or relocated
 Displaced Threshold (DT)
a Explanation
1. A threshold at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway
2. Reduces the amount of runway available for landings
3. Can be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout
a. Cannot be used for landing on, only the landing rollout
b Markings
1. A 10’ wide white threshold bar is located across the runway at the displaced threshold
2. White arrow heads are located across the runway just prior to the threshold bar
3. White arrows are down the centerline between the runway and displaced threshold
4. Demarcation Line
a. Purpose - Delineates the displaced threshold from a blast pad, stopway, or taxiway prior
to the runway
b. Markings - 3 feet wide and yellow
5. Chevrons
a. Purpose - Show areas aligned with the runway that are unusable for taxi, takeoff, and
landing
b. Markings - Yellow arrows
 Relocated Threshold
a Explanation
1. Sometimes construction or other activities require the threshold to be relocated
2. A NOTAM should be issued identifying the portion of the runway is closed
a. EX: 10/28 W 900 CLSD
b Markings – Identification can vary, as the duration of the relocation varies
1. Common practice is to use a 10’ wide white threshold bar across the runway
2. Runway lights between the old threshold and new threshold will not be illuminated
3. Runway markings in this area may or may not be showing
ix. Blast pad/Stopway Area
a. The blast pad area is an area where a propeller or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard
b. Stopway is paved to provide space to decelerate/stop in the event of an aborted takeoff (chevrons)

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B. Taxiway Markings
i. General
a. Taxiways should have centerline/runway holding position markings whenever intersecting a runway
b. Edge markings separate the taxiway from areas not for aircraft use or define taxiway edges
c. May have shoulder/hold position markings for ILS critical areas and taxiways/taxiway intersections
ii. Taxiway Centerline Markings
a. Normal Centerline
 Purpose - Provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
a Markings - A single continuous yellow line that is 6” - 12” wide
b. Enhanced Centerline
 Purpose - Same as above but at larger commercial airports to warn that a runway hold position
marking is being approached and unless cleared to cross, the aircraft should prepare to stop
 Markings - A parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline
a Centerlines are enhanced for a max of 150’ prior to a runway holding position marking
iii. Taxiway Edge Markings
a. Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesn’t match up with pavement)
b. 2 types of markings, depending on whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway edge
 Continuous Markings
a Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface not for use by aircraft
b Markings - Continuous double yellow line with each line at least 6’’ wide and 6’’ apart
 Dashed Markings
a Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is intended for aircraft (Apron)
b Markings - Broken double yellow line (6” wide, spaced 6” apart; dashes are 15’ long and 25’
apart)
iv. Taxi Shoulder Markings
a. Purpose - Paved shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
b. Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
 If confusion exists to the side of use, yellow shoulder markings are used
v. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
a. Purpose - When it isn’t possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or to supplement such signs
b. Markings - Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and black inscription
 Adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating left turns on the left
side of the centerline and vice versa
vi. Surface Painted Location Signs
a. Purpose - Supplement location signs alongside the taxiway assisting in
confirming the taxiway one is on
b. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription, right of center
vii. Geographic Position Markings
a. Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations
b. Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
 A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring and a pink circle
a When on dark pavements the white/black ring are reversed
 Designated with either a number or a number and a letter
a Number corresponds with consecutive position on the route

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C. Holding Position Markings

i. General
a. Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (hold on the solid side)
b. 4 yellow lines (2 Solid/2 Dashed) spaced 6” or 12” apart across the width of the taxiway or runway
 3 locations where runway hold lines are encountered: 1Taxiways; 2Runways; 3Approach Areas
ii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
a. Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the
runway
 Always stop so that no part extends beyond the hold markers
 Don’t cross without clearance and separation at uncontrolled
airports
iii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways (as shown to the right)
a. Purpose - Only installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing
operations
 Must stop before markings/exit prior to reaching the position
b. Markings - Sign (white inscription/red background) next to hold markings
 Markings are placed on the runway prior to the intersection
iv. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
a. Purpose - Hold aircraft on a taxiway so it doesn’t interfere with operations
b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Purpose - Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
 Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2’ apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10’ apart across the taxiway
c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
 Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection
 Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
a If requested to hold short of a taxiway without markings, provide adequate clearance from the
taxiway
d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs (as shown to the right)
 Purpose - Used to supplement the signs located at the holding
position
a Normally used when the width of the holding position on the
taxiway is greater than 200’
 Markings - Red background/white inscription, left of center, on the
holding side, prior to hold lines
D. Other Markings
i. Vehicle Roadway Markings
a. Purpose - Used to define a path for vehicle operations on or crossing areas also intended for aircraft
b. Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
 In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate edges
ii. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings
a. Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
b. Markings - A painted circle with an arrow in the middle (arrow is aligned toward the facility)
 Located with a sign on the apron/taxiway
 Sign shows the VOR station ID letter, course for the check, and DME data (if necessary)
 Black letters/numerals on a yellow background
iii. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings (as shown on the right)

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a. Purpose - Delineates the movement area (The area under air traffic control)
b. Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6” in width
 Solid line is the nonmovement area side, the dashed line is the movement area side
iv. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
a. Purpose - For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed
b. Markings - The lighting circuits will be disconnected
 The runway threshold, designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated
 Yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway and at 1,000’ intervals
v. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
a. Purpose - To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed
b. Markings - Yellow crosses are placed on the runway at each end
 A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each end of the runway instead
 A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for closure, duration of the closure,
configuration and the existence and hours of operation of an airport control tower
a Check NOTAMs and the ATIS for information
 Closed taxiways are treated as hazardous areas and blockaded; no part of the aircraft may enter
a As an alternative, a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway

10. Airport Signs

A. General
i. Six types of signs installed on airfields
a. Mandatory Instruction; Location; Direction; Destination; Information; Runway Distance Remaining
B. Mandatory Instruction Signs
i. Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area/area where aircraft are prohibited

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ii. Markings - Red background with a white inscription

iii. Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
a. Runway Holding Position Sign
 Located at the hold position on taxiways intersecting
runways/runways intersecting runways
 The sign states the designation of the intersecting runway
b. Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
 Used when necessary to hold aircraft on a taxiway in a runway
approach/departure area so it doesn’t interfere with runway ops
c. ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
 ILS system is being used, and it’s necessary to hold at a location other
than the Hold Markers
 The sign will have the inscription “ILS” and will be located adjacent to
the holding position marking on the taxiway
d. No Entry Sign
 Prohibits an aircraft from entering an area
 Typically, on a taxiway intended to operate in one direction or vehicle
intersections that may be mistaken as a taxiway/movement surface
C. Location Signs
i. Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
a. Other location signs provide a visual cue to assist in determining when an area has been exited
ii. Taxiway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
b. Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border
iii. Runway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Complement compass info; typically installed where the proximity of runways to one another
could cause confusion as to which runway the pilot is on
b. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription
iv. Runway Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when “clear of the runway”
 Adjacent to the hold markings on the pavement
 Visible when exiting the runway
b. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting the hold markings
v. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when clear of the ILS
critical area
 Adjacent to ILS hold markings and can be seen leaving the critical area
b. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting ILS hold markings
D. Direction Signs
i. Purpose - Identify the designations of intersecting taxiways
leading out of an intersection
 Designations and their arrows are arranged clockwise
from the 1st taxiway on the pilot’s left
ii. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription with an arrow
indicating the turn direction

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E. Destination Signs
i. Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
a. Destinations commonly shown are
 Runways  Civil Aviation Areas ii. Markings - Yellow
 Aprons  Cargo Areas background/black inscription
 Terminals  International Areas indicating a destination on the
 Military Areas  FBOs airport
a. Always have an arrow
showing the direction of the taxiing route to that destination sign
F. Information Signs
i. Purpose - Used to provide a pilot with information on things such as:
a. Areas the tower can’t see, radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures
ii. Markings - Yellow Background with a black inscription
G. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
i. Purpose - Used to inform the pilot the amount of distance remaining on the runway
a. The number on the sign indicates the thousands of feet of landing runway remaining
ii. Markings - Black background/white numeral inscription
H. CE: Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway sings and markings
i. Make sure to know the meaning and purpose of all the signs and markings
a. If unsure, stop and ask ATC for clarification
b. Failure to comply could lead to a runway incursion, phone call to the FAA, and/or license revocation
11. Airport Lighting and Visual Aids
A. Approach Light Systems (ALS)
i. Purpose - The basic means to transition from instrument conditions to visual conditions for landing
ii. Explanation – Configuration of lights starting at the threshold and extending into the approach area
B. Visual Glideslope Indicators
i. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
a. Purpose - Provide visual descent guidance during approach
b. Explanation - The lights are visible from 3-5 miles during day and up to 20 or more at night
 Safe obstruction clearance within ± 10o of the centerline and 4 NM from the threshold
c. Configurations
 2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars
a Arranged as near, middle, and far bars (Mid provide another glide path for high cockpits)
b VASIs of 2, 4, or 6 light units are located on one side of the runway (usually the left)
c VASIs consisting of 12 or 16 light units are located on both sides of the runway
 Most installations consist of 2 bars and may consist of 2, 4, or 12 light units
d. Two Bar VASIs
 Provide one visual glide path, normally set at 3o
e. Three Bar VASIs
 Provide two visual glide paths
a The lower glide path is provided by the near and middle bars and is normally set to 3 o
1. Some locations may have up to 4.5o glide paths for proper obstacle clearance
b The upper glide path is provided by the middle and far bars and is normally set ¼o higher

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f. How it Works
a Each unit projects light with an upper white segment and a lower red segment
b The light units are arranged so that the pilot will see the combinations of lights below:
1. 2-bar VASI

2. 3-bar VASI

3. Other VASI configurations

C. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

i. General
a. Lights arranged to provide visual descent guidance information during the approach to a runway
b. Uses light units similar to the VASI but in a single row of either 2 or 4 light units
ii. Configuration
a. Tri-Color Systems
 Normally a single unit projecting a 3-color visual approach path into the final approach area
 Glide Path Indications
a Below - Red
b Above - Amber
c On - Green
 Useful Range
a Day - ½ to 1 mile
b Night - Up to 5 miles (depending on the visibility)
b. Pulsating Systems
 Normally a single unit projecting a 2-color visual approach path into the final approach area
 Glide Path Indications
a Slightly Below - Steady red
b Below - Pulsating red
c On - Steady white

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d Slightly Above - Pulsating white

e Above - Faster pulsating white
1. Pulsating increases as aircraft gets
further above/below the glide slope
 Useful Range
a Day, up to 4 miles
b Night, up to 10 miles
D. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
i. General - Installed to provide rapid/positive identification of the approach end of a runway
ii. Configuration - A pair of synchronized flashing lights located on each side of the runway threshold
iii. Effective for:
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with the surrounding terrain
c. Identification of a runway during reduced visibility
E. Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL, MIRL, LIRL)
i. General - Outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions
a. Classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing
 High Intensity (HIRL); Medium Intensity (MIRL); Low Intensity (LIRL)
a HIRL and MIRL have variable intensity controls
ii. Configuration
a. Runway edge lights - White
 Instrument runways - Turn yellow the last 2,000,’ or half the runway, whichever is shorter
b. Lights marking the end of the runway - Red/Green
 Red is emitted toward the runway to indicate the end of the runway to a departing aircraft
 Green is emitted outward from the runway end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft
F. In-runway Lighting
i. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS)
a. General - Installed on some precision runways to facilitate landing under adverse conditions
b. Configuration
 Located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50’ intervals
 From the landing threshold, the lights are white until the last 3,000’ of the runway
a White lights begin to alternate with red for 2,000’, and the last 1,000’ all lights are red
ii. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL)
a. General - On some precision runways to indicate the touchdown zone in adverse visibility
b. Configuration
 Two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline
 Steady burning white lights starting 100’ beyond the landing threshold and extending to 3,000’
beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
iii. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights
a. General
 Provide visual guidance to persons exiting the runway
 Color coded to warn: In runway environment/ILS critical area, whichever is more restrictive
b. Configuration
 Alternate green/yellow lights are installed, beginning with green, from the runway centerline to 1
light position beyond the runway hold position/ILS critical area hold position
iv. Taxiway Centerline Lead-on Lights
a. General

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 Provide visual guidance to persons entering the runway

 Warn: In the runway environment/ILS critical area, whichever is more conservative
b. Configuration
 Color coded with the same pattern as lead-off lights
 Bidirectional (i.e., 1 side emits light for the lead-on function the other for the lead-off)
v. Land and Hold Short Lights
a. General
 Used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways which are approved for LAHSO
a Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect and off when not
b. Configuration - A row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold short point
G. Control of Lighting Systems
i. Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the control tower/FSS
ii. Pilots may request the lights be turned on or off
H. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting (AIM 2-1-8)
i. Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the aircraft’s microphone
a. Often at airports without specified hours for lighting, airports with no tower/FSS, or when closed
ii. All radio-controlled lighting systems at an airport operate on the same frequency
a. CTAF is used to activate the lights at most airports, but other frequencies may also be used
 Frequency is in Chart Supplement and standard instrument approach procedures publications
 Frequency is not on sectional charts
iii. Lights operate for 15 minutes
Key Mike Function
7 times within 5 seconds Highest intensity available
5 times within 5 seconds Medium or lower intensity (Lower REIL or REIL-off)
3 times within 5 seconds Lowest intensity available (Lower REIL or REIL-off)
I. Airport Beacons
i. Light Projection
a. Omnidirectional capacitor discharge device
b. Rotate at a constant speed
ii. Flashes
a. 24-30 per minute for airports/landmarks/points on federal airways; 30-45 per minute for heliports
iii. Colors and Combinations of Beacons
a. White and Green - Lighted land airport (also green alone*)
b. White and Yellow - Lighted water airport (also yellow alone*)
 *Green/yellow alone is used only in connection with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon
c. Green, Yellow, and White - Lighted heliport
d. Two quick white flashes followed by a green flash – Military beacon
iv. Operation during the day
a. Class B, C, D and E: Daylight operation often indicates ground visibility is < 3 miles and/or ceiling < 1,000’
 Don’t rely solely on the beacon as there is no regulatory requirements for daylight operation
J. Taxiway Lights
i. Taxiway Edge Lights
a. Purpose - Outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
b. Configuration - Emit blue light
ii. Taxiway Centerline Lights
a. Purpose - Used to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Steady burning green lights along the centerline

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iii. Clearance Bar Lights

a. Purpose - Installed to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions
 May also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during darkness
b. Configuration - Three in pavement steady burning yellow lights
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Purpose - Enhance the conspicuity of taxiway and runway intersections
b. Configuration - Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in
pavement yellow lights across the entire taxiway, at the runway hold marking
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. Purpose - Confirm ATC clearances to enter/cross the active runway in low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Row of red, unidirectional, steady burning in pavement lights installed across the entire
taxiway at the runway hold position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Cautions
 Never cross a red illuminated stop bar even if you have received ATC clearance
 If after crossing, the lead-on lights extinguish, hold position and contact ATC for instruction
vi. Runway Guard Lights
a. Pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
b. Installed at taxiway/runway intersections
c. Enhance conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Requirements for safe taxiing include positive control of the aircraft, the ability to recognize potential hazards in time to
avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and when desired without undue reliance on the brakes. Also, be
aware of other traffic and its movement, write down and read back all clearances, and maintain the proper crosswind
correction.

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V.F. Before Takeoff Check

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the before takeoff check.
The student should perform the check as required in the manufacturer’s POH and as required
in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Read and Do

2. Departure Brief
3. Incursions and Hazards

Elements 1. Engine Warm Up

2. Positioning the Aircraft
3. Division of Attention
4. Checklist
5. Go/No Go Decision
6. Departure Brief
7. Before Entering the Runway
8. Avoiding Incursions
9. Runway Change

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in a proper, thorough, and safe before takeoff
Standards check. The student can make a competent decision as to whether the airplane is safe to fly and
is vigilant in maintaining hazard and incursion avoidance.
 V.F. Before Takeoff Check

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Which situation would you rather be in? Discovering there is a problem with the airplane after takeoff and having to
make an emergency landing or discovering there is a problem with the airplane before taxiing onto the runway?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,
instruments, and avionics prior to flight.

Why
This final check ensures the airplane is ready for safe flight before taking off.

How:
1. Engine Warm Up
A. Before takeoff check is usually performed after taxiing to a position near the runway (usually a run-up area)
i. Allows time to reach minimum operating temperatures ensuring lubrication and internal engine clearances
a. Better for the engine and provides more reliable indications
b. *The oil temperature must reach a minimum value (DA20 - 75o)
B. Scan all the engine instruments periodically to ensure they are suitable for the run-up and takeoff
2. Positioning the Aircraft
A. A suitable location should be firm (smooth, paved or turf surface if possible) and free of debris
i. Debris can be thrown backward potentially damaging the propeller and tail
B. There should not be anything behind the aircraft that might be damaged by the airflow
C. Recommended to point the airplane as closely as possible into the wind to minimize overheating
i. Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder head overheating long before there is an indication of
rising oil temperature – considerably less airflow on the ground vs in-flight
ii. Sometimes this is not possible due to the run-up area configuration or other aircraft, adjust as necessary
D. After positioning, allow the aircraft to move forward slightly to straighten the nose wheel
i. Considerable stress is placed on the nose wheel during the run-up
3. RM: Division of Attention
A. Attention must be divided inside and outside the aircraft
i. If the brake slips, or if the toe brakes are not adequate, the airplane could move forward unnoticed
B. Excessive time with your head down (checklists, etc.) can result in unmonitored movement
i. This can be hazardous to yourself and others
C. A good practice is to swap between one item inside to a look outside
4. Checklist
A. Prepares the aircraft for takeoff and checks critical flight equipment and systems
B. The before takeoff checklist provided by the manufacturer should be used to ensure a proper check
i. Each airplane has different features and equipment
C. Ensure each item of the checklist is completed (read and do)
i. Never go solely off memory. It’s very easy to unintentionally miss something

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D. Review the Before Takeoff Checklist with the learner

i. Discuss reasons for checking each item and how to detect errors
a. Use the checklist and standards/requirements in the POH to make a Go/No Go decision
5. Go/No Go Decision
A. The PIC is responsible for determining whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight
i. Use the criteria set forth in the POH, as well as pilot judgement, to measure the airplane’s performance
a. Do not accept “close enough”
b. If something is in limits but doesn’t seem right (strange noise, etc.), have it checked before flying
B. This is your chance to catch a problem while safely on the ground rather than in flight
i. If there is a problem, ask yourself, Are we still legal? Can the problem be recovered? Is this safe?
a. Even if it’s legal, and acceptable to fly, is it still safe?
C. If there are any doubts, return to the ramp for further investigation
6. Departure Brief
A. Always have a plan before starting the takeoff roll. Brief that plan
B. Sample Structure
i. Prior to rotate speed, plan to keep the aircraft on the ground (assuming the runway length allows this)
ii. From rotation to a certain point (runway length allowing) you may be able to land on the remaining runway
in the case of an engine failure. After this point, it will be unfeasible to land on the runway.
a. Use the distance remaining signs along the runway edges to know when it is too late to return
iii. Brief an altitude at and above which, you will turn around to return to the airport for landing
iv. Between the point at which you can no longer land on the remaining runway (a) and the point you have the
altitude to return to the airport (b) you will have to land on the most suitable surface outside of the airport
C. RM: Before takeoff, review the performance speeds, expected takeoff distance and emergency procedures
i. *VR (44 knots), VX (58 knots), VY (65 knots) - Announce the speeds
ii. “Takeoff on runway 27, we have 5,500’ of runway, performance shows we need 1,300’ today”
a. Ensure performance works with the runway, and conditions have not changed to prevent that
iii. *Emergency
a. Lose engine on the roll, close the throttle, and maintain control with the rudder/brakes
b. Lose engine after rotation, with runway available, land on the remaining runway
c. Lose engine above 600’ AGL (DA20) attempt to turn back to the runway, otherwise land straight ahead
7. Before Entering the Runway
A. Visually check the area to ensure it is clear of anything that could be a hazard
i. Airplanes, cars, animals, etc.
B. Check the runway, as well as final approach
i. Remember, radio communication is not required at uncontrolled airports, be alert to aircraft in the pattern
C. RM: Consider Wake Turbulence
i. See lesson VI.B. Traffic Patterns - Wake Turbulence
8. Avoiding Incursions
A. Before moving, clear to the left, right and center
B. Just like when taxiing, know where other aircraft are in relation to you
i. The pilot always has the responsibility to see and avoid
C. Monitor the appropriate frequency (CTAF/Ground/Tower)
D. Repeat all clearances, and do not cross hold short lines without a clearance to do so
E. If any doubt exists, stop, and clarify
F. Clear final approach before taxiing into the takeoff position
G. Be safe and don’t put yourself in a dangerous position
9. RM: Runway Change
A. Don’t rush

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i. If already stopped in a safe place, consider remaining there until swapped to the new runway
B. Performance
i. Adjust for changes in runway length, wind direction, runway gradient, terrain, procedures, etc.
ii. Ensure adequate performance and safety
iii. Update any navigation equipment (GPS, VOR, etc.)
C. Departure Brief
i. Note differences and brief the departure for the new runway
D. Taxi Instructions
i. Review the taxi diagram
ii. Request and readback taxi instructions
iii. Confirm the route and begin the taxi

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The before takeoff check is essential to ensure there are no problems before taking off. It is extremely important to use
the correct checklist and make a safe decision regarding whether to make the flight. During this check, runway incursion
and hazard avoidance is extremely important and should not be ignored.

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VI. Airport Operations
VI.A. Communications, Light Signals & Runway Lighting Systems

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to radio communications and
ATC light signals as described in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understanding

2. Who, Where, What
3. Plan Ahead

Elements 1. Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications

2. ATC Clearance and Instructions
3. Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
4. Radar Assistance
5. Transponders
6. ATC Light Signals
7. Runway Status Lights

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly use the radios through a flight of any kind. The student understands
Standards proper procedures, phraseology, clearances, and light signals.
 VI.A. Communications, Light Signals, & Runway Lighting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everyone wants to sound like a real, professional pilot. This lesson will explain how we do that, while making you into
a more professional pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Radio communication is the communication between the pilot and different ATC controllers throughout the phases of
a flight.

Why
Operating in and out of a controlled airport, as well as in a good portion of the airspace system, requires an aircraft
have two-way radio communications. For this reason, a pilot should be knowledgeable of radio procedures. Radio
communications is a critical link in the ATC system. By understanding proper radio communication procedures, the
link can be strong providing safer flying for everyone.

How:
1. Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications
A. Understanding is the single most important thought in pilot-controller communications
i. It is essential that pilots acknowledge each radio call with ATC with the appropriate aircraft call sign
ii. Brevity is important, but, if necessary, use whatever words will get your message across
a. Know what you’re going to say before you say it
iii. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot
a. The Pilot/Controller Glossary (link to the Glossary is under Publications) is very helpful in learning what
certain words/phrases mean
B. RM: Radio Technique
i. LISTEN before you transmit
ii. THINK before transmitting - Know what you want to say before you say it (write it down if needed)
iii. After transmitting, wait a few seconds before calling again (The controller may be busy)
iv. Be alert to the sound/lack of sounds in the receiver
a. Check your volume, frequency, and make sure the microphone isn’t stuck on transmit
v. Be sure you are within the performance range of your equipment and the ground station equipment
a. Remember higher altitudes increase the range of VHF “line of sight” communications
C. Radio calls can be broken down into Who, Where, What:
i. Who you are calling (Chicago Center)
ii. Who you are (Diamond 4TS)
iii. Where you are (10 miles South of _____)
iv. What you want (Request flight following, or whatever you want)
D. Non-towered Airport Communication
i. Radio calls at non-towered airports can be broken down into a similar format:
a. Who you are
 n-number

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b. Where you are

 Distance and direction from the airport (ex. 10 nm W), where you are parked (ex. _____ FBO),
location on the airport (ex. intersection of taxiway B & F)
c. What you’re doing (instead of what you want)
 Ex: To enter left traffic for runway 25; to taxi to runway 31 via F, E; etc.
E. CE: Improper procedure and phraseology when using radio communications
i. Use the Pilot/Controller glossary to ensure correct, succinct radio calls
ii. Use the who you are, where you are, what you want, or what you’re doing format
iii. Listen prior to transmitting
a. Ensure the frequency is clear, then transmit
b. Too often people change frequencies and immediately transmit, blocking a pilot or controller in the
middle of a transmission
iv. Non-towered airports
a. Ensure you state the aircraft call sign/n-number, position, takeoff runway, and airport of operation
 Numerous aircraft, different runways, and nearby airports can cause confusion on the radios if the
pilot is not specific
a Occasionally you will find nearby airports with the same CTAF frequency
2. ATC Clearances and Instructions
A. An ATC clearance is an authorization by ATC to proceed under specified conditions within controlled airspace
i. Not authorization to deviate from rules/regulations/min altitude or to conduct unsafe aircraft operation
B. When given a clearance:
i. Record the clearance, if able
a. This helps the read back, as well as any second guessing that may occur after the instruction
ii. Read back the clearance
a. Always read back the following:
 Taxi instructions (AIM 4-3-18-9)
a The runway assignment
b Any clearance to enter a specific runway
c Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait
1. Controllers are required to request a readback of any hold short instructions if not received
from the pilot
 ATC clearances/instructions with altitude assignments, vectors, or runway assignments (AIM 4-4-7)
a Reading back the “numbers” double checks understanding and reduces errors
 All land and hold short operation (LAHSO) clearances (AIM 4-3-11-7)
a The pilot can accept or reject (“unable”) any LAHSO clearance. If accepted, always read it back
b. Include the aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgements
 Ensures the correct aircraft received the clearance or instruction
 More important the more congested the radios become and with aircraft with similar call signs
c. Read back altitudes, restrictions, and vectors in the same sequence they’re given
d. When advised to change frequencies, acknowledge the instruction and change ASAP
e. The pilot is expected to use the appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all ATC clearances,
frequency changes, or advisory information (AIM 4-4-1(b))
f. If uncertain of a clearance, immediately request clarification from ATC (FAR 91.123)
 Ask the controller to repeat (“say again”)
 Never assume you’re right, if you’re unsure just ask
C. It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse any clearance issued (AIM 4-4-1(b))
i. FAR 91.3(a): The PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the aircraft

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a. If ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or would place the
aircraft in jeopardy, it is the pilot’s responsibility to request an amended clearance
b. If a pilot prefers to follow a different course of action than what is in the clearance, the pilot is expected
to inform ATC (you are making a request, not telling the controller what you will do)
 When the pilot requests a different course of action, the pilot is expected to cooperate to prevent
the disruption of traffic flow or creation of conflicting patterns
D. FAR 91.123: When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that clearance
unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a traffic alert
and collision avoidance system resolution advisory
i. Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction in an area in
which air traffic control is exercised
ii. Each PIC who, in an emergency, or in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution
advisory, deviates from an ATC clearance or instruction shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible
iii. Each PIC who (though not deviating from a rule) is given priority by ATC in an emergency, shall submit a
detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested by ATC
iv. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may operate it according to any
clearance or instruction issued to the pilot of another aircraft for radar air traffic control purposes
E. RM: Declaring Emergencies (AIM 6-1-2 Emergency Condition)
i. An emergency can either be a distress or urgency condition
a. Distress: Condition of being threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring immediate
assistance
b. Urgency: A condition of being concerned about safety and of requiring timely but not immediate
assistance; a potential distress condition
ii. Do not hesitate to declare an emergency when faced with distress conditions
a. Ex: fire, mechanical failure, structural damage
iii. An aircraft is at least in an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel
endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety
a. This is the time to ask for help, not after it develops into a distress situation
iv. Request assistance immediately if apprehensive for your safety for any reason
a. Delay has caused accidents and cost lives
F. CE: Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
i. Ask the controller to repeat if you did not understand the message
ii. Learn to divide attention to properly hear and comply with all messages
iii. Always acknowledge radio calls with your call sign
3. Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
A. Preflight Planning
i. Always plan ahead
ii. Look up the primary frequencies you plan to use on the flight
a. Tower, ground, ATIS, clearance delivery, and any other applicable frequencies at the departure, and
arrival airport, as well as any divert airports you may use
 The busiest portions of the flight (departure, arrival, and diverting) are stressful enough. Plan ahead
to save yourself some time and work
b. This information can be found in the Chart Supplement, Sectional Charts, ForeFlight, etc.
c. The majority of ground control frequencies are in the 121.6 to 121.9 bandwidth
 Ground is almost always 121 point something
 If told to contact ground on .9, .8, .4, etc. that means 121.9, 121.8, 121.4, etc.
iii. Keep this information easily accessible
a. Most flight plans/nav logs have a designated space for frequencies

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b. Preferably organize the frequencies in the order you will use them
B. In the case a frequency needs to be found in flight, use available resources
i. Turn on the autopilot
ii. Keep the cockpit organized to quickly find the information you need
iii. Ask ATC, if appropriate
iv. Remember to fly the airplane first, then handle the radios and other duties
C. The Chart Supplement contains pertinent frequencies within/around the airport(s) you are operating in
i. Weather, Tower/CTAF, Clearance Delivery, Ground, Unicom, Navaids, FSS, Approach/Departure
D. Airport Diagram contains airport specific frequencies
i. Should be on hand in the airplane and easy to access
E. Charts provide frequencies as you navigate
i. Communications Boxes (FSS)
ii. Airport data provides tower/CTAF, Unicom, weather frequencies (ASOS, AWOS, or ATIS)
iii. VOR frequencies are shown in blue outlined boxes
a. ASOS/AWOS are available on some VORs
iv. Class B, C, TRSA, and some radar approach frequencies are provided on sectional and terminal charts
F. Once in contact with controllers, frequencies will be provided to reach further controllers
i. For example, while using flight following
G. CE: Use of improper frequencies
i. Understand each frequency’s purpose (tower, ground, clearance, etc.)
a. Know who you need to call
b. Can vary between airports, for example at some airports ground handles flight following requests, and
at others clearance delivery does
ii. If you get no response on the frequency
a. Wait a moment, the controller may be busy, then try again
b. Double check the frequency
c. If you were passed from one controller to another (ex. flight following), return to the last controller and
ask them to repeat the frequency
4. Radar Assistance
A. Radar equipped ATC facilities provide radar assistance to IFR aircraft & VFR aircraft, by request (flight following)
B. Includes safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited vectoring when requested, and sequencing at some locations
i. Traffic advisories are issued based on controller radar targets and referenced in terms of the 12-hour clock
a. Provide distance in nautical miles, direction the target is moving, and aircraft type/altitude, if available
b. Traffic direction is based on aircraft track, therefore wind correction can affect clock position
C. TRSA (Terminal Radar Service Area) exists at certain terminal locations
i. Provides separation between all participating VFR aircraft and all IFR aircraft
ii. Depicted on sectional charts and listed in the Chart Supplement
D. Class B & C Airspace
i. Class C provides separation between IFR & VFR traffic and traffic sequencing
ii. Class B provides separation based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight and sequencing VFR arrivals to airports
E. Radar Assistance does not relieve the pilot of the responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft
5. Transponders
A. Provides aircraft information to Air Traffic Control and other aircraft
B. Different types/modes of transponders broadcast different information
i. Mode A: Transmits 4-digit code that identifies an aircraft and its position
ii. Mode C: Mode A + ATC can see the aircraft’s altitude
iii. Mode S: Transmits a variety of information to ATC & other aircraft
a. Unique ICAO address (assigned to each aircraft)

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b. Heading, speed, other flight related data

c. Integral to TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) and ADS-B
C. Transponder Codes
i. When using flight following/radar assistance ATC assigns you a unique transponder code
a. Four numbers from 0-7 (4,096 possible codes)
b. Otherwise, squawk VFR (1200)
c. When combined with radar returns, ATC can see the aircraft on their scope with the transponder info
ii. Standard Codes: VFR: 1200; Hijack: 7500; Lost Communication: 7600; Emergency: 7700
6. ATC Light Signals (AIM 4-3-13)
A. Light Gun Signals and their Meaning
i. In the case of a loss of radio communication, the tower can attempt to communicate through light signals:

ii. General Information (AIM 6-4-2, AIM 4-3-13)

a. Squawk 7600 to indicate a loss of two-way radio capability
b. During daylight hours, acknowledge tower transmissions or light signals by moving the ailerons or
rudder (rocking the wings)
c. At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights
d. Between sunset and sunrise, to attract the attention of the tower, turn on a landing light and taxi the
aircraft into a position, clear of the active runway, so that the light is visible to the tower
 The landing light should remain on until appropriate signals are received from the tower
iii. Disadvantages of Light Signals (AIM 4-3-13)
a. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft
b. Directions are limited since only approval/disapproval of a pilot’s anticipated actions can be transmitted
 No explanatory or supplemental information may be transmitted
B. Lost Communication Procedures
i. Airborne Aircraft
a. Receiver Inoperative - Receiving no audio on tower/ATIS frequencies
 Remain outside or above Class D airspace until the direction and flow of traffic is determined
 Advise tower of the aircraft type, position, altitude, and intention to land
a Inform them of the radio failure
 Enter the pattern, report position as appropriate, and watch for light gun signals from the tower
a Acknowledge the signals as appropriate
b. Transmitter Inoperative - Receive no response to calls, but can receive calls
 Follow the previous procedures and monitor the appropriate radio frequency
a Remain outside of the airspace until the direction and flow of traffic is determined

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b Enter the pattern, clearing aggressively, and watch for light gun signals
 If you can hear ATC, they may ask you to acknowledge their radio calls with an ident
a In this case light gun signals may not be necessary
b Otherwise, acknowledge by rocking the wings/flashing the landing or navigation lights
 Make all normal radio calls, just in case
c. Receiver and Transmitter Inoperative
 Follow the previous procedures
a Remain outside of the airspace until the direction and flow of traffic is determined
b Enter the pattern, clearing aggressively, and watch for light gun signals
c Acknowledge the signals as appropriate
ii. Trouble Shoot the Situation
a. Check the connections, your equipment, the receiver/transmitter, verify the volume is up, try different
frequencies, is there an annunciation showing when you are transmitting (is it working?), etc.
 Think outside the box
iii. In any of these situations it may be a prudent to land at a non-towered airport with lower traffic volume
a. No radio communication is necessary
b. Always be extra vigilant when not using the radio as other aircraft may be expecting standard radio calls
iv. Once on the ground, it is prudent to call the tower and explain the situation
C. Aircraft on the Ground
i. Radio malfunctions should be repaired before flight
a. If this isn’t possible, call ATC and request a VFR departure without two-way radio communications
 No radio (NORDO) procedure arrivals are not accepted at busy airports
 If authorization is given, the pilot is advised to monitor a frequency and/or watch for light signals
ii. If failure occurs after departing parking, watch the tower for light signals or monitor the tower frequency
D. CE: Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
i. Know the light signals and their meanings
a. Carry a copy of the light gun signals on your kneeboard (stressful situations can result in forgetting
information or confusion)
b. Review the light signals on occasion
ii. On a quiet night, ask the tower to demonstrate the light signals
7. Runway Status Lights (RWSL)
A. Fully automated system providing a direct indication that it’s unsafe to enter, cross, takeoff, or land on a runway
i. Installed at a number of major US airports
ii. Processes information from surveillance systems to turn red warning lights on/off
iii. Used in conjunction with ATC – lights and ATC instructions must agree
B. Runway Entrance Lights (REL)
i. In-pavement red lights
ii. Provides a warning to aircraft waiting to cross/enter a runway that there is conflicting traffic on the runway
C. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL)
i. In-pavement red lights
ii. Provides a warning to aircraft in position for takeoff that the runway is occupied and it’s unsafe for takeoff
D. More details: FAA Runway Status Lights

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Common Errors:
 Use of improper frequencies
 Improper procedure and phraseology for radio communications
 Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
 Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Proper radio communications begin with understanding. As long as you, the pilot, and the controller understand what
each other are saying radio communication is effective and clearances can be obeyed properly.

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VI.B. Traffic Patterns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Non-Towered Airport Flight Operations (AC 90-66B), Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports without Operating Control
Towers (AC 90-42 - cancelled), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the proper procedures,
rules, and elements of the traffic pattern at both a controlled and uncontrolled field. The
student will be able to demonstrate this knowledge as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Entry Procedures

2. Communication
3. Orientation

Elements 1. The Pattern

2. Controlled Field
3. Uncontrolled Field
4. Runway Orientation
5. Proper Spacing
6. Right-of-Way Rules
7. Wind Shear & Wake Turbulence

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the rules and elements to a proper traffic pattern and is comfortable
Standards arriving and departing from a controlled or uncontrolled field.
 VI.B. Traffic Patterns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
To depart or land at an airport we’re going to have to use the traffic pattern, I guess it’s pretty important, huh?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Traffic Patterns involve the rules and procedures involved with flying a proper traffic pattern at a controlled and
uncontrolled airport.

Why
Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other suitable landing area. For that reason, it is essential that the pilot
learn the traffic rules, procedures, and pattern layouts that may be in use at various airports.

How:
1. The Pattern
A. Controlled - The pilot receives a clearance to approach/depart and pertinent pattern information
B. Uncontrolled - It’s up to the pilot to determine traffic direction, and comply with the appropriate rules
C. If familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, approaches/departures will be easy at most airports
D. Standard Traffic Pattern
i. The Basics
a. Pattern Altitude: Usually 1,000’ AGL
 A common altitude is the key factor in minimizing collisions at uncontrolled airports
 The Chart Supplement will usually specify nonstandard pattern altitudes
b. Standard Traffic Patterns: Left Turns
 All turns are left unless otherwise noted (Chart Supplement, Tower Controller, Airport Markings,
etc.)
 Turns should not be banked more than 30o
a Use rudder to maintain coordination; Do not use rudder to increase the rate of turn, this could
result in a cross controlled stall
ii. Pattern Legs
a. Upwind Leg - The departure leg, flown parallel and in the same direction as runway heading
b. Crosswind Leg – The transition from the upwind leg to the downwind leg
 Perpendicular to the upwind leg (90o turn)
 Fly the crosswind leg to provide approximately ½ to 1-mile separation from the runway
c. Downwind Leg - Parallel to the runway of intended landing
 The heading flown is opposite the landing runway
a Ex: Landing runway 10, downwind heading is 280o (no wind)
 Approximately ½ to 1 mile from the runway
 Before landing checks, and configuration (flaps, gear) are normally accomplished downwind
 Descent is normally started on the downwind leg when abeam the point of intended touchdown
 The downwind leg normally continues to a point 45o off the intended landing point, past the
approach end of the runway

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a The turn to the base leg is

started at the end of the
downwind leg
b Point can be adjusted based
on circumstances
1. Winds, traffic, tower
request, emergency
situation, etc.
d. Base Leg - Perpendicular to the
runway and the transition between
downwind and final
 Ground track should be
perpendicular to the extended
centerline
a Heading is 90o off runway
direction (with no wind)
 Continue the descent, adjusting
pitch and power to maintain
airspeed, glideslope, aim point
 Begin the turn to final to end up
established on centerline
e. Establishing Final Approach
 The base leg will be adjusted
depending on wind conditions
a The stronger the wind, the
closer the base leg should
be to the runway because of the decreased groundspeed on final
1. At a slower the groundspeed on final, it takes longer to reach the runway than it otherwise
would, and therefore more altitude is lost in the descent
 Turn to final should be no closer than ¼ mile at an altitude appropriate for the glide slope selected
a A 3o glide slope is normal; a 3o glide slope means we descend 300’ every mile
f. Final - The final descent of the approach, aligned with the landing runway
 Adjust the turn from base to center the aircraft on the runway
 Crab into the wind to maintain ground track
 Adjust pitch and power as necessary to maintain airspeed, glideslope, and aim point
 Run through the Before Landing checklist again to ensure everything is complete, and ensure you
have been cleared to land
iii. Departing the Pattern
a. Climb out on the upwind leg
b. If remaining in the pattern, turn to the crosswind leg past the departure end of the runway and within
300’ of pattern altitude
c. If departing, continue straight out, or exit with a 45o turn to the left (or right, for a right pattern)
E. Maintaining the Desired Ground Track (on any leg in the pattern)
i. The goal is to fly a rectangular pattern regardless of the wind direction or speed
a. The airplane will have to be crabbed into the wind to maintain a straight ground track
b. Maintain awareness of the wind direction in relation to the aircraft, adjust heading as necessary to
maintain ground track

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ii. Visual references are very helpful in maintaining ground track

a. Upwind: Glance behind briefly to ensure you are maintaining the runway centerline
b. Crosswind: Use the runway as a reference; note and correct for any drift to or from the runway
c. Downwind: Place the runway centerline on a reference point on the airplane
 EX: Place the runway centerline on the edge of a stall strip or outside the fuel cap (whatever
reference works for your comfort, the aircraft, and the local pattern procedures)
d. Final: Maintain the centerline, crab as necessary to correct for the wind
e. Familiar airports may have well known references for the pattern
 Ex: Turn base over a field, or road intersection
 These are helpful for learning the pattern, but these specific references will not exist at other
airports; be sure to teach references that can be carried from airport to airport
iii. CE: Poor altitude or airspeed control
a. Maintain a constant crosscheck
 90% outside, 10% inside
 Verify pattern altitude, the appropriate airspeed, configuration, etc.
b. Know the configuration and speeds for each leg of the pattern
 For example, 95 knots, level flight, takeoff flaps, and landing gear on downwind. 85 knot descent on
base, 75 knots and fully configured on final
 Max speed in Class D airspace is 200 KIAS
c. Use small, controlled inputs to fly the airplane
 Small, smooth inputs allow for much more precise control than large, jerky movements
d. At slow speeds, close to the ground airspeed control is very important
 A stall within 1,000’ AGL could be unrecoverable
iv. CE: Improper correction for wind drift
a. Keep the pattern a rectangle, crab into the wind as necessary
b. Use the heading bug, or make a mental note of the wind direction from the ATIS/ASOS and adjust
heading as necessary to correct for the wind
c. Use visual references

F. Legend for the Picture Above

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i. 1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the runway, at pattern altitude (1,000’ AGL is
recommended pattern altitude unless otherwise published)
ii. 2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of the landing runway on downwind leg
iii. 3. Complete the final turn at least ¼ mile from the runway
iv. 4. Do no overshoot final or continue on a track that penetrates the final approach of the parallel runway
v. 5. After takeoff or go-around, continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of runway
vi. 6. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the
runway within 300’ of pattern altitude
vii. 7. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or exit with a 45 o turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway,
after reaching pattern altitude
viii. 8. Do not continue on a track that penetrates the departure path of the parallel runway
2. Controlled Field
A. Generally, ATIS will inform the pilot of the runway(s) in use
B. Tower provides a clearance to approach/depart as well as pertinent information about the pattern
C. ATC will specify pattern entry and departure procedures (Where/how to enter and depart)
D. During the pattern the controller may make adjustments (speed, legs lengths, turns for spacing, etc.)
E. CE: Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
i. Know the rules and ensure you understand radio communications and instructions
a. If you’re unsure ask!
ii. The pattern can be very busy – numerous radio calls, checklists, configuration changes, and other aircraft
a. Listen closely to ATC instructions while accomplishing other tasks
 Do not become distracted or fixated on one task, divide your attention
 Remember to fly first – aviate, navigate, communicate
iii. Clear aggressively
3. Uncontrolled Field
A. Communication
i. There are 2 ways to communicate intentions and obtain airport/traffic info at an uncontrolled field
a. Communicating with an FSS providing advisories
 The FSS provides wind info, runway in use, altimeter setting, known traffic, NOTAMs, etc.
a They are not a controller - the FSS just provides information for your use
 Inbound aircraft should initiate contact about 10 miles out with altitude, aircraft type, and location
 Departing aircraft should transmit tail number, type of flight, destination, services desired, and
anything else applicable
b. Self-announced broadcast on the CTAF (frequency is found in the Chart Supplement and on sectionals)
 Listen to the local weather for wind direction
a Provides a good idea of which runway is in use (verify with CTAF)
 Announce your position and intentions on the CTAF frequency
 Monitor other aircraft calls on CTAF and coordinate actions as necessary to avoid hazards

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B. Arriving
i. Observe other aircraft already in the pattern and conform to the traffic pattern in use
a. If other aircraft are not in the pattern, use traffic indicators/wind direction to determine runway in use
 Look for L shaped indicators with a segmented circle (short part of the L shows turn direction)
 Check these indicators well above pattern altitude (500’ – 1,000’ above pattern altitude)
 Pattern direction can also be determined in the Chart Supplement and on sectional charts
ii.

RM: Enter at pattern altitude and clear aggressively

a. Entry while descending creates collision hazards and should be avoided
 Since you cannot see below the cowling, you could unknowingly descend onto another
b. Adjust airspeed to blend into the traffic
 Use airspeeds recommended by the manufacturer
 Generally, 70-80 knots for fixed-gear singles / 80-90 knots for high-performance retractable
iii. Downwind Entry
a. Enter at pattern altitude at a 45o to the midfield downwind
iv. Midfield Entry

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a. Cross midfield at least 500’ above pattern altitude

b. When well clear of the pattern (approximately 2 miles), descend to pattern altitude
c. Enter the pattern in level flight, at pattern altitude, at a 45o angle to the downwind leg, abeam the
runway midpoint (preferred method, A - shown below)
v. Alternate Midfield Entry
a. Enter at pattern altitude at midfield crosswind and turn downwind
b. Should not be used when the pattern is congested
C. Departing
i. Monitor the radio for
traffic in the area
ii. Announce intentions
iii. Clear aggressively prior to
takeoff and on departure
a. Radio communication
is not required at an
uncontrolled field
D. CE: Failure to comply with
instructions, procedures, and
rules
i. Know the rules and
ensure you understand
radio communications
a. Follow established
procedures in use at
uncontrolled fields
ii. The pattern can be very
busy – numerous radio calls, checklists, configuration changes, and other aircraft
a. Listen closely to CTAF radio calls while accomplishing other tasks
 Do not become distracted or fixated on one task, divide your attention
 Remember to fly first – aviate, navigate, communicate
iii. Clear aggressively, especially at uncontrolled airfields
4. Runway Orientation
A. Know which runway is in use and remain oriented with the runway
i. Plan to enter properly visualizing your position in relation to the runway on the heading indicator
ii. RM: Confirm the runway number with the heading indicator during all pattern legs
a. Downwind – reciprocal of the landing runway
b. Base - 90o off (in the direction of the pattern)
c. Final – Same as the runway number
5. RM: Proper Spacing
A. Be aware of other aircraft in the pattern, as well as aircraft entering and exiting the pattern
i. Use the tower/CTAF radio calls to build a mental image of the traffic and adjust to maintain separation
a. At an uncontrolled field, announce your intentions
b. At a controlled field, follow the controller’s instructions and/or request permission to make a change
 Ex: 360o turn on downwind, or an extended downwind to create space
ii. As mentioned above, maintain airspeed to blend in with the other traffic
iii. On downwind with another aircraft on final, delay the base turn until abeam/past the other aircraft
a. This is a common technique to provide comfortable spacing at similar airspeeds
iv. Adjust upwind as necessary to accommodate aircraft on downwind

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B. The pilot is always responsible for seeing and avoiding whether at a controlled or uncontrolled field!
C. CE: Inadequate spacing from other traffic
i. Don’t fly faster than an airplane in-front of you, or turn too early following another plane
a. Adjust your speed to blend in
b. Wait until you are abeam the other aircraft before making your turn
ii. Adjust, if necessary
a. Extend the downwind leg, configure, and slow to approach speed earlier than normal, use s-turns, etc.
b. If absolutely necessary, depart the pattern and re-enter
6. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
A. Converging
i. If aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the other’s right has the right-of-way
ii. Different Categories Converging (basically, least maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way)
a. Balloon, glider, and airship have right-of-way over airplanes
b. An aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right-of-way over all other engine driven aircraft
B. Approaching Head-On: Each aircraft shall alter course to the right
C. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; the overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right
D. Landing: Aircraft on final approach or landing have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or on the surface
a. Shall not take advantage of this to force an aircraft which has already landed off the runway
ii. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport to land, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a. Shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
7. RM: Hazards
A. See VII. RM Concepts - Wind Shear
B. See VII. RM Concepts - Wake Turbulence
C. See VII.RM Concepts - Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)

Common Errors:
 Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Inadequate spacing from other traffic
 Poor altitude or airspeed control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other suitable landing area, making patterns very important.

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VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives To understand the procedures and requirements for a normal and crosswind takeoff and climb.
The student should be able to competently maintain control of the airplane and safely takeoff
and climb with or without wind as described in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Takeoff into the Wind

2. Left Turning Tendencies
3. *Rotation Speed (VR - 44 knots)

Elements 1. Takeoff & Climb

2. Normal Takeoff
3. Crosswind Takeoff
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student is able to walk through a normal or crosswind takeoff
Standards on the ground, providing knowledge of common errors regarding these procedures. The student
also should be able to confidently demonstrate a takeoff and climb with or without a crosswind.
VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The takeoff is one of the most basic and exciting parts of flying. Different situations regarding wind and weather,
runway size and length, and the runway surface will provide different challenges for every flight.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff
surface is firm, and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out
speed, and there are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
While it is preferable to takeoff into the wind, there will be many instances when circumstances dictate otherwise. A
crosswind takeoff is a normal takeoff with the only exception being that the airplane is no longer headed directly into
the wind.

Why
It is essential to every flight you will ever take! A smooth, skillful and safe takeoff is a key element of pilot proficiency.
It is essential for the pilot to be able to perform a safe and smooth takeoff and have the ability to control the aircraft
in varying conditions, starting with the basics. You need to be on your game while maneuvering close to the ground -
takeoffs are, by definition, performed at and near the ground.

How:
1. Takeoff & Climb
A. A normal takeoff:
i. Airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light
ii. Takeoff surface is firm and of sufficient length to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off/climb-out speed
iii. No obstructions on the takeoff path
B. Reasons for taking off into the wind
i. Even when motionless, a headwind provides some level of airspeed due to wind moving over the wings
ii. A plane depends on airspeed to fly, a headwind provides some of that speed before the plane is moving
iii. A headwind decreases the ground speed necessary to achieve flying speed
a. Results in a shorter ground roll and therefore less runway is required for takeoff
 Shorter runways can be used
 More runway is available in the case that the airplane needs to be stopped
a The lower groundspeed also makes the airplane easier to stop
b. Reduces wear and stress on the landing gear
 Slower ground speeds and less time spent on the runway
iv. Tailwind increases the required ground roll
a. There are times that a takeoff with a tail wind is necessary
 Consult the POH to verify tailwind limitations and aircraft performance
b. RM: See VII.RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwind
C. RM: Performance
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations Sections 2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4 (Performance Charts)

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VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

a. Effects of atmospheric conditions (Pressure/Density altitude)

b. Performance charts
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Takeoff Surface Conditions
D. RM: See VII.RM Concepts - Runway Selection
i. Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind
E. Best Angle versus Best Rate of Climb
i. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
a. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
 Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
a Power is the energy the engine produces
b As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best rate of climb decreases
b. The best rate of climb speed + maximum power = the aircraft’s maximum climb
 Attempts to get more climb performance by increasing pitch results in a decreased rate of climb
c. Used in normal takeoff and climb procedures
ii. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
a. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
 Slower than VY
 Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
a Thrust is what propels the airplane (the displaced air as a result of the spinning propeller)
b As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best angle of climb increases
c Read Thrust vs Power (on medium.com) for a short article breaking down the two terms
 VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
a Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

iii. Normal Climb (Cruise Climb)

a. Performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer
 Usually faster than the best rate of climb, but provides better cooling, control, and visibility
b. *When we pitch for 75 or 90 knots in the DA20
F. Configuration
i. Reference the POH and Before Takeoff checklist
ii. *Takeoff flaps in DA20
a. Configuration can vary based on the aircraft and type of takeoff
2. Normal Takeoff

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VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

A. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi onto the Runway
a. Complete the before takeoff checklist prior to taxiing onto the runway
 CE: Improper use of checklist
b. Controlled Airport
 Never taxi onto a runway for takeoff without a specific clearance
a Cleared for takeoff
b Lineup and wait
c In the case of confusion, stop the airplane and query the controller
 Clear the area prior to crossing the hold short lines
a Ensure there are no other aircraft on final that could become a hazard,
b Do not taxi out onto the runway if it is not safe
c. Uncontrolled Airport
 Announce intentions on the CTAF to alert other aircraft of your position and intentions
 Use other radio calls to build a mental picture of the traffic in the area and how it may affect you
 Check final approach
a Before taxiing onto the runway, ensure there time to takeoff before any aircraft turn onto final
1. As a general rule, don’t take the runway with another airplane on final
 Check the runway
a Ensure the runway is clear of other aircraft, vehicles, persons, or other hazards
d. When entering any runway, verify the runway assigned matches the runway you are on
 Compare the runway assigned against
a The painted runway numbers, and/or the runway hold position signs
b The magnetic heading of the airplane, once aligned

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c The GPS position on your tablet/app, if available (for example, ForeFlight)

 Numerous accidents have been the result of pilots unintentionally lining up on the wrong runway.
Always verify you are where you intend to be
a If there is any confusion, stop, do not takeoff, and query the controller
e. CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
f. Aligning the aircraft
 The airplane should be carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction, and the nose wheel
positioned straight, or centered and stopped
a *Centerline site picture: Put the centerline between the pilot’s outer leg & the control stick
1. This visual reference varies slightly from person to person and aircraft to aircraft; adjust as
necessary to find a sight picture that works for you
 While taxiing onto the runway, select ground reference points aligned with the runway to aid in
maintaining directional control with the runway centerline during the climb
a For example, runway lighting, distant trees, towers, buildings, mountains, etc.
ii. Release the brakes and advance power
a. After releasing brakes, the throttle should be advance smoothly and continuously to takeoff power
 Be smooth with the power - abrupt power applications can result in a sharp yaw to the left
 Once brakes are released, ensure both feet are on the rudder pedals, and not pressing on the brakes
a Applying the brakes during the takeoff roll will increase the takeoff run
b. Expect left yaw when power is added - be proactive to counter the yaw, but don’t overcorrect
 Right rudder is used to counteract the left turning tendencies
 Adjust the amount of right rudder pressure to maintain the centerline site picture
c. CE: Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
 Without a crosswind the ailerons should remain neutral through the takeoff roll
 Rudder is used to maintain the centerline
iii. Gaining Speed
a. Check engine instruments for proper operation, and verify the airspeed indicator is operating
 Announce “gauges green,” “airspeed alive”
 Continue to monitor the engine instruments for any indication of a malfunction
 If the airspeed indicator is not operating, and/or there is an engine malfunction, abort the takeoff
and stop straight ahead
b. Directional control is maintained through smooth, prompt, positive rudder corrections
 Keep the nose of the airplane tracking down the centerline of the runway
a *Visual picture - Centerline between outer leg and control stick
 Don’t use the brakes to steer
a This will slow acceleration and possibly results in severe swerving
c. As speed increases, the flight controls will become effective
 As this occurs, progressively smaller rudder deflections are necessary to maintain direction
a Plane is being flown more than taxied
 It takes repetition to recognize and be comfortable with control pressure changes based on speed
 Don’t be over dependent on the airspeed indicator, develop a feel for the airplane
B. Lift-Off
i. Rotation (VR)
a. As the aircraft reaches VR, gently pull back on the controls to initiate a nose high attitude to climb at VY
 *Approximately 10o nose up
a Varies in different aircraft
b Varies with aircraft weight and density altitude (airplane’s ability to climb)

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 This is when all flight controls become effective

 Wings are kept level with ailerons
 Maintain rudder to keep flying straight & coordinated
b. Visually
 Runway disappears as the nose pitches upward
 Maintain the centerline, pitch, and bank, with outside
references and quick glances to the instruments
a 90% outside, 10% inside
b Note/maintain the position of the nose on the horizon,
keep wings level relative to the horizon
c. CE: Improper liftoff procedures
 Maintain the pitch attitude constant after rotation
a Don’t force the plane into the air with excessive back
pressure
1. Unsafe. If the aircraft is forced into the area before adequate flight speed is attained, AOA
may become excessive, causing the plane to settle back onto the runway or stall
b Insufficient back pressure or lowering the nose may cause the plane to settle back to the runway
 Maintain right rudder pressure to keep coordinated throughout the takeoff roll and once airborne
ii. Initial Climb
a. After rotation and initial lift-off, the plane is pitched for VY
 VY is the speed at which the aircraft will gain the most altitude in the shortest period of time
a VY + takeoff power = maximum altitude gained in a minimum amount of time.
b Gives the pilot the most altitude in the case of an engine failure or other emergency
 *Approximately 10o
b. Visually
 Set pitch and hold it, cross-check against the horizon and other visual references
a Unless dictated otherwise, takeoff path should remain aligned with the runway centerline
1. Identify two points inline and ahead of the runway to use as a tracking reference
b Proper scanning is essential for maintaining attitude and direction, and avoiding collisions
c. At takeoff power, airspeed is controlled by slight pitch adjustments using the elevators
 The airspeed indicator is used as a check to ensure the pitch attitude is correct
 Don’t focus on the instruments, continue to scan outside references
 When a change needs to be made:
a Make the change with reference to the natural horizon, and momentarily hold the new attitude
1. Due to inertia, the airplane won’t accelerate/decelerate immediately with pitch changes
b Glance at the airspeed indicator to verify the new attitude is correct
c If correct, maintain pitch and occasionally crosscheck airspeed to ensure it is maintained
d If incorrect, repeat pitch change/cross check procedure until the desired attitude is attained
d. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
 It is important to maintain VY.
a Attitude flying is important to avoid chasing the airspeed
1. Set the pitch that should give you VY and make small adjustments as necessary
 Right rudder is necessary to prevent a side slip on the initial climb due to the left turning tendencies
C. *Climb Checklist
i. Climb to 500’ AGL, at which point the ‘Climb Check’ is performed
a. Speed – 90 knots
b. Fuel Pump – Off

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c. Flaps - Up
d. Gauges – Green
e. Lights – Off
ii. CE: Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until the aircraft is at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish any checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to fly the aircraft
 Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
3. Crosswind Takeoff
A. Basic steps of a normal takeoff are the same for a crosswind takeoff
B. Differences ensure the plane maintains centerline and smoothly takes off with wind pushing across the runway
i. Closely parallels crosswind corrections used for taxiing
ii. Aileron is applied into the wind, and rudder maintains the centerline
a. Aileron keeps the wings level during the takeoff roll
 Start fully deflected into the wind & decrease pressure as ailerons become more effective
b. Rudder keeps the nose tracking down the runway centerline
 On the ground, the plane weathervanes, or points, into the wind
 Rudder counters the weathervane to keep aligned with the centerline
 Rudder is generally applied in the opposite direction of the ailerons
a Right rudder is required to counter the left turning tendencies, but:
1. If there is a crosswind from the left, additional right rudder will be required
2. If there is a crosswind from the right, less right rudder than normal will be required
c. Once established in the climb, transition from the sideslip to a crab
iii. Prevents skipping, sideways movement across the runway, and potentially severe side stresses on the gear
iv. RM: See VII.RM Concepts - Effects of Crosswinds
C. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi onto the Runway
a. Complete the before takeoff checklist prior to taxiing onto the runway

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 CE: Improper use of checklist

b. Carefully align with the centerline and center the nosewheel
 *Centerline is kept between the pilot’s outer leg and the stick
c. CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Use the same procedures as discussed in Normal Takeoff
ii. With a crosswind (windsock, ATIS, other indicators) hold FULL aileron
INTO the wind as the roll is started
a. Raises the upwind aileron, to impose a downward force and
prevent the crosswind from raising the wing
iii. Release the brakes
a. Same as a normal takeoff, but with full aileron into the wind
b. Smoothly and continuously advance the throttle to takeoff power
c. Apply rudder to counter left turning tendencies & weathervane
d. CE: Improper use of controls during takeoff
iv. Gaining Speed
a. As speed increases, ailerons become more effective, and the crosswind becomes more of a relative
headwind
 Full aileron pressure into the wind should gradually be reduced
 Some aileron pressure will be maintained – The crosswind doesn’t entirely go away
 Adjust rudder to continue straight down the centerline
b. CE: Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
 Don’t be mechanical, rather sense the need for aileron input through feel and visual indications
a If the wings are tilting in relation to the horizon, use aileron to level them
 Don’t use excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff roll,
a Can result in a steep bank into the wind at lift-off (putting the wing near the runway surface)
c. CE: Inappropriate lift off procedures
 Avoid premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping
a If the crosswind correction is not held properly, a skipping action may result
b Side-skipping imposes severe stresses on the landing gear and could result in structural failure
D. Lift-Off
i. In a significant crosswind, hold the main gear on the ground longer to ensure a smooth but definite takeoff
a. Allows the airplane to leave the ground with more positive control and prevent side loading the gear
b. *Therefore, rotating above VR - 44 knots
ii. Sufficient aileron should be held into the wind so that immediately after liftoff the aircraft is side slipping
into the wind to counteract drift
a. As the nose wheel is being raised, the aileron control into the wind may result in the downwind wing
rising first and the downwind main wheel lifting off first
 This is acceptable and preferred to side skipping
iii. Once the plane leaves the ground drift correction needs to be maintained
a. Visually
 Runway will begin to disappear as the nose pitches upward
 Maintain the centerline, pitch, and bank (slip) with outside references and instrument indications
b. Instrument Indications
 *Pitch to approximately 10o to maintain VY
a Make small adjustments as necessary for airspeed
E. Initial Climb
i. Once the climb is established, transition to a crab into the wind

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a. Sideslip creates excess drag and reduces climb performance

b. Turn into the wind, level the wings, use rudder for coordination
ii. Visually
a. Use an outside scan to maintain proper pitch/bank attitude
 Essential for a safe takeoff
b. Select two points ahead of, and in line with the runway
 Keep them in alignment during the crab
c. Frequent checks of the ground track should be made to ensure
you remain on the extended centerline
d. Don’t focus on the instruments
iii. The remainder of the climb is the same as a normal climb
iv. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, speed
a. Maintain drift correction after lift-off, then transition to a crab
b. Power, airspeed, and climb attitude are the same as a normal
takeoff
F. *Climb Checklist
i. Climb to 500’ AGL, at which point the ‘Climb Check’ is performed
a. Speed – 90 knots
b. Fuel Pump – Off
c. Flaps - Up
d. Gauges – Green
e. Lights – Off
ii. CE: Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until the aircraft is at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish any checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to continue flying the aircraft – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Takeoff
B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Runway Incursion
F. Collision Hazards
G. Low Altitude Maneuvering
H. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
Normal Takeoff and Climb
 Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
 Inappropriate lift off procedures
 Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
 Improper use of checklist

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Not every takeoff will be the same and therefore adjustments will have to be made. A strong understanding of what is
involved in a normal and crosswind takeoff is essential to every flight.

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Procedures during Taxi Operations (AC 91-73), Aviation Weather
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should be able to perform a normal approach and landing as prescribed in
ACS/PTS. The approach and landing should be performed satisfactorily with or without a
crosswind, and with the necessary corrections based on the situation.

Key Elements 1. Stabilized Approach

2. Smooth, Controlled Roundout
3. Hold the airplane inches above the ground before touching down
4. Don’t Side Load the Aircraft

Elements 1. Runway Selection

2. Downwind Leg
3. Base Leg
4. Final Approach
5. Roundout
6. Touchdown
7. After-Landing Roll
8. Crosswind Approach
9. Rejected Landing / Go Around
10. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can fly a coordinated, stabilized approach, transitioning into a smooth roundout
Standards and touchdown without side loading the airplane, with or without a crosswind.
 VII.B. Normal Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The landing is the most difficult, and most fun part of flying. It doesn’t matter how good the flight was if the landing
was bad.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures for what is considered a normal situation; that is,
when engine power is available, the wind is light or final approach is made directly into the wind, the final approach
path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the plane to a stop.

Why
It’s really a good skill to have when we decide we want to land the plane. Not only that, but the factors involved and
procedures used also have applications to the other-than-normal approaches and landings.

How:
1. Runway Selection
A. Limitations & Performance
i. Limitations are found in Chap 2 of the POH
a. Applicable limitations can include maximum weights, crosswind/tailwind limitations, minimum runway
length/width, flap/gear extension speeds, stall speeds, center of gravity limitations, etc.
ii. Performance is determined by using the appropriate charts in Chap 5 of the POH
a. See II.F. Performance & Limitations 2.A. (Effects of Atmospheric Conditions) & 4 (Performance Charts)
b. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
c. Be competent in using the charts in the POH to obtain landing data based on the conditions
B. RM: See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
i. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Distance, Wind, etc.
ii. Landing Surface/Condition
iii. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
2. Downwind Leg
A. Parallel to the runway of intended landing, and normally at 1,000’ AGL
i. Pattern altitude can vary, be aware of local procedures
B. Checklists
i. Complete the Before Landing Checklist at the midpoint of the downwind leg
ii. CE: Failure to establish approach/landing configuration at appropriate time or proper sequence
C. *Abeam the landing threshold
i. Begin the descent
a. Reduce power to 1500 RPM
b. Extend takeoff flaps
c. Airspeed - 75 knots
 Maintain pattern altitude, allowing the airspeed to slow to 75 knots
 Just before reaching 75 knots, establish the pitch attitude to maintain the airspeed in the descent

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D. 45o angle from the runway threshold

i. At the 45o point begin the turn to base
a. Shallow to medium bank – recall Rectangular Course procedures to compensate for wind
ii. At the 45o point the airplane has usually descended approximately 200’ (800’ AGL)
a. This varies between aircraft
3. Base Leg
A. The leg prior to turning final; perpendicular to the approach end of the runway of intended landing
i. Must judge the altitude & distance from which a stable descent results in landing at the desired spot
ii. Distance of the base leg from the runway depends on altitude, wind, and the amount of flaps used
a. When there is a strong wind on final, or the flaps are used to produce a steep angle of descent, the base
leg must be closer to the runway than with a light wind or no flaps
B. Configuration
i. *Airspeed - 70 knots
a. Adjust pitch/power to slow from 75 to 70 knots
C. Drift Correction
i. Ground track should be perpendicular to the runway
ii. It is common for a crosswind to be pushing the airplane
away from the runway
a. This is because landing is made into the wind
b. Crab into the wind to maintain the course
D. The Turn to Final
i. Medium to shallow bank turn should align the airplane
with the centerline of the runway
a. Recall Rectangular Course and the effects of wind on the bank angle
b. No more than 30o of bank
 Stall speed increases rapidly above 30o of bank, very unsafe when slow and close to the ground
c. In the case a steep bank is necessary, a go around is recommended
 A go around is highly preferred over a steep bank and/or a cross controlled situation
ii. *Usually a descent of approximately 200’ is made on the base leg (about 600’ AGL to start the turn to final)
a. Varies based on aircraft, and conditions (terrain, obstructions, flap settings, etc.). Adjust as required
b. On a 3o glidepath (which is equal to 300’ per nm), 600’ AGL is a two-mile descent to the runway
4. Final Approach
A. Longitudinal axis is aligned with the runway center line and the final descent to the landing runway is made
B. Configuration
i. Landing Flaps
ii. *Airspeed – 65 knots
a. Adjust pitch and power to establish final approach speed
iii. *Landing Checklist
C. A Stable Approach
i. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
a. A stabilized approach is a safe approach
b. An unstable approach increases the risk of excessive descent rates or slow airspeed close to the ground
c. Adjust pitch for airspeed and power for altitude to maintain speed and glidepath
ii. A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath towards
a predetermined point on the landing runway. It is based on the pilot’s judgement of certain visual cues and
depends on the maintenance of a constant final descent airspeed and configuration
a. Objective is to descend at an angle and airspeed that allows the plane to reach the desired touchdown
point at a speed resulting in minimal float just before touchdown; in essence, a semi-stalled condition

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iii. Controlling the Descent

a. Power and pitch are adjusted to maintain a stabilized approach and glide slope
 Configured at final approach speed – below LDMAX and in the Region of Reverse Command
a Pitch is used to maintain airspeed
b Power is used to maintain altitude, or glidepath
b. A change in any of the variables requires a coordinated change in the other controllable variables
 For example, if the pitch attitude is raised too high without an increase in power the airplane settles
rapidly and touches down short of the desired spot
1. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide by applying back-elevator pressure alone to
reach the desired landing spot
2. The gliding distance is shortened if power is not increased simultaneously
 The proper angle of descent should be maintained by coordinating pitch attitude changes and power
changes simultaneously
a If the approach is too high, reduce power and lower the nose to maintain airspeed
b If the approach is too low, add power and raise the nose to maintain airspeed
c Stay on airspeed
iv. The Angle of Descent
a. Aiming Point

 The point on the ground at which, if the airplane maintains a constant glidepath, and was not flared
for landing, it would strike the ground
a An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and airspeed is traveling in a
straight line toward a spot on the ground ahead (the aiming point)
1. This spot is not the spot on which the airplane will actually touchdown because some float
occurs during the round out/flare
 Select an aiming point in front of the point of intended touchdown
a *Approximately 400 to 500’ in front of touchdown to allow for the airplane’s float
1. This is equal to 2 to 2½ stripes prior to your intended touchdown point
2. Varies between aircraft. Select a point appropriate to your plane’s float characteristics
 Keep the aiming point steady on the wind screen
a To a pilot moving straight ahead toward an object, the aiming point appears to be stationary in
the windscreen, it does not move
1. Objects in front of and beyond the aiming point do appear to move as the distance is closed
2. If the aiming point begins to move in the windscreen, the descent path has changed and you
are no longer aiming at the desired point. Corrections need to be made
b If the point begins to move up on the windscreen, the airplane is getting too low
1. Add power and raise the nose to maintain airspeed

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a. The same airspeed with a higher power setting will result in a slower descent, or a climb
if enough power is added
c If the point begins to move down on the windscreen, the airplane is getting too high
1. Reduce power and lower the nose to maintain airspeed
a. The same airspeed with a lower power setting will result in a steeper descent
d Small, proactive corrections will result in the airplane making a stabilized steady approach to the
aiming point on the runway
b. The Runway Image
 A normal glidepath is 3o (or a 300’ per nm descent)
a Over time, the pilot will learn the approach site picture and can apply the following principles
 Too High
a The runway will elongate and become narrower
1. Overhead view of the runway
 Too Low
a The runway will shorten and become wider
1. Flat view of the runway
 On Descent Path
a The runway will be between overhead and flat
b The runway shape remains the same but grows in size as we approach

 The runway should also maintain the same shape as the pilot continues down the approach path
a From the cockpit, the runway is seen as a trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than the
approach end and the edge lines converging ahead
b Continuing the approach, the image is still a trapezoid, but of proportionately larger dimensions
D. CE: Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
i. Ensure the controller gave you landing clearance, it was understood, and was read back

a. The landing clearance needs to be for the specific runway

 Query and clarify if unsure or unclear about the instructions
ii. At the latest, clearance to land should be obtained on final approach (it can come earlier)

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iii. If clearance to land has not been obtained, or there is uncertainty, do not land
5. Roundout
A. A slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out the
flight path to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches of the runway

B. Estimating Height and Movement

i. Visual focus should not be fixed on any one side or to any one spot ahead
a. Focus should change slowly from a point just over the nose to the desired touchdown zone and back
b. Maintain awareness of the distance from either side of the runway with peripheral vision
ii. Speed and Vision
a. Speed blurs objects at close range
 Ex: Car at high speed. Nearby objects seem to merge/blur together, farther out objects are clear
a The driver subconsciously focuses the eyes sufficiently far ahead to see objects distinctly
b. The distance at which vision is focused should be proportionate to the speed of the airplane
 As speed is reduced, the distance the pilot focuses ahead of the airplane should be brought closer
c. Focusing too close will result in a blurred reference
 Reactions will be too abrupt or too late
 Tendencies include: Overcontrolling, high roundout, and full stall or drop in landings
d. When focused too far, the ability to judge the closeness of the ground is lost
 Reactions tend to be slow as there does not seem to be a necessity for action
 Tendencies include: Late or little to no flare, and landing nose first
e. If focus is gradually changed, being brought progressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval
and the pilot’s reaction are reduced and the whole landing process smoothed out
C. Starting the Roundout
i. The roundout is started approximately 10 to 20’ above the ground
a. Varies between aircraft, and the rate of descent
ii. Power is reduced to idle and back elevator is slowly applied, gradually increasing pitch and AOA
a. Begins putting the nose of the airplane in the desired landing attitude
b. AOA is increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to continue settling slowly as airspeed decreases
 If angle of attack is increased too rapidly, the airplane will climb
D. Decreasing Lift, Increasing Pitch Attitude
i. With the power at idle, airspeed is decreasing. As airspeed decreases, the pilot increases the angle of attack
which momentarily increases lift and decreases the rate of descent
ii. Airspeed will continue to decrease causing lift to decrease again
a. This must be controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the angle of attack

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iii. Airspeed is being decreased to touchdown speed, while lift is being controlled with back pressure so that the
airplane will settle gently onto the runway
E. Rate of the Roundout
i. The rate at which the roundout is executed, depends on the height above the ground, the rate of descent,
and the pitch attitude
a. High Roundout
 Executed more slowly to allow descent to the ground while proper landing attitude is established
b. Low Roundout
 Executed faster to obtain the proper landing attitude before striking the runway surface
c. High Rate of Descent
 If the airplane appears to be descending rapidly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a
correspondingly high rate to arrest the rate of descent and obtain the proper landing attitude before
striking the runway surface
d. Low Rate of Descent
 When the airplane appears to be descending very slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be
made at a correspondingly slow rate
 A high rate can lead to a rapid airspeed loss followed by an increased rate of descent to the runway
e. High Pitch Attitude (ex: full flap landing)
 If the airplane is already in a high pitch attitude, the roundout should be executed more slowly to
prevent an excessively high pitch attitude
f. Low Pitch Attitude (ex: no flap landing)
 If the airplane is in a low pitch attitude, the roundout should be executed at a faster rate to obtain
the proper landing attitude prior to touching down
g. Note: Once the roundout has been started, the elevator control should not be pushed forward
 If necessary, relax back pressure or just hold it constant as the airspeed decreases
ii. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
a. Always be prepared to apply immediate power or initiate a go around
6. Touchdown
A. The gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface at the minimum controllable airspeed with the
airplane’s longitudinal axis parallel to its direction along the runway

B. Ideal Landing
i. Hold the airplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevators
ii. In most cases, if the wheels are 2-3’ off the ground, the plane will be settling too fast for a gentle touchdown
a. The descent must be further reduced with further back-elevator pressure
C. Longitudinal Axis
i. The longitudinal axis should be exactly parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the runway
a. Failure to do this imposes severe side loads on the landing gear

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b. Don’t land while drifting

c. More below, in the crosswind approach and landing section
D. Rudder Control
i. Less rudder than normal is needed
a. The airplane will fly almost coordinated on its own
b. With the engine at idle, there are little to no left turning tendencies
 The main concern with the rudder during landing is to align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with
the runway centerline in the case of a crosswind (more below)
E. After touchdown
i. Maintain back-elevator pressure
a. Hold the nosewheel off the ground until the airplane decelerates
 Maintains a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic braking
ii. As momentum decreases, gradually relax the back-elevator pressure to allow the nosewheel to gently settle
onto the runway
a. This permits steering with the nosewheel, and better braking action since the entire weight of the
airplane is on the wheels (rather than the wings)
b. This prevents skipping and/or floating after touchdown
F. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
7. After-Landing Roll
A. The deceleration of the airplane to the normal taxi speed, or when the airplane has been brought to a complete
stop when clear of the landing area
B. Directional Control on the Ground
i. Rudder
a. The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it does in the air – the yaw of the airplane
 With the nosewheel on the ground, use the rudder to steer the airplane on the ground
 Rudder effectiveness is dependent on airflow which is dependent on the speed of the plane
a As speed decreases throughout the landing roll, the steerable nose provides more positive
directional control
b. The airplane will tend to weathervane (or point) into the wind
 With the main wheels acting as a pivot point, and a greater surface area exposed to the crosswind
behind that pivot point, the airplane tends to point, or weathervane, into the wind
 Use rudder to maintain directional control
ii. Aileron Control
a. Used to keep the wings level
b. As airspeed decreases during the landing roll the ailerons become less effective, therefore increasing
aileron must be applied into a crosswind to keep the upwind wing from rising
iii. Be alert throughout the landing roll
a. Be alert for directional control difficulties due to the ground friction on the wheels
 Loss of Directional Control
a May lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground (ground loop)
1. Combination of centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity and ground friction of the
main wheels resisting it during the ground loop may cause the airplane to tip or lean enough
for the outside wingtip to contact the ground
2. This could impose a sideward force that could collapse the landing gear
b. Remain vigilant throughout the landing roll and keep positive control of the airplane
 Accidents occur when pilots abandon vigilance and positive control
 Don’t assume that because the airplane is on the ground your work is done

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iv. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown

C. Braking
i. The brakes serve the same primary purpose as the brakes on a car – to reduce speed while on the ground
a. In airplanes, they are also used to aid in directional control when the rudder is insufficient
 Brake pressure can be applied in the direction of a turn to assist the rudder
ii. Using the Brakes
a. With toe brakes, the pilot slides the toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals
 If rudder pressure held at the same time braking is needed, do not release the rudder pressure
b. Brake pressure is applied by pushing forward on the toe pedals
c. During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction of movement can be changed by carefully applying
pressure on one brake or uneven pressure on each brake in the desired direction
 Caution must be exercised when applying brakes to avoid overcontrolling, especially at high speeds
iii. Effective Braking
a. Put maximum weight on the main wheels after touchdown
 The nosewheel should be lowered to the runway to maintain directional control
 After the nose is down, back pressure is applied without lifting the nosewheel off the ground
a This enables directional control while keeping weight on the main wheels
b If the pilot were to brake without holding back pressure, the nose tends to pitch down which
transfers weight from the main wheels to the nosewheel
1. Does not help braking. Maximum weight should be on the main wheels
b. Gently and evenly apply the brakes
 Maximum brake effectiveness is just short of the point where skidding occurs
a Maximum braking is not necessary in most landings
b If the brakes are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking becomes ineffective
1. To stop skidding, release the brake pressure and reapply the brakes with less force
 Effectiveness is not increased by applying, releasing & reapplying brakes (pumping the brakes)
a Apply the brakes firmly and smoothly
iv. CE: Improper use of brakes
a. Ensure feet are not on the brakes at touchdown, this could result in lost control and blown tires
D. CE: Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway incursion after
landing
i. Have a plan of where you plan to exit the runway and how to taxi to your destination
a. Make adjustments as necessary if unable to exit as planned
ii. Review and be familiar with potential hot spots (be extra cautious for traffic at these spots)
iii. Listen to, and ensure understanding of the controller’s instructions
a. Vital to avoiding incursions
b. Query the controller if unsure of the instructions
E. After Landing Checklist
i. Perform once safely clear of the runway
8. Crosswind Approach
A. A landing which must be made while the wind is blowing across rather than parallel to the landing direction
B. The same basic principles apply to a crosswind approach and landing as a normal approach and landing
C. Two methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing
i. Crab Method
a. Easier to maintain during approach, but requires a high
degree of judgment in removing it right before touchdown
b. How it Works

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 The pilot establishes a crab into the wind so that the airplane’s ground track remains aligned with
the centerline of the runway
 Just prior to touchdown the longitudinal axis is aligned with the runway to avoid a sideward
touchdown
c. Not recommended
ii. Sideslip (wing-low) Method (shown to the right)
a. Recommended method
D. Final Approach
i. Sideslip (Wing-Low)
a. Align the airplane’s heading with the centerline
 Note rate and direction of drift
b. Promptly apply drift correction
 Lower the upwind wing
a Amount of lowering depends on the drift
c. When the wing is lowered, the airplane tends to turn in that
direction
 To compensate for the turn, simultaneous opposite rudder pressure is necessary to keep the
longitudinal axis of the airplane aligned with the runway
 The airplane will be side-slipping into the wind just enough so that the flight path and ground track
are aligned with the runway
d. Changes in the crosswind are corrected for accordingly
 Drift is controlled with aileron, and heading with rudder
a Use ailerons to keep the airplane over the extended runway centerline
b Use rudder to keep the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline
e. Strong Crosswind
 To correct for a strong crosswind, the slip is increased by lowering the wing into the wind
a To compensate for the additional bank, additional rudder is applied to keep the longitudinal axis
of the airplane aligned with the runway centerline
b At some point, there will not be insufficient rudder available to overcome the turning tendency
caused by the steepened bank
1. If the bank required is such that full opposite rudder does not prevent a turn, the wind is too
strong to safely land the airplane on that runway, in those conditions, the pilot should find a
more suitable runway
2. At this point the wind has exceeded the airplane’s crosswind performance capabilities
a. Always be aware of the airplane’s crosswind limitations
f. Maintain a stabilized approach
 Same as a normal approach, except with the added sideslip
 Because you are in a slip, drag is increased requiring more power to maintain a given descent rate
a Pitch for airspeed & power for altitude
ii. Roundout
a. Like a normal landing approach, but the crosswind correction is maintained/continued to prevent drift
 Don’t level the wings. Keep the upwind wing down throughout the roundout
a Leveling the wings will result in drifting and side loading the gear

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b. Gradually increase aileron and rudder to

maintain drift correction as the plane slows
iii. Touchdown
a. The touchdown should be made on the
upwind main wheel first
 Continue to maintain the crosswind
corrections to prevent drift
 During gusty or high wind conditions,
prompt adjustments are necessary to
prevent drift during touchdown
b. As momentum decreases, the downwind
main wheel will settle onto the runway,
then the nosewheel
 Nose-wheel steering interconnected
with the rudder: Nosewheel will not be aligned with the runway because rudder is being held for the
crosswind correction
a To prevent swerving, rudder pressure must be relaxed as the nose wheel touches down
iv. After Landing Roll
a. Maintain directional with rudder or nose-wheel steering,
keep the upwind wing from rising with aileron
b. Rudders & Directional Control
 With the main wheels acting as a pivot point, and a
greater surface area exposed to the crosswind behind
that pivot point, the plane tends to point or
weathervane into the wind
c. Ailerons & Wings Level
 As the plane slows, increase aileron into the wind
a Keeps upwind wing from rising
 Coming to a stop, aileron should fully into the wind
9. Rejected Landing / Go-Around
A. Used whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory
i. A go around can be executed for numerous reasons, but we’ll focus on an unstable approach
a. If the pilot cannot establish and maintain a stable approach, go around and set up again
B. Go around anytime safety is compromised or the touchdown point is going to be missed
C. Go Around Procedure
i. Full power
ii. Landing flaps are retracted
iii. Climb out at VY (or VX, if required)
a. Upon reaching VY (or VX), and at a safe altitude, takeoff flaps can be retracted
D. For more details, see VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing
E. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Rejected Landing & Go-Around
10. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Strong/Gusty Winds
i. Increase speed on final approach
a. *Approach speed (65 knots) + ½ the gust factor
 EX: Wind at 12 knots gusting to 20 (8 knot gust factor)
a Approach at 65 knots + 4 knots = 69 knots

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b. Use flaps as recommended in the POH

B. Obstacles
i. Trees, Towers, Construction equipment
ii. Be aware of any obstructions in the pattern/on the approach and/or takeoff path
a. Ensure the airplane performance can handle the obstructions
C. Traffic
i. Always be aware of, and looking for, other traffic
ii. Build a mental picture of traffic in the area
D. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
E. Wake Turbulence
F. Wind Shear
G. Collision Hazards
H. Low Altitude Maneuvering
I. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes
 Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
 Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway incursion after landing

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
As simple and basic a procedure as this seems to be, a lot goes into a well-executed approach. Putting all of these parts
together over time will result in a much more confident, safe, and skilled pilot. The fine nuances of a stabilized, well-
planned approach are well worth the result the first time you ‘grease’ a landing.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain approach airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VSO, +10/-5 knots with gust factor applied.
2. Touch down at a proper pitch attitude, within 400 feet beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, and with
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain approach airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VSO, ± 5 knots with gust factor applied.
2. Touch down at a proper pitch attitude, within 200 feet beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, and with
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path.
3.

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VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives To develop the understanding of the soft-field takeoff as well as the skills needed to perform
the takeoff from a soft-field. The student should be able to demonstrate the soft-field takeoff
to ACS/PTS standards.

Key Elements 1. Constant back pressure

2. Transfer weight from the wheels to the wings
3. Stay in ground effect until reaching VY or VX

Elements 1. Overview
2. Taxi
3. Takeoff Roll
4. Lift-Off
5. Initial Climb
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
Standards proficiency in, soft field takeoffs and climbs, with and without an obstacle, and without the
assistance of a flight instructor. The student must be able to maintain positive control of the
airplane in ground effect until reaching the proper speed for climb out while demonstrating
the proper use of checklists, traffic scan and safety procedures.
 VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Have you ever got your car stuck off-roading? Why did it happen? So, what do we do when we have to takeoff an
airplane in off-road conditions?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A takeoff from a “soft” field. Just like it says in the name, we are attempting to takeoff from a soft, often uneven
surface which could produce enough drag to prevent the airplane from reaching normal takeoff speeds.

Why
Soft surfaces or long wet grass can reduce the aircraft's acceleration so much during the takeoff roll that adequate
takeoff speed might not be attained if normal takeoff techniques were employed. As a maneuver, this will greatly
improve your takeoffs, landings, and overall aircraft control.

How:
1. Overview
A. Differences from a Normal Takeoff:
i. Reduced ability to accelerate
a. Taking off from a soft surface (sand, tall grass, snow, dirt, mud, etc.) reduces the ability to accelerate and
may prevent the airplane from reaching adequate takeoff speed using normal takeoff techniques
ii. Potentially hazardous terrain
a. Even if the plane could accelerate on the soft-field, high speed over rough, uneven terrain presents its
own challenges
 Gear damage: Debris as well as the high stress associated with uneven terrain
 Damage to the flaps (more applicable to a low wing airplane)
a The longer the airplane stays on the ground, the more debris is thrown toward the flaps
 Cartwheeling or flipping
a If the nosewheel hit a hole during the takeoff run the results could be catastrophic, especially at
high speeds
iii. To minimize hazards, the goal is to get off the ground as quickly as possible, and accelerate to a safe climb
speed in ground effect
a. Accomplished by establishing a relatively high angle of attack as early as possible
b. Once airborne, staying in ground effect requires a feel for the plane and fine control touch
 Too much forward pressure could lead to ground contact
 Not enough forward pressure could result in climbing out of ground effect at too low of an airspeed
a Results in settling back to the runway, or a stall
B. Ground Effect
i. Associated with the reduction of induced drag
ii. When close to the ground, the vertical component of the airflow around the wing is restricted by the ground
a. Causes a reduction in wingtip vortices and a decrease in upwash and downwash

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b. Decreases induced drag

iii. Effects on Flight
a. Amount of thrust required to produce lift is reduced
 Plane can lift off at lower-than-normal speed
b. Climbing out of ground effect, the power (thrust) required
to sustain flight increases significantly
 Normal airflow returns and induced drag increases
c. If you climb before reaching normal takeoff speed the plane
can sink back to the surface
C. The Basics
i. Maintain back pressure
a. Keep as much weight as possible off the nose to prevent it from getting stuck, or digging in
b. Maintain back pressure during the taxi and takeoff roll
ii. Keep the aircraft moving
a. Stopping on a soft surface might bog the airplane down or get it completely stuck
b. The pilot should maintain continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll
iii. Do a wheelie down the runway
a. Establish and maintain a relatively high angle of attack or nose-high pitch as early as possible
 Nose will leave the ground prior to the mains. Adjust back pressure to keep the nose off the ground
b. Transfer the airplane’s weight rapidly as possible from the wheels to the wings
iv. Accelerate in ground effect until reaching climb speed
a. The airplane will become airborne prior to normal rotation speed, and well before a safe climb speed
 Do not attempt to climb out of ground effect before reaching a safe climb speed (V X or VY)
a May result in settling back to the surface, not being able to climb even with full power, or a stall
D. RM: Performance & Runway Selection
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations sections 2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4 (Performance Charts)
a. Effects of atmospheric conditions (Pressure/Density altitude)
b. Performance charts
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
ii. RM: Runway Selection
a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.
E. Best Angle versus Best Rate of Climb
i. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
a. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
 Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
a Power is the energy the engine produces
b As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best rate of climb decreases
b. The best rate of climb speed + maximum power = the aircraft’s maximum climb
 Attempts to get more climb performance by increasing pitch results in a decreased rate of climb
ii. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
a. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
 Slower than VY
 Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
a Thrust is what propels the airplane (the displaced air as a result of the spinning propeller)
b As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best angle of climb increases

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c Read Thrust vs Power (on medium.com) for a short article breaking down the two terms
 VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
a Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

F. Configuration
i. Reference the POH and Before Takeoff checklist
ii. *Takeoff flaps in DA20
a. Configuration varies based on the aircraft and type of takeoff
2. Taxi
A. Keep the elevator fully aft for the entire taxi
i. This keeps as much weight as possible off the main wheel keeping it from getting stuck or bogged down
B. More power is necessary due to the increased ground friction/drag
i. This also increases control effectiveness due to larger displacement of air
C. Keep turns shallow and don’t stop
i. Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane down; therefore, it should be kept
in continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll
D. Airport Procedures
i. Assuming uncontrolled, make normal traffic calls when taxiing to alert others of your position/intentions
a. Use other aircraft radio calls to build a mental picture of the traffic and how they may affect you
ii. At a controlled airport, follow the tower’s instructions
iii. Before taxiing onto the runway visually clear the area
a. Check the final approach and the rest of runway for traffic, or obstructions
b. Never taxi out with another plane on final approach
c. Be alert to any debris, animals, etc. that may be on the runway prior to attempting takeoff
iv. CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
3. Takeoff Roll
A. Continue to maintain back elevator pressure and aircraft movement
i. Don’t let the nose wheel settle or the aircraft come to a stop
B. RM: Apply crosswind corrections (the same as a normal takeoff)
i. Full aileron into the wind at the beginning of the takeoff roll
C. While aligning the aircraft with the takeoff path, takeoff power is accelerated smoothly and rapidly
i. Don’t stop
ii. Left turning tendencies: Apply right rudder to counter
iii. Check the engine/instruments – “Gauges green,” “Airspeed alive”
iv. Anticipate a slow acceleration due to the additional drag associated with a soft-field
v. CE: Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
D. Back elevator pressure is initially held full aft
i. As the plane accelerates, and the nose lifts off the ground the elevator pressure is relaxed
a. *Half back pressure in DA20 to continue the takeoff roll with the nose off the ground

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b. Full back pressure during acceleration would result in the tail striking the ground
ii. *Site Picture: Cowling on the horizon
a. Approximately 5-6o of pitch
iii. With the nose-high attitude throughout the takeoff run, the wings will increasingly relieve the wheels of the
airplane’s weight as speed increases and lift develops, minimizing drag caused by the soft-field
iv. The airplane will effectively fly itself off the ground at a speed slower than the normal rotation speed
v. CE: Improper use of controls during a soft-field takeoff
a. As speed increases, back pressure must be reduced to avoid an excessive AOA/tail strike
b. Decrease aileron pressure as speed increases, use rudder to maintain centerline alignment
4. Lift-Off
A. Once airborne, gently lower the nose to allow acceleration to VX or VY in ground effect
i. to VY for a normal climb, VX if an obstacle must be cleared
ii. Remain within ½ wingspan of the ground (ground effect is most effective here)
iii. CE: Improper lift-off procedures
a. Smoothly apply forward pressure to keep the aircraft close to the ground
b. Abrupt/excessive control movements could put the aircraft back into the ground (possibly nose first)
B. Site Picture: As airspeed/lift increase, point the nose down, toward the runway, to stay in ground effect
i. Forward pressure is required to stay in ground effect
a. Low to the ground with forward pressure + the nose pointing down can be uncomfortable to a new pilot
C. The airplane must remain in ground effect until at least VX is reached
D. CE: Improper lift-off procedures

i. Do not attempt to climb out of ground effect until reaching a safe climb airspeed
a. May settle back onto the surface, may not be able to climb further even with full power, or may stall
5. Initial Climb
A. After a positive rate of climb is established, and the plane has accelerated to VX or VY, climb out as normal
i. Retract the gear and flaps as normal
ii. Soft field runways are often short field runways (VX may often be necessary)
a. If climbing out to avoid an obstacle, the climb out is performed at VX until the obstacle is cleared
b. After clearing the obstacle, pitch is adjusted to VY and the power may be set to the normal climb setting
 Retract the gear and flaps as appropriate for obstacle clearance and performance
iii. If departing from a wet/slushy airstrip, the gear should not be retracted immediately, allowing it to air dry
a. If cold, cycle multiple times to avoid freezing
b. If departing from a wet/slushy airstrip with an obstacle to clear, retract the gear when a positive rate of
climb is established to achieve the desired performance, if required by the manufacturer’s guidelines
 If necessary to prevent freezing, lower and/or cycle the gear once clear of the obstacle
 Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines
iv. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
a. Set the pitch attitude for the airspeed desired (VX or VY)
b. Leave max power (takeoff power)

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B. Climb Checklist
i. CE: Improper use of checklists
a. Be sure the airplane is properly configured for the climb
b. The non-standard procedures associated with a soft-field takeoff could distract the pilot leading to
missed steps. Always back yourself up with the checklist!

6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies

A. Rejected Takeoff
B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Improper use of controls during a soft-field takeoff
 Improper lift-off procedures
 Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
 Improper use of checklists

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Anytime we are taking off from a soft field runway we need to get the weight off the wheels and onto the wings as
quickly as possible. This reduces the drag associated with a soft-field and allows the airplane to accelerate to a safe
speed before climbing out. Without these procedures it’s very possible the plane would never reach takeoff speed.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Lift off at the lowest possible airspeed and remain in ground effect while accelerating to V X or VY, as appropriate.
2. Establish a pitch attitude for VX or VY, as appropriate, and maintain selected airspeed +10/-5 knots during the climb.
3. Maintain VX or VY, as appropriate, +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Lift off at the lowest possible airspeed and remain in ground effect while accelerating to V X or VY, as appropriate.
2. Establish a pitch attitude for VX or VY, as appropriate, and maintain selected airspeed ± 5 knots during the climb.
3. Maintain VX or VY, as appropriate, ± 5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

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VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student has the knowledge and ability to perform a soft field approach and landing as
necessary based on the ACS/PTS with and without a crosswind.

Key Elements 1. Extend the approach in ground effect

2. Transfer weight from wings to wheels
3. Maintain Back Pressure

Elements 1. Objective
2. Limitations & Performance
3. Approach
4. Landing
5. After Landing Roll / Taxi
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can demonstrate knowledge of, and has shown proficiency in Soft Field
Standards approaches and landings, without the assistance of a flight instructor. The student can judge
when to begin the flare, when to add power to the flare and can correct for any misjudgments.
Finally, the student understands when to go-around and demonstrates the proper use of
checklists, traffic scan and pertinent safety procedures.
 VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
How awesome would it be, once you get your private pilot license, to take a flying adventure and land in the
wilderness or on a remote island, in the middle of nowhere using a dirt or sand strip?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass

Why
It is important to learn to land on soft field runways to ensure a safe landing. A normal landing on a runway like this
could result in damage to the gear or the entire plane. By learning to safely set a plane down on different surfaces the
pilot has many more available landing fields at his or her disposal. And, in the case of an emergency landing, this
maneuver will be very important in making a safe landing.

How:
1. Objective
A. To touchdown as smoothly as possible and at the slowest possible landing speed
i. The pilot must control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the plane as long as
practical to minimize drag and the stresses imposed on the landing gear by the rough or soft surface
2. Limitations & Performance
A. Limitations: Chapter 2 of the POH
i. Applicable limitations can include maximum weights, crosswind/tailwind limitations, minimum runway
length/width, flap/gear extension speeds, stall speeds, center of gravity limitations, etc.
B. Performance: Chapter 5 of the POH
i. Landing distance
ii. Crosswind components
C. Performance & Runway Selection
i. A headwind decreases landing distance, while a tailwind increases landing distance
a. Use the performance charts to interpret the wind’s effect on the landing distance
b. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwind
ii. Runway surface will affect the performance data as well. Take this into account when determining landing
performance as well as limitations (not all surfaces may be approved)
a. For example, a hard packed surface vs a soft grassy field
b. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
 Use performance charts & POH information to determine effects of wind and landing surface
 Do research
a Talk to pilots who have flown the plane into similar airfields before
b Use the internet. Understand performance and how the airplane handles the soft field
iii. RM: Runway Selection
a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.

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D. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations

i. Ensure the learner understands and can competently use performance data for the approach and landing
3. Approach
A. Like a normal approach, except the plane is held 1 to 2’ off the surface in ground effect as long as possible to let
the wheels to gently touch down at minimum speed – Small amount of power is used to cushion touchdown
B. Procedures
i. Perform the before landing checklist and configure on downwind
ii. Configure as directed by the POH – generally with landing flaps
a. Flaps will aid in touching down at minimum speed and are recommended whenever practical
b. In low-wing airplanes the flaps may suffer damage from mud, stones, slush, etc.
iii. CE: Failure to establish approach & landing configuration at proper time or proper sequence
C. Maintain a Stabilized Approach
i. Establish the final approach speed
a. *Maintain 65 knots – normal approach speed
 *Unless it’s a short field landing, then 55 knots
a Often times soft field runways are also short field
 Unless obstacles are present in the approach path, there is no reason for a steep angle of descent
a A steep rate of descent would make it more difficult for a gentle touchdown
b. Higher approach speeds may result in excessive floating in ground effect which can make a smooth,
controlled touchdown even more difficult
ii. Trim the plane for the descent
a. Adjust pitch and power as necessary to remain stabilized
iii. Establish and maintain an aim point in front of your intended touchdown area
a. Touchdown area should be free of obstructions, as smooth/flat as possible, with distance to stop safely
b. Due to the longer float, aim further in front of the landing point than for a normal approach
iv. Throughout the approach, one hand should be kept on the power lever as often as possible
a. Of course, some duties require your hand to be moved (configuring, etc.)
b. Because power is maintained through the touchdown, always be ready to correct power, or go-around
c. At any time before the airplane is on the ground, and the weight is being supported by the wheels, the
pilot should be able to apply full power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacles/field length permitting)
d. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
v. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
D. Maintain Coordination
i. Use rudder to maintain coordination, especially when turning base to final
ii. No more than 30o of bank
iii. A sideslip in the case of a crosswind is the exception to the rule
E. Maintain a Precise Ground Track
i. Take into account the effect of wind
a. Crab as necessary to maintain a proper downwind leg, base leg, and final approach
b. Sideslip into the wind to maintain the extended centerline
F. CE: Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim
i. Use normal or short field approach procedures as required. Use pitch to maintain the approach airspeed and
power to maintain the glidepath
a. Once established, trim the aircraft to maintain the pitch attitude

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 VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

ii. Configure the flaps as specified in the aircraft POH

4. Landing
A. The major differences between a soft-field and a normal landing:
i. The airplane is held 1 to 2’ above the ground, in ground effect as long as possible
a. The airplane should be flown onto the ground with the weight fully supported by the wings
 This permits a more gradual dissipation of forward speed to allow the wheels to touch down gently
at minimum speed
 This also minimizes the nose-over forces that affect the airplane at the moment of touchdown
ii. A small amount of power is used during touchdown to cushion the landing
a. Use the same technique as a normal landing, but with partial power during the roundout and
touchdown to extend the approach and allow for a gentle touchdown
iii. After main wheel touchdown, hold sufficient back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the surface
a. This helps to prevent the nosewheel digging into the soft surface, and/or getting stuck
b. Worst-case scenario, it prevents the airplane from cartwheeling after striking the uneven, soft surface
B. Touchdown
i. Continue to maintain one hand on the throttle lever
a. At any time during this transition phase, before the weight is being supported by the wheels, the pilot
should be able to apply full power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacles and field length permitting)
ii. Increase power slightly just prior to touchdown to cushion landing & slowly transfer weight to the wheels
a. The addition of power will vary based on aircraft and the terrain
 Ex: Tall thick grass (more drag, therefore more power) versus packed dirt (less drag, less power)
iii. Touchdown should be made at the lowest possible airspeed in a nose-high pitch attitude
a. As speed decreases, increase back pressure to stay in ground effect and touchdown as gently as possible
b. A firm touchdown is not desired – could be hazardous on a rough or uneven surface
iv. When the main wheels touch ground, maintain back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the surface
a. *Site Picture: Hold the cowling on the horizon to keep the nose wheel off the ground
b. As the aircraft slows, increase elevator back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the ground
 Back elevator and engine power can control the rate the weight is transferred to the wheels
c. CE: Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
 Results in the nose wheel touching down and early transfer of weight to the wheels at higher speeds
a Can damage the nosewheel or the aircraft
v. Maintain directional control with the rudder, while maintaining crosswind correction with the ailerons
a. As the aircraft slows and the controls become less effective, increase the crosswind correction
vi. The use of brakes is not needed and should be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy load on the nose
gear due to premature or hard contact with the landing surface, causing the nose wheel to dig in
a. The soft surface provides sufficient reduction in the airplane’s forward speed
b. Power often needs to be increased to keep the plane moving and from becoming stuck

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vii. Once slowed, safe and under control, the pilot should gently lower the nose wheel to the surface
a. A slight addition of power usually will aid in easing the nose wheel down
viii. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
ix. Landing in a Crosswind
a. Maneuver the airplane in the same way as for a normal approach
 Touchdown in a sideslip, upwind wheel first, with the longitudinal axis aligned with the centerline
b. Be cautious, if control is in doubt, execute a go around
5. After Landing Roll / Taxi
A. Continue to maintain full aft elevator pressure, as well as wind correction
i. CE: Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
a. Maintain back pressure to keep as much weight as possible on the wings, at all times on the ground
B. Maintain directional control through the rudders
i. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Directional control will likely be more difficult on a soft field than a paved runway and taxiway
b. Use rudder, and avoid using differential braking to control the airplane on the ground
C. As mentioned above, the use of brakes is not needed and should be avoided
i. Braking is normally accomplished through surface friction with the ground
a. The pilot will often need to increase power to keep the airplane moving and avoid becoming stuck
ii. CE: Improper use of brakes
D. Maintain enough speed to prevent becoming bogged down
i. Again, an increase in power may be necessary to keep the plane moving
ii. Too fast could cause problems too
E. Retract the flaps after the landing roll is completed
i. It is generally inadvisable to retract flaps during the after-landing roll because the need for flap retraction is
less important than the need for total concentration on maintaining full control of the airplane
ii. Retracting the flaps also puts more weight onto the wheels
F. Perform the After-Landing Checklist once parked
6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
 Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
 Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown

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 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A soft field landing is very similar to a normal landing except that our main goal is to transfer the weight from the wings
to wheels as gently as possible. When doing this it is also important to hold the nose wheel off the ground, and then
slowly and gently bring it to the surface.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain published speed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VSO, +10/-5 knots with gust factor applied.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain published speed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VSO, ±5 knots with gust factor applied

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VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to short field takeoffs and
maximum performance climbs. The student will have the ability to demonstrate a short field
takeoff and climb as prescribed in the necessary ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Use the Entire Runway

2. Maximum Performance Climb at VX
3. Focus Outside the Airplane

Elements 1. Best Rate versus Best Angle of Climb

2. Pre-Takeoff
3. Takeoff Roll
4. Lift-Off
5. Maximum Performance Climb
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to execute a proper short-field takeoff and climb by using the
Standards entire runway, after rotation pitching immediately for VX until clear of obstacles, then pitching
for VY.
VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Maximum Performance Takeoff and Climb… this is the mother of all takeoffs, where we put the airplane at its limits
to obtain the most performance out of the airplane.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by
obstructions requiring the pilot to operate the airplane at the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities.

Why
Short Field Takeoffs develop the pilot’s ability to operate the airplane at its maximum takeoff performance
capabilities. This develops a better feel for the plane and results in improved takeoffs and airplane control.

How:
1. Best Rate versus Best Angle of Climb
A. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
i. Airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
a. Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
 Power is the energy the engine produces
 As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best rate of climb decreases
B. VX Best Rate of Climb
i. To accomplish this takeoff safely,
a pilot must have knowledge of VX
ii. Speed which will provide the
greatest gain in altitude for a
given distance over the ground
a. Usually slightly less than VY
and used to clear obstacles
b. Results in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
iii. Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
a. Thrust is what propels the airplane (the displaced air due to the spinning propeller)
b. As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best angle of climb increases
iv. *VX is 58 knots (DA20)
v. Small deviations (5 knots) in some airplanes will result in a significant reduction in climb performance
a. Precise control of airspeed has an important bearing on the execution/safety of the maneuver
2. Pre-Takeoff
A. Performance & Runway Selection
B. RM: Performance & Runway Selection
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations sections 2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4 (Performance Charts)
a. Effects of atmospheric conditions (Pressure/Density altitude)
b. Performance charts

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VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions

 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
ii. RM: Runway Selection
a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.
C. Configuration
i. *In the case of the DA20, the airplane should be configured for a normal takeoff
3. Takeoff Roll
A. Start at the very beginning of the takeoff area. The field is short, don’t waste any runway
i. Align the airplane with the runway centerline/intended takeoff path and come to a complete stop
ii. Apply crosswind correction as would be done in a normal takeoff
a. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of crosswind
B. Smoothly and continuously, without hesitation, advance the throttle to maximum power
i. It has not been established that setting max power with the brakes held results in a shorter takeoff run
a. Follow the manufacturer’s procedures
ii. Check instruments/gauges and announce, “airspeed alive,” & “engine gauges green,” or abort the takeoff
C. Maintain directional control with the rudders (left turning tendencies & weathervaning)
D. The airplane should be allowed to roll with full weight on the main wheels and accelerate to liftoff speed
i. *Short Field VR – 52 knots
ii. Adjust pitch attitude/AOA to attain minimum drag and maximum acceleration
a. This involves little use of the elevator (neutral position) since the plane is already in a low drag attitude
E. CE: Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
i. Maintain crosswind controls as in a normal takeoff
ii. Keep the elevator neutral to minimize drag
4. Lift-Off
A. *Smoothly and firmly rotate the airplane at VR (52 knots) to the pitch attitude that will result VX climb
i. Use outside references and pitch on the attitude indicator to maintain the correct attitude
a. *Approximately 12o nose up (slightly steeper than a normal takeoff)
B. In the case the airplane lifts off prior to VR, allow the airplane to accelerate in ground effect to VX
i. Similar to soft-field takeoff – hold the plane in ground effect, with the wheels just clear of the runway
a. Preferable to holding the plane on the ground with forward pressure
 Leads to excessive nosewheel pressure & wheel barrowing (reduces acceleration/performance)
C. Do not intentionally raise the nose prior to VR, this will increase drag and prolong the roll
i. An early lift-off/too steep climb may result in settling on the runway or a collision with the obstacle
a. if the plane remains airborne, the initial climb will be flat and the climb is severely degraded
D. Once airborne, a wings level climb should be maintained at VX until obstacles have been cleared
i. Since the airplane accelerates more rapidly after liftoff, more back pressure is required to hold airspeed
a. Airspeed is increasing rapidly; therefore pitch will have to be increased to maintain V X
E. CE: Improper liftoff procedures
5. Maximum Performance Climb
A. Climb out at VX until clear of obstacles
i. Maintain visual references, occasionally glance at the attitude and airspeed indicators to check pitch and V X
B. Configuration is not changed until clear of obstacles (unless recommended by the manufacturer)
i. The pilot should not be heads down until clear of the obstacle
C. *Once clear of obstacles pitch for VY (65 knots)
i. Visually – Normal takeoff climb picture
ii. Once stabilized at VY, configure the per the POH, complete the climb checklist as normal
D. CE: Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle

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VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

i. Pitch for the approximate attitude for VX, make small adjustments from there to maintain the airspeed
ii. Maximum power should be used for maximum performance (Ensure the mixture is set for takeoff)
E. CE: Improper use of checklists
i. Fly first, only begin checklists when safely climbing and clear of obstacles

6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies

A. Rejected Takeoff
B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper runway incursion avoidance
 Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
 Improper lift-off procedures
 Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle
 Improper use of checklist

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The short-field takeoff and maximum performance climb is based on rotating and pitching directly for V X. This allows for
the greatest climb in the shortest distance, providing the most effective obstacle clearance.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Rotate and lift off at the recommended airspeed and accelerate to the obstacle clearance speed or V X +10/-5 knots.
2. Maintain obstacle clearance speed, or VX +10/-5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared, or until 50’ above the surface.
3. Accelerate to VY, +10/-5 knots after clearing the obstacle or at 50’ AGL if simulating an obstacle.
4. Maintain VY +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Rotate and lift off at the recommended airspeed and accelerate to the obstacle clearance airspeed or V X ±5 knots.
2. Maintain obstacle clearance airspeed or VX ±5 knots until the obstacle is cleared or until 50’ above the surface.
3. Accelerate to VY ± 5 knots after clearing the obstacle or at 50’ AGL if simulating an obstacle.
4. Maintain VY ±5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a short-field approach and
landing. The student will understand the procedures involved and will have the ability to
properly execute them as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. 4o Stabilized Approach

2. Region of Reverse Command
3. Minimal Float/Max Effective Braking

Elements 1. Short-Field Considerations

2. Configuration and Trim
3. Short Field Approach
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a well-coordinated and stabilized short-field approach and landing as
Standards required in the ACS/PTS.
VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The short-field landing requires the airplane to be flown precisely while close to the ground to safely land in a
confined area.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a
relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles limiting the available landing area. This
low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to flight at minimum controllable airspeeds.

Why
As in short-field takeoffs, a short field approach and landing is one of the most critical of the maximum performance
operations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane at one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to the
ground to safely land within confined areas. To land within a short-field, the pilot must have precise, positive control
of the rate of descent and airspeed.

How:
1. Short-Field Considerations
A. Airplane Landing Performance and Limitations
i. Performance Section of the POH (Section 5)
a. *DA20: Landing distance over a 50’ obstacle is about 1,360’ and ground roll is about 665’
 Varies based on weight, wind conditions, and other factors
b. Do not attempt to land if the landing performance is not adequate
c. Plan Ahead - Do not attempt to land on a short-field from which a takeoff cannot be made
 The distance necessary to land is often less than the distance necessary to takeoff
d. Keep in mind that the runway surface will also affect the landing roll distance
 Is this a paved runway, a soft field (dirt, grass), etc.?
ii. Limitations Section of the POH (Section 2) describes landing limitations
a. Be aware of what the airplane is and is not approved for
b. Also be aware of crosswind limitations
iii. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
a. Make an educated, competent go/no go decision
B. Obstructions and Hazards
i. The short field approach allows the pilot to land over obstacles limiting available landing area
ii. Be aware of the obstacles as well as other obstructions that might exist
a. What obstacles exist on the approach end of the runway?
b. How high are the obstacles? And, does the height of the obstacle still allow for a safe landing?
 What approach angle is required, what landing distance is required?
c. What obstacles could be a concern in the case of a go around?
d. Effects of wind
 Tailwind? Crosswind? Varying winds due to the wind patterns over/around the obstruction?

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

 Due to obstructions, there may only be one direction to takeoff and land
 Monitor the wind conditions and ensure required performance
C. RM: Runway Selection, Runway Surface/Condition, & Effect of Tailwind
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
ii. See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions
iii. See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
iv. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Runway Length, Wind, etc.

2. Configuration and Trim

A. Configure per the POH
B. Final Approach is slower than normal to maintain a steeper glide path to clear any obstacles
i. *4o Glide Path at 55 knots (DA20)
a. *55 knots will provide an increased sink rate allowing for the steeper glide path
b. As the airplane slows farther below L/DMAX, the increase in drag increases the rate of descent
C. Technique: If possible, use a wider than normal pattern to be configured, trimmed, and stable early
D. Coordinated Flight Controls
i. No more than 30o of bank and keep turns coordinated in the pattern
a. Go around if overshooting final. Don’t cross control the airplane!
ii. Keep the airplane coordinated throughout the approach and landing
E. Trim as much as possible to relieve yourself of as much work as possible
3. Short-Field Approach
A. Downwind Leg
i. At the midpoint of the downwind leg, complete the landing checklist
ii. Select a Touchdown and Aim Point
a. Touchdown Point (1,000’ markers are good for training)
 In real life, select a point that will both clear the obstacles and allow sufficient stopping distance
b. *Aim Point (DA20: A good target is the beginning of the 2nd runway stripe prior to the 1,000’ markers)
 Aim point is closer to the touchdown point compared to a normal approach
a Lower airspeed/higher descent rate = shorter float
b DA20: approximately 400’ - 450’ prior to the touchdown point
 Adjust the aim point based on wind
a Stronger headwind results in a lower groundspeed and less float - aim closer to the point
1. Opposite for a tailwind
iii. Consider Establishing Go Around Points and Criteria
a. Ex: If the approach is into a valley surrounded by mountains, the pilot may have to decide to go around
by 500’ AGL, any lower than that and the pilot is committed to landing due to the terrain

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

b. The airlines and Air Force use “gates” to establish critical points in the approach at which if the pilot
does not meet certain criteria, they will execute a go around
 Ex: if the airplane is not configured for landing by 1,000’, or if outside of specific parameters at 300’
(airspeed, bank, approach path, etc.) the crew will go around
c. GA pilots should apply the same techniques, especially in a short-field approach
 Examples will vary by aircraft and situation, but could include:
a 1,000’ – configured for landing, on speed, and trimmed
b 500’ – Airspeed ±5 knots, bank less than 15o, centerline, on desired approach path
c 250’ – Airspeed ±5 knots, bank less than 15o, centerline, the desired approach path, crosswind
corrections established
d Momentary deviations are acceptable, otherwise a go-around is executed
 Monitors performance and provides a criteria based standard (no guessing)
iv. *Abeam or slightly beyond the landing point, set power to 1500 RPM, extend takeoff flaps, pitch for 75 KIAS
v. The downwind leg can be extended to allow time to properly configure and trim the airplane
B. Base Leg
i. Technique: Configure for landing
a. Preferred by some to allow more time to get stable
b. Another option is to wait until established on final before configuring for landing
c. *Extend the landing flaps and trim the airplane for 55 knots before turning final
 Ensure a shallow, coordinated turn to final to avoid an unsafe situation
d. By the time you turn final the airplane should be in the landing configuration
ii. CE: Failure to establish approach/landing configuration at appropriate time or proper sequence
a. Follow the checklist and stay ahead of the airplane and the approach
C. Final Approach
i. Configure, as required
ii. Usually started at least 500’ AGL
a. Don’t make a short approach over an obstacle if you don’t have to
 Give yourself time to ensure you’re stabilized and can clear the obstacle comfortably
iii. Establish and maintain a 4o glide path
a. Higher and steeper approach
b. If you haven’t already, extend the landing flaps and trim the airplane for approach speed
 *The slower approach speed (55 knots) will result in an increased sink rate (4 o glide path)
a Higher speeds will result in considerable floating before touchdown
 *Trim the aircraft to maintain 55 knots
a CE: Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
1. Trim the aircraft to assist in maintaining a stabilized final approach
c. Double check the landing checklist
d. VASIs/PAPIs will indicate a high glide path
 VASIs – Both bars White
 PAPIs –4 White lights (Indicates above a 3.5o glide slope)
e. When practicing the approach/landing, an obstacle will be simulated at the approach end
 The airplane should be approximately 100’ AGL at the approach end to ensure clearance
iv. Maintaining a Stabilized Approach
a. The landing is in reality an accuracy approach to a spot landing – a stabilized approach is essential
b. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude
 Below L/DMAX – In the Region of Reverse Command
a *Maintain 55 knots and adjust power for a safe descent

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

 Make small adjustments to keep the aim point in the same place on the windscreen
a Large adjustments lead to chasing the airspeed, pitch, and aim point
c. Aim Point Adjustments
 A coordinated combination of pitch and power is required
a Done properly, very little change in pitch and power is necessary to make corrections
 If obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdown will occur beyond the desired spot:
a Reduce power and lower pitch to maintain airspeed
b Once the aim point is back to the desired position on the windscreen, re-introduce the power,
and adjust the pitch to establish the 4o approach path
 If the descent angle does not ensure safe obstacle clearance:
a Increase power and pitch to maintain airspeed
b Once the aim point is back to the desired position, re-establish the 4o approach path
 DO NOT only pitch to gain altitude/avoid an obstacle
a Results in reduced airspeed and an increase rate of descent. Uncorrected, this can lead to a stall

d. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach

 A stabilized approach is essential to a short-field approach and landing
e. CE: Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
 Adjust pitch and power together. Use small corrections to maintain a stabilized approach
f. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
a Always keep a hand on the throttle in case a go around/immediate power is needed

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

b Of course, the hand can leave the throttle for other duties (flaps, radios, etc.)
c Fly first – aviate, navigate, communicate
v. Wind Correction
a. Headwind
 The airplane will be at a lower groundspeed and therefore take longer to make the final approach
a More power and a lower rate of descent is required
 Landing distance will be decreased
b. Tailwind
 The airplane will have a higher groundspeed and therefore spend less time on final approach
a Use less power and increase the rate of descent
 Landing distance will be increased
c. Ground Track
 Use the crosswind landing techniques to maintain a ground track in line with the landing area
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Crosswind
D. Roundout & Flare
i. The roundout must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling and sinking rapidly
ii. Minimum float should occur – the plane should settle relatively quickly onto the aiming point
a. A lack of float with sufficient control to touch down properly is verification the speed was correct
iii. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
a. Do not try to hold the airplane off the ground and “grease” the landing
E. Touchdown
i. Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable airspeed with the airplane in the approximate pitch
attitude that will result in a power off stall when the throttle is closed
a. Closing before ready for touchdown may increase the descent and result in a hard touchdown
ii. Stop within the shortest possible distance
a. Hold the positive pitch attitude as long as the elevators are effective for aerodynamic braking
b. Immediately upon touchdown and closing the throttle, brake to minimize the after-landing roll
 *In the DA20, immediately retract the flaps to the ‘Cruise’ setting and apply max effective braking
a Retracting flaps decreases transfers weight from the wings to wheels for more effective braking
b Max Effective Braking - Braking to the point just prior to skidding the tires
 CE: Improper use of brakes
iii. Directional Control
a. During and after landing, maintain the required crosswind corrections
 As the airplane slows, increase the crosswind corrections as necessary
b. Use rudder pressure to maintain the centerline as well as directional control
c. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
iv. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations

 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A short-field approach and landing requires the airplane be flown at one of its critical performance capabilities while
close to the ground to land safely in a confined area. You must have precise positive control of the airplane’s rate of
descent and as to produce an approach that will clear any obstacles, result in little or no floating during the roundout,
and permit your airplane to be stopped in the shortest possible distance.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain published airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VSO, +10/-5 knots, with wind gust factor applied
2. Touch down at a proper pitch attitude within 200’ beyond or on the specified point with no side drift, minimum
float, and with the longitudinal axis aligned with and over runway centerline.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain published airspeed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VSO, ±5 knots, with wind gust factor applied.
2. Touch down at a proper pitch attitude within 100’ beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, minimal float,
and with the longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline.

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to forward slips, as well as
sideslips and can perform either one. The private pilot student should have the ability to
perform the forward slip to a landing as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Maintain Ground Track

2. Steeper the bank angle, Steeper the descent
3. Smooth recovery

Elements 1. What is a Slip?

2. Practical Slip Limit
3. Airspeed Indicator Errors
4. Stalls in a Slip
5. Fuel Flow
6. Performing the Forward Slip
7. Performing the Sideslip
8. Performance & Runway Selection
9. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a slip to a landing, maintaining ground track, and adjusting as
Standards necessary to establish and maintain a stabilized approach.
VII.M. Slip to a Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Today we get to learn how to make the plane drop out of the sky - in a controlled way.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the rate of turn. The airplane is in essence flying
sideways which increases drag as well as the rate of descent, without increasing the airspeed.

Why
Intentional slips are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed, and/or adjust airplane ground track during
a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles must be
cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly reducing
airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed.

How:
1. What is a Slip?
A. A slip is a combination of forward movement and sideward movement
i. The airplane is in fact flying sideways resulting in a change in the direction the relative wind strikes the plane
B. Slips are characterized by
i. An increase in drag
a. Allows for the airplane to descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed
ii. A corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and glide performance
C. Positive Static Stability
i. Most planes exhibit positive static directional stability and have a tendency to compensate for slipping
a. An intentional slip requires deliberate cross-controlling ailerons and rudder
D. Two Types of Slips
i. Forward Slip
a. Used to steepen the descent angle without excessively increasing airspeed
 Especially useful in forced landings and situations where obstacles must be cleared during approach
b. Procedure
 The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made is lowered using the ailerons
 Simultaneously, the nose is yawed in the opposite direction with opposite rudder
a The longitudinal axis is at an angle to the original flight path
c. The amount of slip, and therefore sink rate, is determined by bank (steeper bank = steeper descent)
ii. Sideslip
a. Used when landing in a crosswind to keep the aircraft aligned with the centerline and prevent drift
 The longitudinal axis of the airplane remains parallel to the original flight path
b. Procedure
 Lower the wing into the wind
 Apply just enough opposite rudder to keep the longitudinal axis aligned with the centerline
 Aileron keeps the plane over the centerline; rudder keeps the longitudinal axis aligned with it

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

 The aircraft will touchdown on the upwind wheel, then the downwind wheel, then the nose wheel
2. Practical Slip Limit
A. In most light airplanes, the steepness of the slip is limited by the amount of rudder travel available
B. In both sideslips and forward slips, the point may be reached where full rudder is required to maintain heading
even though the ailerons are capable of further steepening the bank angle
i. This is the Practical Slip Limit: Additional bank causes the plane to turn even with full opposite rudder
C. If there is a need to descend more rapidly, lowering the nose will increase the sink rate as well as the airspeed
i. Increased airspeed also increases rudder effectiveness permitting a steeper slip
ii. Conversely, when the nose is raised, rudder effectiveness decreases, and the bank must be reduced

3. RM: Airspeed Indicator Errors

A. Due to the location of the pitot tube/static ports, airspeed indicators may have considerable error when in a slip
B. Airspeed is displayed based on the difference between static and ram air pressure
i. A change in either the static or ram pressure will result in a change in the airspeed
ii. Static Error Example
a. If the static port is on the left and the pilot enters a slip to the left the relative wind is now from the left
 The static port now receives some amount of ram air pressure
 Static pressure has increased, and for arguments sake, ram pressure remains the same
 This results in a lower indicated airspeed than what is actually being flown
b. In a right slip, the airspeed indicator would show a higher speed than you are actually flying
c. Two static ports, one on each side of the fuselage, may compensate for and remove these errors
iii. Pitot Error Example
a. In a slip, the pitot tube is no longer pointed directly into the relative wind and therefore the ram air
pressure may not be as accurate as in straight and level flight

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

C. Reference the POH, and be aware of any known errors and/or limitations associated with your aircraft
i. If airspeed jumps when the slip is removed this is a good indication of some level of airspeed error in a slip
D. The pilot must be aware of the potential for errors and recognize a properly performed slip by the:
i. Attitude of the airplane
ii. Sound of the airflow
iii. Feel of the flight controls
4. Stalls in a Slip
A. If an airplane stalls in a slip it displays very little yawing tendency that tends to lead to a spin
i. May do little more than tend to roll into a wings level attitude. Stall characteristics may even be improved
a. The raised wing has a higher AOA than the lower wing and will therefore stall first
 In many aircraft, the stall of the high wing first will reduce the bank angle and prevent a further stall
B. A cross-controlled stall can still be entered in a slip
i. Can be extremely hazardous close to the ground - the aircraft may have a tendency to roll over
ii. Maintain approach airspeed, and execute a go around if the approach is not stable
C. RM: Tail Stalls with Flaps
i. Not recommended to slip some aircraft with flaps extended, this is because it can result in a tail stall
a. Conditions and reasons may vary, but in general, having the flaps extended at high AOAs blanks out the
relative wind over the horizontal stabilizer and can result in a tail stall (may not be possible to recover)
ii. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, and remove the slip at any indication of stall
5. RM: Fuel Flow
A. In coordinated flight, fuel will flow normally from the tanks into the fuel delivery system, and in other than
straight-and-level attitudes, centripetal force will replace gravity to force fuel "down" relative to the airplane.
B. In uncoordinated flight (forward slip) forces may pull fuel away from the fuel lines
i. Potential to cause fuel starvation and engine stoppage
ii. Risk is greatest when fuel levels are low
C. Remove the slip at any indication of engine coughing or roughness
6. Performing the Forward Slip
A. Setup & Configuration
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. The airplane will have to be established higher on final
a. This is because the slip will result in a steeper than normal descent
b. In a real-life scenario, with obstructions and/or hazards that must be cleared with a steep descent rate,
be aware of the obstacles and the descent requirements – Plan ahead!
iii. Reduce power to idle
a. There is no logic in slipping to lose altitude with power
b. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Keep a hand on throttle even though it is at idle – it may be necessary to immediately go around
 Of course, there are times when your hand must be removed from the throttle, keep it minimal
iv. Extend the flaps as necessary
v. CE: Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper sequence
a. Configure the aircraft as normal, or as specified in the POH
 Slips are normally done with power at idle and the flaps fully extended
 A slip with power is counterintuitive
b. Slipping is not the first option when it is necessary to lose altitude
 Reduce power, lower the flaps and gear, use spoilers (if available), and if it is still necessary to
increase the rate of descent, then slip
B. Entry
i. The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of the ailerons

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

a. Slip into the wind, if a crosswind exists

 Wing down into the wind
ii. Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must be yawed in the opposite direction by applying opposite rudder so
that the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at an angle to its original flight path
a. The degree to which the nose is yawed should be such that the ground track is maintained
iii. The nose of the airplane should be raised to prevent the airspeed from increasing
a. Use the necessary elevator pressure to maintain the proper pitch attitude and airspeed
 Excessive nose high pitch attitudes can lead to a stall
C. RM: Stabilized Approach
i. Rate of Descent
a. The amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, is determined by the bank angle
 The steeper the bank, the steeper the descent
 The steepness of a slip is often limited by the amount of rudder travel available (practical slip limit)
a For maximum descent rates, use full rudder and adjust aileron to maintain bank/ground track
b. Pitch Attitude
 Maintain the desired approach speed during the slip with smooth, proactive pitch adjustments
ii. Precise Ground Track
a. The degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite direction from bank should be enough that the
airplane maintains a precise ground track
 If the rudder is held constant, bank can be adjusted to maintain the desired ground track
iii. Crosscheck
a. The pilot’s crosscheck should increase during a slip
 Be aware of the slip configuration, ground track, airspeed, altitude, descent rate, current glidepath
vs the desired glidepath, other traffic, ATC instructions, etc.
iv. CE: Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. A stable slip is a safe slip
b. Excessive swings in descent rate, airspeed, and an erratic ground track can lead to hazardous situations
 Remove the slip and go around if unstable
D. Discontinuing a Forward Slip
i. Level the wings and release the rudder while adjusting the pitch attitude to the normal glide attitude
a. Recovery should be smooth
 If the rudder pressure is released abruptly, the nose will swing too quickly into line and the airplane
will tend to acquire excess speed
a Momentum can also carry the nose past straight ahead
ii. RM: Touching down in a side slip could be hazardous to the pilot and aircraft
a. Never land in a forward slip
b. Can impose severe side loads on the gear
c. Remove the forward slip and implement a sideslip for landing
iii. CE: Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
a. Be smooth and controlled, remove the slip to allow time to establish a normal landing picture and make
a smooth, safe, normal landing - Go around if unable
iv. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Ensure the slip has been removed with time to reestablish a safe landing picture
 Landing in a forward slip is very dangerous
b. Maintain directional control as in a normal landing
v. CE: Improper use of brakes
a. Do not land with feet on the brakes, this could result in a loss of control or blown tires

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b. Braking may be used as necessary to slow the airplane

vi. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
a. Ensure the POH is referenced and landing data and limitations are observed
7. Performing the Sideslip
A. Entering
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. Configuration
a. The airplane will have to be established higher on final, or anticipate a higher power setting to
compensate for the increased drag
 This is because the slip will result in a steeper than normal descent
b. Maintain power setting
 In this case the objective of the slip is to align the airplane for a crosswind landing, and not to lose
altitude. Therefore, the power is maintained
c. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Keep hand on throttle, it may be necessary to immediately go around
 Of course, there are instances when the pilot’s hand has to be removed from the throttle, but keep
the time off the throttle minimal
d. Extend the flaps as necessary
e. CE: Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper
sequence
 Configure the aircraft as normal, establish the sideslip on final prior to touchdown
iii. Entry
a. Enter by lowering the upwind wing into the wind and simultaneously applying just enough opposite
rudder to prevent a turn
 Apply aileron to keep the aircraft centered on the runway centerline
 Apply enough rudder to keep the nose of the aircraft aligned with the runway
b. The amount of slip, and therefore the rate of sideward movement (to compensate for the crosswind), is
determined by bank angle
 The steeper the bank angle, the greater the slip
a As bank angle is increased, additional opposite rudder is required to maintain alignment with
the runway centerline
c. Crosswind Limits
 At some wind speeds and angles, there may not be sufficient rudder authority to align the
longitudinal axis with the runway
 This is why there are crosswind limits in the aircraft POH
a Do not exceed the crosswind limits, they’re published for a reason
d. The nose of the airplane should be raised slightly to prevent the airspeed from increasing
 Use the necessary elevator pressure to maintain the proper pitch attitude
iv. Forward Slip to a Sideslip
a. There are cases in which a high rate of descent is required to establish the airplane on the desired
glidepath, and the landing will be performed with a crosswind
 In this case, the pilot will have to transition from a forward slip (to lose altitude) to a sideslip (to
safely land in the crosswind)
b. As normal, the forward slip should be performed into the wind to make the transition cleaner
 Once established on the normal glidepath, rudder and aileron required for the forward slip should
be reduced and the sideslip established
a Reduce rudder to align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with the centerline of the runway

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b Adjust aileron to keep the aircraft centered over the extended runway centerline
c. The sooner the airplane is on glidepath, the better
 This provides more time for the pilot to establish a stable approach and sideslip
B. Stabilized Approach
i. Rate of Descent
a. Controlled by power adjustments
 Same as a crosswind approach and landing - Pitch for airspeed, and power for altitude
b. Establish pitch attitude
 Maintain a normal approach speed
 Adjust power as necessary
ii. Precise Ground Track
a. Ailerons are used to keep the airplane over the runway centerline, while rudder is used to align the
longitudinal axis with the flight path
b. As conditions vary (gusts, wind changes, updrafts/downdrafts, etc.) the pilot will have to adjust the
aileron and rudder pressure to maintain the centerline
 Use consistent, smooth, small control inputs
iii. CE: Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. A stabilized slip is a safe slip
b. Excessive swings in descent rates, airspeed changes, and erratic ground tracks can be hazardous
 Remove the slip and go around if unstable
C. Discontinuing (Landing in) a Sideslip
i. When landing in a sideslip, do not level the wings
a. Keep the upwind wing down throughout the roundout and touchdown
 Touchdown on the upwind main wheel first
b. Removing the sideslip over the runway will result in the aircraft drifting due to the crosswind
 This can result in a severe side load, or the aircraft being pushed off the runway entirely
 Maintain crosswind corrections (sideslip) throughout the touchdown
c. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Crosswind
ii. CE: Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
a. Unlike the forward slip, it is essential to maintain the sideslip during landing
iii. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Directional control must be maintained to counter the crosswind after landing
b. Keep aileron into the wind. As speed slows, increase aileron until reaching full deflection at taxi speed
iv. CE: Improper use of brakes
a. Do not land with feet on the brakes, this could result in a loss of control or blown tires
b. Brake evenly
 In a sideslip, with more pressure on one rudder, it’s common to apply more pressure to that brake
v. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
a. Ensure the POH is referenced, and landing data and limitations are observed
8. Performance & Runway Selection
A. Ensure required landing performance
B. RM: Runway Selection
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
ii. See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
iii. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Runway Length, Wind, etc.
9. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around

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B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The slip to a landing increases rate of descent, helping in many different scenarios. It is important to ensure the plane
maintains the desired ground track. To adjust the rate of descent, increase or decrease the bank and make the necessary
rudder inputs to maintain ground track. There’s a point where we can no longer maintain ground track; this is the
Practical Slip Limit. Ensure a smooth transition to landing to avoid sideloading and abrupt, violent maneuvering near the
ground. To some extent, a sideslip can be used on almost every landing since the wind is rarely perfectly aligned with the
runway. Use aileron to keep the aircraft over the runway, and rudder to align the longitudinal axis with the centerline.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards (Forward Slip to a Landing)

1. As necessary, correlate crosswind with direction of forward slip and transition to sideslip before landing.
2. Touch down at a proper pitch attitude, within 400 feet beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, and the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path.

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VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a Go-Around/Rejected
Landing. The student will understand the importance of a prompt decision and can quickly and
safely configure the airplane and adjust its attitude to accomplish a go-around. The student will
perform the maneuver to the standards prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Power

2. Attitude
3. Configuration

Elements 1. Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary

2. Promptly Deciding to Go-Around
3. Cardinal Principles
4. Climb Out
5. Communication
6. Performance Factors
7. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to recognize when a go-around is needed and promptly
Standards configures the airplane and adjusts its attitude to safely execute the rejected landing.
VII.N. Go Around / Rejected Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
There will be times when we have to discontinue a landing and set up for another one. This may be a result of a
dangerous situation or may just be necessary to re-establish an approach. Either way, we definitely want to know
what we’re doing as we’re getting closer and closer to the ground.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A go-around is the discontinuance of a landing approach to make another attempt to land under more favorable
conditions (it is an alternative to any approach or landing). The go-around is a normal maneuver that may at times be
used in an emergency. It is warranted whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory and the landing should be
abandoned or attempted again.

Why
The need to discontinue a landing may arise at any point in the landing process and the ability to safely discontinue
the landing is essential, especially due to the proximity of the ground.

How:
1. Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary
A. There are many factors which can contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions. Situations such as:
i. Air traffic control requirements
a. Low approach only request
b. Told to go-around due to traffic, obstruction, etc. on the runway
ii. Unexpected hazards on the runway (another airplane, vehicles, animals, etc.)
iii. Overtaking another airplane
iv. Wind Shear
v. Wake Turbulence
vi. Mechanical Failure (Ex: Gear issues)
vii. Unstable Approach
a. Too low, too high, not aligned with the runway; airspeed control; rate of descent
viii. Whenever safety dictates
B. CE: Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
2. RM: Promptly Deciding to Go-Around
A. A go-around is not inherently dangerous, but becomes dangerous when delayed or executed improperly
B. Delayed Recognition of the Need to Go-Around
i. Set and maintain standard operating procedures (SOPs)
a. Associate these SOPs with altitude gates
b. Outside of SOP at the altitude gate = go-around
ii. Ex: If you are not meeting specific SOPs at 500’, go around
a. Technique: Configured for landing, on airspeed (±5 knots), normal descent rate, on glidepath, aligned
with the landing runway, before landing checklist complete
b. Momentary deviations are acceptable

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c. Do not be trying to “fix” the approach within 500’ of touchdown

iii. Specific, measurable criteria allows for a logical easy decision (no emotion or questions)
iv. If you’re ever in doubt, go around
C. Delaying the Initiation of a Go-around
i. Stems from two sources:
a. Landing Expectancy: Anticipatory belief that conditions are not threatening, and the approach will end
safely
b. Pride: Mistaken belief that the act of going around is an admission of failure
D. The earlier we recognize a situation that warrants a go-around, the safer the go-around/rejected landing will be
i. Important to make a prompt decision
a. Do not provide any extra time to get closer to the ground, or for the hazardous situation to magnify
ii. If there’s a question as to whether or not to go-around, it’s probably safer/smarter to go around
a. Don’t hesitate and stick to your decision. Safety first, always!
E. CE: Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing
i. Delaying the go-around increases the chance the situation escalates and ends poorly
3. Cardinal Principles – Power, Attitude, Configuration
A. Improper execution stems from a lack of familiarity with the three cardinal principles of the go-around
B. RM: Power
i. Power is the pilot’s FIRST concern
a. The instant the pilot decides to go-around, full power must be applied smoothly and without hesitation
 Use a smooth and positive power input
a Abrupt movements of the throttle may cause the engine to faulter
b Carb heat should be off for maximum power
b. Maintain full power until flying speed and controllability are restored
c. RM/CE: Improper power application
ii. Inertia
a. The pilot must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be overcome
 It takes tremendous power to slow, stop, and reverse the downward inertia of an airplane
a Newton’s 1st Law - A body in motion wants to stay in motion
iii. Controlling Power
a. When takeoff power is applied:
 The nose will rise suddenly
a Nose is likely trimmed up for the approach due to lower power & airspeed
b Hold forward pressure to maintain a safe attitude
1. “Rough trim” should be used to relieve control pressures and maintain proper attitude
c CE: Failure to control pitch attitude
 The nose will veer left
a Use right rudder pressure to counteract the left turning tendencies, just like during takeoff
b CE: Failure to compensate for torque effect
C. Attitude
i. Attitude is always critical when close to the ground
a. Raising the nose too early could result in a low altitude stall
 Avoid the natural tendency is to immediately pull the nose up
b. Lowering the nose too far could result in an accelerated descent to the ground
ii. Maintain an attitude to allow the plane to build airspeed before any effort is made to gain altitude/turn
a. Pitch attitude must slow/stop the descent
b. The airplane will not climb until reaching a safe speed
 In some situations, it is desirable to lower the nose briefly to gain airspeed

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iii. “Rough trim” the airplane

a. A considerable amount of control pressure can be removed
b. Quick relieving of the control pressures; trim more precisely when stable
c. CE: Improper trim procedure
iv. Pitch for VY
a. Begin the climb as soon as the appropriate climb airspeed and pitch attitude are attained
 Pitch for and climb at VY (VX, if necessary)
 CE: Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
v. CE: Failure to control pitch attitude
vi. Summary: Increase power to max, stop the descent, and when safe, pitch to climb at V Y (or VX)
D. RM: Configuration
i. Cleaning Up the Airplane
a. 1st Concern: Landing Flaps
b. 2nd Concern: Gear (if retractable)
c. 3rd Concern: Takeoff Flaps
ii. Flaps
a. *In the DA20, after adding full power and establishing a climb attitude, retract the landing flaps
 Incremental flap retraction allows time for the airplane to accelerate as they are being raised
 A sudden/complete flap retraction could cause a loss of lift resulting in settling to the ground
iii. Gear
a. After a positive rate of climb is established, the gear can be retracted
 Retract gear after the initial rough trim is established & when certain the plane will remain airborne
 Do not retract the gear in a descent
a In an extremely low go-around, it’s possible for the plane to touchdown and bounce
b Not particularly dangerous provided the plane is straight and a safe pitch attitude is maintained
iv. Retract Takeoff Flaps
a. At this point, treat the situation like a normal takeoff
b. Retract the flaps as you normally would (after reaching VY and at a safe altitude)
v. Flaps Before Gear
a. In most aircraft full flaps produce more drag than the landing gear (reduces the most drag immediately)
b. In the case the airplane inadvertently touches down, the gear is down & locked
vi. CE: Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure
E. Summary
i. Increase power to max, stop the descent, and at a safe airspeed pitch to climb at VY (or VX). Retract the
landing flaps. Established in a positive rate of climb, retract the gear. Continue as in a normal takeoff
4. Climb Out

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A. The majority of go-around climb outs will be identical to a normal takeoff climb out
i. Adjust for wind and maintain the runway centerline
ii. Especially important if there are parallel runways, or other hazards
B. Maneuver to the side of the runway or landing area when necessary to clear and avoid conflicting traffic
i. Ex: if another airplane is attempting to takeoff while you were close to landing
a. You’re blocked from their view by their roof, and they’re blocked from your view by your plane’s nose
b. Move to a safe position parallel to the runway to keep the traffic in sight
 If there are parallel runways, or other aircraft in the pattern, move to avoid other traffic
C. Remain clear of obstacles/obstructions/other traffic
i. Climb at VX, if necessary to clear any obstructions
D. CE: Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
E. CE: Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic
5. Communication
A. Once the airplane is under control, then you can communicate with the tower or appropriate facility
i. Let them know you’re “Going Around”
ii. Aviate, Navigate, then Communicate – Fly first, then deal with the radios
B. RM: Go-around with a LAHSO clearance (AIM 4-3-11 b(6))
i. LAHSO clearance does not preclude a go-around
ii. If necessary, execute the go-around, maintain safe separation from other aircraft/vehicles and notify ATC
6. Performance Factors
A. Atmospheric Conditions
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations
a. Pressure/Density altitude
B. Wind
i. Headwinds increase climb performance (more airflow over the wings)
ii. Tailwind decrease climb performance (reduced airflow over the wings)
7. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Runway Incursion
B. Collision Hazards
C. Low Altitude Maneuvering
D. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
 Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing
 Improper power application
 Failure to control pitch attitude
 Failure to compensate for torque effect
 Improper trim procedure
 Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
 Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure
 Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
 Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.N. Go Around / Rejected Landing

The go-around is a very important maneuver that is essential in an emergency. Knowing the procedure to properly
perform the maneuver will provide a considerably safer situation. The pilot’s first concern is power, followed by
establishing the correct attitude, and configuration.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Apply takeoff power immediately and transition to VX or VY as appropriate +10/-5 knots.
2. Maintain VY +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Apply takeoff power immediately and transition to VX or VY as appropriate ±5 knots.
2. Maintain VY ±5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.

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VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the power-off 180 o accuracy
approach and landing as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Wind Correction
3. Stabilized Approach

Elements 1. General
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
3. The Maneuver
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a power-off 180o accuracy approach and landing, landing within 200’
Standards beyond the selected landing point. The student will understand when corrections should be
made and will have the ability to make the necessary corrections to maintain a stabilized
approach to landing.
VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The power-off 180 is a challenging and very fun maneuver. Personally, it’s one of my favorites…

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An approach and landing made by gliding with the engine idling through a 180 o pattern, begun abeam a specified
touchdown point on the runway, to a touchdown at or within 200’ beyond that point.

Why
It instills judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the plane, without power, to a safe landing.

How:
1. General
A. Executed by gliding with the power off from a given point on a downwind leg to a preselected landing spot
i. The basic procedure involves closing the throttle at a given altitude and gliding to key positions. The pilot is
constantly checking and adjusting the airplane’s glide path to facilitate landing on the selected point
a. Key positions are points at which the pilot can judge the glide and if it will result in a safe landing
ii. The key points in a power-off 180o approach and landing are:
a. The downwind key position
 Abeam the intended point of landing
 Where the pilot reduces the power to idle
b. The base key position
 On the base leg, 45o off the intended landing point
 Generally, where the pilot starts configuring the aircraft
a Varies based on different aircraft and their performance, pattern size, altitude, wind, etc.
B. Configuring the Airplane
i. Normal landing configuration, but flaps are used as necessary to control the glide path of the approach
ii. Trim for best glide airspeed
C. Flying the Power Off Descent
i. Pitch attitude is used to maintain the best glide airspeed
a. Lower the nose to increase airspeed
b. Raise the nose to decrease airspeed
ii. Speeds other than the best glide airspeed
a. It is very important to maintain the best glide speed
b. Increasing the airspeed results in a steeper descent angle
c. Decreasing the airspeed results in rapid settling due to a slow airspeed and insufficient lift
 Never try to stretch a glide to reach the desired landing spot
D. Attempt to fly a normal pattern, but also keep in mind that:
i. Wind conditions and other factors can change the pattern size
ii. Not a mechanical maneuver - altitudes, pattern size, configuring, etc. will be adjusted on each approach
iii. Tools at the pilot’s disposal to adjust the size of the pattern/rate of descent:

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a. Drag – Flaps, forward slips, drag devices (if available)

 The forward slip should be performed into the wind (bank into the wind)
 RM: Fuel Flow, Tail Stalls, and Airspeed Control
a See VII.M. Slip to a Landing - Fuel Flow
b See VII.M. Slip to a Landing - Tail Stalls
c Airspeed Control
1. With the slip established, adjust pitch to maintain desired airspeed
2. See VII.M. Slip to a Landing - Airspeed Errors
b. Airspeed – Faster or slower than best glide increases the rate of descent
c. Size of the pattern – Turning base early/late, dogleg to final, S-turns
E. Coordination
i. Like always, keep the airplane coordinated (exception is a slip)
ii. Don’t attempt to increase the rate of turn with rudder; this could lead to a crossed-control stall
F. A stable approach is predictable
i. Trim to maintain best glide and avoid large swings in pitch/airspeed
G. CE: Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
i. Correct for deviations from the glide path without power
a. Configuration (configure early, or delay configuration if necessary), drag (slip), airspeed, etc.
 Increasing or decreasing airspeed can increase the rate of descent
ii. Always trim to relieve control pressures to help in stabilizing the approach
a. You have enough to manage during this approach. Use the trim to reduce workload and maintain a
more stable approach path (even if you get distracted)
iii. Do what’s necessary if the approach cannot be completed safely without the addition of power
a. In the case of training, add power, go around, and try again
b. In a real-life power-off scenario, decide on and execute the best course of action based on the situation
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
A. The power will be reduced abeam the desired touchdown point
i. Select an easily recognizable point (Ex: a specific centerline marking, the 500’ or 1,000’ markers, etc.)
ii. Ensure there is ample space on both sides of the point
a. It should allow for landing in the touchdown zone (first 3,000’ or half, whichever is less)
b. It should not be so close to the beginning of the runway that it risks a landing in the dirt
 The float and touchdown should both be guaranteed to be over the runway surface
 Aiming for “the numbers” is likely too short
B. Once a touchdown point has been selected, choose an aiming point
i. *The airplane will normally glide approximately 400’ - 500’ (about 2 runway stripes)
a. Differs between aircraft and wind conditions
C. RM: Runway Selection
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
ii. Combination of wind, landing surface, obstructions, and limitations
iii. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
a. Adjust the aim point based on the wind
b. Stronger headwind = less float, and requires a closer aimpoint (opposite for a tailwind)
3. The Maneuver
A. Downwind Leg - 1,000’ AGL
i. Complete the before landing checklist as normal (midpoint)
ii. Abeam the selected touchdown point, reduce the throttle to idle
a. This is the Downwind Leg Key Position
b. *Upon doing this, maintain altitude until reaching best glide speed (73)

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c. Trim the aircraft for best glide speed, and start the descent
d. Be aware of, and anticipate how the wind conditions will affect the pattern
 Groundspeed, crab required, movement of ground references, ATIS, etc. can provide an idea of
what wind conditions to expect
e. CE: Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
 Failure to identify key points will result in improper performance
 Reduce power to idle at the proper point to maintain a more normal, predictable approach
iii. Turning to the Base Leg
a. The base leg is positioned as needed based on the altitude and/or wind condition
 Position the leg to conserve or dissipate altitude as required to reach the landing point
a The turn onto the base leg is made at an altitude high enough and close enough to permit the
airplane to glide to what would normally be the base key position in a 90o power-off approach
 If the headwind on final is strong and/or the plane is low, start base early to avoid landing short
a In the case of a strong wind, groundspeed will be lower resulting in less ground covered
b The stronger the headwind, the smaller the pattern
 If wind is calm, and/or the plane is high, extend downwind to avoid overshooting the landing point
a Crosswinds are similar to calm wind, but adjust bank to prevent over/undershooting the runway
b. The turn to the base leg is a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper bank
 The degree of bank and amount of turn depend on the glide angle and the wind velocity
c. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind
 Understand how the wind will affect the approach and plan accordingly
 Remember and apply the principles learned in ground reference maneuvers

B. Base Leg
i. Continue the glide, evaluating the airplane’s position in relation to the landing point
a. Adjust the crab to maintain the base leg
 The size of the crab is a good indication of the wind on final
b. Adjust the base leg as required
 Ex: If very low, the pilot may choose not to square the turn to final, but instead fly a dogleg to final
ii. Base Key Position – 45o to the landing point
a. Use this position to further evaluate the descent and adjust
b. Approach flaps may be used at this position, conditions permitting
 This will vary based on the aircraft, and the current situation

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 Full flaps are not used until established on final

iii. Tailwind on the base leg
a. A tailwind on the base leg (crosswind on final), tends to result in being higher than in a calm wind, and a
headwind on the base leg, tends to result being lower than normal
 With a tailwind, airplane will not lose as much altitude on base due to the higher groundspeed
 With a headwind, the airplane will lose more altitude because of the lower groundspeed
b. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind
iv. Aim Point
a. As in a normal approach to landing, use an aim point
 A steady position is desired – the airplane is maintaining the glidepath to the landing point
 If the aim point is moving up, the airplane is moving below the glidepath
a Maintain best glide and delay configuring
 If the aim point is moving down, the airplane is moving above the glidepath
a Consider increasing drag: Slip, s-turns, and/or configuring early
v. CE: Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
a. Failure to identify will result in improper performance; e.g. not recognizing/correcting glide

C. Turning to Final
i. Plan the turn so that the airplane rolls out aligned with the runway centerline
a. Adjust for over or undershooting winds
D. Final Approach
i. Continue to evaluate the approach and make necessary adjustments to reach the aim point
a. Turn early/head directly to the runway from the base leg if necessary to make the landing point
b. Flaps may be used to increase the descent rate and slow the airplane to landing speed
 Lower the approach flaps if they were not already lowered on the base leg
 Lower the landing flaps on final approach, when landing is assured
 Remember, flaps result in a slower airspeed and an increased sink rate
a It may be necessary to be slightly high when using the flaps, or it may be necessary to accept the
balloon associated with adding flaps to stay on proper approach path
ii. Double check the landing checklist has been completed
a. High stress situations can lead to mistakes and/or entirely missed checklists
iii. Maintain a Stabilized Approach

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a. Adjust as the aim point moves higher or lower in the windscreen

 If the point is moving up in the windscreen, the aircraft is getting low
a Don’t necessarily add flaps immediately
1. Gauge the situation – if it’s going to be close, the pilot can go directly to the runway, and use
flaps closer to the ground to balloon/float vs adding flaps and creating a steep descent
 If the point is moving down in the windscreen, the aircraft is getting high
a Use remaining flaps, S-turns, slip, reduce the airspeed, or decrease the pitch attitude and aim
slightly before the original aim point (100’ - 150’)
b. Slight adjustments help to maintain a stabilized approach and lead to an on target landing
 Do not wait for large aim point changes, be proactive
 Large changes lead to inconsistent descent rates, large speed swings, and an unstable approach
c. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Make small, frequent adjustments in pitch/configuration to establish glide path and airspeed
E. Roundout and Touchdown
i. Although accurate spot landings are important, safe & properly executed approaches and landings are vital
a. Never sacrifice a good approach or landing just to land on the desired spot
ii. The Commercial ACS requires the pilot to touchdown at a proper pitch attitude, within 200’ beyond or on
the specified point with no side drift and with the longitudinal axis aligned with and over the centerline
a. Make a safe, normal, power-off landing
b. *Remember, the airplane will normally glide approximately 400’ - 500’ before touching down
 If necessary, and safe, hold the airplane in ground effect until reaching the touchdown point
c. Don’t force the plane down/don’t stretch the glide as it may result in a hard landing/stall
d. Correct for crosswinds
iii. CE: Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
a. Land on the main gear and keep pressure off the nosewheel to allow it to gently touchdown
b. Do not force the plane on to the ground
iv. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
a. Be aware of rounding out too high/low and floating/ballooning; go around if necessary
F. Directional Control
i. Maintain directional control with rudder, and apply the necessary crosswind correction
ii. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown and Improper use of brakes
a. Use minimum braking, and don’t apply the brakes until firmly on the ground/under control
b. Use equal pressure on both brakes to prevent swerving or loss of control
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Performance
i. Crosswind & Tailwind
ii. Landing Surface/Condition
iii. Runway Selection
B. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
C. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
D. Wake Turbulence
E. Wind Shear
F. Collision Hazards
G. Low Altitude Maneuvering
H. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:

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 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
 Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
 Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The power-off 180o accuracy approach and landing consists of constantly evaluating and adjusting the approach as
necessary based on the wind, altitude, groundspeed, and other factors.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Touch down at the proper pitch attitude, within 200’ beyond or on the specified touchdown point with no side drift,
minimum float, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline.

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1. Effects of Crosswinds
A. General
i. Attempt to push the aircraft across the runway during takeoff & landing
a. Can lead to skipping, sideways movement across the runway, and severe side stresses on the gear
ii. Recognizing a Crosswind
a. Wind direction versus runway direction
b. Weather reports (ATIS, ASOS, AWOS) and/or windsock and wind indicators
iii. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
a. The POH specifies the maximum demonstrated crosswind component for the aircraft
 Do not exceed this limitation
b. May not be able to remain in the runway confines
B. Takeoff
i. Control Inputs
a. Ailerons keep the wings level
 Hold full aileron into the crosswind as the roll is started
 Decrease aileron pressure as airspeed increases and the controls become more effective
b. Rudder keeps the takeoff path straight or aligned with the centerline
 Generally, rudder is in the opposite direction of the aileron input
 Adjust for left turning tendencies as well
ii. Lift-Off
a. Rotate while maintaining crosswind controls
 The downwind wing and wheel may rise first
a This is acceptable and preferred to side skipping
b. Avoid an early lift-off resulting in side-skipping
 Imposes severe side stresses on the landing gear and could result in structural failure
c. In a significant crosswind, hold the main gear on the ground longer for a smooth but definite takeoff
d. Immediately after takeoff hold aileron into the wind so the aircraft is sideslipping
e. Transition to a crab
C. Landing (sideslip technique)
i. Aileron is used to correct for drift
a. Lower the upwind wing
ii. Rudder keeps the airplane straight or aligned with the centerline
a. Lowering the aileron will start a turn, use rudder to counter
and align with the centerline
iii. Maintain crosswind controls on touchdown
a. Upwind wheel touches down first
b. Maintain crosswind controls
 Releasing the controls can lead to skipping, sideways
movement and gear stresses
iv. Increase aileron input as airspeed slows and then transition to
taxi crosswind corrections
D. Taxiing (depicted, right)
i. Crosswind corrections help to prevent the wind from lifting a
wing/nosing over the airplane
2. Effects of Tailwinds
VII. RM Concepts

A. Increases the distance required for takeoff and landing

i. Requires the more distance to obtain the required airflow over the wings during takeoff
ii. Higher groundspeed on landing requires more distance to stop
B. POH Limitations: Know (and do not exceed) the POH limitation for tailwinds during takeoff and landing
C. Performance Charts
i. Verify takeoff/landing distance is compatible with the runway based on the current conditions
3. Runway Surface/Condition
A. Surface
i. Surfaces vary widely including concrete, asphalt, gravel, dirt, and grass
a. Use the Chart Supplement for airport runway surfaces
ii. More friction associated with soft surfaces (grass, dirt, gravel, etc.)
a. Increases takeoff ground roll, decreases landing roll (harder to get moving, easier to stop moving)
b. Tires sink into soft runways and do not roll smoothly over the surface
B. Gradient
i. Expressed as a percentage – a 3% gradient means runway height changes 3’ for every 100’ of runway length
a. Positive gradient indicates runway height increases, and a negative gradient indicates height decreases
ii. Take into account in performance charts
iii. Upsloping runway increases takeoff roll and decreases landing roll, and vice versa for a down sloping runway
C. Condition (wet, dry, snow, ice, etc.)
i. Braking Effectiveness
a. Take runway conditions into account to determine required stopping distance
 Water decreases the friction between the tires and the ground, reducing braking effectiveness
ii. Maintain Control
a. Slick runways can result in sliding
 Use weather reports, PIREPs, tower reports, etc. to determine runway status
 Uncontrolled field: Overfly to check conditions, ask other traffic, etc.
b. Hydroplaning
 Grooved runways help to reduce hydroplaning
 Minimum speed for hydroplaning is the square root of the tire pressure by 9
a Although, once started, hydroplaning can continue below this speed
c. On slick runways, land into the wind, do not use abrupt control inputs, anticipate reduced braking
 Use aerodynamic braking to its fullest advantage
D. Length
i. Never attempt a takeoff or landing on a runway that is not supported by performance data
a. Take all factors into account (aircraft, atmospheric/weather, runway condition, gradient, etc.)
ii. Don’t land on a runway that you can’t takeoff on
a. Verify takeoff AND landing performance (especially important if adding weight after landing)
E. Performance Charts
i. Typically, performance charts assume paved, level, smooth, and dry runway surfaces
ii. Obtain performance data based on the specific day, runway, runway conditions, aircraft, loading, etc.
4. Runway Selection
A. Pilot Capability
i. Set personal minimums
a. Min runway length/width based on the aircraft and your comfort/safety level
b. Maximum crosswind limitation based on your abilities and comfort/safety level
c. Limitations may vary based on whether the runway is wet or dry or other factors
ii. Training
a. Just because it’s legal doesn’t mean it’s safe

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b. Ensure you are trained, proficient, current, and safe to perform the takeoff/landing (i.e., grass field)
B. Airplane Performance
i. FAR 91.103: The pilot shall become familiar with all available information concerning the flight
a. This must include runway lengths and takeoff and landing distance data from the flight manual
ii. Do not attempt to takeoff or land from a runway that is not supported by performance data
a. Use current conditions (not expected performance based on past calculations)
 Take into account the runway as well as potential obstacles
b. Do not exceed any flight limitations – follow the flight manual
c. Verify the proper performance chart is being used
iii. Factors affecting Takeoff & Landing Distance
a. Weight: Higher weights increase takeoff and landing distance
b. Wind: Stronger headwinds decrease takeoff and landing distance
c. Pressure/Density Altitude: Lower pressure/density altitude decreases takeoff distance
 Higher pressure/density altitude increases landing distance (higher TAS)
d. Runway Slope and Condition:
 An inclined runway will increase takeoff distance and decrease landing distance
 Different types of runways affect takeoff/landing distance
a Ex: Paved vs grass, or dirt strips - much more ground friction to overcome on grass or dirt strips
as compared to a paved strip
e. Runway length versus required distance
C. The most favorable runway meets performance reqs/limitations & is most closely aligned with the wind
i. Also meets personal requirements
ii. Occasionally, you may prefer a runway that is not most closely aligned with the wind
a. Takeoff: May be better aligned with departure direction, shorter taxi, longer, safer climb, etc.
b. Landing: May be safer arrival, longer runway, aligned with arrival, shorter taxi, etc.
c. Choose the safest option
5. Runway Incursion
A. Be aware of the airplane’s position and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations on the airport
i. Listen to other radio calls and build a 3D picture of other traffic on the airport surface area
B. Readback all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
C. Review airport layouts
D. Know airport signage
E. Review NOTAMs
F. Request progressive taxi instructions when necessary
G. Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line or entering any taxiway
H. Turn on lights and the rotating beacon or strobes when taxiing
I. When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible and wait for taxi instructions before moving
J. Study & use proper phraseology
K. Write down complex taxi instructions
6. Takeoff Briefing
A. Always have a plan before starting the takeoff roll. Brief that plan
i. The Air Force and airlines will brief every departure. The brief reviews the standard procedures, expected
procedures and actions, as well as intentions in the case of an emergency during takeoff
B. Sample Structure
i. Prior to rotate speed, plan to keep the aircraft on the ground (assuming the runway length allows this)
ii. From rotation to a certain point (runway length allowing) you may be able to land on the remaining runway
in the case of an engine failure. After this point, it will be unfeasible to land on the runway.
a. Use the distance remaining signs along the runway edges to know when it is too late to return

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iii. Brief an altitude at and above which, you will turn around to return to the airport for landing
iv. Between the point at which you can no longer land on the remaining runway (a) and the point at which you
have the altitude to return to the airport (b) you will have to land on the most suitable surface outside of the
airport
C. See the sample briefing in V.F. Before Takeoff Check
7. Rejected Takeoff
A. Circumstances such as engine malfunctions, inadequate acceleration, runways incursion, ATC conflict, or
another emergency can result in a takeoff having to be rejected on the runway
B. Rejected Takeoff Procedures
i. Follow procedures specified in the POH
ii. Generally, power idle, and apply maximum braking while maintaining directional control
C. If required to shut down the engine due to a fire, or any other reason
a. Mixture to the idle cutoff position
b. Magnetos off
8. Engine Failure
A. Time is of the essence
i. There may only be a few seconds to decide on a course of action and execute on it
ii. Unless prepared in advance, there is a strong chance the pilot makes a poor decision or no decision
a. “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
b. Practice, Plan, then Brief the plan
B. Procedures
i. Step one, Maintain aircraft control
ii. During the takeoff roll
a. Reject the takeoff and stop straight ahead
iii. Immediately following takeoff
a. If there is sufficient runway available straight ahead, land on the remaining runway
b. Ensure you know how much runway you need (descent + landing distance)
iv. During the takeoff climb
a. Aircraft will have full power, a high pitch attitude and right rudder
b. When the engine fails, immediately lower the nose (best glide) and release the right rudder
 If the engine doesn’t totally fail, some right rudder may be necessary for coordination
c. Once in control of the aircraft, establish a controlled glide toward a plausible landing area
 Continue with engine failure procedures
d. Time and altitude permitting:
 Notify ATC
 Accomplish applicable checklists
 Attempt a restart
9. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
A. When to Go-Around
i. When it’s hazardous to continue
ii. If you’re ever in doubt of the safety of the approach
iii. Ex: ATC requirements, hazards on the runway, overtaking another airplane, weather/wind shear, wake
turbulence, mechanical failures, unstable approach, etc.
B. A go-around is not inherently dangerous, but becomes dangerous when delayed or flown improperly
i. Delaying often stems from two sources:
 Landing expectancy: A belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are and the approach will
end with a safe landing

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 Pride: The mistaken belief that a go around is an admission of failure

 Understand these conditions and don’t let them influence your decision to go around
b. Proper execution: Power, Attitude, Configuration
ii. Maintain a stabilized approach
a. Momentary deviations from speed, glidepath and centerline are acceptable
b. Set altitude gates
 If you don’t meet set criteria at specified altitudes, go-around (no questions asked)
 Ex. Stable and configured for landing at 500’
iii. Decision Making
a. In an emergency, you may have to choose between a go around or continuing to land
b. Go Around
 There are situations that can be better handled airborne than on the ground
a Ex: landing gear problems. Go around and attempt to solve the problem airborne
c. Continue to Land
 There are situations that can be better handled by landing instead of going around
a For example, emergencies that can affect the airplane’s ability to fly
b Ex: A fire or a rough running engine at 500’
d. This is a very basic, surface level discussion as to whether go around or continue to land. These
emergencies are aircraft and situation dependent and depend on the pilot’s discretion
e. Hindsight is 20/20. Learn from NTSB accident reports, and consider how they were handled
10. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
A. Basics
i. Operations that include landing and holding short of an intersecting runway, taxiway, or other designated
point
a. Balances the need for increased capacity and efficiency
ii. When LAHSO operations are in effect, ATC can clear the pilot to land and hold short
B. Pilot Responsibilities
i. Preflight Planning
a. Become familiar with all LAHSO information at the destination
b. Landing performance – knowledge of landing data allows for a quick decision
ii. PIC has the final authority to accept or decline any LAHSO clearance
a. Pilots may accept a LAHSO clearance provided you can safely stop in the available landing distance
b. Once accepted, a LAHSO clearance must be adhered to, unless otherwise coordinated
 Does not prevent a rejected landing
c. Inform ATC if you decide to decline LAHSO (preferably before the clearance is issued)
iii. Full readback of LAHSO clearance is required
C. Situational Awareness
i. Have current airport information (diagram, LAHSO procedures, etc.)
ii. Understand airport markings, signs, and lighting, especially that associated with LAHSO
a. Yellow hold short markings, red and white signage, In-pavement lighting
b. Not all airports will have these markings
iii. To conduct LAHSO operations properly, understand the following:
a. Landing distance available
b. Be advised by ATC as to why LAHSO are being conducted
c. Advise if you cannot accept LAHSO
d. Know what signs and markings are at the LAHSO point
e. LAHSO are not authorized for student pilots who are performing a solo flight

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f. At many airports, air carriers are not authorized LAHSO if the other aircraft is general aviation
g. Generally, LAHSO are not authorized at night
h. LAHSO are not authorized on wet runways
iv. LAHSO Minimums
a. Basic VFR: 1,000’ ceiling & 3 statute mile visibility

11. Wind Shear and Wake Turbulence

A. Wind Shear
i. What is it?
a. A sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a very small area
b. Can occur at any altitude; low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to proximity to the ground
 Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing frontal systems, thunderstorms,
temperature inversions, and strong upper-level winds (greater than 25 knots)
ii. Why is it dangerous?
a. Can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts & downdrafts, and abrupt changes to horizontal movement
b. It can rapidly change the performance of the aircraft and disrupt the normal flight attitude, for example:
 A tailwind can quickly change to a headwind causing an increase in airspeed and performance
 A headwind can quickly change to a tailwind causing a decrease in airspeed and performance
c. Microbursts
 The most severe type of wind shear
 Associated with convective precipitation into dry air at cloud base
 Typical Microburst
a Horizontal diameter of 1-2 miles, depth of 1,000’
b Lifespan of 5-15 minutes
c Downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute
d Headwind losses of 30-90 knots (seriously degraded performance)
e Strong turbulence and hazardous wind direction changes
 Takeoff through a Microburst

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a Aircraft will first experience a performance-increasing headwind

b Followed by performance-decreasing downdrafts
c Followed by a rapidly increasing tailwind
1. Can result in terrain impact or flight dangerously close to the ground
d An encounter on approach involves the same events and could force the plane to the ground
 Indications
a Visual: Intense rain shaft at the surface, but virga at cloud base, ring of blowing dust
b Alerting Systems
1. The FAA has invested in substantial microburst accident prevention
2. LLWAS-NE, TDWR, and ASR-9 WSP systems installed at major airports
a. Very few false alerts, and detects well above 90% detection rate requirement
3. Many airports, especially smaller airports, have no wind shear systems
a. Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
i. Includes information on how to recognize the risk of a microburst encounter, how to
avoid an encounter, and the best strategy for escape
iii. Handling Wind Shear
a. If at all possible, avoid it
 Never conduct traffic pattern operations near an active thunderstorm
a Be alert for visual cues and any alerting systems and do not takeoff if wind shear is in the area
 LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System), if available, can warn of impending wind shear
 PIREPS can be very informational/helpful if a pilot has reported wind shear in the area
b. Approach into Wind Shear
 Follow POH procedures. If none, general wind shear techniques include:
a Higher power and a faster airspeed during approach
1. Add ½ the gust factor to the approach speed
b Stay as high as feasible until necessary to descend (altitude is your friend)
c Go around at the first sign of an unexpected pitch or airspeed change
1. FULL power and get the airplane climbing
2. If still descending, ensure max power, and increase pitch as far as possible without stalling
a. Intent is to keep the plane flying as long as possible in hope of exiting the shear
B. Wake Turbulence
i. What is it?
a. Wake turbulence, or wingtip vortices, are the byproduct of lift
 Difference between the high pressure below the wing and low pressure above the wing causes the
air to move outward, upward and around the wingtips
a Results in two counter rotating cylindrical vortices extending off the wingtips
b. All aircraft generate wake turbulence during flight
 Generally, the larger the aircraft, the stronger the vortices
 Strength can vary
a Strongest when the pressure differential is the greatest - when heavy, clean, and/or slow
b Turbulence from a “dirty” configuration accelerates the decay of the wake turbulence
ii. Why is it dangerous?
a. The rolling moments caused by the
wake turbulence of a larger aircraft
can exceed control authority
b. Potential for to damage aircraft
components and equipment

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VII. RM Concepts

c. Possible in any phase of flight

 Although usually strongest during in all phases of flight
ii. Vortex Behavior
a. Vortices are generated from the moment an aircraft leaves the ground, until it touches down
b. Remain a bit less than a wingspan apart, drifting with the wind, at altitudes greater than a wingspan
above the ground
c. Sink at a rate of several hundred feet per minute, slowing descent and diminishing in strength over time
 When large aircraft vortices sink to the ground (100-200’), they tend to move laterally at 2-3 knots
 Crosswinds decrease lateral movement of the upwind vortex & increase movement of the
downwind vortex
 Light quartering tailwind produces the worst scenario
a Wake vortices can sit along a significant portion of the final approach

iii. Avoidance Procedures

a. Landing behind a large aircraft:
 On the same runway
a Stay at or above their approach path and land beyond their touchdown point (Figure A)
 On a parallel runway (< 2,500’ away)
a Consider the possibility of drift, stay at or above their flight path, note touchdown point (Figure
B)
 On a crossing runway
a Cross above their flight path (Figure C)
 Departing on the same runway
a Land prior to their rotation point
 Departing a crossing runway: Note their rotation point, if that point is past the intersection, land
prior to the intersection
a If they rotate prior to the intersection, avoid flight below its flight path
b Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured well before reaching the intersection
 Executing a low approach, missed approach, or touch-and-go
a Wait at least 2 minutes prior to a landing or takeoff

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VII. RM Concepts

b Vortex hazard may exist along

the runway/in the flight path,
particularly in a quartering
tailwind
b. Departing after a large aircraft
 On the same runway
a Rotate prior to their rotation
point and climb above their
climb path until turning clear
 Executing a low approach, missed
approach, or touch-and-go
a Wait at least 2 minutes prior to
a landing or takeoff
b Vortex hazard may exist along
the runway/in the flight path,
particularly in a quartering
tailwind
c. Intersection takeoffs on the same
runway
 Be alert to adjacent large aircraft
operations, particularly upwind of
the runway of intended use
 Avoid headings that cross below the
larger aircraft’s path
12. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
ii. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
iii. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)

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VII. RM Concepts

a. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to
persons or property on the surface
b. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
c. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely
populated areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure
iv. Clearing Procedures
a. Before Takeoff: Scan the runway and final approach for other traffic
b. Climbing: Execute gentle banks to allow scanning above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
v. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
B. Terrain
i. Be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard during the climb or descent into the airfield
a. Study terminal charts and IFR & VFR chart altitudes to determine safe altitudes
b. Use maximum elevation figures (MEFs) and other data
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Many structures can significantly affect safety when below 500’ AGL and particularly below 200’ AGL
a. Become familiar with any obstacles nearby airports
b. Obstacles can be found in the NOTAMs, and the Terminal Procedures (IFR document)
 Lighting outages can be found in NOTAMs
c. < 200’ AGL are unmarked/lighted power lines, antenna towers, etc.
ii. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
iii. Overhead Wires
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
b. May not be lighted
D. Scan vigilantly during taxi for aircraft and obstacles
i. Ensure proper clearance
a. If unsure of clearance, stop until you’re sure it is safe to pass
ii. If necessary, radio ground to inform them of your intentions or ask for assistance
E. Vehicles, Persons, Wildlife, etc.
i. Be alert for anyone/anything that may cause a hazard
a. Often times the ATIS/NOTAMs will inform of potential vehicles/persons working around the airport
b. Wildlife is common around many airports.
ii. Reject the takeoff or delay takeoff, if required
13. Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. Distractions
i. Distractions can be dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit

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a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, especially in the traffic pattern
a. Lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
b. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
c. If SA or orientation is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position (if landing, go around; if disoriented, trust the instruments and get to a safe
attitude/altitude) and then solve the problem
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize them based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Safety is the number one priority
a. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
14. Low Altitude Maneuvering
A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
i. There is considerably less time to handle any issues at a low altitude
ii. Avoid distractions, maintain situational awareness, and fly precisely
B. Be aware of, and avoid obstructions on and around the airfield
i. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. Keep airspeed in your crosscheck, especially at the lower speeds associated with takeoff and landing
c. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction

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VII. RM Concepts

 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)

 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again
d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes to preventing CFIT include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to
safely operate the aircraft throughout its entire operating range
b. How the flight is planned and handled largely determines the safety of the flight
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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VIII. Fundamentals of Flight
VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop the ability to maintain straight-and-level flight primarily using
outside visual references. The student should be able to reference the instruments inside the
airplane to ensure straight-and-level flight is continued. The ability to effectively trim the
airplane for straight-and-level flight should also be developed.

Key Elements 1. Control Pressures

2. Outside 90%, Inside 10%
3. Trim the airplane

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Control Pressures
3. Trim Technique
4. Integrated Flight Instruction
5. Straight and Level Flight
6. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to make adjustments to keep the aircraft in straight-and-level
Standards flight. They can also relieve the control pressures by trimming the aircraft and provides light,
positive, proactive control pressures when aircraft attitude needs to be corrected.
 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Straight and level flight. As simple as it may sound, it’s the foundation for all maneuvers and where you’ll spend the
large majority of any flight (outside of training).

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Flight in which a constant heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished by making immediate and
measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs

Why
It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight-and-level. All
other flight maneuvers are in essence a deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver. It is not uncommon to find
a pilot whose basic flying ability consistently falls just short of minimum expected standards, and upon analyzing the
reasons for the shortcomings we discover that the cause is the inability to fly straight and level properly.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. Axis of Rotation
i. Pitch - Lateral Axis
ii. Roll - Longitudinal Axis
iii. Yaw - Vertical Axis
B. Pitch
i. Controlled by the elevators
a. Back pressure
 Deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up
a Decreases the camber of the elevator and creates a downward aerodynamic force
 Overall Effect
a Causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch up
b Pitching moment occurs about the CG
1. Strength of pitching moment depends on distance between CG and horizontal tail surface
b. Forward pressure
 Deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface down
a Increases the camber, creating more lift (less tail down force)
 Overall Effect
a Causes the tail to move upward and pitches the moment down
b The pitching moment occurs around the CG
C. Roll
i. Controlled by the ailerons
a. Controls to the right
 Right aileron deflects up, decreasing the camber, resulting in decreased lift on the right wing
 Left aileron deflects down, increasing the camber, resulting in increased lift on the left wing

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a The increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the airplane to
roll to the right
b. Controls to the left
 Left aileron deflects up, decreasing the camber, resulting in decreased lift on the left wing
 Right aileron deflects down, increasing the camber, resulting in increased lift on the right wing
a The increased lift on the right wing and the decreased lift on the left wing causes the airplane to
roll to the left
D. Yaw
i. Controlled by the rudders
ii. When the rudder is deflected in one direction, a horizontal force is produced in the opposite direction
a. Pushing the left pedal yaws the nose of the plane to the left
 The rudder deflects to the left and produces a sideward lift to the right
 The rudder moves left, the sideward lift moves the tail to the right, and the nose yaws left
b. Pushing the right pedal yaws the nose of the plane to the right
 The rudder deflects to the right and produces a sideward lift to the left
 The rudder moves right, the sideward lift moves the tail to the left, and the nose yaws to the right
2. Control Pressures
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls
i. Only grip with the fingertips
B. The control forces desired should be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
 Small movements are much easier to control
b. Large, jerky movements lead to large pitch, bank, airspeed changes, and chasing the desired attitude
c. Technique: Pay attention to the steering wheel corrections used to maintain a lane on the freeway
 Replicate this in the plane to – very small, smooth, and controlled pressures
ii. The student should follow along with the instructor during the maneuver to feel the control pressures being
used to maintain straight-and-level flight
a. Demonstrates that little control movements are necessary
b. The student becomes more confident through the procedures
c. Show the student, then let the student fly
 Continue to make corrections as necessary
C. Overcoming Tenseness/Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Control movements rather than control pressures
 Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
 White knuckles (look for the death grip)
 Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out the over-controlling and demonstrate the correct light, fingertip grip and the pressures desired
b. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and under
the index and pointer finger of the hand the student uses to fly
 If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on his middle/ring finger will remind them
to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
3. Trim Technique
A. Most planes are designed so that the primary flight controls (rudder, aileron, elevator) are streamlined with the
non-movable airplane surfaces when the airplane is cruising straight and level at normal weight and loading

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

i. Outside of that balanced condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, etc.), one or more of the control surfaces
is going to have to be held out of its streamlined position by continuous control input
a. Trim tabs/control surfaces offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
ii. Proper trim is an indication of good piloting skills, and should allow the pilot to fly almost hands free
 Any control forces felt should be a result of deliberate flight control inputs
iii. An improperly trimmed aircraft:
a. Requires constant flight control pressures
b. Produces tension and fatigue
c. Distracts the pilot from visual scanning
d. Contributes to abrupt and erratic airplane control inputs
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Steps
a. Set the power
b. Set the pitch
c. Let the airspeed stabilize
d. Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
ii. Method
a. Using the primary flight controls, establish and hold the desired attitude
 Establish with reference to the horizon and verify by reference to the flight instruments
b. Apply trim to relieve the control pressure
 Most GA aircraft only have elevator trim, although some also have rudder and aileron trim
a With multiple trim tabs, trim the rudder, then elevator, then aileron
c. If power changes, the attitude for level flight will change, and the aircraft will have to be re-trimmed
 On a longer flight, as the CG changes with decreasing fuel, small adjustments have to be made to
maintain proper trim
iii. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
 Establish the desired attitude, then trim the aircraft (establish first, trim second)
 Do not trim to establish the desired attitude (trim first, establish second)
b. There is no such thing as the perfect trim – with changing air, gusts, turbulence, fuel burn, etc. the
airplane will have to be trimmed often
 Consistently make small adjustments to remain trimmed for level flight
4. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Use of outside references and instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes and airplane performance
i. Students who learn this way achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability
ii. The pilot should become familiar with the relationship between outside visual references and the
corresponding instrument indications
a. Ex: A pitch adjustment may require a movement of several inches in relation to the natural horizon, but
a seemingly insignificant movement on the attitude indicator
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
a. At least 90% of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references and scanning for
other traffic
ii. Validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments display that the airplane’s performance needs a correction, determine the correction
and then apply it with reference to the natural horizon
b. The airplane’s attitude and performance are then rechecked by referring to the flight instruments

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

c. Then maintain the corrected attitude by reference to the natural horizon

iii. Quick snap shots of the instruments
a. No more than 10% of the pilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit
b. The pilot must learn to focus quickly on the appropriate flight instruments and then return immediately
to the outside visual references
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
i. Ensure the student understands how to use visual and instrument references together to interpret the
aircraft’s attitude
ii. Fixation and making pitch/bank corrections while looking inside are common problems for new pilots
iii. If necessary, cover the instruments for the first several hours to prevent fixation/reliance on the instruments
5. Straight and Level Flight
A. Overview
i. Straight and level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship
of a reference point on the airplane in relation to the natural horizon
a. Vertical reference lines are best established on the ground
b. Horizontal reference lines are best established in flight
c. Ensure the pilot is properly seated to maintain and establish the
reference points
ii. The objective is to detect small deviations from level flight as soon as
they occur, necessitating only small corrections
B. Level Flight
i. Consciously fixing the relationship of the position of a portion of the
airplane (toward the nose), used as a reference point, with the horizon
a. Want to learn to associate the movement of references with the
forces which produce it
 Develops the ability to control the desired change in attitude
ii. Pitch (Constant Altitude)
a. Outside
 Select a portion of the nose or glare shield as a reference point
and keep it in a fixed position relative to the horizon
b. Inside
 To determine whether the pitch attitude is correct, occasionally
crosscheck outside reference (90% outside, 10% inside) against:
a The altimeter: To check actual altitude
b The attitude indicator : To show the position of the nose in
relation to the horizon
c VSI: To show any trends forming
d Airspeed Indicator
1. Faster airspeed = Descending
2. Slower airspeed = Climbing
c. Corrections (Control Procedure)
 If altitude is being lost or gained, the pitch attitude should be
readjusted in relation to the horizon, then the altimeter should
be checked to determine altitude is being maintained
 Elevators are the control
a Forward or back elevator pressure is used to control the pitch attitude
1. Increasing pitch attitude (back pressure) raises the nose in relation to the horizon
2. Decreasing pitch attitude (forward pressure) lowers the nose in relation to the horizon

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

 Note the relationship between control pressure and the airplane’s change in attitude
a Use small, smooth controlled movements to maintain level flight
C. Straight Flight
i. As with level flight, straight flight is
accomplished by maintaining a visual
reference. Rather than using the nose,
for straight flight we use the position
of the wings relative to the horizon
ii. Bank (Constant Heading)
a. Outside
 Both wingtips should be level
and equally above or below
the horizon (high wing versus
low wing)
 Select two or more visual
reference points directly
ahead of the plane (roads, towns, lakes, towers, etc.)
a Form an imaginary line between them and keep the airplane headed along that line
1. If the points move out of alignment, make the necessary corrections to realign the airplane
b Like the site on a gun
1. Line up the ‘V’ with the point at the end of the barrel
b. Inside
 To determine whether bank attitude is correct, outside references should be cross checked against:
a The heading indicator: To determine that the desired heading is maintained
b The attitude indicator: To ensure the wings are level
c Turn Coordinator: To ensure coordination and that the aircraft is not unintentionally in a turn
d Magnetic Compass: To ensure desired heading is maintained & the heading indicator is correct
 CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a It is possible to maintain straight flight by exerting ailerons or rudder independently, however
this practice is not correct and makes precise control difficult
b The correct bank control movement requires the coordinated use of ailerons and rudder
c. Corrections (Control Procedure)
 If the airplane is banking in one direction or the other, the bank should be readjusted to put both
wings an equal distance from the horizon
 Ailerons are the control
a Right aileron pressure (turns right) results in the left wing raising and right wing lowering
b Left aileron pressure (turns left) results in the right wing raising and the left wing lowering
 Note the relationship between control pressure and the airplane’s change in attitude
 As mentioned in level flight, use small, smooth controlled movements
D. Power
i. The airplane’s airspeed remains constant in straight and level flight if the power setting is also constant
ii. Outside
a. Changes in power settings, and/or airspeed will require changes in pitch attitude to maintain altitude
iii. Inside
a. Cross check changes in airspeed with the Engine RPM and/or manifold pressure gauges
 Increased power will result in a climb if no changes are made to the pitch attitude
 Decreased power will result in a descent if no pitch changes are made to the pitch attitude

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

iv. Corrections (Control Procedure)

a. As power is increased or decreased pitch attitude must be adjusted
 As power is increased, and airspeed increases, progressively decrease pitch to maintain altitude
a When acceleration ceases, and the plane is level, note the new horizon reference
 If power is decreased, and airspeed decreases, progressively increase pitch to maintain altitude
a Once deceleration ceases, and the plane is level, note the new horizon reference

6. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Faulty trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Level flight is maintained with pitch. We monitor pitch by keeping the reference point off the nose of the plane in the
same place on the horizon and referencing the altimeter and attitude indicator. Straight flight is maintained through roll.
We monitor bank by keeping an equal distance above (or below) each wing and the horizon, as well as maintaining a
straight line between two points directly in front of the airplane. These visual references are cross checked with the
heading indicator and attitude indicator. Trim is essential in relieving the control pressures necessary to maintain level
flight. Trim frequently and in small amounts to maintain straight and level flight.

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VIII.B. Level Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to establishing and
maintaining a level turn.

Key Elements 1. Increased Back Pressure (HCL/VCL)

2. Coordination (Adverse Yaw)
3. Control Pressures

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. How the Turn Works
3. Control Pressures
4. Trim Technique
5. Integrated Flight Instruction
6. Level Turns
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to turn at varying degrees of bank, maintaining altitude and
Standards airspeed.
VIII.B. Level Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Level turns sound boring and simple, but there is a lot more to turning than you might think, and a strong grasp on
this will make many other maneuvers considerably easier.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A level turn is a turn at a specified angle of bank in which altitude and airspeed are maintained.

Why
The ability to understand and fly a level turn is essential to the building of every pilot’s skill set. Level turns are the
building blocks to many more difficult maneuvers and will help the pilot in his or her control of the airplane.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. How the Turn Works
A. Changing the direction of the wing’s lift to either side causes the airplane to be pulled that direction
i. This is done by applying coordinated aileron and rudder to bank the airplane
B. Lift
i. In straight and level flight, the total lift is acting perpendicular to the wings and the Earth
a. As the plane is banked, lift becomes the resultant of two components:
 Vertical Component (VC) - Continues to act perpendicular to Earth and opposes gravity, or weight
 Horizontal Component (HC) - Acts parallel to Earth’s surface, opposes inertia (or Centrifugal Force)
b. The vertical and horizontal components act at right angles to each other (shown in the picture below);
total lift acts perpendicular to the banked wings
 The horizontal component of lift is what actually turns the airplane

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ii. Since a portion of vertical lift has been shifted to horizontal lift, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
a. Total lift must be increased to compensate for decreased vertical lift
b. Total lift is perpendicular to the banked wings
C. Adverse Yaw
i. When ailerons are deflected, lift and drag are increased on
the rising wing, and decreased on the lowering wing
a. Aileron on the rising wing deflects down producing more
lift and therefore more induced drag
ii. The change in drag between the wings results in yaw in the
opposite the direction of the turn (adverse yaw)
iii. To counter adverse yaw, rudder pressure is applied
simultaneously with aileron in the direction of the turn
D. Overbanking Tendency
i. As turn radius gets smaller, a significant difference develops
between the speed of the inside wing and the outside wing
a. The wing on the outside travels a longer path than the
inside wing in the same amount of time
 Outside wing is faster & therefore develops more lift
 The difference in lift between wings increases bank
b. Shallow bank: Difference in lift between the wings is
generally overcome by the inherent lateral stability
 Tendency to roll back to wings level unless the aileron
is held in the direction of the turn
c. Medium bank: The lift differential generally matches the
plane’s inherent lateral stability characteristics
 Aileron can be left neutral, bank will remain constant
d. High bank (usually > 45o): Difference in lift between the
wings outweighs inherent lateral stability
 Opposite aileron is required to maintain bank
E. Rate of Turn
i. The rate of turn is dependent on airspeed and the horizontal component of lift (bank angle)
a. Horizontal Component of Lift (bank angle)
 The rate of turn at a given airspeed is dependent on the horizontal component of lift
a The horizontal component of lift varies in proportion to the amount of bank
1. As bank angle increases, the horizontal component of lift increases
2. Therefore, the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the rate of turn
b. Airspeed
 As airspeed increases, the aircraft’s rate of turn decreases due to inertia
a The higher the airspeed of an aircraft, the greater the inertia
1. The greater the inertia, the more the aircraft desires to continue straight ahead and
therefore the slower the rate of turn
b At a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed will decrease rate of turn and increase radius
F. Coordination
i. The ball in the turn and slip indicator will be displaced whenever the airplane is skidding or slipping
ii. In proper coordinated flight, there is no skidding or slipping
iii. Step on the ball to center it and maintain coordinated flight
a. Adverse yaw must be compensated for with rudder in the direction of the turn

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b. Anticipate and add rudder pressure with aileron

iv. Uncoordinated flight results in decreased performance (excess drag)
a. Reduces airspeed, climb ability, etc.
3. Control Pressures
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls
i. Only grip with the fingertips
B. The control forces desired should be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
 Small movements are much easier to control
b. Large, jerky movements lead to large changes in pitch, bank, airspeed, etc., which leads to the pilot
chasing the desired attitude
c. Next time you drive, pay attention to the steering corrections used to maintain your lane on the freeway
 Replicate this in the airplane – very small, smooth, and controlled pressures
ii. Student should follow along during the maneuver to feel the control pressures used to maintain a level turn
a. Demonstrate that small control movements are sufficient and necessary for smooth/controlled flight
b. Student becomes more confident through the procedures
c. Demo/Do: Show the student, then let the student fly
 Continue to make corrections as necessary
C. Overcoming Tenseness/Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Control movements rather than control pressures
 Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
 White knuckles (look for the death grip)
 Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out the over-controlling and demonstrate the correct light, fingertip grip and the pressures desired
b. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and under
the index and pointer finger of the hand the student uses to fly
 If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on his middle/ring finger will remind
him/her to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
4. Trim Technique
A. Most airplanes are designed so that the primary flight controls (rudder, aileron, elevator) are streamlined with
the non-movable surfaces when the airplane is cruising straight-and-level, while at normal weight and loading
i. If the airplane is out of the balanced condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, etc.), one or more of the
control surfaces is going to have to be held out of its streamlined position by continuous control input
a. Trim tabs/control surfaces offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
b. Proper trimming is an indication of good piloting skills, and should allow almost hands free flight
 Any control forces felt should be from deliberate control inputs, not forces applied by the airplane
c. An improperly trimmed aircraft requires constant control pressures from the pilot, produces tension and
fatigue, distracts from visual scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic control inputs
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
iii. Let the airspeed stabilize
iv. Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
a. Method

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
Establish and hold the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary flight controls
a Established with reference to the horizon and verify by reference to the flight instruments
 Trim to relieve the control pressure
a Most GA aircraft only have elevator trim, although some also have rudder and aileron trim
1. With multiple trim tabs, trim the rudder first, then elevator, then aileron
 If power changes, pitch will change, and the aircraft will have to be re-trimmed
a On longer flights, as the CG changes with decreasing fuel, trim will have to be adjusted
v. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
 Establish the desired attitude, then trim the aircraft (establish first, trim second)
b. With changing air, gusts, turbulence, fuel burn, etc. the airplane will have to be trimmed often
 Consistently make small adjustments to remain trimmed for level flight
5. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Use of outside references and instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes and airplane performance
i. Students who learn this way achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability
ii. Teaches the relationship between outside visual references and the corresponding instrument indications
B. Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
a. At least 90% of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references & scanning for traffic
ii. Validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments do not indicate the desired performance, determine the necessary correction and
apply it with reference to the natural horizon
b. Verify the correction(s) had the desired effect by referring to the flight instruments
c. Maintain the corrected attitude by reference to the natural horizon
iii. Quick snap shots of the instruments
a. No more than 10% of the pilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit
b. Focus quickly on the appropriate instruments and then return to the outside visual references
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
i. Use visual and instrument references together to interpret the aircraft’s attitude
ii. Fixation, and making pitch/bank corrections while looking inside are common problems for new pilots
iii. If necessary, cover the instruments for the first several hours to prevent fixation/reliance on the instruments
6. Level Turns
A. Before turning, clear the area in the direction of the turn and complete the pre-maneuver checklist
B. Entering the Turn, Establishing the Bank Angle
i. Outside References
a. On most light single-engine airplanes, the top of the engine cowling is fairly flat, and its horizontal
surface relative to the natural horizon provides a good indication for setting bank and pitch
 The wings can also be used as a reference
 Use the position of the cowling and/or wings on the horizon as your attitude indicator to establish
the turn, then crosscheck with the instruments
 With experience you will learn to associate the outside references with the required bank and pitch

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b. Parallax Error
 The airplane rolls on the longitudinal axis
 With side-by-side seating, each pilot sits to one side of the longitudinal axis
 In the left seat, this results in the nose appearing to rise in a left turn (due to the pilot lowering in
relation to the longitudinal axis) and appearing to descend in a right turn (due to the pilot rising)
a Vice-versa for the pilot in the right seat

c. The pilot may lean away from the turn to remain in an upright position in relation to the horizon
 This should be avoided and corrected immediately to properly use visual references
ii. Control Inputs
a. Aileron and rudder pressure should be input together
 Use small, smooth flight control inputs
a Provides time to evaluate and adjust to the changing attitude
b The faster and more firmly the aileron is applied, the faster the roll
c The longer the aileron pressure is held, the greater the bank angle
d CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Maintain Coordination
a Done properly, the nose should rotate on the horizon without leading or lagging the bank
b The ball of the turn coordinator should remain centered
c CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
1. “Step on the ball” to center it
2. If the nose starts to move before the bank starts, rudder is being applied too early
3. If bank starts before the nose starts turning, or the nose moves in the opposite direction,
the rudder is being applied too late
b. Elevator Pressure
 As roll is established, and vertical lift is reduced, gently increase back pressure to hold level flight
a The smaller the bank, the less elevator back pressure required, and vice-versa

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b When &how much back pressure to apply varies by aircraft, roll speed, weight, altitude, etc.
1. Become familiar with the visual pitch references at different bank angles, and develop a feel
for when the pitch input is required in the turn
 If desired, trim to maintain hands free level flight, and reduce pilot workload
c. Power
 As lift is increased to maintain altitude in the turn, drag is also increased, reducing airspeed
a Usually not significant for small bank angles
 Increase power to maintain the desired airspeed
a Generally necessary above 30o of bank
iii. Crosscheck – 90% outside, 10% inside
a. Establish the turn with outside references
 Bank – Angle of the engine cowling and/or wings relative to the horizon
 Pitch – Height of the engine cowling or another point on the aircraft relative to the horizon
b. Crosscheck with the instruments
 Attitude indicator – Verify desired bank angle and pitch attitude
 Turn Coordinator – Coordinated flight
 Attitude Indicator – Should show level flight
 Vertical Speed Indicator – Should show zero climb. Check for trends
 Heading Indicator – Turning at a normal rate toward the desired heading
 Airspeed Indicator – Check for proper airspeed
C. In the Turn
i. Reference the natural horizon, scan for traffic, and occasionally crosscheck the instruments
ii. Outside References
a. Maintain the relationship between the cowling and/or wings and horizon, while scanning for traffic
iii. Control Inputs
a. Aileron and Rudder (Maintaining Bank)
 Low bank: Maintain aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the turn
 Medium bank: The pilot can relax the controls
 High bank: Apply opposite aileron and rudder to maintain bank and prevent it from steepening
 Adjust as required using smooth, and controlled pressures throughout the turn
 CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
a Keep the turn coordinator in your crosscheck and the ball centered
b. Elevator Pressure (Maintaining Altitude)
 Back pressure on the elevator should not be relaxed
a The vertical component of lift must be maintained if altitude is to be maintained
 Adjust trim to maintain hands free level flight
c. Power (Maintaining Airspeed)
 If properly set when the turn was established, the power should remain the same through the turn
 If the airspeed has increased/decreased 3-5 knots, adjust the power
iv. Crosscheck and Adjust – 90% outside, 10% inside
a. Same as above - backup the outside references with the instruments and ensure bank, altitude,
coordination and airspeed are maintained
b. Adjustments
 If bank angle is too high or low, use the ailerons to correct it
a Adjust rudder to maintain coordination
 If climbing/descending, adjust pitch in relation to the horizon, then check the altimeter/VSI
a Once the proper attitude is verified, maintain it with visual references

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 Trim the airplane

c. CE: Faulty attitude and bank control
 Use smooth controlled, pressures to make small adjustments
 Understand the relationship between bank and pitch
a Increased bank necessitates increased pitch to maintain altitude
b Decreased bank requires less pitch to maintain altitude
d. CE: Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Become familiar with the visual references associated with your aircraft
 Maintain 90% outside, 10% inside
 Understand what the instruments mean and what corrections are required based on the indications
v. Summary
a. During all turns, the ailerons, rudder and elevator correct minor variations in pitch and bank
D. Roll Out
i. General/Control Inputs
a. Similar to a roll in except control pressures are used in the opposite direction
 Aileron and rudder are applied toward the high wing
b. Since the airplane continues to turn as long as there is any bank, the rollout must be started prior to
reaching the desired heading
 As a rule, lead the rollout by approximately ½ the bank angle (this is a very slow roll out)
a In a 30o bank turn, start the rollout 15o before your desired heading
c. As the bank decreases, elevator pressure should be gently relaxed to maintain altitude
 Horizontal component of lift decreases and the vertical component increases
d. Power should be reduced to maintain airspeed in straight flight
e. As the wings become level, control pressures should be smoothly relaxed so they’re neutralized as the
plane returns to straight-and-level flight
f. Remove trim, if necessary
ii. Outside: The aircraft should be returned to the straight-and-level flight references
iii. Crosscheck – 90% outside, 10% inside
a. Continue to reference the natural horizon, scan for traffic, and crosscheck the flight instruments
7. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Faulty attitude and bank control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
In a level turn, we establish and maintain bank and pitch in relation to the horizon. The airplane’s attitude is confirmed
by referring to flight instruments. If performance, as indicated by flight instruments, requires a correction, we adjust
pitch and bank by visual references and again confirm performance with the instruments. 90% outside, 10% inside.

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning climbs.
The student will demonstrate the ability to perform a constant airspeed climb during straight
flight as well as in a turn. The student will learn the effects of climbs and be able to keep the
airplane coordinated throughout.

Key Elements 1. Increased Thrust

2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Forces in the Climb
3. Types of Climbs
4. Control Pressures
5. Trim Technique
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
7. Straight Climb
8. Climbing Turn
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss Lesson Objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign Homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to maintain a constant airspeed climb while maintaining
Standards coordination and making any necessary adjustments. The student has the ability to notice
changes and properly correct for them by using outside references and crosschecking them
with the instruments.
VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
As simple and boring as a climb sounds, it is part of the basis for your flying future. By understanding and having the
ability to properly and effectively put the airplane into a straight or turning climb you will be able to perform many
future maneuvers much easier.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
In straight and climbing turns the airplane is put into a climb attitude to gain altitude. The pitch and airspeed of the
airplane are maintained together to accomplish the climb.

Why
Climbs and climbing turns are part of the basis for all flying. By developing the skills necessary for basic climbs and
climbing turns the pilot will lay the groundwork for many future maneuvers.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making climbs and climbing turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. Forces in the Climb
A. Forces of Flight
i. Summary
a. In a climb, weight no longer acts perpendicular to the flightpath
 It acts in a rearward direction (pointing toward the center of the Earth)
a This causes an increase in total drag requiring an increase in thrust to balance the forces
b. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag
 Therefore, climb is limited by the available thrust
ii. More Specific
a. In a normal, steady state climb, the wing’s lift is the same as in level flight at the same airspeed
 Although the flight path changed when the climb was established, the AOA of the wing with respect
to the inclined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does lift
b. In the change from straight and level to a climb, lift changes when elevator is first applied
 Raising the nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases lift
 Lift for this moment is greater than weight and the airplane starts climbing
c. Once the flight path is stabilized, AOA and lift revert to approximately level flight values
d. If there is no change in power, airspeed diminishes
 A component of weight acts in the same direction & parallel to drag (1. In the picture)

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

Drag > thrust and speed decreases until drag = thrust (2. in
the picture)
e. Since weight is acting downward & rearward with drag, more
power is needed to maintain speed (the amount of power
required depends on the angle of climb)
 Therefore, the aircraft’s ability to climb is limited by
available, or excess, thrust
 When excess thrust is gone, the climb stops (aircraft’s
absolute ceiling)
B. Propeller Effects
i. In a climb, propeller speed is significantly lower and the AOA is significantly greater than in cruise
a. Torque and asymmetrical loading of the propeller will cause the airplane to roll and yaw left
 Right rudder pedal pressure is necessary to counteract this
3. Types of Climbs
A. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument
indications that produce the following types of climbs:
B. Normal Climb (Cruise Climb)
i. Performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer
a. Usually faster than the best rate of climb, but provides better cooling, control, and visibility
ii. *When we pitch for 75 or 90 knots in the DA20
C. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
i. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
a. Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
 Power is the energy the engine produces
 As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best rate of climb decreases
ii. The best rate of climb speed + maximum power = the aircraft’s maximum climb
a. Attempts to get more climb performance by increasing pitch results in a decreased rate of climb
D. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
i. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
a. Slower than VY
b. Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
 Thrust is what propels the airplane (the displaced air as a result of the spinning propeller)
 As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best angle of climb increases
 Read Thrust vs Power (on medium.com) for a short article breaking down the two terms
c. VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
 Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

4. Control Pressures
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

i. Only grip with the fingertips

B. The control forces desired should be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
 Small movements are much easier to control
b. Large, jerky movements lead to large changes in pitch, bank, airspeed, etc., which leads to the pilot
chasing the desired attitude
c. Next time you drive, pay attention to the steering wheel corrections you use to maintain your lane on
the freeway
 Replicate this in the airplane to maintain the desired flight attitude – very small, smooth, and
controlled pressures
ii. The student should follow along with the instructor during the maneuver to feel the control pressures being
used to maintain straight-and-level flight
a. Demonstrates that little control movements are necessary
b. The student becomes more confident through the procedures
c. Show the student, then let the student fly
 Continue to make corrections as necessary
C. Overcoming Tenseness/Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Control movements rather than control pressures
b. Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
c. White knuckles (look for the death grip)
d. Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out the over-controlling and demonstrate the correct light, fingertip grip and the pressures desired
b. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and under
the index and pointer finger of the hand the student uses to fly
 If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on his middle/ring finger will remind
him/her to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
5. Trim Technique
A. Most planes are designed so the primary flight controls are streamlined with the non-movable surfaces when
cruising straight & level at normal weight / loading
i. If the airplane is out of this balanced condition (faster, heavier, etc.), one or more of the control surfaces is
going to have to be held out of its streamlined position by continuous control input
a. Trim tabs/control surfaces offset the constant flight control pressure needed from the pilot
b. Proper trimming is an indication of good piloting skills, allowing the pilot to fly almost hands free
 Any control forces felt should be deliberate flight control inputs
c. Improper trim requires constant control pressure, produces tension and fatigue, distracts from visual
scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic control inputs
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
iii. Let the airspeed stabilize
iv. Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
a. Method
 Establish and hold the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary flight controls
a Establish with reference to the horizon and verify with the flight instruments

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

 Apply trim to relieve the control pressure

a In airplanes with multiple trim tabs, trim the rudder, then elevator, then aileron
 If power changes, pitch changes, and the aircraft will have to be re-trimmed
a As the CG changes with decreasing fuel, small adjustments may have to be made
v. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
 Establish the desired attitude, then trim the aircraft (establish first, trim second)
 Do not trim to establish the desired attitude (trim first, establish second)
b. There is no such thing as the perfect trim
 With changing air, gusts, turbulence, fuel burn, etc. the plane will have to be trimmed often
 Consistently make small adjustments
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Use of outside references & flight instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes/performance
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
a. At least 90% of attention should be devoted to outside references and scanning for other traffic
ii. Validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments display that the airplane’s performance needs a correction, determine the correction,
and then apply it with reference to the natural horizon
b. Attitude and performance are then rechecked by referring to the flight instruments
c. Maintain the corrected attitude by reference to the natural horizon
iii. Quick snap shots of the instruments
a. No more than 10% of the pilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit
b. Focus quickly on the appropriate instruments and return immediately to the outside visual references
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
i. Ensure the students understands how to use visual and instrument references together
ii. Fixation and pitch/bank corrections while looking inside are common problems for new pilots
a. If necessary, cover the instruments for the first several hours to prevent this
7. Straight Climb
A. Entering the Straight Climb
i. Gently increase back pressure to raise the nose in relation to the horizon, while simultaneously increasing
engine power to the climb power setting, then verify with the instruments
a. As a climb is started, airspeed will gradually diminish if additional power is not provided
 Reduction in speed is gradual because of the initial momentum of the airplane
 As airspeed decreases, pitch tends to lower without increased back elevator pressure
b. In many airplanes, as power is increased, an increase in slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer will
cause the nose to rise (creates a greater tail down force, lifting the nose)
 Anticipate it, don’t let it surprise you. Maintain pitch in relation to the horizon
ii. As power and pitch increase, increase right rudder pressure to counter left turning tendencies
a. More info in lesson II.D. Principles of Flight
b. CE: Improper correction for torque effect
 Be aware of the left turning tendencies and proactively apply right rudder
iii. Use nose-up trim to maintain the climb pitch attitude without having to hold back elevator pressure
B. Maintaining the Straight Climb
i. Since power is fixed at the climb power setting, airspeed is controlled with elevator pressure
a. If the aircraft is too fast, raise the nose, let the airspeed stabilize, and trim
b. If the aircraft is too slow, lower the nose, let the airspeed stabilize, and trim

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c. The amount of elevator pressure/pitch change depends on the required change in speed
 Larger speed changes require larger movements
 Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments
a Attitude Indicator – Should indicate the approximate pitch required for the climb
b Airspeed Indicator – Should indicate the desired climb airspeed
c Heading Indicator – Should maintain the entry heading
d Turn Coordinator – Should be centered indicating a coordinated climb
 90% outside, 10% inside
d. CE: Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside & instrument references
ii. Keep the wings level to maintain the heading
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
b. If off heading, use a bank angle equal to the degrees off to correct back
 Ex: If 10o off heading, use a gentle 10o bank angle to return to the original heading
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Initiate the level off at approximately 10% of the rate of climb
a. Ex: if climbing at 500 fpm, the level off should begin 50’ prior to the desired altitude
ii. Lower the nose smoothly and slowly to allow airspeed to increase
a. A loss of altitude will result if pitch is changed too rapidly without allowing airspeed to increase
iii. Gently lower the nose to the level flight pitch attitude on the horizon while maintaining wings level
a. Crosscheck pitch attitude with the instruments to ensure straight-and-level
iv. Temporarily leave power at the climb setting to accelerate to cruise speed
v. Reaching the desired cruise speed, adjust power to the cruise setting
a. Reduce right rudder pressure as power is reduced and the nose is lowered
 Watch the nose on the horizon to recognize undesired yaw, verify with instruments
vi. Trim for level flight
8. Climbing Turn
A. Factors to Consider in a Climbing Turn vs a Straight Climb:
i. Additional back pressure & power is required to compensate for increased drag & reduced lift
ii. Bank Angle
a. It is most effective to limit the turns to shallow bank angles
 Provides for a more efficient rate of climb
 In medium or steep banked turns, climb performance is degraded, or possibly non-existent
b. At a constant power setting, the plane will climb at a slightly shallower angle when turning versus level
because some of the lift is being used to turn the plane
c. Bank should always remain constant
iii. Adverse Yaw
a. CE: Improper correction for torque effect
b. Adjust rudder to compensate for left turning tendencies and the added adverse yaw
 Left turn: Less right rudder pressure is required than in a straight climb
a Left turning tendencies are somewhat counteracted by adverse yaw pulling right
 Right turn: More right rudder pressure is required than in a straight climb
a Left turning tendencies are amplified by the adverse yaw which is also pulling left
iv. All factors affecting the plane during level turns also affect it during climbing turns
a. The pilot must manage stability, overbanking tendencies, adverse yaw, propeller effects, reduction of
the vertical component of lift, and increased drag
B. Entering the Climbing Turn
i. Climbing turns may be established in one of two ways:

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

a. Enter the climb first and then bank into the turn
b. Simultaneously establish the climb and turn
ii. The procedure
a. In both cases, position the nose and wings in relation to the horizon while increasing power
b. Anticipate and add the right rudder to maintain coordination
c. Crosscheck the attitude with the instruments and correct as required
d. While maintaining the bank and coordination, trim to maintain pitch attitude/climb airspeed
C. Maintaining the Climbing Turn
i. Maintain a constant bank angle and pitch attitude
ii. Combine the level turns and straight climb references
a. Pitch is maintained in relation to the horizon as in a straight climb
 Make adjustments relative to the horizon with the elevators & cross check the instruments
b. Bank is maintained in relation to the angle of the cowling/wings and the horizon
 Crosscheck with the attitude indicator and turn coordinator
 When making changes, adjust bank with visual references, and crosscheck the instruments
c. As pitch or bank are corrected, the other may need adjusted
d. CE: Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside & instrument references
 90% outside, 10% inside
 Constantly scan outside references and verify the desired results on the instruments
iii. Trim often to reduce pilot workload
D. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Opposite of the entry into the climbing turn
ii. Smoothly/slowly lower the nose while rolling wings level to establish the straight-&-level site picture
a. Divide attention between both pitch and bank
b. Attempt to level the nose and wings simultaneously
 Initially it may be easier to break the maneuver into lowering the nose, then rolling out the bank (or
vice versa), in time work to manage both pitch and bank simultaneously
iii. Maintain climb power to accelerate to the cruise airspeed, then reduce the throttle
iv. As the nose is lowered, bank is removed, and power reduced, adjust rudder for coordination
v. Once stabilized, trim for straight-and-level flight
9. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Improper correction for torque effect
 Faulty trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
In a climb, thrust must be increased because weight is acting backward relative to the flight path, resulting in an increase
in drag. To maintain the proper pitch attitude, the nose of the airplane must be held in the same place relative to the
horizon. Adjustments are made by crosschecking the attitude indicator as well as Altimeter and VSI. During a climbing
turn, due to the decreased vertical component of lift, the climb rate will be lower than in a straight climb. It is very
important to keep any climb coordinated using rudder.

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VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning
descents and can maintain a constant airspeed descent in both situations.

Key Elements 1. Decreased Drag

2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Forces in the Descent
3. Types of Descents
4. Control Pressures
5. Trim Technique
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
7. Straight Descents
8. Turning Descents
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present lecture
3. Ask and answer questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the factors related to descents and can properly perform a descent
Standards while in straight or turning flight.
 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Straight and turning descents are the final chapter of the fundamentals of flying. This, along with the other
fundamentals, is what everything else in flying builds upon. Getting these maneuvers right will improve all future
maneuvers.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A descent is made when the aircraft is put in a configuration which will result in a loss of altitude.

Why
Descents are a fundamental part of flight, understanding and being properly performing a descent will result in
everything else being considerably easier.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making climbs and climbing turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. Forces in the Descent
A. In a descent, weight no longer acts perpendicular to the
flightpath (light blue line in the picture)
i. It acts in a forward direction (pointing toward the
center of the earth – #1 In the picture)
a. This effectively adds to thrust (#2 in the picture)
which means a decrease in thrust (or increase in
drag) is required to maintain airspeed in the
descent
 Ignoring drag devices, airspeed will increase if
thrust is not decreased entering a descent
iii. More Specific
a. In a normal, steady state descent the wing’s lift is
the same as in level flight at the same airspeed
 Although the flight path changed when the descent was established, the AOA of the wing with
respect to the declined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does lift
f. Changing from straight-and-level to a descent, changes lift when elevator is first applied
 Lowering the nose decreases the AOA and momentarily decreases lift
 Lift at this moment is less than weight and the airplane starts descending
g. Once the flight path is stabilized, the AOA and lift revert to approximately level flight values

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

h. If the descent is entered with no change in power, airspeed gradually increases

 This is because the forward component of weight effectively adds to thrust
 When declined, a component of weight acts in the same direction & parallel to thrust
a #1 in the picture
b Thrust is greater than drag and airspeed increases until drag = thrust (#2 in the picture)
i. Less power is needed to maintain the same airspeed as in level flight
3. Types of Descents
A. Partial Power Descent
i. The normal method of losing altitude is to descend with partial power
a. Use airspeed and power setting recommended by the manufacturer
ii. Target descent rate should be 500 fpm (this will vary based on aircraft)
B. Descent at Minimum Safe Airspeed
i. Nose-high, power assisted descent primarily used for clearing obstacles on a short field approach
a. Airspeed is usually recommended by the manufacturer and is normally no greater than 1.3 V SO
ii. Characteristics
a. Steeper than normal descent angle
b. Excessive power may be necessary to accelerate should an excessive descent develop
C. Emergency Descent
i. Some airplanes have a specific procedure for rapidly losing altitude in the POH
ii. In general, emergency descents are high drag, high airspeed procedures requiring a specific configuration
and speed, and often involve turns (increase descent and allow for clearing below)
D. Glide
i. A basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no power
a. Descent rate is controlled by balancing the forces of gravity and lift
ii. CE: Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
a. Clear the engine when operating in a power off condition for an extended period of time
4. Control Pressures
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls
i. Only grip with the fingertips
B. The control forces desired should be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
 Small movements are much easier to control
C. Overcoming Tenseness/Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Control movements rather than control pressures
 Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
 White knuckles (look for the death grip)
 Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out over-controlling and demo the correct light, fingertip grip and the pressures desired
b. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and under
the index and pointer finger of the hand the student uses to fly
 If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on his middle/ring finger will remind
him/her to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
5. Trim Technique

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

A. Most planes are designed so the primary flight controls are streamlined with the non-movable surfaces when
cruising straight & level at normal weight / loading
i. If the airplane is out of this balanced condition (faster, heavier, etc.), one or more of the control surfaces is
going to have to be held out of its streamlined position by continuous control input
a. Trim tabs/control surfaces offset the constant flight control pressure needed from the pilot
b. Proper trimming is an indication of good piloting skills, allowing the pilot to fly almost hands free
 Any control forces felt should be deliberate flight control inputs
c. Improper trim requires constant control pressure, produces tension and fatigue, distracts from visual
scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic control inputs
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
iii. Let the airspeed stabilize
iv. Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
a. Method
 Establish and hold the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary flight controls
a Establish with reference to the horizon and verify with the flight instruments
 Apply trim to relieve the control pressure
a Most GA aircraft only have elevator trim, although some also have rudder/aileron trim
1. In airplanes with multiple trim tabs, trim the rudder, then elevator, then aileron
 If power changes, pitch changes, and the aircraft will have to be re-trimmed
a As the CG changes with decreasing fuel, small adjustments may have to be made
v. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
 Establish the desired attitude, then trim the aircraft (establish first, trim second)
 Do not trim to establish the desired attitude (trim first, establish second)
b. There is no such thing as the perfect trim
 With changing air, gusts, turbulence, fuel burn, etc. the plane will have to be trimmed often
 Consistently make small adjustments
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. The use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes and
airplane performance
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
iii. Quick snap shots of the instruments
a. The pilot must learn to focus quickly on the appropriate flight instruments and then return immediately
to the outside visual references
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
i. Ensure the students understands how to use visual and instrument references together to interpret the
aircraft’s attitude
7. Straight Descents
A. Entering the Straight Descent
i. Slow to descent speed
a. Gently decrease the power to the desired setting
b. Maintain altitude until reaching the descent airspeed
 As power is reduced, the nose will have a tendency to fall

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

a As power is decreased, a decrease in the slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer will cause the
nose to fall (reduces the tail down force, lowering the nose)
 Gently increase back pressure to maintain altitude and allow airspeed to decrease toward descent
speed
 The lower the power, the faster speed will decrease – a smooth, controlled power reduction allows
the pilot to maintain altitude easier than a fast, large decrease in power
ii. Establish the descent
a. Just prior to reaching the descent airspeed, relax the back pressure to lower the nose to the
approximate pitch attitude on the horizon for the descent
b. Crosscheck the instruments
 If the airspeed is fast or slow, make a correction in relation to the natural horizon, let the airplane
stabilize, and crosscheck again
iii. Trim the airplane
a. Once stabilized in the descent at the desired speed, trim to relieve the control pressures
b. CE: Faulty trim procedure
B. Maintaining the Descent
i. Throughout the descent, since power is fixed, airspeed is controlled by pitch (with elevator pressure)
a. If airspeed is too fast, raise the nose relative to the horizon, let airspeed stabilize, and trim
b. If too slow, lower the nose relative to the horizon, let airspeed stabilize, and trim
c. The amount of elevator pressure/pitch change will depend on the required change in speed – larger
speed changes require larger movements
 Readjust the pitch to the known pitch attitude on the horizon and make small adjustments from
there to obtain the desired airspeed
d. Once back on airspeed, trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures
e. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Use very small corrections for minor changes in airspeed. Give the airplane time to react to the pitch
change, and then make another correction, if required
ii. Keep the wings level to maintain the straight descent
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
 Use the wings and nose of the airplane in relation to the horizon to maintain straight flight
 Keep two points directly in line with each other in front of the airplane
b. If off heading, use a bank angle equal to the degrees off to correct back
 Ex: If 10o off heading, use a gentle 10o bank angle to return to the original heading
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. With reduced or idle power, the left turning tendencies are greatly reduced and therefore little, if any,
rudder pressure will be required to maintain a straight descent
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during any turns with the turn coordinator
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iv. Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments
a. Attitude Indicator – Should indicate the approximate pitch attitude required for the descent
b. Airspeed Indicator – Should indicate the descent airspeed
c. Heading Indicator – Should maintain the entry heading
d. Turn Coordinator – Should be centered indicating a coordinated descent
e. 90% outside, 10% inside
 Recognize the correction required, apply the correction outside, in relation to the horizon, and verify
the result on the instruments. Trim the airplane for the new pitch attitude
f. CE: Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

C. Returning to Straight-and-Level flight

i. Because of the downward inertia, the level off must be started before reaching the desired altitude
a. A general rule is to lead the level off by 10% of the descent rate
 Ex: If descending at 1,000 fpm, start the level off 100’ prior to the desired altitude
i. At the lead point, smoothly increase power to the cruise power setting, and begin to slowly raise the nose in
relation to the horizon while maintaining wings level
a. Adding power at the lead point allows for a smooth acceleration to cruise speed
b. The nose tends to rise as airspeed and power increase
 Keep an eye on the horizon, and adjust pitch as required for the level off
c. Use smooth, slow and controlled pressures to simultaneously reach the level flight pitch attitude at the
desired level off altitude
ii. Establish the level flight site picture and allow the aircraft to accelerate to cruise speed
iii. Once stable, trim for straight-and-level flight
8. Turning Descents
A. Entering the Turning Descent
i. Descending turns can be established one of two ways:
a. Enter the descent first and then bank into the turn
b. Enter the descent and turn simultaneously
 Establish the desired bank angle with reference to the horizon and attitude indicator
ii. The procedure
a. Very similar to the straight descent
b. Reduce the power and maintain altitude
c. Just prior to reaching the descent airspeed, enter the turning descent in one of the two ways
 Lower the nose to establish the descent airspeed, and then roll into the desired bank
a Establish the pitch and roll in relation to the horizon then crosscheck the instruments
 Lower the nose to establish the descent airspeed while rolling into the desired bank
a Establish in relation to the horizon and then crosscheck the instruments
d. Once at the desired airspeed and bank, note the nose and wings in relation to the horizon and the
position on the attitude indicator
 While maintaining pitch, bank, and coordination, trim to relieve the control pressures
B. Maintaining the Turning Descent
i. Pitch adjustments are made in the same way as in a straight descent
ii. Bank Adjustments
a. Increase or decrease bank as necessary to maintain the desired bank angle
b. Adjusting bank can affect airspeed and pitch will need to be adjusted
 An increase in airspeed requires increased back pressure to maintain airspeed
 A decrease in airspeed requires a decrease in back pressure (forward pressure)
c. Trim to relieve the control pressures
d. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
 As discussed, use smooth, controlled pressures to adjust the pitch and bank
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. Without power the left turning tendencies are greatly reduced
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during the turn using the turn coordinator
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iv. Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments
a. Attitude Indicator – Should indicate the approximate pitch and bank required for the descent
b. Airspeed Indicator – Should indicate the descent airspeed

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

c. Heading Indicator – Should show a turn in the desired direction.

 Note the rate of movement – rapid movement can indicate a higher than desired bank angle
d. Turn Coordinator – Should be centered indicating a coordinated descent
e. 90% outside, 10% inside
 Recognize the correction required, apply the correction outside, in relation to the horizon, and verify
the result on the instruments. Trim the airplane for the new pitch attitude
f. CE: Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Very similar to the straight descent, except with the addition of rolling the wings level
ii. Lead the level off by 10% of the descent rate
iii. At the lead point, smoothly increase power for cruise, and slowly raise the nose/level the wings
a. Ensure attention is divide between pitch, bank, and coordination
iv. Attempt to level the nose and the wings simultaneously at the level off altitude
a. Initially, it may be easier to break the return to straight-and-level flight into two pieces – raising the
nose, then rolling out the bank. Work to manage pitch and bank simultaneously
b. Adjust rudder pressure to maintain coordination as power is increased, and bank is rolled out
i. Once stabilized, trim the airplane for straight-and-level flight
9. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Faulty trim technique
 Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Descents are part of the foundation of flying and as simple as they sound, they are extremely important. As in all of the
fundamentals of flight it is important to learn to fly the airplane by visual references and back those references up with
the instrument indications.

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VIII. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
d. Divide attention between inside and outside references
e. If SA is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position (if landing, go around; if disoriented, trust the instruments and get to a safe
attitude/altitude) and then solve the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
 VIII. RM Concepts

a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
 Applicable in all phases of flight, especially important in high traffic areas
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Plan well and be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard
a. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to
persons or property on the surface
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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IX. Performance Maneuvers
IX.A. Steep Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to steep turns (load factors,
torque, adverse yaw, and the overbanking tendency). The student should have the ability to
perform a steep turn as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Overbanking Tendency

2. Coordination
3. Increased back pressure and thrust
4. Maintain altitude with elevators and/or bank angle

Elements 1. Maximum Performance Turn

2. The Science Behind It
3. Performing the Steep Turn
4. Division of Attention
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the characteristics behind the factors involved in the steep turn and
Standards can properly perform them in both directions maintaining altitude and airspeed.
 IX.A. Steep Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Steep turns - the first really fun maneuver! Steep banks, you feel some Gs and you’re staring at the ground out the
side window!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The steep turn maneuver consists of a constant altitude turn in either direction, using a bank angle between 45 o to
60o (45o - Private, or 50o - Commercial). This will cause an overbanking tendency during which maximum turning
performance is attained and relatively high load factors are imposed.

Why
Steep turns develop smoothness, coordination, orientation to outsides references, division of attention between
control inputs and the constant need to scan for traffic, and control techniques necessary for the execution of
maximum performance turns. The pilot also understands the effects of the over banking tendency and how to
counteract it.

How:
1. Maximum Performance Turn
A. An airplane’s maximum turning performance is its fastest rate of turn and shortest radius of turn
i. This changes with both airspeed and angle of bank
a. The higher the airspeed, the bigger the radius
b. The higher the bank angle, the smaller the radius
B. In addition to other factors, the maximum bank angle is determined by the limiting load factor which can be
maintained without stalling or exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations
a. In most small airplanes the max bank is approx. 50o to 60o
2. The Science Behind It
A. What makes an airplane turn?
i. As an aircraft banks lift is divided into a horizontal as well as a vertical component
a. The horizontal component of lift pulls the aircraft through the turn
b. The vertical component of lift must be increased to maintain altitude

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

B. Bank Angle, Load Factor and Stall Speed

i. Basics
a. Load factor is the result of two forces: Centrifugal force & Weight
b. As bank angle increases, the load factor increases and so does stall speed
 Assuming level flight
 The opposite also applies – decreasing bank angle decreases load factor and stall speed
ii. Load Factors
a. As bank increases beyond 45o, the loads on the aircraft increase rapidly
 At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs are imposed on the aircraft structure
 At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs are placed on the aircraft
a Most general aviation airplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs
b. Regardless of the airspeed or type of aircraft involved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during which
altitude is maintained, will always produce the same load factor
 Ex: 60o of bank will always produce 2 Gs, irrespective of airspeed, aircraft, power setting, etc.
iii. Stall Speed
a. As we mentioned, increased bank leads to increased load factors, and increased load factor leads to an
increased stall speed
 The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a Ex: An aircraft will a normal stall speed of 50 knots in a 3G turn will stall at approximately 85
knots
iv. Thus, it’s very important to recognize and understand the relationship between bank angle and stall speed,
especially in a steep turn

C.

Adverse Yaw
i. In a turn, the downward deflected aileron (raised wing) produces more lift, and therefore more drag than
the upward deflected aileron (lowered wing)
a. This added drag yaws the airplane’s nose in the direction of the raised wing (opposite the turn)
ii. Rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw
a. The slower the aircraft and the larger the aileron deflection, the more rudder required to maintain
coordination
 At slower speeds the rudder is less effective
 Increased aileron deflection leads to increased lift on the raised wing which results in greater drag
(adverse yaw)
D. Torque Effect (left rolling tendency)
i. Newton’s 3rd Law – every action has an equal and opposite reaction

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

a. The internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one direction (clockwise from the pilot’s
perspective), an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the opposite direction (counterclockwise,
or left, from the pilot’s perspective)
b. This force acts around the longitudinal axis, tending to make the airplane roll to the left
 The faster the engine/prop are spinning, the stronger the left turning tendency
ii. Torque Effect in Turns
a. Torque is based on the speed the engine/propeller are
rotating
 The higher the power, the greater the turning tendency
a Takeoff, for example, is when the turning tendency is
most pronounced
b. Most small aircraft combat the torque effect in cruise flight
through trim tabs (whether adjusted in the cockpit by the pilot
or via tabs mounted on the wings)
 This is done to prevent having to hold right aileron
pressure while cruising. Because of this, torque effect is
generally negligible during a steep turn
a Large changes in power would increase or decrease
torque effect and require corresponding aileron
adjustments
c. Left Turn
 Torque, as a left rolling tendency, encourages a left turn
a Large power changes would require the pilot to adjust
aileron input to maintain the desired bank angle
 Torque combined with the other left turning tendencies
can result in a skid in a left turn
a Increase right rudder or reduce left rudder to
counteract the skid
d. Right Turn
 Torque, as a left rolling tendency, discourages a right turn
a Large power changes would require the pilot to adjust
aileron input to maintain the desired bank angle
 Torque combined with the other left turning tendencies can result in a slip in a right turn
a Increase right rudder or decrease left rudder to counteract the slip
E. Rate of Turn
i. The rate of turn is the number of degrees per second the aircraft is turning
ii. Rate of turn is affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
a. As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
b. As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
c. Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the higher the rate of turn
F. Radius of Turn
i. The radius of a turn describes the size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
a. The radius is a measurement taken from the center of the circle to any point on the circle
ii. Radius of turn is also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
a. As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
b. As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
c. Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the smaller the radius of turn

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

G. Overbanking Tendency
i. During a turn, the wing on the outside travels a longer path relative to the wing on the inside of the turn
a. As the radius of a turn becomes smaller, a significant difference develops between these two paths.
Although the outside wing is traveling a farther distance (larger circle), both wings complete the circle in
the same amount of time. Therefore, the outside wing is moving faster than the inside wing
 The smaller the radius of the turn, the faster the
outside wing is moving relative to the inside wing
 Circumference of a Circle = 2πR (Pi * Radius)
a The larger the radius, the larger the circumference
or distance the wing travels
b The outer wing of the turn will always have a
larger radius and therefore travel a farther
distance in the same amount of time
b. Because the outside wing is traveling faster than the
inside wing, it also develops more lift
 Creates an overbanking tendency that is controlled
with aileron in the opposite direction of the turn
 Creates more drag on the outside wing resulting in a
slight slip that must be corrected with rudder
ii. Overbanking and Stability
a. The overbanking tendency doesn’t occur during every turn due to aircraft stability characteristics
 Things such as dihedral, sweepback, keel effect, etc.
 Although it varies, most general aviation aircraft exhibit some level of positive static stability
a Positive static stability tries to return the aircraft to its original state, in this case zero
bank/straight flight
b The additional lift on the outside wing tries to roll the aircraft to a higher bank angle
b. During a low bank turn, the aircraft’s positive static stability outweighs the relatively small difference in
speed between the outer and inner wings and the aircraft has a tendency to return to wings level flight
 Aileron must be held in the direction of the turn to maintain the bank
c. During a medium banked turn, the aircraft’s stability balances with the excess lift generated by the
outside wing
 Hypothetically, aileron could be removed and the aircraft would maintain the bank angle
d. During a steep turn, the lift generated by the fast-moving outer wing is too great for the stability of the
aircraft and the aircraft continues to roll into the turn
 Aileron must be applied opposite the direction of the turn to maintain the bank angle
H. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. The maximum speed at which the aircraft will stall prior to exceeding airframe limitations and potentially
damaging the airframe (basically, you’ll stall before you break)
a. Above this airspeed full control deflection (or less than full depending on how fast you are going), can
result in airframe stresses greater than what the aircraft is designed to handle
ii. Weight Changes (Bold Method Video)
a. VA increases with increased weight and VA decreases as weight is decreased
 This means the aircraft can maneuver at higher airspeeds when heavy
b. Example:
 Imagine an aircraft straight-and-level at VA and max gross weight (VA is certified at max gross weight)

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

a If the pilot were to pitch up excessively AOA increases, but right when you reach the limit load
factor (3.8 Gs for a Normal rated aircraft) the aircraft will reach the critical AOA, stall, and return
to 1G flight. Structural limitation of 3.8 Gs isn’t exceeded, and the plane doesn’t break
 Now consider the same aircraft (still straight-and-level, still at VA), but at a lighter weight
a To maintain level flight, the aircraft now flies at a lower AOA. Because of this there is now a
greater distance between the aircraft’s AOA and the critical AOA. When the pilot pitches up
excessively the aircraft will reach the limit load factor (3.8 Gs) prior to reaching the critical AOA,
and the aircraft can break before it stalls
1. For this reason, decreases in weight result in a lower maneuvering speed
c. Since VA is calculated at max gross weight and VA decreases with weight, at lower weights the aircraft
should be flown at slower speeds. To find out how much slower, you can use this formula:
 V A¿
iii. Perform all maneuvers, steep turns included, at or below VA
a. Keep in mind that the additional lift required to maintain altitude through the turn results in increased
drag and therefore increased power is necessary to maintain airspeed through the turn
 Keep the airspeed in your crosscheck
a Too much speed can put the aircraft above VA, and too little can put the aircraft close to a stall
 When rolling out, reduce power to avoid accelerating as drag is reduced
3. Performing the Steep Turn
A. Before Starting
i. Pre-maneuver checklist
ii. Select an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500’ AGL
b. Select an altitude that is easy to read on the altimeter (500’ increments are easiest)
iii. RM: Clearing turns (RM: Collision Hazards)
a. Especially important since the rate of turn will be rapid
b. More collision hazard concepts below
iv. Establish the recommended entry speed or a peed that does not exceed the design maneuvering speed (V A)
v. Ensure the aircraft is in straight and level flight, and trimmed
a. Entering in a climb or descent will create extra work during the maneuver
B. Entering the Turn
i. Note the entry heading/a visual reference to roll out on
ii. Smoothly roll into the desired bank angle
a. 45o (Private)
b. 50o (Commercial)
c. Apply rudder as necessary to maintain coordination
d. Establish opposite aileron as necessary to maintain the bank angle through the maneuver
iii. As the turn is established (around 30o), smoothly introduce back elevator pressure to increase the AOA
a. Considerable elevator force may be required
 Trim as necessary
b. Back pressure compensates for increasing load factor and reduced vertical component of lift
iv. Power must be added to maintain the entry altitude and airspeed
a. Additional elevator pressure increases angle of attack. More lift equals more drag
b. Begin increasing power as required when passing approximately 30o of bank as well
v. RM: Coordination
a. Use rudder in conjunction with aileron to maintain coordination
 Adjust for adverse yaw & torque effect

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

b. Uncoordinated flight leads to changes in control inputs to maintain the turn

 Coordinated flight is more efficient, safer, and more predictable
c. A significant portion of yaw is experienced as motion away from or toward the earth’s surface which
may be confusing/disorienting initially
 Verify orientation with outside references and glances to the instruments
vi. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry
C. During the Turn
i. RM: Do not focus or stare at any one object (RM: Division of attention between control & orientation)
a. Awareness of the horizon relative to the nose/wings is necessary to maintain altitude & orientation
 Only watching the nose will result in difficulty holding altitude
 With practice, watching the nose and wings relative to the horizon can hold altitude within
standards, and in time, considerably better
b. CE: Loss of orientation
 Orientation is not just the bank/pitch attitude but where you are and what is around you
 Note the entry heading and find a visual reference to use
 Continue to scan for traffic
 Glance at the heading indicator and check visual references to know where you are in the turn
a Heading moves quickly relative to normal turns; accelerate the scan of outside/inside references
ii. Adjustments
a. Increasing/decreasing altitude
 Relax or increase elevator pressure as appropriate
a Make small changes to maintain/correct the altitude
b Large changes can lead to fast altitude changes and a yo-yo/chasing effect
c Power should be adjusted accordingly to maintain the entry airspeed
 Changes in bank angle may also be used to control altitude deviations
a 1-3o of bank allows you to stay within bank tolerances and make a controlled altitude correction
b Increasing bank decreases lift & decreasing bank increases lift
c Again, large changes lead to large corrections and the yo-yo effect (chasing the altitude/bank)
 If the aircraft is descending and bank is excessive, reducing the bank angle may stop the descent
 If ascending and bank is shallow, increasing the bank angle may correct the altitude deviation
a Make further corrections once bank has been fixed
 CE: Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
a Understand how bank and pitch can work together to maintain altitude
b Large corrections often lead to large deviations
b. Bank
 Adjust bank to maintain the required bank angle, pitch will likely need adjusted as well
a Increasing bank decreases lift
1. If bank is shallow, increase bank and add back pressure to maintain altitude
b Opposite applies for overbanking (decrease bank, reduce back pressure)
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Rudder pressure is necessary to maintain coordination during the maneuver
 Changing rudder pressure part way through the turn can have adverse effects on altitude
D. Roll Out
i. General rule: Begin the rollout approximately ½ the bank angle from your entry heading (20 o – 25o)
ii. Time the rollout so the wings reach level flight when on the heading from which the maneuver was started
iii. Gradually reduce back pressure and power as bank is decreased
iv. If elevator was trimmed up, remove the trim during the rollout to prevent a large increase in altitude

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v. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
4. RM: Division of Attention (Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization)
A. Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Divide attention between control and the orientation of the aircraft
ii. Orientation does not just include the aircraft attitude, but also where you are (airspace, terrain, etc.) and
what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
B. Distractions
i. With the high task saturation associated with a steep turn, distractions can lead to excessive changes in
altitude, loss of orientation, and an inability to clear for traffic
ii. Focus on aircraft performance and clear for traffic
a. If distracted, recognize the problem, admit it, stop the maneuver, and start over. Safety first.
C. Situational Awareness & Disorientation
i. High turn rate & G forces make disorientation/loss of SA more common in steep turns than many maneuvers
ii. Note entry heading/direction on the heading indicator/compass as well as by a visual outside reference
iii. Using outside references, allows the pilot to manage the turn while maintaining awareness
iv. If disoriented, stop the maneuver, admit the problem, and take action to regain SA/orientation
D. Task Prioritization
i. A lot of things happen quickly during a steep turn, but safely flying the aircraft comes first
ii. Establish a crosscheck and be very familiar with visual references to manage the tasks at hand
iii. If you ever feel unsafe or too far behind, stop the maneuver, regain awareness, begin again when safe
5. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
 Loss of orientation

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
In maintaining a properly coordinated steep turn, the pilot must use opposite aileron to maintain bank. Pitch should be
controlled by adjusting elevator back pressure and bank angle. A smaller bank angle will result in more lift while an
increased bank angle will reduce the lift. Maintaining coordination is very important and should be watched carefully
throughout the maneuver.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Roll into a coordinated 360° steep turn with approximately a 45° bank.
2. Maintain the entry altitude ±100 feet, airspeed ±10 knots, bank ±5°, and roll out on the entry heading ±10°.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Roll into a coordinated 360° steep turn with approximately a 50° bank.
2. Perform the Task in the opposite direction.
3. Maintain the entry altitude ±100 feet, airspeed ±10 knots, bank ±5°; and roll out on the entry heading, ±10°.

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IX.B. Steep Spirals

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should be able to perform the steep spiral maneuver to ACS/PTS standards
adjusting for varying wind speed and direction as well as changing bank angles.

Key Elements 1. Similar to Turns Around a Point

2. Increased Groundspeed = Increased Bank
3. Decreased Groundspeed = Decreased Bank
4. Keep the reference between the wing root and fuselage

Elements 1. Steep Spirals & Emergency Landings

2. Rules
3. Performing a Steep Spiral
4. Distractions
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in a properly flown steep spiral. The student
Standards can apply those elements to a well flown, coordinated steep spiral.
 IX.B. Steep Spirals

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This can be a really cool maneuver, especially when combined with a power off 180 o landing. The ability to maintain
a position over the ground, while descending (as in an emergency landing) makes for a much more confident pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which a constant radius around a point on the ground is maintained
similar to the turn around a point maneuver.

Why
The steep spiral improves pilot techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and division
of attention. The steep spiral is not only a valuable flight training maneuver, but it has practical application in
providing a procedure for dissipating altitude while remaining over a selected spot in preparation for landing,
especially for emergency forced landings.

How:
1. Steep Spirals & Emergency Landings
A. Trains the pilot to efficiently manage an engine failure and set themselves up for a successful, controlled landing
B. In the case of an engine failure, proceed directly to an emergency landing airport/area
i. Arriving with too much altitude, the pilot can apply the steep spiral to:
a. Lose altitude while remaining directly over the landing zone
b. Control and plan the descent to enter downwind at the most suitable altitude based on conditions
c. Perform a controlled power-off 180 landing
2. Rules
A. Maintain an equal radius of turn around a point
i. The radius should be such that the steepest bank will not exceed 60o
a. Approximately ¼ mile is a good reference
ii. Adjust for changing tailwinds/headwinds
a. Like turns around a point
B. To maintain a consistent radius, bank angle is increased as groundspeed increases and decreased as
groundspeed decreases
C. Enter on the downwind
i. This will establish the steepest bank initially since groundspeed is the highest at this point
a. If the pilot entered on the upwind (slowest groundspeed) and rolled into 45 o of bank, upon reaching the
downwind leg (highest groundspeed) bank would have to be increased to excessively
D. The spiral should be continued through three 360o spirals
i. Sufficient altitude must be attained
a. Do not continue below 1,500’ AGL unless performing an emergency landing in conjunction
b. Triple the approximate altitude lost per turn in your aircraft and add 1500’ to plan a min entry altitude
 Minimum altitude = 1500’ AGL + 3 turns
E. Clear the engine periodically while headed into the wind

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 IX.B. Steep Spirals

i. Operating at idle for a prolonged period of time may result in excessive engine cooling or spark plug fouling
ii. Clearing while facing into the wind minimizes any variation in groundspeed and radius of turn
F. Limitations
i. RM: Stay within all published aircraft limitations
ii. Reference the POH for applicable airspeed & airframe limitations (bank angle)
3. Performing a Steep Spiral
A. Before Starting
i. *Pre-maneuver checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Below, at, and above your altitude
iii. Sufficient altitude must be obtained so that the
spiral may last through at least three 360o turns
iv. Select a ground reference point
a. Small reference point - Ex: House, Silo, Chimney, Chicken House, etc.
b. Should be in a sparsely populated area with surrounding area that would permit an emergency landing
v. Set up to enter the maneuver on the downwind
a. This will establish the steepest bank initially – Highest groundspeed
vi. Position the aircraft so it will pass within ¼ mile of the point on the downwind side
a. Visually approach the point to put it directly below your left foot
B. Entering the Spiral
i. Close the throttle and establish the recommended entry airspeed
a. Trim for this speed
b. *DA20: 83 knots
ii. A gliding spiral should be started, and a turn of constant radius maintained around the reference point
a. When over the point, the aircraft will block the pilot’s view of the point
 Technique: Once the point disappears, wait a few seconds, and start the turn past the reference
point, establishing the ¼ radius
a Starting the turn early (even if ¼ mile to the side) can result in turning directly over the point
b. *Upon rolling in, put the reference point between the wing root and the fuselage
 Initial bank on the downwind leg will establish the steepest bank for the maneuver
a 45o is a good starting point
 This is for a low wing aircraft and worked great in the DA20. Adjust as required
c. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
C. During the Spiral
i. *Keep the reference point between the fuselage and the wing root to visually maintain the correct radius
ii. Judge wind direction/speed during descent and adjust bank to maintain a uniform radius
a. As the aircraft descends vertically, wind direction may change
 The pilot must constantly adjust control inputs for the changing wind conditions
iii. RM: Wind Correction
a. Entering with a tailwind (downwind) requires increased bank to maintain a constant radius
 The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the bank
 It is important to enter on the downwind to establish the steepest bank initially
b. Tracking into a headwind, bank must be decreased

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 IX.B. Steep Spirals

 The slower the groundspeed, the

shallower the bank
c. Think turn radius; higher speed =
greater radius and vice versa
 Increase bank as groundspeed
increases and decrease bank as
groundspeed decreases
iv. The pilot also has to adjust pitch to
maintain a stabilized descent speed
a. *DA20: 83 knots
b. In contrast to turns around a point,
the pilot must vary pitch to maintain a
constant airspeed throughout the
entire maneuver
c. Failure to hold airspeed constant will
cause the turn radius and bank to vary
d. If airspeed is too fast, pitch up to slow
e. If airspeed is too slow, pitch down to speed up
f. Be aware that a large change in speed may require a change in bank to maintain a constant radius
g. CE: Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
v. RM/CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a. Maintain coordination for a more stable, smoother spiral
 Uncoordinated flight results in additional drag on the aircraft
a When coordinated again, airspeed will likely increase, resulting in a change in descent rate
 Failure to hold a constant airspeed varies turn radius and the required bank angle
b. Do not use rudder to increase or decrease the rate of turn to adjust the ground track
 Can lead to a cross-control situation – especially hazardous at low speeds and altitudes
vi. Divide attention between the ground reference point and instruments
a. Check the amount of altitude being lost during each turn
 This establishes the last 360 and entry to the pattern ‘downwind’ for an emergency landing
vii. CE: Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
a. Adjust bank to maintain a constant radius
D. Rolling out of the Turn
i. After completing three complete rotations, roll out within 10o of the entry heading
a. CE: Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading
 Count the turns out loud and bug the entry heading
ii. During the rollout, smoothness is essential, and the use of controls must be so coordinated that no increase
or decrease of airspeed results when the straight glide is resumed
a. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during completion
4. RM: Distractions
A. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
i. Over concentration on the reference point or the instruments results in the other being neglected and a
poorly performed maneuver
ii. Crosscheck should be based on outside references and supplemented with inside instrument indications
a. Allows the pilot to divide attention between controlling the aircraft and the orientation of the aircraft
b. Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)

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 IX.B. Steep Spirals

B. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety comes first
5. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
 Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The steep spiral is just like a turn around a point with the addition of a constant speed descent. The same procedures
apply with the addition of making adjustments to the pitch attitude to maintain 83 knots. It is important to stay oriented
in relation to the number of turns you have made and the entry and rollout heading as it is easy to get confused.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Apply wind drift correction to track a constant radius circle around selected reference point with bank not to exceed
60° at steepest point in turn.
2. Maintain the specified airspeed, ±10 knots, and roll out toward an object or specified heading, ±10° and complete
the maneuver no lower than 1,500’ AGL.

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IX.C. Chandelles

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should be able to complete a Chandelle taking into account the changing airspeed
and maneuver as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Maximum Performance

2. 1st 90o - Constant Bank, Changing Pitch
3. 2nd 90o - Constant Pitch, Changing Bank
4. Coordination

Elements 1. Aerodynamics Recap

2. Maximum Performance
3. Performing the Chandelle
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a smooth, well-coordinated chandelle without the instructor’s
Standards guidance. The student also understands the factors influencing control and coordination
throughout the maneuver.
 IX.C. Chandelles

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The Chandelle is a Maximum Performance climbing 180o turn. We’re going to get the airplane to climb as much as we
possibly can, going from VA down to just above the stalling speed.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maximum performance climbing turn beginning from approximately straight and level flight, and ending at the
completion of a precise 180o turn in a wings level, nose high attitude at the minimum controllable airspeed. The
airplane should gain the most altitude possible for a given degree of bank and power setting without stalling.

Why
This maneuver greatly develops the pilot’s coordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy of control during
maximum performance flight. In real-life scenarios, it provides the pilot the ability to make a maximum performance
climbing turn which can be useful in confined areas

How:
1. Aerodynamics Recap
A. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. The maximum speed at which the aircraft will stall prior to exceeding airframe limitations and potentially
damaging the airframe (basically, you’ll stall before you break)
a. Above this airspeed full control deflection (or less than full depending on how fast you are going), can
result in airframe stresses greater than what the aircraft is designed to handle
ii. Weight Changes (Bold Method Video)
a. VA increases with increased weight and VA decreases as weight is decreased
 This means the aircraft can maneuver at higher airspeeds when heavy
b. Example:
 Imagine an aircraft flying straight-and-level at VA and at max gross weight (VA is certified at max
gross weight)
a If the pilot were to pitch up excessively AOA increases, but right when you reach the limit load
factor (3.8 Gs for a Normal rated aircraft) the aircraft will reach the critical AOA, stall, and return
to 1G flight. Structural limitation of 3.8 Gs isn’t exceeded, and the plane doesn’t break
 Now consider the same aircraft (still straight-and-level, still at VA), but at a lighter weight
a To maintain level flight, the aircraft now flies at a lower AOA. Because of this there is now a
greater distance between the aircraft’s AOA and the critical AOA. When the pilot pitches up
excessively the aircraft will reach the limit load factor (3.8 Gs) prior to reaching the critical AOA,
and the aircraft can break before it stalls
1. For this reason, decreases in weight result in a lower maneuvering speed
c. Since VA is calculated at max gross weight and VA decreases with weight, at lower weights the aircraft
should be flown at slower speeds. To find out how much slower, you can use this formula:
 V A¿
iii. Perform all maneuvers at or below VA

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 IX.C. Chandelles

a. Keep in mind that the additional lift required to maintain altitude through the turn results in increased
drag and therefore increased power is necessary to maintain airspeed through the turn
 Keep the airspeed in your crosscheck
a Too much speed can put the aircraft above VA, and too little can put the aircraft close to a stall
 When rolling out, reduce power to avoid accelerating as drag is reduced
B. Bank Angle, Load Factor and Stall Speed
i. Basics
a. Load factor is the result of two forces: Centrifugal force & Weight (pictured, below)
b. As bank angle increases, the load factor increases and so does stall speed
 Assuming level flight
 The opposite also applies – decreasing bank angle decreases load factor and stall speed
ii. Load Factors
a. As bank increases beyond 45o, the loads on the aircraft increase rapidly
 At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs are imposed on the aircraft structure
 At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs are placed on the aircraft
a Most general aviation airplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs
b. Regardless of the airspeed or type of aircraft involved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during which
altitude is maintained, will always produce the same load factor
 Ex: 60o of bank will always produce 2 Gs, irrespective of speed, aircraft, power, etc.
iii. Stall Speed
a. As we mentioned, increased bank leads to increased load factors, and increased load factor leads to an
increased stall speed
 The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a Ex: An aircraft will a normal stall speed of 50 knots in a 3G turn will stall at approximately 85
knots
iv.

Chandelles & Accelerated Stalls

a. The airplane will stall at a higher indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed
b. Smoothly and positively apply the control pressures to execute the chandelle
 Abrupt, aggressive control inputs could lead to an accelerated stall
C. Overbanking Tendency
i. During a turn, the wing on the outside travels a longer path relative to the wing on the inside of the turn
a. As the radius of a turn becomes smaller, a significant difference develops between these two paths.
 The smaller the radius of the turn, the faster the outside wing is moving relative to the inside wing

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b. Because the outside wing is traveling faster than the inside

wing, it also develops more lift
 Creates an overbanking tendency that is controlled with
aileron in the opposite direction of the turn
 Creates more drag on the outside wing resulting in a slight
slip that must be corrected with rudder
ii. Overbanking and Stability
a. Overbanking doesn’t occur during every turn due to the
aircraft’s inherent stability characteristics
 Although it varies, most GA aircraft exhibit some level of
positive static stability
a Positive static stability tries to return the aircraft to its
original state, in this case zero bank/straight flight
b The additional lift on the outside wing tries to roll the aircraft to a higher bank angle
b. Low Bank: Positive static stability outweighs the relatively small difference in speed between the outer
and inner wings and the aircraft has a tendency to return to wings level flight
 Aileron must be held in the direction of the turn to maintain the bank
c. Medium Bank: Positive static stability balances with the excess lift generated by the outside wing
 Hypothetically, aileron could be removed and the aircraft would maintain the bank angle
d. Steep Bank: Lift generated by the fast-moving outer wing is too great for aircraft stability and the plane
continues to roll
 Aileron must be applied opposite the direction of the turn to maintain the bank angle
iii. Overbanking Tendency and the Chandelle
a. When in a nose high turning attitude at a slow airspeed, as at the top of a Chandelle, bank will increase
b. Use opposite aileron to maintain desired bank angle and prevent overbanking
D. RM: Turn Rate & Radius
i. Rate of Turn
a. Number of degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, rate of turn decreases
 Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the higher the rate of turn
ii. Radius of Turn
a. Describes the size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
 The radius is a measurement taken from the center of the circle to any point on the circle
b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
 Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the smaller the radius of turn
iii. Confined Area Operations
a. Minimizing radius and maximizing turn rate provides the most confined area for a turn
 Higher bank and slower airspeed
2. Maximum Performance
A. The plane should gain the most altitude possible for a degree of bank and power setting without stalling
i. However, since numerous atmospheric variables beyond your control will affect the amount of altitude
gained, the altitude gained is not a criterion on the quality of the chandelle
3. Performing the Chandelle

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A. Before Starting
i. Selecting an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500’ AGL
b. Select an easy-to-read altitude on the altimeter
 Nearest 500’ increment
ii. *Pre-maneuver checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
iii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Below, as well as at, and above your altitude
 Above is important (climbing maneuver)
iv. Flaps and gear should be in the UP position
v. The airplane should be in straight and level flight
a. *At 95 knots (Not above VA): 2200 – 2300 RPM
vi. Note heading (rollout will be on the reciprocal)
a. Bug it if necessary
vii. Choose a visual reference point 90o off the wing in the direction the turn will be in
B. First 90o of the Turn – Constant bank, Changing pitch
i. Smoothly enter a coordinated 30o turn
a. Normally, this will not exceed approximately 30o of bank
b. Once the bank is established, the angle of bank should remain constant until the 90 o point
 Monitor the bank angle as it may begin to increase. Adjust as necessary
 Remember, as airspeed decreases, rate of turn increases
a Overbanking tendency can become a factor. Adjust aileron to maintain 30 o bank angle
ii. After the bank is established, apply maximum power and initiate a climbing turn
a. No other power adjustments are made during this maneuver
b. Smoothly apply back-elevator pressure to increase the pitch attitude at a constant rate to attain the
highest pitch attitude as 90o of the turn is completed
 *Pitch attitude will be approximately 12o
a 15o tends to get to the stall speed too early, while 10o doesn’t quite reach it
b CE: A stall during the maneuver
c. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 If the pitch is increased too quickly the aircraft will stall before reaching 180 o
 If the pitch is increased too slowly, the aircraft will not come close to the stall speed
iii. Keep Coordinated
a. As the airspeed decreases through the turn, the torque effect becomes more pronounced
 The slower the aircraft, the less effective the flight controls
 Right rudder pressure should be gradually increased to control yaw and keep coordinated
b. In a left turn, less right rudder will be necessary to compensate than in a right turn
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iv. At the 90o mark, airspeed should be approximately at
the midpoint between the entry airspeed and the
minimum controllable airspeed of the airplane
v. Summary of the 1st 90o of the turn - Constant bank,
increasing pitch
a. Bank is held constant
b. *Pitch is increased at a constant rate to attain the
highest pitch attitude (12o) at the 90o point

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c. Increase right rudder to keep the airplane coordinated

d. CE: Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
C. 2nd 90o of the Turn – Constant pitch, Changing bank
i. *Reaching 90o, begin rolling out the bank at a constant rate while maintaining constant-pitch (12 o)
a. Roll out approximately 10o of bank for every 30o of heading change
ii. As airspeed decreases increased back pressure will be required to maintain a constant pitch attitude
a. As airspeed approaches stall, maintain back pressure to obtain maximum performance without stalling
b. CE: A stall during the maneuver
iii. Left turning tendencies become more prevalent – use right rudder to coordinate turns in both directions
a. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iv. Summary of the 2nd 90o of the turn - Constant pitch, decreasing bank
a. *Back pressure is adjusted to maintain pitch (12o high)
b. Bank is decreased at a constant rate to roll wings level at the 180o point
c. Increase rudder pressure as necessary as the airspeed slows
d. CE: Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
D. The Rollout
i. Time the rollout so that wings are level at the 180o point
ii. The pitch attitude should be held momentarily while the airplane is at its minimum controllable airspeed
iii. Left Chandelle Rollout
a. The left wing must be raised by lowering the left aileron
 This creates more drag, resulting in a tendency for the airplane to yaw to the left
 With the low air airspeed, torque effect/p-factor also tries to make the airplane yaw left
a Thus, there are two forces pulling the nose to the left
1. To maintain coordination, considerable right rudder pressure is required during the rollout
iv. Right Chandelle Rollout
 The right wing must be raised by lowering the right aileron
a This creates more drag on the right wing and tends to make the airplane yaw right
 At the same time, the effect of torque/p-factor at the lower airspeed causes the nose to yaw left
 Thus, aileron drag pulling the nose right and torque pulling left work against each other
a Less right rudder is needed
b. This rollout is accomplished mainly by applying aileron pressure
 Right rudder should be gradually released, and left rudder applied if necessary
v. In either rollout, when the wings are level, aileron drag is neutralized, and torque/p-factor is acting alone
vi. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
vii. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
E. Finishing the maneuver
i. Gradually reduce pitch to return to level flight, allowing the plane to accelerate while maintaining altitude
a. Increase right rudder during as pitch decreases to counter the turning tendencies caused by gyroscopic
precession of the propeller
b. Adjust pitch, power, and trim for cruise flight
F. CE: Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
i. Maximum performance is degraded if pitch (and therefore airspeed) is not established correctly
a. If pitch is too high, the plane stalls before reaching max performance, too low and the climb is degraded
ii. Maximum performance is degraded if bank is not established correctly
a. A constant 30o bank is essential; too much bank results in an early completion of the turn and less
altitude gained, whereas too little results in slowing excessively, or stalling, prior to completing the turn
iii. Maximum performance is degraded if power is not set to max
a. Less power results in less altitude, ensure maximum power is used

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iv. Maximum performance is degraded if the aircraft is not coordinated throughout the maneuver
a. Uncoordinated flight results in extra drag, decreasing performance
G. RM: Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety comes first
4. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
 Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
 A stall during the maneuver

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
The chandelle is a maximum performance climbing 180o turn. During the first half of the turn, bank constant while pitch
is consistently increased. Through the second half of the turn, pitch is held constant, and bank is consistently decreased.
Throughout the maneuver it is important to maintain coordinated, especially as the speed of the airplane decreases.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the maneuver to be performed no lower than 1,500’ (AGL).
2. Establish the angle of bank at approximately 30°.
3. Complete rollout at the 180° point, ±10°, just above stall speed, maintaining that speed momentarily avoiding a stall.

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IX.D. Lazy Eights

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should understand the elements and necessary control inputs to perform the lazy
eight maneuver. The student should show the ability to perform a coordinated, well planned
and oriented lazy eight as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Transfer of Energy

2. Constantly changing control pressures
3. Symmetry

Elements 1. Relating the Maneuver

2. Performing the Lazy Eight
3. Energy Management
4. Rudder Control
5. Overbanking Tendency
6. Summary
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in performing a lazy eight and can perform the
Standards lazy eight on their own.
 IX.D. Lazy Eights

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Who wants to be a crop duster when they grow up? This is the maneuver you have to know if you want to crop dust.
And, although challenging, it’s a pretty fun maneuver.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maneuver consisting of two 180o turns in opposite directions, while making a climb and descent in a symmetrical
pattern during each of the turns. It is designed to develop proper coordination of controls through a wide range of
airspeeds and attitudes so that certain accuracy points are reached with planned attitude and airspeed. It is the only
standard flight training maneuver during which at no time do the forces on the controls remain constant.

Why
The lazy eight develops proper coordination of the controls through a wide range of airspeeds and attitudes. It is a
great trainer because of the constantly varying forces and attitudes required. It also helps develop subconscious feel,
planning, orientation, coordination, and speed sense.

How:
1. Relating the Maneuver
A. The maneuver can be compared to a half pipe and a transfer of energy
i. A transfer of energy as we climb the half pipe and then descend on the other side
a. The energy is used to get to the top
 Constant power setting
b. Then we ride the ‘pipe’ back down
B. Crop-dusting maneuver
2. Performing the Lazy Eight
A. Before Starting
i. Select an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500’ AGL
b. Select an altitude that is easy to
read on the altimeter
 500’ increment
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist
iii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Below, at, and above your altitude
iv. The airplane should be in straight and
level flight at cruise power, at or below VA
v. Choose visual reference points at 45o, 90o, and 135o in the direction the turn will be in
a. CE: Poor selection of reference points
 Select reference points that are easily identified
 Don’t use points that are too close to your position, ensure that they are toward or on the horizon
B. Starting the Lazy Eight

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i. Started from straight-and-level flight with a gradual climbing turn in the direction of the 45o reference point
a. *VERY gently begin a climb and turn to each reach 15o of pitch (max pitch) & bank at the 45o point
 Pitch must be increased faster than bank
a As pitch is increased airspeed decreases and therefore the rate of turn increases
1. Since the bank is also being increased, the rate of turn is further increasing
2. Unless the maneuver is started with a very slow rate of roll, the combination of increased
pitch and increasing bank will cause the rate of turn to be so rapid the 45 o point will be
reached before the highest pitch attitude
3. Decreasing airspeed also means increased torque
a. Right rudder will be necessary to maintain coordination
C. At the 45o point
i. *The pitch attitude should be at maximum (15o)
ii. The angle of bank should be at 15o and continue to increase at the same rate
iii. The pitch attitude should start to decrease slowly toward the horizon and the 90 o reference point
a. Since speed is still decreasing, right rudder pressure is required to counteract the left turning tendencies
 As the airspeed slows, the rudder becomes less effective
D. 45o to 90o
i. The angle of bank continues to increase to reach 30o of bank at the 90o point of the turn
a. Bank continues to increase at the same rate as the first 45o of turn
b. No more than 30o of bank
ii. Pitch continues to decrease to pass through level flight at the 90o point
a. Decrease at the same rate as the increase in the initial climbing turn
b. As the aircraft continues to slow, additional right rudder pressure will be necessary
E. At the 90o point
i. The bank should be at the maximum angle (approximately 30o)
a. Opposite aileron may be required to maintain the bank angle
 This may result in a crossed control situation
a This is OK, as long as the airplane remains coordinated
ii. The airspeed should be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above the stall speed)
a. Therefore, the rudder pressure required will be the highest
iii. The pitch attitude should be passing through level flight
a. Pass through the 90o reference point and the horizon simultaneously
iv. The airplane should be flown into a descending turn
a. The nose should describe the same size loop below the horizon as it did above
v. When passing through the 90o point, bank should be gradually decreased, the nose allowed to lower
a. Guide the nose down, don’t dive
F. 90o to 135o
i. Bank is consistently decreased to reach 15o of bank at the 135o of turn point
a. Opposite of the beginning of the maneuver
ii. Pitch is decreased to reach the maximum pitch down at 135o
a. *Max Pitch down is approximately 5o-7o
 Less than max pitch up since we now have gravity, thrust, and a forward component of lift working
together to descend the aircraft
a Going up we only have thrust; therefore we pitch up more aggressively than we pitch down
1. Lift has a rearward component when climbing
iii. Airspeed will begin increasing during this descending turn
a. It will be necessary to gradually relax rudder and aileron pressure
G. At the 135o point

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 IX.D. Lazy Eights

i. *The nose of the airplane should be at its lowest pitch attitude (5o - 7o)
ii. Bank should be at 15o
iii. The airspeed will be increasing so it will be necessary to gradually relax rudder and aileron pressure
H. 135o to 180o
i. Continue to decrease bank to level the wings
a. Note the amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout and pitch change so that the wings
become level and the original airspeed is attained in level flight just as the 180 o point is reached
b. The airspeed will continue to increase so it will be necessary to further relax rudder and aileron pressure
ii. Continue to increase pitch to bring the nose back to the horizon
a. Altitude should be where the maneuver was started
b. Why everything needs to come back to the same place:
 When crop dusting,
a Come in too high, then wind and other variables will scatter your ‘dust’
b Come in too low, you could hit the ground
c Come in off heading, then you’re going to miss spots/re-cover spots
 It’s going to make a mess
I. At the 180o point
i. At the starting altitude & 180o point, start a climbing immediately in the opposite direction
ii. Using the same visual references, the second turn should mimic the first as closely as possible
J. CE: Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
a. Use the recommended pitch, bank and power settings and make adjustments as necessary for mistakes
K. RM: Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
3. RM: Energy Management
A. Unsymmetrical Eights
i. A lazy eight should consist of two symmetrical 180-degree turns, in opposite directions
ii. A failure to manage energy leads to unsymmetrical turns. Differences between the two turns can include:
a. Differing pitch attitudes
b. Differing bank angles
c. Differing rate of pitch and/or bank
d. Uncoordinated flight
B. Altitude Changes
i. The correct power setting is that which will maintain the altitude for the maximum and minimum airspeeds
used during the climbs and descents of the eight
a. If excess power is used, the aircraft will have gained altitude at the end of the maneuver
b. If insufficient power is used, the aircraft will have lost altitude
4. RM: Rudder Control
A. Due to the decreasing airspeed, considerable right rudder pressure is gradually applied to counteract the left
turning tendencies, such as torque and p-factor, at the top of the eight in both the right and left turns
i. The pressure will be greatest at the point of lowest airspeed
B. More right rudder pressure will be needed during the climbing right turn
i. Right Turn: Rudder compensates for Left Turning Tendencies plus Adverse Yaw
a. Sufficient/coordinated right rudder is required to prevent the left yaw from decreasing the rate of turn

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ii. Left turn: Rudder compensates for left Turning Tendencies minus Adverse Yaw
a. Adverse yaw counteracts some of the left turning tendencies
b. Less right rudder is required than in a right turn
C. In the climbing right turn, the controls are slightly crossed because of the need for left aileron pressure to
prevent overbanking and right rudder to overcome the left turning tendencies
5. Overbanking Tendency
A. During a turn, the wing on the outside travels a longer path relative to the wing on the inside of the turn
i. As turn radius becomes smaller, a significant difference develops between these two paths
a. The smaller the turn radius, the faster the outside wing moves relative to the inside wing
ii. Because the outside wing is traveling faster than the inside wing, it also develops more lift
a. Creates an overbanking tendency that is controlled with aileron in the opposite direction of the turn
b. Creates more drag on the outside wing resulting in a slight slip that
must be corrected with rudder
B. Overbanking and Stability
i. Overbanking doesn’t occur during every turn due to the aircraft’s
inherent stability characteristics
a. Positive static stability tries to return the aircraft to its original
state, in this case zero bank/straight flight
b. The additional lift on the outside wing tries to roll the aircraft to a
higher bank angle
ii. Low Bank: Positive static stability outweighs the small difference in
speed between wings and the aircraft has tends to return to wings
level
a. Aileron must be held in the direction of the turn to maintain bank
iii. Medium Bank: Positive static stability balances with the lift generated by the outside wing
a. Hypothetically, aileron could be removed and the aircraft would maintain the bank angle
iv. Steep Bank: The outer wing’s lift is too great for the stability and the aircraft continues to roll into the turn
a. Aileron must be applied opposite the direction of the turn to maintain the bank angle
C. Overbanking Tendency and the Lazy Eight
i. When in a nose high turning attitude at a slow airspeed, as at the top of the maneuver, bank will increase
ii. Use opposite aileron to maintain desired bank angle and prevent overbanking
6. Summary
A. The maneuver requires constantly changing control pressures
i. It is not possible to do a lazy eight mechanically because the control pressures required for perfect
coordination are never exactly the same
ii. At no time is the maneuver flown straight and level
iii. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a. Properly compensate for changing airspeed and left turning tendencies as described above
B. CE: Loss of orientation/Excessive deviation from reference points
i. The pilot must learn to divide attention and plan for each segment of the lazy eight
a. Divide attention between inside and outside references
 Do not fixate – Move between outside references, pitch, bank, airspeed, coordination
 The more experience with lazy eights, the more time you can spend on outside references
b. Preplan the events in each 45o segment
 Talk through the maneuver at each 45o point. Know what you’re going to do
a Altitude targets
b Airspeed
c Pitch

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 IX.D. Lazy Eights

d Bank
C. CE: Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
i. Properly plan pitch and bank attitude changes
a. Don’t pitch up or down excessively
 Aggressive pitch up could result in the airspeed getting too slow too early, or a potential stall
 Aggressive pitch down could lead to excessive speed
a Over the maneuver starting speed or VA
b. Bank control
 Adjust bank to hit the proper bank angles at the reference points
a Anticipate and compensate for changing airspeeds and the over banking tendency
7. RM: Hazards
A. Accelerated Stalls
i. At the same gross weight, configuration, and power, an aircraft will consistently stall at the same indicated
airspeed if no acceleration is involved, but the aircraft will stall at a higher indicated airspeed when excessive
maneuvering loads are imposed on it
a. Pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden
ii. Recovery
a. Promptly release back elevator pressure, increase power, return to straight and level, coordinated flight
iii. Accelerated Stalls and Lazy Eights
a. Use smooth, controlled inputs. Avoid aggressive/excessive control inputs, especially close to the ground
b. Fly it as described, lazy
 Smooth and controlled, not aggressive
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
D. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Poor selection of reference points
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
 Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
 Loss of orientation
 Excessive deviation from reference points

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is important that each part of the maneuver is performed at the same speed, or, increases and decreases in both pitch
and bank should be made at the same rate during each part of the turn. Each part of the turn should be a mirror image
of its opposite. It also is very important to keep the airplane coordinated throughout the varying attitudes and airspeeds
in the maneuver.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Approximately 30° bank at the steepest point
2. Altitude at 180° point, ±100 feet from entry altitude
3. Airspeed at the 180° point, ±10 knots from entry airspeed
4. Heading at the 180° point, ±10 degrees

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IX.E. Ground Reference Maneuvers

The ACS combines Rectangular Course, S-Turns, and Turns Around a Point into a single task. We’ve kept them as
individual lessons.

 Rectangular Course
 S-Turns
 Turns Around a Point
 IX.E. Rectangular Course

IX.E. Rectangular Course

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the rectangular course and
the elements involved in maintaining a proper ground track. The student will have the ability
to perform the maneuver as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Plan Ahead

2. Wind Corrections
3. Coordination

Elements 1. Selecting a Suitable Altitude

2. Selecting a Suitable Reference
3. The Basics
4. Rectangular Course
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how wind can affect the ground track of the airplane and has the
Standards ability to make the necessary corrections to maintain a uniform ground track, especially while
in the traffic pattern.

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver will make the traffic pattern much more natural and easier…

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A training maneuver in which the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all sides of a selected rectangular
area on the ground.

Why
This maneuver simulates the conditions encountered in a traffic pattern and therefore prepares the student for traffic
pattern work. It assists in practicing:
 Maintaining a specific relationship between the  Rolling out from a turn with the required wind
airplane and the ground correction angle to compensate for any drift caused
 Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground by wind
based references, manipulating the flight controls,  Establishing and correcting the wind correction
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument angle to maintain the track over the ground
indications  Preparing the pilot for the airport traffic pattern and
 Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for subsequent landing practice
groundspeed changes to maintain constant radius
turns

How:
1. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600’ - 1,000’ AGL (per the ACS)
i. ± 100’ restrictions
a. At 600’ AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000’ AGL, there is no room above
b. 800’AGL is a good altitude (slight difference than most normal patterns flown at 1,000’)
2. Selecting a Suitable Reference
A. A square or rectangular field, or an area with suitable ground references on all four sides should be selected
i. Like a traffic pattern, the sides should be 5,000 – 10,000’ in length (one to two miles)
B. Wind direction must be estimated (METAR, blowing smoke, water, trees, fields, or a 360 o turn noting ground
track)
i. Per the ACS, the maneuver should be entered on a 45o angle to the downwind leg
C. Only use references clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
D. The reference should allow for a nearby landing area in case of an emergency during the maneuver
E. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
i. Always be prepared for any type of emergency
ii. When preparing for the maneuver, select a reference field and an emergency landing area
3. The Basics
A. The rectangular course is designed to replicate a traffic pattern
B. The aircraft should be flown parallel to, and at a uniform distance, about ½ to ¾ mile, from the boundaries

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i. The references should be easily observable from both seats

a. Do not fly directly above the boundaries since this will not provide useable reference points for turning
ii. Not too close to the boundaries to avoid very steep bank angles
C. All turns should be started and completed at the field boundaries (see maneuver picture)
i. The closer the aircraft is to the boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points
a. Airplane Flying Handbook: Limit bank to a maximum of 45o during any ground reference maneuver
b. May be more practical to practice at the traffic pattern limit of 30o of bank to establish good habits
D. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn
a. The rate of turn is the number of degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Rate of turn is affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
 Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the higher the rate of turn
ii. Radius of Turn
a. The radius of a turn describes the size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
 The radius is a measurement taken from the center of the circle to any point on the circle
b. Radius of turn is also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
a Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the smaller the radius of turn
E. Wind Correction
i. To maintain a course parallel/of equal distance to the boundaries wind must be accounted for throughout
the maneuver
ii. Whenever there is any crosswind, the airplane will have to be crabbed into the wind
a. Use coordinate flight controls to point the aircraft into the wind
b. Note the aircraft’s position in relation to the reference field, and adjust the crab as necessary to
maintain that distance
iii. Roll Rate
a. The rate of roll in/out of the turn will need to be adjusted to prevent drifting in or out of the course
 When the wind is from a direction that drifts the airplane into the course, use a slow roll rate

 When the wind is from a direction that drifts the airplane outside the course, roll rate should be high
iv. Bank Angle
a. The amount of bank used in each turn will vary depending on groundspeed
b. The faster the groundspeed (tailwind), the steeper the bank required to maintain the ground track
c. The slower the groundspeed (headwind), the shallower the bank required to maintain the ground track
d. As groundspeed changes during a turn, bank angle will have to change with it
 If the groundspeed is initially higher and then decreases through the turn, the bank angle should
progressively decrease throughout the turn
 If the groundspeed is initially slower and then increases through the turn, the bank angle should
progressively increase through the turn, until rollout is started
e. During turns, to maintain altitude, back pressure will need to be increased
f. Use visual references and the instrument indications to maintain course and altitude
v. CE: Improper correction for wind drift
a. Stay ahead of the aircraft and know what is coming next
 Are we transitioning from high to low speed; straight flight to a crosswind; etc.

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 Anticipate and adjust

a If the aircraft isn’t doing what you want, make a change
b. Understand the effects of wind on ground track, and groundspeed
c. Maintain coordination. Do not use rudder, to help the aircraft around the corner or to crab
F. Coordination
i. The airplane must remain in coordinated flight at all times
a. Don’t use the rudder to correct for wind drift, turn the plane with coordinated controls
b. Don’t use the rudder to encourage a turn, this could result in a dangerous crossed-control situation
ii. RM/CE: Uncoordinated flight
a. Often occurs when the pilot attempts to use rudder to correct for mistakes in wind correction
 Ex: Using rudder to compensate for wind or adjust turn radius can lead to cross-controlled situation
b. Stay coordinated
 Cross-controlled stalls near the ground can be extremely hazardous
G. Airspeed
i. Maintained by increasing or decreasing power as necessary
ii. ACS requires the pilot to maintain airspeed ± 10 knots
H. RM: Division of Attention
i. The maneuver requires you to divide attention between the leg distance, turns, altitude, and airspeed
a. Plan ahead and do not focus on one part of the maneuver (e.g. watching the ground)
ii. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
iii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
iv. CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a. The ACS requires ± 100’ and ± 10 knots
b. Divide attention and be proactive in correcting airspeed and altitude
c. Not exceeding 30o of bank will help maintain airspeed
v. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
a. Leads to poorly executed turns and wind correction
 Aircraft does not maintain desired course and constant corrections are required to maintain track
b. Plan ahead, know what’s coming next. Stay ahead of the aircraft!

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

4. Rectangular Course
A. Prior to Entry
i. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist - Lights ON; Fuel Pump ON; Mixture FULL RICH; Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. *Airspeed - 95 knots and trimmed for hands off, level flight
iv. Orientation - Orient yourself in relation to the wind, plan to enter on a 45o entry to the downwind
B. The Maneuver
i. Entry is made at a 45o to the downwind (like a traffic pattern)
a. Upon reaching ½ to ¾ miles from the field, turn to a downwind heading, parallel to the field
ii. Downwind Leg
a. Since the airplane has a direct tailwind, no wind correction is needed
 If the wind isn’t a perfect tailwind, point the airplane into the wind as necessary to maintain the
ground track
b. Anticipate and visualize the turn to the base leg
 The turn:
a High roll rate
b Steepest bank transitions to medium bank
c Greater than 90o turn
 Roll Rate
a A high roll rate is required to prevent the tailwind from pushing the aircraft away from the track

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

 Bank
a Remember, as groundspeed changes during a turn, bank has to change with it to maintain the
track
1. At the beginning of the turn, the airplane has the strongest tailwind and therefore the
highest groundspeed. Bank will be the steepest
2. As the turn progresses, the tailwind transitions to a crosswind. Groundspeed is decreasing,
therefore, bank will decrease as the airplane makes its way around the turn
 Roll Out/Amount of Turn
a On the base leg, the crosswind will tend to push the aircraft away from the field
b To compensate for the drift, the turn to the base leg will have to be more than 90 o, and a crab
will have to be established into the wind
1. When rolling out onto this leg, the airplane will be turned slightly toward the field/into the
wind
a. The amount of crab will vary based on the strength of the wind
i. Adjust the crab based on movement toward or away from the field
iii. Base Leg
a. Divide attention between outside and inside references to maintain distance from the reference and
aircraft altitude
b. The base leg is continued with the aircraft turned toward the field/into the wind until the upwind leg
boundary is being approached
c. Anticipate and visualize the turn to the upwind leg
 The turn:
a High roll rate
b Medium bank transitions to shallow bank
c Less than 90o Turn
 Roll Rate
a Since the wind is from a direction that will drift the aircraft toward the outside of the course, the
roll rate should be high
 Bank
a Remember, as groundspeed changes during a turn, bank will have to change with it to maintain
the track
1. At the beginning of the turn, the airplane is experiencing a crosswind (no headwind or
tailwind) and therefore an average groundspeed. Begin the turn with a medium bank angle
2. As the turn progresses, the crosswind transitions into a headwind. Groundspeed is
decreasing, therefore, bank will decrease as the airplane makes its way around the turn
 Roll Out/Amount of Turn
a On the upwind leg, the headwind will not affect the aircraft’s drift in relation to the desired
track. Roll out to parallel the upwind leg reference
b Because the aircraft was pointed toward the field when the turn was started, less than 90 o of
turn is required to rollout on the upwind leg
c If the wind is not a perfect headwind, adjust the crab as necessary to maintain course
iv. Upwind Leg
a. On the upwind leg, no wind correction is needed as the plane is headed directly into the wind
 Adjust as necessary if the wind isn’t a perfect headwind
b. Use visual references to maintain altitude and heading, cross check with the instruments
c. Anticipate and visualize the turn to the crosswind leg
 The Turn:

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a Low roll rate

b Shallow bank transitions to medium bank.
c Less than 90o Turn
 Roll Rate
a Because the wind is from a direction that will drift the aircraft into the course, a low roll rate
should be used to enter the turn
 Bank
a At the beginning of the turn, the airplane is experiencing a headwind and therefore the slowest
groundspeed. Begin the turn with a shallow bank angle
b As the turn progresses, the headwind transitions into a crosswind. Groundspeed is increasing,
therefore bank will increase as the airplane makes its way around the turn
 Roll Out/Amount of Turn
a On the crosswind leg, the crosswind will tend to push the aircraft toward the field
1. To compensate for the drift, the turn to the base leg will have to be less than 90 o, and a crab
will have to be established into the wind
2. When rolling out onto this leg, the airplane will be turned slightly away from the field/into
the wind
a. The amount of crab will vary based on the strength of the wind
i. Adjust the crab based on movement toward or away from the field
v. Crosswind Leg
a. While on the crosswind leg, the wind correction angle should be adjusted to keep proper distance
b. Anticipate and visualize the turn back to the downwind leg
 The turn:
a Low roll rate
b Medium bank transitions to steepest bank
c More than 90o Turn
 Roll Rate
a Because the wind is from a direction that will cause the aircraft to drift into the course, a low
rate of roll should be used
 Bank
a At the beginning of the turn, the airplane is experiencing a crosswind and therefore an average
groundspeed. Begin the turn with a medium bank angle
b As the turn progresses, the crosswind transitions into a tailwind. Groundspeed is increasing,
therefore bank will increase as the airplane makes its way around the turn
 Roll Out/Amount of Turn
a On the downwind leg, the aircraft will have a tailwind and should not require drift correction
1. The aircraft will be turned to rollout parallel to the reference line
2. Because the aircraft was pointed away from the field when the turn was started, the turn
will have to be greater than 90o to roll out parallel to the reference line
vi. Exit on the downwind leg
vii. Anomalies
a. In a perfect scenario, drift is not encountered on the upwind/downwind legs
 It may be difficult to find a situation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the boundaries
 Therefore, slight wind correction may be necessary on all the legs
5. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering

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C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
 Selection of a ground reference where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is important to anticipate turns to correct for ground speed, drift, and turning radius. When wind is with the plane,
turns must be steeper; when it’s against, turns must be slow/shallow. The same techniques apply in traffic patterns.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Rectangular course: enter a left or right pattern, 600 to 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) at an appropriate
distance from the selected reference area, 45° to the downwind leg
2. Maintain altitude ±100 feet; maintain airspeed ±10 knots.

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IX.E. S-Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to S-turns as described in the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Wind Correction

2. Coordination
3. Emergency Landing Area

Elements 1. Purpose of S-turns

2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
4. The Basics
5. Performing S-Turns

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the effects of wind on maintaining equilateral radii on each side of
Standards a reference line. The student will be able to make the necessary adjustments throughout the
turns due to the airplane’s changing position in relation to the wind.
 IX.E. S-Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver will provide a much better understanding of how the wind effects turning the airplane. And, it’s
considered to be easier than the rectangular course you already learned.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track describes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a selected
straight line on the ground

Why
S-turns develop the ability to:
 Maintain a specific relationship between the  Roll out from a turn with the required wind
airplane and the ground correction angle to compensate for any drift caused
 Divide attention between the flightpath, ground by wind
based references, manipulating the flight controls,  Establish and correct the wind correction angle to
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument maintain the track over the ground
indications  Compensate for drift in quickly changing
 Adjust the bank angle during turns to correct for orientations
groundspeed changes to maintain constant radius  Arrive at specific points on required headings
turns

How:
1. Purpose of S-turns
A. As mentioned above (in Why), and they present a practical application for the correction of wind during a turn
B. All of these abilities are useful throughout your flying career and when practiced enough will become second
nature, encouraging further development in more advanced maneuvers and safe, competent flying
2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600’ - 1,000’ AGL per the ACS
i. ± 100’ restrictions
a. At 600’ AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000’ AGL, there is no room above
b. 800’AGL is a good altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
A. A ground based straight line reference that is perpendicular to the wind should be selected
i. Options include roads, train tracks, fence lines, etc.
a. Something straight, perpendicular to the wind, long enough to make two turns over, and easy to see
B. Wind direction must be estimated (METAR, blowing smoke, water, trees, fields, or a 360 o noting ground track)
i. The maneuver will be entered on the downwind, crossing perpendicular to the ground reference line
C. Only use references clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
D. The reference should allow for a nearby landing area in case of an emergency during the maneuver
E. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance

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i. Always be prepared for any type of emergency

ii. When preparing for the maneuver, select a reference line and an emergency landing area
4. The Basics
A. The Maneuver
i. The maneuver consists of crossing the reference line at a 90o angle (perpendicular) on a downwind, and
immediately beginning a 180o, constant radius turn in one direction
ii. The pilot should reference the airplane’s nose and wingtips, and the ground references and adjust the
rollout so that the airplane crosses the straight-line ground reference with the wings level, at the proper
heading (opposite the entry heading), altitude, and airspeed
iii. As the airplane crosses the reference line, the pilot should immediately begin a 180 o, constant radius turn in
the opposite direction
B. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn
a. The rate of turn is the number of degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Rate of turn is affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
 Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the higher the rate of turn
ii. Radius of Turn
a. The radius of a turn describes the size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
 The radius is a measurement taken from the center of the circle to any point on the circle
b. Radius of turn is also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
a Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the smaller the radius of turn
C. To maintain the constant radius for each turn, the pilot constantly adjusts roll rate and bank angle for the effects
of wind and changing groundspeed
i. Roll Rate
a. The rate of roll in/out of the turn will need to be adjusted to prevent drifting in or out of the course
 When the wind is from a direction that could push the airplane away from the reference line (and
the aircraft has a high groundspeed), the rate of roll should be high/
a Ex: Entering the maneuver on the downwind leg
 When the wind is from a direction that could take the aircraft toward the reference line (and the
aircraft has a lower groundspeed), the roll rate should be slow
a Ex: Starting the second turn, on the upwind leg
ii. Bank Angle
a. As groundspeed increases, bank angle will need to increases, and as groundspeed decreases, bank angle
will need to decrease
 For example, when starting the maneuver on the downwind (highest groundspeed), bank starts the
steepest and is gradually shallowed as the aircraft turns into the wind and groundspeed decreases
 The opposite occurs on the second turn as the headwind transitions back into a tailwind
iii. Wind Correction Angle
a. In addition to the rate of roll and bank angle, the pilot must also control the wind correction angle to
maintain a constant radius
 For example, if the pilot starts the maneuver with a left turn, and the airplane is exactly crosswind,
at the 90o point of the turn, with a crosswind requiring 10 o wind correction angle, the airplane
would be flying a heading that is 10o ahead when directly over the 90o ground reference point. In

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other words, to compensate for the crosswind and prevent the aircraft from being pushed away
from the reference line, the first 90 o track over the ground would result in a heading change of 100
o
, and the last 90 o track over the ground would result in 80 o of heading change
 In the second turn, to the right, the heading change would be the reverse. The first 90 o of turn
would result in 80o of heading change, and the second 90o of turn would result in 100o of heading
change
b. The wind correction angle varies with the strength of the crosswind
 The stronger the crosswind, the greater the wind correction angle required
 The wind correction angle will increase from the start of the turn to the 90 o point (max crosswind),
and then decrease from the 90o point to the rollout
D. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
i. This leads to poorly executed turns and wind correction. The aircraft does not maintain the desired course
and constant corrections are required to maintain the turns
ii. Plan ahead, know what’s coming next. Stay ahead of the aircraft!
iii. In time this will become second nature

5. Performing S-Turns
A. Prior to Entry
i. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist - Lights ON; Fuel Pump ON; Mixture FULL RICH; Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. *Airspeed - 95 knots and trimmed for hands off, level flight
iv. Orient yourself with the wind, pick a reference line perpendicular to the wind, plan to enter on the
downwind
B. The Maneuver
i. Entry
a. The road/line should be approached on the downwind (perpendicular to the line), 800’ AGL
 Minimize your workload – enter the maneuver on airspeed and altitude, and trimmed for level flight
b. CE: Faulty entry procedure

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 IX.E. S-Turns

 Be aware of the wind direction in relation to your reference line. Ensure entry on the downwind
(with a tailwind), perpendicular to the reference line
a It is standard practice to enter ground reference maneuvers downwind where the groundspeed
is the greatest
 Set yourself up for success. Give yourself the time and distance necessary to maneuver the aircraft
and set up for the entry
ii. Downwind Side of the Turn (1st Half)
a. General
 Highest ground speed (tailwind) at the start of the turn, transitioning to the lowest ground speed
(headwind) at the end of the turn
 Highest bank angle and rate of roll at the start of the turn, decreasing throughout to maintain a
constant radius
 The first turn establishes the radius for the second turn
b. Bank Angle and Roll Rate
 Due to the high groundspeed, the roll into the turn must be rapid, and the angle of bank must be
the steepest
a A normal rate of roll at these speeds will result in the aircraft being pushed farther away from
the reference line, hindering the pilot’s ability to maintain a constant radius
 As the turn progresses and airspeed decreases, the bank angle and rate of rollout must be
decreased
a If bank was not decreased, the turn would get progressively tighter as groundspeed decreased
 At the 90o crosswind position, the airplane should also have the correct crosswind correction angle
a This will vary based on the strength of the crosswind
c. Completing the Turn
 The pilot should reference the airplane’s nose and wingtips, and the ground references and adjust
the rollout so that the airplane crosses the ground reference line with the wings level, at the proper
heading (opposite the entry heading), altitude, and airspeed
iii. Upwind Side of the Turn (2nd Half)
a. General
 At the instant the road is crossed, a turn in the opposite direction should be started
 Slowest groundspeed (headwind) at the start of this turn, transitioning back to the highest
groundspeed (tailwind) at the end of the turn
 To maintain the constant radius turn, a shallow bank angle and slow rate of roll is required at the
start of the turn, increasing throughout the turn as groundspeed increases
b. Bank Angle and Roll Rate
 Since the aircraft is flying into a headwind (slowest groundspeed) when this turn starts, the rate of
roll must be smooth and gentle, and the bank angle shallow
a This prevents a tight turn in relation to the reference line (smaller radius than the first turn) and
being unable to complete 180o of turn before re-crossing the reference line
b Visualize the turn, and increase bank slowly during the early part of the turn
 As the turn progresses, the headwind slowly transitions to a crosswind and then a tailwind, meaning
the rate of roll and bank angle need to be increased as groundspeed increases to maintain a
symmetrical ground track
 At the 90o crosswind position, the airplane should also have the correct crosswind correction angle
a This will vary based on the strength of the crosswind
c. Completing the Turn
d. Again, the rollout must be timed so straight and level is reached over and perpendicular to the road

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 IX.E. S-Turns

 Judge the closure rate and increase bank to cross wings level
iv. CE: An unsymmetrical ground track, and Improper correction for wind drift
a. Understand how the wind affects the aircraft
 Bank, roll rate, and the wind correction angle must be adjusted properly for changing groundspeed
and the effects of the wind
b. Stay ahead of the plane
 Visualize the wind in relation to the aircraft and know what’s coming next
C. Maintaining a Constant Altitude
i. The pilot should maintain altitude ± 100’ per the ACS
ii. Trim the aircraft for level flight prior to starting the maneuver
iii. As bank increases, back elevator pressure will need to be increased to maintain altitude
a. Divide your attention, don’t fixate on just the turn radius
D. Maintaining a Constant Airspeed
i. A constant power setting and a stable altitude go a long way in maintaining a constant airspeed
a. Power may have to be adjusted as bank and back elevator pressure increase due to increased drag
 Again, divide your attention, don’t fixate and adjust power as necessary to maintain airspeed
E. RM: Division of Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
iii. CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a. Don’t fixate
 Divide attention between the turn and wind, flying the aircraft, and your surroundings
b. Be proactive in making corrections
 Small, frequent corrections are much more effective than large infrequent corrections
c. Understand your aircraft
 The more you fly, the more you’ll know what to expect from your aircraft
a i.e. the amount of back pressure required to maintain level flight in differing amounts of bank,
or when and how much power is required to maintain a constant airspeed
F. Coordination
i. As in all phases of flight, it is important to maintain proper coordination
a. Do not use uncoordinated rudder to fix the radius of the turn or to force the aircraft to cross
perpendicular to the reference line as this could result in a dangerous cross-controlled situation
ii. RM/CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a. Often times pilots can try to cheat the turn with rudder to adjust the radius or cross the reference line
on a perpendicular track
 Not only does this defeat the purpose of S-turns, but it also can put the aircraft in to a dangerous
cross-controlled situation
b. Maintain coordination and adjust the bank angle and roll rate to fix the turn radius
6. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

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 IX.E. S-Turns

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for wind drift
 An unsymmetrical ground track
 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
 Selection of a ground reference line without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Bank is constantly changing to track a constant radius turn on each side of the reference line as the airplane’s position
relative to the wind is changing.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. S-turns: enter perpendicular to the selected reference line, 600 to 1,000 feet AGL at an appropriate distance from
the selected reference area
2. Maintain altitude ±100 feet; maintain airspeed ±10 knots.

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IX.E. Turns Around a Point

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge regarding the performance of a turn around a point.
Knowledge will include the elements listed below. Performance of the maneuver should be to
ACS/PTS standards.

Key Elements 1. Increased Groundspeed = Increased Bank

2. Decreased Groundspeed = Decreased Bank
3. Maintain Coordination

Elements 1. Purpose of Turns Around a Point

2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
4. The Basics
5. Performing Turns Around a Point
6. Recap

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
Standards proficiency in turns around a point. The student understands the effect of wind on an aircraft’s
course over the ground primarily during a turn.
 IX.E. Turns Around a Point

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This exercise shows the difference between the aircraft's motion in the air, and its ground track. These are different
because the aircraft is subject to the moving air mass in which it flies. If wind exists, a ground track with constant
radius will require a constantly changing bank angle to correct for wind.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two or more complete circles of uniform radii or distance from a
prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of approximately 45o while maintaining a constant altitude.

Why
Turns around a point teach the pilot to:
 Maintain a specific relationship between the  Improve competency in managing the quickly
airplane and the ground changing bank angles
 Divide attention between the flightpath, ground  Establish and adjust the wind correction angle to
based references, manipulating the flight controls, maintain the track over the ground
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument  Compensate for drift in quickly changing
indications orientations
 Adjust the bank angle during turns to correct for  Develop further awareness that the radius of a turn
groundspeed changes to maintain constant radius is correlated to the bank angle
turns

How:
1. Purpose of Turns Around a Point
A. Turns around a point develop the ability to:
i. Divide attention between the flight path and ground references
ii. Develop recognition of drift towards or away from a ground reference while maintaining altitude
iii. Further perfect the turning technique and the ability to correct for wind drift in turns
B. All of these abilities are useful throughout your flying career and when practiced enough will become second
nature, encouraging further development in more advanced maneuvers and safe, competent flying
2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600’ - 1,000’ AGL
i. ± 100’ restrictions
a. At 600’ AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000’ AGL, there is no room for error above
b. 800’ AGL is a good altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
A. Very important as the maneuver is done in close proximity to the ground
B. The point should be:
i. Prominent and easily distinguishable by the pilot
ii. Small enough to present precise reference

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 IX.E. Turns Around a Point

a. Exs: Isolated trees, crossroads, etc.

b. A pond is too big
c. Intersections are very good
 Especially 4-way intersections which provide 90o markers around the turn
C. Only use references clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
D. The reference should allow for a nearby landing area in case of an emergency during the maneuver
E. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
i. Always be prepared for any type of emergency
ii. When preparing for the maneuver, select a reference line and an emergency landing area
4. The Basics
A. The Maneuver
i. Consecutive, constant radius 360o turns where, throughout the maneuver, the pilot must constantly adjust
the bank angle and the rate of turn due to the wind’s varying affect at different points in the turn
B. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn
a. The rate of turn is the number of degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Rate of turn is affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
 Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the higher the rate of turn
ii. Radius of Turn
a. The radius of a turn describes the size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
 The radius is a measurement taken from the center of the circle to any point on the circle
b. Radius of turn is also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
a Therefore, the higher the bank angle and the slower the airspeed, the smaller the radius of turn
C. Wind Correction
i. Roll Rate
a. The rate of rolling in and out of the turn will need to be adjusted to prevent drifting in or out of the
desired radius
 When the wind is from a direction that pushes the airplane away from the reference point (and the
aircraft has a high groundspeed), the rate of roll should be high
a Ex: Entering the maneuver on the downwind leg
b A slow roll rate would increase the radius of the turn on the downwind side
 When the wind is from a direction that could take the aircraft toward the reference line (and the
aircraft has a lower groundspeed), the roll rate should be slow
a Ex: Starting the second half of the turn, into the wind
b A rapid roll rate in this situation would tighten the radius on the upwind side
ii. Bank Angle
a. To maintain a constant radius around the point, the pilot must adjust bank to compensate for changing
groundspeeds
 The higher the groundspeed (or the greater the tailwind), the higher the bank required to maintain
the constant radius turn
 The lower the groundspeed (or greater the headwind), the lower the bank required to maintain the
constant radius turn
iii. Wind Correction Angle

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a. In addition to the rate of roll and bank angle, the pilot must also control the wind correction angle to
maintain a constant radius
 For example, imagine starting the maneuver with a left turn, directly on the downwind. At the 90 o
point of the turn, the airplane is exactly crosswind, and experiencing a crosswind that requires 10 o
of wind correction angle. To maintain the radius, the airplane would be flying a heading that is 10 o
ahead of the turn when directly over the 90o ground reference point. In other words, to compensate
for the crosswind and prevent the aircraft from being pushed away from the reference point, the
first 90 o track over the ground would result in a heading change of 100 o, and the second 90o track
over the ground would result in 80 o of heading change
D. RM: Division of Attention
i. The pilot must learn to divide attention between the reference point, the aircraft, what’s coming next in the
turn, and their surroundings
a. Monitor the reference point to ensure the radius is being properly maintained
b. Glance between inside and outside references to maintain airspeed, altitude, and coordination
c. Look forward and prepare for what is coming next (for example, changing bank, wind correction, etc.)
d. Always keep an eye out for other traffic or threats
 As bank becomes shallower, use the increased field of view as an opportunity to check for traffic
e. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Look ahead, plan ahead and divide attention throughout the maneuver
E. Remember, the goal is to make a constant radius turn over the ground, and because the airplane is flying
through a moving air mass, the pilot must constantly adjust the bank angle, roll rate, and wind correction angle
5. Performing Turns Around a Point
A. Prior to Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. Airspeed
a. At or below VA - Trim the airplane for hands off level flight prior to entry
B. Entry Procedure
i. Position the aircraft to enter the maneuver downwind, where the groundspeed is the highest, and at the
proper distance from the point
a. In general, enter abeam the point approximately ¼ to ½ mile radius from the point
b. In a high wing airplane, the lowered wing may block the view of the ground reference point. To prevent
this, the pilot may need to change the maneuvering altitude or turn radius
 Ensure the reference point is visible at all times
c. Provide yourself the time and distance required to properly setup for entry into the maneuver
 Set yourself up for success, don’t rush into the maneuver. Take the time to be established on
altitude and airspeed, and trimmed for level flight
ii. Note the entry heading
a. Use it throughout the maneuver to maintain orientation and help in planning
iii. CE: Faulty entry procedure
a. A faulty entry procedure complicates the rest of the maneuver
 Enter established – on altitude, airspeed and trimmed, at the proper distance – to minimize the
number of corrections required
C. The Turn
i. Abeam the point
a. Coordinated roll into the turn maintaining the ¼ to ½ mile reference with a steep bank angle (≤ 45 o)
 As bank is increased, back pressure will have to be increased to maintain altitude

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ii. First Half of the Turn (Downwind Half)

a. Starts with the steepest bank and ends with the shallowest bank
b. As the turn progresses, the aircraft begins with a tailwind which transitions to a crosswind, then a
headwind – groundspeed progressively decreases through the turn
 The bank angle should be gradually reduced to maintain the constant radius
a As bank angle is reduced, less back pressure is needed to maintain altitude
b CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
1. Divide attention between the turn and the aircraft
2. Be proactive in making changes
3. As bank angle increases, back pressure needs to be increased, and power may need to be
increased as well
c. The pilot should progressively adjust the aircraft’s heading toward the inside of the turn to establish a
wind correction angle (or crab) and prevent being pushed outside of the circle
 The crab increases until reaching the 90o point of the turn (or the maximum crosswind), and then
decreases as the wind transitions away from a crosswind and into a headwind
 As a rule, on the downwind half of the turn, the nose is turned toward the inside
 CE: Improper correction for wind drift
a Stay coordinated
b Understand the effects of crosswind on each side of the turn
d. Always keep the turn coordinated
 As the bank is reduced, rudder pressure will reduce
 RM/CE: - Uncoordinated flight
a Defeat the purpose of turns around a point
b Can place the aircraft in a cross controlled state close to the ground
e. At the end of the first half of the turn, bank should be at its most shallow point, and the crab should be
entirely removed
 The aircraft is in a direct headwind, therefore lowest groundspeed and lowest bank angle
 A direct headwind requires no crab
iii. Second Half of the Turn (Upwind Half)
a. Opposite of the first half - Slowly move from a shallow to steep bank
b. As the turn progresses, the aircraft will experience a headwind which transitions to a crosswind and then
back to a tailwind
 As groundspeed increases, bank will need to increase to maintain the desired turning radius
a As the bank angle is increased, more back pressure is necessary to maintain altitude
b CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
c. During the second half of the turn, the pilot should progressively adjust the aircraft’s heading toward the
outside of the turn to prevent being blown toward the reference point
 The crab increases until reaching the 90o point of the turn (or the maximum crosswind), and then
decreases as the wind transitions away from a crosswind and into a tailwind
 As a rule, on the upwind half of the circle the nose is turned toward the outside
 CE: Improper correction of wind drift
d. Always keep the airplane coordinated
 As the bank is increased, rudder pressure will increase
 Do not use just rudder to adjust the turn radius
 CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
e. At the end of the second half of the turn, the bank should return to the same bank angle used entering
the maneuver

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 The end of the second half of the turn places the aircraft at the starting point of the maneuver, with
a tailwind
a This requires the steepest bank and no crab
D. Exit
i. Once at least 2 turns have been completed, initiate a smooth rollout on the initial entry heading

6. Recap
A. Theoretically, if there were no wind, bank angle would be constant all the way around the turn - no wind to
correct for
i. There also would be no need to crab
B. The stronger the wind, the more the bank angle will have to be varied throughout the maneuver
i. Max bank angle should be no more than 45o at the steepest point
C. The steeper the bank, the more back pressure required to maintain altitude
D. Helpful to pick out targets along the flight path
i. Such as barn, building, lake, etc. usually at ¼ intervals along the circle
a. 4-way intersection is a very useful reference point
ii. Helps to maintain the circle and ensures the airplane is in the right place at the right time
7. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed

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 Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
This maneuver works to establish a better understanding of the airplane’s turning tendencies due to changing
crosswinds while helping the pilot learn to divide attention between controlling the airplane and other traffic.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Plan the maneuver:
o Turns around a point: enter at an appropriate distance from the reference point, 600 to 1,000 feet AGL at an
appropriate distance from the selected reference area
2. Maintain altitude ±100 feet; maintain airspeed ±10 knots.

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IX.D. Eights on Pylons

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements behind the Eights on Pylons maneuver
and have the ability to perform the maneuver to ACS/PTS standards.

Key 1. Points moves forward: Forward Pressure

Elements 2. Point moves backward: Backward Pressure
3. Small, coordinated corrections

1. What is Pivotal Altitude?

Elements 2. The Basics
3. Calculating Pivotal Altitude
4. Performing Eights on Pylons

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student understands Pivotal Altitude and the accompanying
Standards concepts to Eights on Pylons. The student also will have the ability to properly fly the
maneuver.
 IX.D. Eights on Pylons

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The eights on pylons maneuver started in WWI. This maneuver was developed to
maintain a constant view of a target, allowing the gunner to destroy a target. A more
practical application now, is keeping the wing out of the way for aerial photography.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Eights on Pylons is an advanced maneuver in which the pilot’s attention is directed at maintaining a pivotal position
on a selected pylon, with minimum attention inside the cockpit.
The maneuver itself involves flying the airplane in a figure eight path around two selected points, or pylons, on the
ground. However, no attempt is made to maintain a uniform distance from the pylon. Instead, the goal is to have an
imaginary line that extends from the pilot’s eyes to the pylon. This line must be imagined to always be parallel to the
airplane’s lateral axis. Along this line, the airplane appears to pivot as it turns around the pylon. In other words, if a
taut string extended from the airplane to the pylon, the string would remain parallel to lateral axis as the airplane
turned around the pylon. At no time should the string be at an angle to the lateral axis.

Why
The objective of this maneuver is to develop the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing one’s
attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground. Eights on Pylons are extremely helpful in
teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of the airplane.

How:
1. What is Pivotal Altitude
A. General Description
i. A specific altitude at which, for a given groundspeed, the projection of the visual reference line to the pylon
appears to pivot
a. Basically, the pivotal altitude is the altitude which keeps the pylon in the same position on the window
(or other aircraft reference, like the wingtip) as the aircraft turns around it
 Pivotal altitude varies with groundspeed
 The reference line is parallel with the lateral axis of the airplane
a *Off the wingtip in the case of the DA20
b In a swept wing aircraft, there will be no wing reference, so the point has to be kept in the same
position on the window
1. The same as keeping the pylon in the center of a target on the window (image, left)
ii. When turning at the pivotal altitude, the wingtip appears to be fixed to a single point on the landscape, but
at any height other than the pivotal altitude, the wing tip appears to move across the landscape
a. When turning at a height greater than the pivotal altitude, which is the normal situation in flight, the
wingtip appears to move backward over the landscape
b. When at a height less than pivotal altitude (close to the ground) the wingtip appears to move forward

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2. The Basics
A. Pivotal Altitude is Based on Groundspeed
i. As groundspeed increases, pivotal altitude increases, vice versa
a. Pivotal altitude does not change with bank
 Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank (more below)
ii. Since the headings throughout the turns continually vary from directly downwind to directly upwind, the
groundspeed will constantly change
a. This will result in the pivotal altitude varying throughout the maneuver
 The pilot must climb or descend to compensate for the changing groundspeed and to maintain the
visual reference with the pylon
 The change in altitude will depend on how much the wind affects groundspeed
a Strong winds create larger changes in altitude than light winds
b No wind would result in no change in altitude
B. Maintaining the Pivotal Altitude References
i. Pitch
a. As groundspeed decreases, pivotal altitude decreases
 If no changes are made, as the aircraft slows it will be above the pivotal altitude
a The wing will appear to move backward across the landscape
b The point will move forward in relation to the wing
 To compensate, the pilot must descend to maintain the reference line to the pylon
a Airspeed increases slightly, increasing pivotal altitude
1. In effect, we descend to the lower pivotal altitude, and the pivotal altitude comes up to us
 General Rule: If the point moves FORWARD, apply FORWARD pressure
b. As groundspeed increases, pivotal altitude increases as well
 If no changes are made as the aircraft accelerates, it will be below the pivotal altitude

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a The wing will appear to move forward across the landscape

b The point will move backward in relation to the wing
 To compensate, the pilot must climb to maintain the reference line to the pylon
a Airspeed decreases slightly, decreasing pivotal altitude
1. In effect, we climb to the higher pivotal altitude, and the pivotal altitude comes down to us
 General Rule: If the point moves BACKWARD, apply BACK pressure
c. Corrections and Wind Speed
 Corrections are like tracking a VOR
a Once the correction is made (or an intercept angle is established), remove the correction when
the pylon is back on the line-of-sight reference (or “intercepting the radial”)
1. Don’t make the correction and hold it
a. That will result in going above/below the pivotal altitude
 Changes in pitch/altitude are based on wind speed
a The greater the wind speed, the greater the variation in the max/min pivotal altitudes
 Too strong of winds becomes unsafe
a We get closer and closer to the ground
b Also, the airplane can be blown very close to the pylon, requiring very high bank angles
d. RM/CE - Uncoordinated flight, and Application of rudder to maintain “line-of-sight” on the pylon
 This is the most common error in eights on pylons
 Do not use the rudder to yaw the wing forward or backward to maintain the line-of-sight reference
 Use altitude changes to hold the reference point on the pylon
 Cross controlled flight is dangerous, especially close to the ground
ii. Bank
a. Performed at bank angles ranging from shallow to steep (no more than 40o per the ACS)
 The bank chosen does not alter the pivotal altitude
b. Distance from the pylon affects bank
 As wind pushes the aircraft toward or away from the pylons, bank will have to be adjusted to
maintain the reference line
c. If the pylon moves above your reference point (i.e. above the wing tip), the aircraft is banked too steep,
should be decreased to maintain the reference
d. If the pylon moves below your reference point (i.e. below the wing tip), the bank is too shallow, and
bank should be increased to maintain the reference
e. Note: Per the Airplane Flying Handbook, as proficiency is gained, the instructor should increase the
complexity of the maneuver by directing the student to enter at a distance from the pylon that requires
a specific bank angle at the steepest point in the pylon turn
iii. RM: Energy Management & Power
a. Pivotal altitude is based on groundspeed
 Properly set power prior to entering the maneuver to keep the desired indicated airspeed consistent
 Changes in power lead to changes in airspeed
a Changes in airspeed will adjust the pivotal altitude and lead to changes in pitch
 The more consistent the power setting, the more consistent the airspeed
a This leads to a smoother maneuver that requires less work from the pilot
iv. CE: Use of an improper “line-of-sight” reference
a. *In the case of the DA20 (and most non-swept, low wing aircraft) place the wingtip on the reference
point and adjust keep it there

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3. Calculating Pivotal Altitude

A. Equation to estimate pivotal altitude
i. For Knots – ¿) + MSL
ii. For MPH – (Groundspeed 2 ÷ 15) + MSL
B. Never going to be exact – use the planned true airspeed and estimated winds at altitude
C. Calculate the highest pivotal altitude: TAS + tailwind (highest groundspeed)
i. Use a flight computer
a. Take into account wind direction, speed, and true airspeed to get groundspeed
D. Calculate the lowest pivotal altitude: TAS – headwind (lowest groundspeed)
i. Remember that when in a headwind, we will be descending
a. Groundspeed will be slightly faster than planned and if the wind estimates are correct, we won’t get as
low as expected
E. Calculating the highest and lowest pivotal altitude will
provide an expected altitude window
i. If the altitudes are not safe, do not perform the
maneuver
4. Performing Eights on Pylons
A. Selecting the Pylons
i. Select two points on the ground along a line which
lies perpendicular to the wind
ii. The pylons should be:
a. Sufficiently prominent so the pilot can view them when completing the turn around one pylon and
heading for the next
b. Adequately spaced to provide time for planning the turns but not spaced so far apart that they cause
unnecessary straight-and-level flight between the pylons
 The distance between the pylons should allow the straight-and-level segment to last 3-5 seconds
 About ½ mile apart is a good estimate

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 IX.D. Eights on Pylons

a The length of a small runway

c. At the same elevation, since differences over a few feet require climbing or descending between turns
d. In an open area and are not near hills or obstructions
e. The smaller the pylon, the easier to notice changes in movement (as long as you can see it)
iii. RM/CE: Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
a. Performed at low altitudes
b. There will be very little time and distance to glide to an emergency landing area
 Select reference points in an area that provides for an emergency landing
c. Plan ahead, know what you will do and where you will go in the case of an emergency

B. Before the Maneuver

i. Pre-maneuver checklist
ii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Below, at, and above your altitude
iii. The airplane should be trimmed for straight and level flight, at or below VA
C. Entering the Maneuver
i. Enter at a 45o angle to the downwind to make the first turn to the left around the left pylon
a. The left turn puts the pylon out the left window (easiest to see), rather than looking over the right seat
passenger and through the right window
b. Make note of the entry heading as it will be the exit heading as well (bug the heading)
ii. Fly to the midpoint between the pylons
iii. A downwind entry starts with the highest groundspeed and therefore the highest pivotal altitude
iv. Fly straight-and-level until the pylon is just ahead of the reference line, then roll into a 30 o-40o bank
a. Not to exceed 40o
v. Place the wingtip at the base of the pylon
vi. CE: Faulty entry procedure, and Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
a. Plan ahead, orient yourself with the wind and enter at 45o to the downwind
b. Preflight planning will get the aircraft as close as possible to the pivotal altitude
 Small adjustments are likely necessary

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D. First Turn
i. Entry is at the highest groundspeed
a. Continuing through the turn, into an increasing headwind, groundspeed will get progressively slower
 Pivotal altitude will decrease
a If no corrections are made, the pylon will move forward of the wing tip
1. Forward movement = forward pressure
b. Descend to maintain correct pivotal altitude/reference point
 Do not wait for the pylon to get significantly out of position, make consistent small corrections
 Any airspeed gained in the descent increases pivotal altitude and helps correct the visual reference
ii. Continuing the turn
a. Continuing the turn, groundspeed will begin to increase, and therefore pivotal altitude will increase
 Climb to maintain pivotal altitude and the visual reference
a If no corrections are made the pylon will move backward in relation to the wingtip
1. Backward movement = back pressure
b Any airspeed lost in the climb decreases pivotal altitude and helps correct the visual reference
b. The relative wind will push the airplane towards the pylon
 Bank angle will increase to maintain the visual reference
a Remember, bank angle has no effect on pivotal altitude
b No drift correction required since there’s no requirement to maintain a constant radius
c Stay coordinated
E. Transitioning between Pylons
i. As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading, the rollout of the turn should be started
a. The airplane should proceed diagonally to a point on the downwind side of the 2 nd pylon
ii. Maintain straight and level flight for 3 to 5 seconds
iii. Crab into the wind to correct for wind drift
iv. Initiate a turn in the opposite direction when the pylon is aligned with the wing reference point
v. CE: Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
a. Plan ahead. Look ahead of the aircraft’s position to anticipate what comes next
 Smooth, proactive control inputs throughout the maneuver provide the pilot a much greater ability
to think and plan ahead
b. Know the entry and exit headings
vi. CE: Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
a. The nose of the aircraft will have to point into the wind to properly correct for drift
b. Maintain situational awareness of the aircraft in relation to the wind
 This should be occurring throughout the maneuver, so the transition between the pylons should be
no different
 The stronger the wind, the greater the correction required
F. Second Turn
i. Entry is once again at the highest groundspeed, and therefore the highest pivotal altitude
a. As the turn continues, groundspeed decreases as the aircraft experiences more of a headwind
 Pivotal altitude decreases
a Descend to correct for changing groundspeed
b The pylon will begin moving in front of the wingtip
1. Forward movement = forward pressure
ii. Continuing the turn, the headwind will transition into more of a tailwind, and an increasing groundspeed
a. Increasing groundspeed = Increasing pivotal altitude
b. The pylon will move backward in relation to the wingtip

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 Backward movement = back pressure (climb)

a Any airspeed lost in the climb reduces groundspeed and lowers the pivotal altitude
c. At this point, relative wind also pushes the airplane closer to the pylon
 Bank must increase to maintain visual reference
G. Exit
i. After completing one rotation around each pylon, roll wings level, and exit on the entry heading
H. RM/CE: Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
i. The entire maneuver is based on planning ahead (pivotal altitude), orienting yourself in relation to the wind
and dividing attention between the aircraft, the reference points and what is coming next
a. Solid planning, starting with the pivotal altitude calculations on the ground, wind direction and
reference point selection in the air, and smooth, proactive control inputs during the maneuver will make
the eights on pylons much easier to perform
b. Poor planning results in a sloppy, considerably more difficult maneuver
ii. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation does not just include the bank angle/pitch attitude, but also where you are (airspace,
terrain, etc.) and what or who is around you (aircraft, airports, etc.)
iii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Use of an improper “line-of-sight” reference
 Application of rudder alone to maintain “line-of-sight” on the pylon
 Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
 Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
 Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
If the point moves forward, apply forward pressure
If the point moves backward, apply back pressure
Eights on Pylons is the most advanced and most difficult of the low altitude flight training maneuvers. Because of the
various techniques involved, this maneuver is unsurpassed for teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of
the airplane.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Establish the correct bank angle for the conditions, not to exceed 40°.

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IX. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
d. Divide attention between inside and outside references
e. If SA is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position (if landing, go around; if disoriented, trust the instruments and get to a safe
attitude/altitude) and then solve the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
 IX. RM Concepts

a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
 Applicable in all phases of flight, especially important in high traffic areas
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Plan well and be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard
a. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to
persons or property on the surface
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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 IX. RM Concepts

3. Low Altitude Maneuvering

A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
i. There is considerably less time to handle any issues at a low altitude
ii. Avoid distractions, maintain situational awareness, and fly precisely
B. Be aware of, and avoid obstructions on and around the airfield
i. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. Keep airspeed in your crosscheck, especially at the lower speeds associated with takeoff and landing
c. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction
 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)
 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again
d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes to preventing CFIT include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to
safely operate the aircraft throughout its entire operating range
b. How the flight is planned and handled largely determines the safety of the flight
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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X. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins
X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives To develop an understanding and proficiency of the flight characteristics and controllability of
an aircraft in slow flight. A “feel” for the airplane at low speeds should be developed to avoid
inadvertent stalls and to operate with precision. The student should perform to ACS standards.

Key Elements 1. Pitch for Airspeed

2. Power for Altitude
3. Stay Coordinated

Elements 1. What is Slow Flight

2. Slow Flight Aerodynamics
a. Airspeed
b. Power & the Region of Reversed Command
c. Yaw Effects
d. Maneuvering Loads & Turns
e. Weight
f. Center of Gravity
g. Environmental Elements
3. Critical Flight Situations
4. Slow Flight and the Senses
5. Performing Slow Flight
6. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands factors affecting flight characteristics and controllability and shows
Standards the ability to control the airplane effectively in different configurations of slow flight.
X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
When the aircraft is flying at just above the stall speed, there is little margin for error. This maneuver will greatly
improve your piloting skills.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Slow flight is flight at a speed which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in power will
cause an immediate stall.

Why
The aircraft performs and is controlled differently at slower airspeeds. Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates
the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of an aircraft near the critical AOA. In normal operations, the
aircraft would not be flown this close to the critical AOA, but because the aircraft is flown at higher angles of attack
and slower airspeeds in many phases of flight (takeoff, landing, go-around), understanding how the aircraft performs
and is controlled at reduced speeds is essential, especially in the case the aircraft ends up slower than intended.

How:
1. What is Slow Flight
A. Technically, any speed less than cruise speed, however, in pilot training, it can be broken into two elements
i. The establishment, maintenance of, and maneuvering of the aircraft at airspeeds and in configurations
appropriate to takeoffs, climbs, descents, landing approaches and go-arounds
a. i.e., phases of flight other than cruise
b. This description is most applicable to every day flying
ii. Flight at a speed which any further increase in AOA or load
factor, or reduction in power will result in a stall warning
a. This description is used for the slow flight maneuver
b. Objective is to understand the flight characteristics and
how the flight controls feel near the critical AOA
2. Slow Flight Aerodynamics
A. Airspeed
i. An increase or decrease in airspeed increases or decreases lift, affecting AOA and attitude
a. As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain lift and altitude (and vice versa)
ii. In relation to slow flight, the slower the airspeed, the higher the AOA required
a. Closer to the critical AOA
B. Power & the Region of Reversed Command
i. Normal Command
a. As airspeed decreases, total drag decreases, until reaching a point (L/DMAX)
 This is the normal region of command – while maintaining an altitude, higher speeds require higher
power settings, and lower speeds require lower power settings
ii. Region of Reversed Command
a. As airspeed decreases below L/DMAX, total drag begins to increase

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

 This is referred to as the region of reversed command

iii. Below L/DMAX, while maintaining altitude, slower airspeeds require higher power settings and faster
airspeeds require lower power
iv. Thus, when in the region of reversed command, the slower the airspeed, the more power required

C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction
a. Newton’s 3rd Law – Every action has an equal/opposite reaction
 The engine/propeller rotate one way; an equal force tries to
rotate the plane the opposite direction
b. Although torque reaction is more of a rolling tendency than a
yaw effect, it does contribute to the left turning tendencies
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. The high-speed rotation of the propeller sends air in a
corkscrew rotation to the rear of the aircraft
 Air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the
nose of aircraft left
b. At high propeller speeds/low forward speeds (like in slow flight)
the rotation is compact & pronounced
 Exerts a strong sideward force on the vertical tail causing
yaw to the left
 As forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and
becomes less effective
c. Countered with coordinate rudder and aileron
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
 Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)
 Precession - The resultant action of a spinning rotor when a
force is applied to its rim
a If a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of turn
1. This causes a pitch/yaw moment or combo of the two depending on where applied
 Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
 Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
b. In relation to slow flight, lifting the nose results in a yaw to the left
 Correction is made with elevator and rudder pressures to maintain pitch attitude & coordination

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)

a. When flying at a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is
greater than the up moving blade
 Moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc
area (causing a yaw to the left)
b. In relation to slow flight, the high angle of attack associated with
slow flight results in an increase in p-factor which needs to be
compensated for with right rudder
vi. Big Picture
a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination during slow flight
b. When introducing turns:
 A right turn requires even more right rudder
 A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
D. Maneuvering Loads & Turns
i. Load factor: Ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
ii. Any increase in load factor increases stall speed
iii. Turns
a. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all turns
b. Load factor increases at a high rate after 45o-50o of bank
 At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½
iv. Slow Flight & Controllability
a. In slow flight the airplane is already very close to the stall speed
b. The increased load factor associated with a turn in slow flight can quickly put the aircraft into a stall
 Use gentle, coordinated, low bank turns during slow flight to prevent a potential stall
a 10o of bank is generally a good target (depending on the aircraft)
c. Do not use aggressive control inputs – slow and smooth

E. Weight
i. The heavier an aircraft, the more lift required to maintain altitude
a. As more lift is required, the AOA required to maintain level flight is increased
 An increased AOA brings the aircraft closer to the critical AOA, and therefore the stall speed will be
reached sooner (at a higher airspeed) than if the aircraft were lighter
ii. A heavier aircraft is more stable than a lighter aircraft
a. Generally, though, the position of the center of gravity has more effect on the stability (more below)
b. It takes more force to move a heavier object than a lighter one

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

iii. Slow Flight & Weight

a. Because a heavier aircraft is at a higher AOA for a given airspeed, less pitch change is required to reach
the critical AOA
b. The increased weight and stability may help in controlling the aircraft
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Loaded Aircraft
a. The aircraft acts heavier, and consequently slower (for a given power setting) than the same aircraft
with a further aft center of gravity
 More nose up elevator pressure and/or trim is required to maintain altitude
 The higher nose requires the tail surface to produce a greater down load
 The increased down load adds to wing loading, increasing total lift required to maintain altitude
b. The higher AOA results in more induced drag and a higher
stall speed (like a heavy aircraft)
c. Controllability
 A forward loaded aircraft is more controllable than an
aft loaded aircraft
a Due to the longer arm from the elevator to the
center of gravity
b Weight x Arm = Moment. Longer arm = greater
moment and thus a more controllable aircraft
ii. Aft Loaded Aircraft
a. The aircraft acts lighter, and consequently faster (for a
given power setting) than the same aircraft with a further
forward CG
 Less nose up elevator pressure/trim is required to maintain altitude
 The lower nose requires less of a down load from the tail
 The decreased down load reduces wing loading and decreases total lift required to maintain altitude
b. The lower AOA results in less induced drag allowing for faster cruise speed and a lower stall speed
c. Controllability
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the center of gravity moves aft
a Moving the CG aft shortens the arm, reducing the amount of force it can apply
b Weight X Arm = Moment. Shorter the arm = smaller moment and therefore less controllable
G. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. Critical Flight Situations
A. It is very important the pilot understands the control responses of the aircraft at the low speeds associated with
slow flight and the region of reversed command, especially since the majority of the time the aircraft is in slow
flight/the region of reversed command is close to the ground
i. In general, takeoffs, climbs, landings, and go-arounds
ii. Examples from the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge:
a. An airplane performing a low airspeed, high pitch attitude power approach for a short-field landing is an
example of operating in the region of reversed command. If an unacceptably high sink rate should
develop, it may be possible for the pilot to reduce or stop the descent by applying power. But without
further use of power, the airplane would probably stall or be incapable of flaring for the landing. Merely

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

lowering the nose of the airplane to regain flying speed in this situation, without the use of power,
would result in a rapid sink rate and corresponding loss of altitude
b. If during a soft-field takeoff and climb, for example, the pilot attempts to climb out of ground effect
without first attaining normal climb pitch attitude and airspeed, the airplane may inadvertently enter
the region of reversed command at a dangerously low altitude. Even with full power, the airplane may
be incapable of climbing or even maintaining altitude. The pilot’s only recourse in this situation is to
lower the pitch attitude to increase airspeed, which inevitably results in a loss of altitude
B. Pilots must give particular attention to precise control of airspeed when operating in the low flight speeds of the
region of reversed command
4. Slow Flight and the Senses
A. Visually
i. As you pitch up, you will be looking at more sky (nose above the horizon)
a. There will be few if any visual references at this point
 Possibly a couple of clouds
ii. Hearing
a. Initially it will get quieter with the reduction of power and airspeed
b. As you approach the stall, the stall warning horn sounds
c. When power is reintroduced, the sound of the engine increases
 The sound of the plane moving through the air stays softer due to the slow airspeed
iii. Feel
a. As the aircraft’s speed continues to decrease, the controls will become progressively less responsive
 Larger movements will be necessary as the air flow over the control surfaces is reduced
b. Right rudder will be necessary to maintain coordination as the aircraft begins to yaw to the left
 This is due to the left turning tendencies upon reintroduction of power
 Due to reduced control effectiveness, more right rudder than normal is required
c. Just prior to stalling the aircraft will begin to buffet
iv. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet
b. Stall Horn
c. Ranges & Limitations
5. Performing Slow Flight
A. Purpose
i. Demonstrate the flight characteristics and controllability of the airplane at its minimum flying speed
ii. RM: Provide the pilot the tools to recognize & recover from inadvertent slow flight preventing loss of control
B. Performing the Maneuver
i. Overview of the Basics
a. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude
 This is necessary on the backside of the power curve
b. Use both instrument indications and visual references
 Frequently reference the instruments, especially the attitude indicator
 A “feel” for the airplane at very low speeds must be developed to avoid inadvertent stalls and to
operate the plane with precision
ii. The Maneuver
a. Properly clear the area
b. Pre-maneuver checklist
c. Select an altitude
 No lower than 1,500’ AGL

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

 Select an altitude that is easy to read on the altimeter

 500’ increments are easiest
d. Configuration
 Different configurations can be used to develop a feel for the airplane in different situations
a The ‘dirtier’ (more flaps), the slower we can get
1. Stall speed is reduced
b A ‘cleaner’ plane has a higher stall speed, therefore a higher airspeed is required for slow flight
 CE: Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
e. *Begin slowing by gently reducing the throttle (to approximately 1500 RPM)
 Maintain altitude as power is lost
a Use visual references backed up by the instruments to reference the pitch attitude at the start
of the maneuver. Gently increase pitch attitude as airspeed slows to maintain altitude
1. Too little pitch results in a loss of altitude and could lead to stagnant/increasing airspeed
2. Excessive pitch will result in a climb followed by a rapid decrease in airspeed
f. Continually trim the aircraft
 Add nose up trim to maintain altitude, this will make the maneuver considerably easier
 Re-trim as often as necessary to compensate for changing control pressure
 CE: Improper trim technique
g. Full flaps should be lowered as the airspeed reaches the flap airspeed limits
 Lowering the flaps one at a time allows the pilot to adjust the pitch for the changing lift and
maintain better control
a Extending full flaps immediately is more difficult to control than incremental changes
b Anticipate changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted
1. Lowering the flaps will require nose down pitch to compensate for increased lift
h. Note the feel/sounds
 As airspeed decreases, the pilot should note the feel of the flight controls (especially elevator)
 Also note the sound of the airflow as it gets quieter
i. Flight Control Effectiveness
 Flight controls are much less effective with the reduction in airspeed
a Elevators become less responsive
b Flight control inputs are not as smooth to control the airplane
1. Larger movements are needed for the aircraft to respond
j. Reintroduce power
 Additional power will be required as airspeed decreases below L/DMAX to maintain altitude
a *As the airspeed is approaching the specified maneuver speed (approximately 40 knots)
introduce power to maintain altitude, and airspeed just above the stall
b Be familiar with the approximate pitch and power settings for your aircraft
1. When approaching the desired speed, set that pitch and power, and adjust from there
 The additional power produces a strong left yaw
a Considerable right rudder is necessary to maintain coordinated flight
b RM/CE: Uncoordinated flight & Improper correction for torque effect
1. Anticipate the need for right rudder
a. Anticipate the need for power to allow for a slow, smooth throttle increase
b. As power comes up slow and smooth, increase right rudder to maintain coordination
i. An outside reference works great – maintain wings level, and as power is introduced
add right rudder. If the aircraft swings right, reduce the rudder input. If the aircraft
swings left, increase the right rudder input

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

2. Use coordinated rudder and aileron to maintain heading

a. Uncoordinated flight (too much or too little rudder to compensate for torque) combined
with a stall can quickly result in a spin
 Avoid losing too much speed/using too little power
a Proactively increase power to the approximate setting to maintain altitude
 CE: Unintentional stalls
a Avoid being aggressive with the power and pitch applications
b Small, controlled corrections are most effective in maintaining control during slow flight
c Anticipate the power introduction to allow for a slow, smooth power push
 CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
a Keep your hand on the throttles as much as possible
1. Due to the proximity to a stall, immediate power may be necessary
k. Establish the desired pitch attitude to maintain airspeed
 Cross check the instruments (attitude indicator, heading indicator, airspeed, turn coordinator), as
well as outside references to ensure precise control of the aircraft
 Do not fixate on any instruments, primarily the airspeed indicator and altimeter
 Throughout the maneuver, be proactive in fixing altitude, heading, etc. changes
a Don’t let the airplane get away from you as this will result in larger control inputs to correct
b CE: Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
1. *Increase power approximately 5 knots prior to the slow flight speed
a. This should result in the airspeed settling at the desired speed
2. Adjust pitch to maintain the desired airspeed
a. If fast, pitch up – use very small changes in pitch (1-2o at a time)
b. If slow, pitch down – again, very small changes in pitch (1-2o at a time)
3. If the pitch adjustment affects altitude, increase or decrease power to maintain altitude
a. Continue adjusting pitch and power to maintain airspeed and altitude
i. Maintain your crosscheck inside and outside
ii. Generally, a change in pitch requires a change in power. Understand how changes in
pitch and power affect each other in slow flight and anticipate the changes
c CE: Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are
specified
1. Use small, controlled changes in pitch and power to maintain heading and altitude
a. Know the approximate pitch and power setting required to maintain slow flight in the
aircraft; set that pitch and power and make small adjustments from there
2. Large inputs will result in chasing the airspeed and altitude
3. Set and maintain the rudder pressure required to maintain coordination
a. Sloppy rudder inputs can quickly lead to variations
l. CE: Improper entry technique
 Follow the specified procedures to help ensure a smooth, controlled entry
 It is very important to maintain positive control of the aircraft during the entry
a A sloppy entry can easily result in a stall
b Know the approximate pitch and power settings for slow flight in your aircraft. Set those and
adjust from there
 CE: Unintentional stalls
a Smooth, controlled, coordinated control movements are integral
b A consistent crosscheck will help you catch deviations before they become an issue
m. Maintain straight and level flight and perform the required level turns at a constant altitude

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

 Introducing Bank
a Use smooth, controlled control inputs
1. Aggressive inputs can lead to increased load factors, and deviations in heading/altitude
2. The Airplane Flying Handbook discusses practicing medium banked (20o) turns
b Adjust pitch and power as needed to maintain altitude and airspeed
1. Generally, additional power will be necessary. Increased power likely leads to increased
pitch to maintain airspeed – anticipate these inputs
a. A turn and change in power require a change in rudder to maintain coordination
 Maintaining the Bank Angle
a In slow flight, even a small amount of bank results in an overbanking tendency
1. Opposite aileron is necessary to maintain the bank angle
 Adverse Yaw in the Turn
a The downward deflected aileron produces more lift and therefore more drag
b The airplane will try to yaw toward the outside wing during the turn
1. Maintain coordination
2. Right rudder is necessary for straight flight
a. Right turns will require more right rudder
b. Left turns will require less right rudder (anticipate some right rudder even in a left turn)
c RM/CE: Uncoordinated flight
 Extreme Bank
a Extreme bank situations, like steep turns, are not used in slow flight
1. As banks exceeds 30o, the stall speed noticeably increases
a. Obviously, this is unsafe when already close to the stall speed
n. Maintain coordinated flight as climbs/descents or climbing/descending turns are performed
 Adjust power to begin the climb or descent, and simultaneously adjust pitch to maintain airspeed
a Pitch for airspeed, Power for altitude
1. You will gain altitude by increasing power, and lose altitude by decreasing power
a. Adjust pitch to maintain airspeed
b. Anticipate increased right rudder with an increase in power, and vice versa
iii. Reestablishment of cruise flight
a. Very similar to a stall recovery:
 Full Power
a Smoothly increase the power
 Nose Down (forward pressure)
a Smooth, controlled forward pressure to maintain the current altitude
1. Don’t dive
b Retrim the aircraft as it accelerates to avoid excessive control pressures
1. If the nose was trimmed up, the aircraft will try to fly up as it accelerates
c As airspeed increases, right rudder pressure is reduced to maintain coordination
 Cleanup
a Flaps
1. Remove the flaps in stages, based on airspeed requirements
2. Anticipate the change in lift as the flaps are retracted and maintain altitude
a. The aircraft will have a tendency to sink, increase back pressure to counter this
b Gear (If necessary)
 Establish straight and level flight at VA, or the desired speed
a Set the power for the desired speed

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

b Finalize the trim

6. RM: Hazards
A. See X. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management
B. See X. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
 Improper entry technique
 Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
 Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are specified
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for torque effect
 Improper trim technique
 Unintentional stalls
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding the characteristics that affect slow flight and how to perform this maneuver is an extremely important
part of a pilot’s training. Slow flight develops the student’s awareness of the characteristics, feel and control responses
during flight at slow speed (takeoff, climb, landings and go-arounds) to maintain safe flight, and avoid unintentional
stalls.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500 ‘AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’ AGL (AMEL).
2. Maintain altitude, ±100’; heading, ±10°; airspeed +10/-0 knots; and angle of bank, ±10°.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500 ‘AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’ AGL (AMEL).
2. Maintain the altitude, ±50’; heading, ±10°; airspeed +5/-0 knots; and angle of bank, ±5°.

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives To develop an understanding of flight characteristics and power required at different airspeeds
and configurations appropriate to the make and model of airplane flow, can apply that
knowledge, manage associated risks, and provide effective instruction.

Key Elements 1. Region of Reversed Command

2. Slower Speeds Require Larger Control Movements
3. Stay Coordinated

Elements 1. Various Factors & their Effects on Stalls & Spins

2. Control Inputs & Airspeed
3. Configuration Changes
4. Airspeeds
5. Demonstrating Flight Characteristics

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the demonstration can be performed and described to ACS
Standards standards.
X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A demonstration of the control inputs, power, trim, and aircraft performance in various phases of flight and
configurations.

Why
This demonstration provides the learner with a foundation or baseline for the changing pitch attitudes, power
settings, trim requirements, etc. as airspeed and configuration is varied between the clean and landing
configurations.

How:
1. Various Factors
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted, and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies between aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in a GA aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in the graphic below)
 As the AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the
wing hindering its ability to create lift, leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

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b. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of
attack, or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift) – see the diagram below
a CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to measure lift as it relates to the angle of attack
1. Determined by wind tunnel tests and based on airfoil design and angle of attack
b Any angle of attack beyond CLMAX results in a stall and lift drops off rapidly

B. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA

i. An aircraft can stall at any speed, attitude, or power setting
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft. If
the airspeed is reduced further, the aircraft stalls because the AOA has exceeded the critical angle and
the airflow over the wing is disrupted
iii. High Speed
a. Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall, the wing can exceed the critical AOA at any speed
 Ex. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate change to the flight path
a AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high, but even though the nose has been raised,
the aircraft continues on its trajectory downward for some amount of time
b. If AOA is suddenly increased and the flight path remains the same, the aircraft reaches the critical AOA
at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, the wings must produce additional lift to maintain altitude
 Remember, in a turn the vertical component of lift is divided into a horizontal & vertical component
c. Additional lift comes from added back pressure which increases the AOA
 The flight path/relative wind remain the same, while the pitch is increased, leading to a higher AOA
d. If at any time during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
v. Recap: If at ANY time (low/high speed or power, straight/turning, etc.) AOA becomes excessive it will stall
C. Lift-Drag Ratio (L/D) – Reference the Coefficient of Lift/Drag vs AOA chart, above
i. L/D increases to a maximum and then decreases at higher AOAs/lift coefficients
ii. Operating at L/DMAX, total drag is at a minimum
a. Any change in AOA increases total drag, reducing L/D
iii. Max lift-drag ratio (L/DMAX) occurs at one specific AOA and lift coefficient
iv. Example (using the chart above)
a. L/DMAX is at an AOA of 6o & and L/D of 12.5
 This is the case at all operating weights
b. Airplane in steady flight at 2,500 lbs. at the L/DMAX AOA
 If drag = 200 lbs. at this speed, any higher or lower airspeed would produce a drag > 200 lbs.
 If gross weight were changed, L/DMAX can still be obtained at 6o AOA
a However, the change in gross weight would require a change in airspeed to attain the AOA
D. Power & Airspeed
i. Airspeed
a. An increase or decrease in airspeed increases or decreases lift, affecting AOA and attitude
 As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain lift and altitude (and vice versa)
ii. Power
a. Normal vs Reversed Command
 Normal Command
a While holding a constant altitude, a higher
speed requires a higher power setting and vice
versa
b Majority of aircraft flying is done here (climb,
cruise, maneuvers)
 Region of Reversed Command
a A higher airspeed requires a lower power
setting, and a lower airspeed requires a higher
power setting
b Does not imply that a decrease in power
produces a lower airspeed
b. Minimum Power Required Airspeed
 Generally,
a Aircraft aerodynamic properties determine the power required at various conditions
b Powerplant capabilities determine the power available at various conditions
 Visualized on the power required curve (pictured, right)

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

 Lowest point on the curve is the speed at which

the lowest brake horsepower sustains level
flight
a Best endurance speed, or minimum power
required airspeed
 Best endurance speed delineates the region of
reversed command and normal command
B. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of
attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction
a. Newton’s 3rd Law – Every action has an
equal/opposite reaction
 The engine/propeller rotate one way; an equal
force tries to rotate the plane the opposite
direction
b. Although torque reaction is more of a rolling
tendency than a yaw effect, it does contribute to
the left turning tendencies
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. The high-speed rotation of the propeller sends air in a corkscrew rotation to the rear of the aircraft
 Air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the nose of aircraft left
b. At high propeller speeds/low forward speeds (like in slow flight) the rotation is compact & pronounced
 Exerts a strong sideward force on the vertical tail causing yaw to the left
 As forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and becomes less effective
c. Countered with coordinate rudder and aileron
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
 Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)
 Precession - The resultant action of a spinning rotor when a force is applied to its rim
a If a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of turn
1. Causes a pitch/yaw moment or combo of the two depending on where applied
 Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
 Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
b. In relation to slow flight, lifting the nose results in a yaw to the left
 Correction is made with elevator and rudder pressures to maintain pitch attitude & coordination

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)

a. When flying at a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
 Moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc area (causing a yaw to the left)
b. In relation to slow flight, the high AOA results in an increase in p-factor – counter with right rudder
vi. Big Picture
a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination during slow flight
b. When introducing turns:
 A right turn requires even more right rudder
 A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
C. Load Factors
i. Load factor: Ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
ii. Any increase in load factor increases stall speed
iii. Turns
a. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all turns
b. Load factor increases at a high rate after 45o-50o of bank
 At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½
iv. Slow Flight & Controllability
a. In slow flight the airplane is already very close to the stall speed
b. The increased load factor associated with a turn in slow flight can quickly put the aircraft into a stall
 Use gentle, coordinated, low bank turns during slow flight to prevent a potential stall
a 10o of bank is generally a good target (depending on the aircraft)
c. Do not use aggressive control inputs – slow and

smooth
D. Weight
i. The heavier an aircraft, the more lift required to maintain altitude
a. As more lift is required, the AOA required to maintain level flight is increased
 An increased AOA brings the aircraft closer to the critical AOA, and therefore the stall speed will be
reached sooner (at a higher airspeed) than if the aircraft were lighter
ii. A heavier aircraft is more stable than a lighter aircraft
a. Generally, though, the position of the center of gravity has more effect on the stability (more below)
b. It takes more force to move a heavier object than a lighter one
iii. Slow Flight & Weight
a. Because a heavier aircraft is at a higher AOA for a given airspeed, less pitch change is required to reach
the critical AOA

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b. The increased weight and stability may help in controlling the aircraft
E. Center of Gravity & Controllability
i. Forward Loaded Aircraft
a. The aircraft acts heavier, and consequently slower (for a given power setting) than the same aircraft
with a further aft center of gravity
 More nose up elevator pressure and/or trim is required to maintain altitude
 The higher nose requires the tail surface to produce a greater down load
 The increased down load adds to the wing loading and results in an increase in the total lift required
to maintain altitude
b. The higher AOA results in more induced drag and a higher stall speed (like a heavy aircraft)
c. Controllability
 A forward loaded aircraft is more controllable than an aft loaded aircraft
a Due to the longer arm from the elevator to the center of gravity
b Weight x Arm = Moment. The longer the arm, the greater the moment and thus more
controllable the aircraft
ii. Aft Loaded Aircraft
a. The aircraft acts lighter, and consequently faster (for a given power setting) than the same aircraft with a
further forward CG
 Less nose up elevator pressure/trim is required to maintain altitude
 The lower nose requires less of a down load from the tail
 The decreased down load reduces wing loading and decreases total lift required to maintain altitude
b. The lower AOA results in less induced drag allowing for faster cruise speed and a lower stall speed
c. Controllability
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the center of gravity moves aft
a Moving the CG aft shortens the arm, reducing the amount of force it can apply
b Weight X Arm = Moment. Shorter arm = smaller the moment, therefore less controllable
F. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
2. Control Inputs (generic info is provided below, adjust/describe based on the specific aircraft)
A. Level Flight
i. *Cruise Pitch & Power
ii. As the airspeed slows, back pressure is increased
to maintain altitude
a. The more back pressure, the more trim
required
iii. Power is initially reduced, but will have to be
increased entering the region of reversed
command
B. Turns
i. *Turn pitch & power
ii. Overbanking Tendency: The slower the turn, the
more opposite aileron required to maintain bank
angle
C. Climbs
i. *Climb pitch & Power

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

ii. Best rate of climb (based on excess power available) is near L/DMAX
a. Below this speed, more power is required to maintain a given speed
b. As more power is required relative to what’s available, the rate of climb decreases
c. Entering the region of reversed command, pitch is adjusted to maintain airspeed & power for altitude
 Increase back pressure until the airspeed is maintained, and trim the pressures
 Increase power to continue the climb
D. Descents
i. *Descent Pitch and power
ii. Lower pitch to maintain airspeed as power is reduced
a. Raise pitch to reduce airspeed
iii. Change in pitch requires an adjustment in trim
E. Critically Slow Airspeeds
i. RM: Stall Indications (Warning Range & Limitations)
a. Decreased noise as the aircraft slows
 Controls become sluggish/less effective
b. Buffet: Tends to occur prior to the stall horn
 Generally, an early indication of a stall
 May not always occur (Ex: Cross controlled stalls can occur with little to no warning)
c. Stall Horn
 Designed to provide warning of an approaching stall and time for stall recovery
 Per 23.207
a Clear/distinct warning with the flaps and gear in any normal position, in straight & turning flight
b Warning must begin at least 5 knots above stall speed and continue until the stall occurs
c Must provide the pilot time to take action to avert the stall
d. Stall indications and horns have different operational ranges and limitations
 Reference the POH for specific information
 Ex: Uncoordinated flight may inhibit airflow at the stall indicator
a Situations where one wing (without the indicator) stalls first
ii. RM: Unacknowledged Stall Indications
a. Unacknowledged indications can be the result of various factors
 Unfamiliarity with stall indications, distractions, fear (fight/flight reaction), confusion, etc.
b. The farther an aircraft continues into the stall, the more hazardous and the greater loss of altitude
c. The student should be familiar with and able to recognize all stall indications
 Noises, control effectiveness, seat of the pants feelings, buffet, stall horn, actual stall behavior
 An ability to recognize some, but not all indications, is dangerous and can delay recovery
 Ensure the student is shown full stalls, and not only taught to recover at the first indication
a Rod Machado has a great article on The Stall Horn Fallacy of Stall Prevention
iii. Inadvertent Stall
a. By ensuring the student can recognize and recover from at any stage of a stall, they are far better
protected from an inadvertent stall
b. Simply waiting for the stall horn may catch the pilot off guard
3. Configuration Changes (generic info is provided below, adjust/describe based on the specific aircraft)
A. Flaps
i. Settings: List flap settings and their characteristics
ii. Generally, as flaps are extended, lift is increased along with drag
a. Increased camber and AOA (chord line gets steeper)
b. Reduce pitch to maintain altitude

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c. Increase power to maintain airspeed

B. Gear
i. Gear introduces considerable drag and can affect the pitching moment
ii. Add power to maintain airspeed
iii. Adjust pitch to maintain level flight
4. Airspeeds (Review the following airspeeds in the POH, as applicable)
A. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. Calibrated design maneuvering speed
ii. Maximum speed at which the limit load can be imposed without causing structural damage
a. Used for maneuvers
iii. Doesn’t protect against multiple full control inputs in one axis or full control inputs in more than one axis at
the same time
iv. See II.D. Principles of Flight for more details
B. Flaps Extended/Operating Speeds (VFE/VFO),
i. VFE: Highest speed permissible with the wing flaps in a prescribed extended position
a. Due to air loads imposed on the flaps
b. Upper limit of the white arc
ii. VFO: Highest speed permissible for extending/retracting flaps
C. Landing Gear
i. Landing Gear Operating Speed (VLO)
a. Maximum speed for extending or retracting landing gear
ii. Landing Gear Extended Speed (VLE)
a. Maximum speed at which an aircraft can be safely flown with the landing gear extended
D. Best Glide Speed
i. Airspeed at which the aircraft glides the furthest for the least altitude lost in non-powered flight
ii. See XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing for more info
E. Reference Landing Speed (VREF)
i. Speed flown during the final stages of the approach to landing, generally, 1.3 V S0
a. Generally, the min safe speed the aircraft can be landed
b. Any slower, may mean that the aircraft stalls, is difficult
to control, or develops high rates of descent
ii. Landing is accomplished at a particular value of lift coefficient
and AOA
a. Exact values depend on the aircraft characteristics but
are independent of weight, altitude, and wind
F. Stall Speeds
i. VS0: Calibrated power-off stalling speed or minimum steady
flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable in the landing
configuration
a. Power-off stall speed at max landing weight in the
landing configuration
b. Lower limit of the white arc
ii. VS1: Calibrated power-off stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable
in a specific configuration
a. Power-off stall speed at the max takeoff weight in the clean configuration
b. Lower limit of the green arc
G. Maximum Structural Cruising Speed (VNO)
i. Do not exceed, except in smooth air

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

ii. Upper limit of the green arc

H. Never Exceed Speed (VNE)
i. Operating above this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or structural failure
ii. Red line on the airspeed indicator
iii. Yellow arc indicates the range between VNO and VNE
I. Other applicable speeds
J. RM: Airspeed Limitations & Airspeed Indicator
i. Published speeds and limitations exist for the sake of safe flight
ii. Operating outside of the published speeds/limitations is dangerous and can negate performance data
iii. Know the airspeed indicator markings
a. There’s no time to reference the POH for the meaning of colors/indications during takeoff, landing, etc.
5. Demonstrating Flight Characteristics
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Properly clear the area
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist
iii. Select an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500’ AGL
b. Select an altitude that is easy to read on the altimeter
c. 500’ increments are easiest
B. Clean Configuration Demo
i. Establish and maintain level flight at maneuvering speed
a. Describe pitch, power, and trim inputs to maintain airspeed/altitude
ii. Slow to and maintain best glide airspeed
a. Note power setting required to maintain best glide speed
b. Describe changes in pitch, trim, control pressures/control feel and coordination requirements
iii. Slow to a speed at which any increase in AOA, load factor, or power reduction would result in a stall (V S1)
a. Describe changes in pitch, trim, control pressures and feel, right rudder requirements
b. Describe power required to maintain level flight (note change in noise, AOA, etc.)
c. Verbally acknowledge stall indications
iv. Without changing power, lower pitch and accelerate until reestablishing level flight
a. Note the new airspeed and altitude lost
v. Return to normal cruise flight
C. Landing Configuration Demo
i. Maintain maneuvering speed at the selected altitude
a. Describe pitch, power, and trim inputs to maintain airspeed/altitude
ii. While maintaining altitude, slow to the limiting airspeeds and fully extend gear and flaps
iii. Once configured, slow to and maintain reference landing speed
a. Note power required and changes in trim and control pressures and control feel
iv. Slow to a speed at which an increase in AOA, load factor, or power reduction would result in a stall (V S0)
a. Maintain this airspeed in level flight
b. Note airspeed and power setting, as well as control inputs and trim
c. Verbally acknowledge stall indications
v. Without changing power, lower pitch and accelerate to until reestablishing level flight
a. Note the new airspeed and altitude lost
vi. Return to normal cruise flight at the heading & altitude specified

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

Instructor ACS Skill Standards

1. Conduct and explain the procedure, manage the associated risk, and fly the airplane, while maintaining altitude
±100’, airspeed +5/-0 knots, heading ±10°, and specified bank angle ±5°, as appropriate.

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of power-off stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors
associated with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will
understand situations in which power off stalls are most common and most dangerous and will
have the ability to perform a power-off stall as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. Reduce the AOA
3. Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Power-Off Stall Situations
4. Power-Off Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-off stalls and will
Standards develop the habit of taking prompt preventative and/or corrective action when in a power-off
stall.
X.C. Power-Off Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalls can be intimidating/frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make you more
comfortable with them, and a safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or any power setting.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted
resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power off stalls simulate stalls in the approach and landing configuration.

Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircraft’s particular stall characteristics and to avoid putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-off stalls are essential to safety in the aircraft. It is important
to understand how they happen, how to avoid them, and how to recover from them.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
E. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies between aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in a GA aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts to
burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in the graphic below)
 As AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the wing
hindering its ability to create lift, leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the
wing’s surface

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

b. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
F. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained, maintaining controllability
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
G. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA
i. An aircraft can stall at any speed, attitude, or power setting
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft. If
the airspeed is reduced further, the aircraft stalls because the AOA has exceeded the critical angle and
the airflow over the wing is disrupted
iii. High Speed
a. Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall, the wing can exceed the critical AOA at any speed
 Ex. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate change to the flight path
a AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high, but even though the nose has been raised,
the aircraft continues on its trajectory downward for some amount of time
b. If AOA is suddenly increased and the flight path remains the same, the aircraft reaches the critical AOA
at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns
a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, the wings must produce additional lift to maintain altitude
 Remember, in a turn the vertical component of lift is divided into a horizontal & vertical component
c. Additional lift comes from added back pressure which increases the AOA
 The flight path/relative wind remain the same, while the pitch is increased, leading to a higher AOA
d. If at any time during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
v. Recap: If at ANY time (low/high speed or power, straight/turning, etc.) AOA becomes excessive it will stall
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

B. Airspeed & Power Settings

i. As mentioned above, a stall can occur at any airspeed
a. Low Speed and/or Low Power Setting
 As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
 Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing stalling because the AOA has exceeded the
critical angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted
b. High Speed and/or High-Power Setting
 If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate alteration of the flight path
a Since the AOA is suddenly increased while the flight path remains the same, the aircraft reaches
the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
b More on load factors/accelerated stalls below
 Depending on the aircraft, a higher power setting may help to reduce the stall speed and increase
the lift on the wings
a Although the wing may be stalled, a higher power setting can provide increased lift due to the
propeller airflow/prop wash moving over the wing roots
b More prominent in low wing aircraft where the propeller airflow moves directly over the wing
c This airflow also likely has a relatively low angle of attack
ii. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high AOA (like stall recovery) aggravates left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction
a. Newton’s 3rd Law – Every action has an equal/opposite reaction
 The engine/propeller rotate one way; an equal force tries to
rotate the plane the opposite direction
b. Although torque reaction is more of a rolling tendency than a
yaw effect, it does contribute to the left turning tendencies
c. Be mindful as power is increased in the stall recovery
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. The high-speed rotation of the propeller sends air in a
corkscrew rotation to the rear of the aircraft
 Air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the
nose left
b. At high propeller speeds/low forward speeds (like in a power-
off stall recovery) the rotation is compact & pronounced
 Strong force on the vertical tail causing yaw to the left
 As forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and
becomes less effective
c. Countered with coordinate rudder and aileron
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
 Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)
 Precession - Resultant action of a spinning rotor when a
force is applied to its rim

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

When a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of turn
a
1. Causes a pitch/yaw moment or combo of the two depending on where applied
b Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
c Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
b. In relation to power-off stalls, lifting the nose results in a yaw to the left
 An aggressive power push can result in the nose rising rapidly
 Correction is made with elevator and rudder pressures to maintain pitch attitude & coordination
v. Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor)
a. When flying at a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is
greater than the up moving blade
 Moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc
area causing a yaw to the left
b. In relation to power-off stalls, the power increase at a high AOA
increases P-factor
 Compensated for with right rudder
vi. Big Picture
a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination during a power-off stall recovery
b. When turning:
 A right turn requires even more right rudder
 A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
D. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)
i. Flaps
a. Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
 Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
a The nose of the aircraft is lowered to prevent ballooning
b Generally, the lowered nose and additional lift assist in decreasing the stall speed (factors will
vary based on aircraft/flap design)
 Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
ii. Gear
a. The effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics
b. Gear extension increases drag and if not properly compensated for could lead to a stall
 Ex. Gear down and a low power setting, combined with increasing pitch to maintain altitude
E. Weight
i. As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
a. Remember, to maintain altitude lift must equal weight
b. So, the greater the weight, the greater the lift required
c. A higher AOA is required to generate the lift (all other factors remaining the same)
d. The higher AOA puts the aircraft closer to the critical AOA; thus the aircraft will stall at a higher speed
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed
a. Same as above, but opposite. Less lift is required, and the AOA can be reduced (all other factors
remaining the same), lowering the stall speed
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases the stall speed
b. A forward center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a heavier aircraft
 The farther forward the center of gravity moves, the higher the angle of attack has to be to
compensate for the extra load imposed by the tail (see picture)

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

 Due to the higher AOA, the aircraft is closer to the

critical AOA and therefore will stall at a higher
speed
c. The aircraft is also more controllable due to the longer
arm from the CG to the elevator, improving the stall
recovery capabilities
 Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the
greater the tendency for the nose to pitch down
a Imagine it as more “nose heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The higher AOA and increased deflection of the
stabilizer increases drag; thus the aircraft is slower
for a given power setting
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases the stall speed
b. An aft center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a lighter aircraft
 The farther aft the CG, the lower the AOA has to be to compensate for the load imposed by the tail
 Due to the lower AOA, the aircraft is farther from the critical AOA and will stall at a lower speed
c. Although stall speed is lower, the aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from CG to elevator
 Shortened arm produces less force making recovery more difficult
 As the CG moves aft, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
a Imagine it as more “tail heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The lower AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer reduces drag; thus the aircraft is
faster for a given power setting
G. Load Factor
i. Increased load factor increases the stall speed
ii. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
iii. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
a. The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
b. When an aircraft is stalled at a higher than indicated air speed due to excessive maneuvering loads, it is
called an accelerated maneuver stall
iv. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc. Anything that puts Gs on the
aircraft can increase the load factor and therefore the stall speed
H. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased bank angle increases the stall speed
ii. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns
iii. Tremendous loads are imposed as bank is increased beyond 45o
a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs is imposed on the airplane structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed on the airplane

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

c. At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½

I.Snow, Ice, and Frost

i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Snow, ice and frost disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at
an angle of attack lower than the critical angle of attack
a. To make matters worse, lift is greatly reduced due to the disrupted air, and if ice accumulates, the
weight of the aircraft is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Power-Off Stall Situations
A. Approach to landing conditions and configurations
i. Crossed control turns from base to final
ii. Attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final approach using only an increased pitch attitude
a. Just pitching, can quickly slow and stall the aircraft resulting in a further increased sink rate
iii. Improper airspeed control on final approach and other segments of the traffic pattern
4. Power-Off Stalls
A. Entry
i. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
ii. Clear the Area
iii. Select an altitude – Recover prior to 1,500’ AGL
iv. *Landing Configuration: Landing Flaps
a. *Use the same procedure as entering slow flight but maintain (descend at) 65 knots
v. Note the Heading
vi. CE: Failure to establish the specified configuration prior to entry
B. Getting into the Straight Stall
i. *Slow to normal approach speed (65 knots) while maintaining the originally established altitude
a. Extend the flaps (landing flaps)
b. Visually - Find a reference off the nose to maintain direction and to assist with pitch attitude
ii. *Then, smoothly lower the nose to the normal approach attitude and maintain approach speed (65 knots)
iii. Once stabilized, power should be reduced to idle and the nose should be smoothly raised to and held at an
attitude that will induce a stall
a. Simulate a flare to landing

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

b. Maintain directional control with rudder, wings level with ailerons, pitch with elevator until a stall occurs
iv. CE: Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
a. Visual references and instruments are used
v. CE: Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
C. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. A descending turn uses the same procedures as a straight stall, except a specified bank angle is maintained
a. When the power is set and the descent established, establish the desired bank angle
b. Aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank constant
 Opposite aileron may be necessary when slow due to the overbanking tendency
c. Take care to ensure the aircraft remains coordinated at a constant bank angle until the stall occurs
 If a slip develops, the outer wing may stall first and move downward abruptly
ii. CE: Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
a. Increase control pressure as the aircraft slows and controls become less effective
D. Recognizing the Stall
i. Announce the onset of the stall
a. Stall Warning Horn
b. Reduced Control Effectiveness
c. Buffet
d. Stall
ii. Sight
a. Attitude of the airplane
iii. Sound
a. Stall warning horn
b. Noise will tend to decrease with airspeed and the lessening flow of air around the aircraft
iv. Kinesthesia (the sensing of movements by feel, “seat of the pants” sensations, your “spidey sense”)
a. The physical sensation of changes in direction is an important indicator to the trained and experienced
pilot in visual flight
b. If properly developed, it can warn the pilot of an impending stall
 The pilot can recognize when something doesn’t feel right
v. Feel
a. Control pressures become progressively less effective (mushy)
 The lag between control movements and response of the aircraft become greater
b. Buffeting, uncontrollable pitching or vibrations just before the stall
 The buffet is caused by the turbulent air flowing over the fuselage/horizontal stabilizer
c. Leaning back
vi. Aircraft Specific
a. Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
vii. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet
b. Stall Horn
c. Ranges & Limitations
viii. Common Errors
a. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall/poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
b. Failure to achieve a stall
E. Recovery
i. Basics: Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
a. Disconnect the autopilot (if applicable)

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

b. Pitch nose down

 Pitch attitude/angle of attack must be decreased positively and immediately
 The cause of any stall is an excessive angle of attack, decreasing the angle of attack is crucial
 Be familiar with the control pressures required for your aircraft
a Excessive pitch down can result in excessive altitude loss
b Insufficient pitch down will not break the stall
c If the nose is trimmed up, additional pressure will be required to break the stall
1. If able/necessary, trim the nose down during the recovery
c. Roll wings level
 Regain/maintain directional control with coordinated aileron and rudder
 Reorients the lift vector vertical for a more effective recovery and climb
 Do not attempt to level the wings prior to reducing angle of attack
a A stalled wing can roll the opposite direction of aileron input (more info below)
d. Thrust/power as necessary
 Stalls can occur at high/low power settings and airspeeds so adjust power as required
 In general, maximum allowable power should be applied to increase airspeed and help increase
airflow over the wings, assisting in stall recovery
 Power is not essential to stall recovery, reducing the AOA is the only way of recovering
 Right rudder will be required to maintain coordination/heading
a Use outside references - add rudder to keep the nose from yawing across the horizon
e. Stabilize/establish the desired flight path
 In this case, perform a go around and climb at the desired airspeed VY (VX if necessary)
f. Configure
 Once in a climb, configure the aircraft as necessary
 Same flap and gear retraction procedure as a go around

ii. Ailerons and Recovery

a. Most general aviation aircraft are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
 The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron control will be available at high AOA and give
the airplane more stable stalling characteristics
 During the recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
a Thus, ailerons can be used to level the wings
b. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using the ailerons can aggravate the stall
 EX: If the right wing dropped, and excessive aileron was applied to raise the wing, the right wing
(aileron down) would produce a greater AOA and more (induced) drag
a Increasing the AOA on an already stalled wing will aggravate the stall on that wing
b The increase in drag and aggravated stall on the low wing will yaw the aircraft in the direction of
that wing and could result in a spin
iii. Rudder and Recovery

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

a. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is exceeding the critical AOA while applying excessive or
insufficient rudder and, to a lesser extent, aileron
 Therefore, it is important that the rudder be used properly during the entry and recovery
b. The primary use of rudder is to counteract any tendency of the airplane to yaw or slip
iv. Common Errors During Recovery:
a. Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Only lower the nose enough to break the stall, after the stall is broken establish a climb
 Excessive speeds and nose low attitudes close to the ground are extremely hazardous
b. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Do not delay recovery, recover at the first indication of stall (unless required otherwise by the
ACS/PTS) - At slow airspeeds, in a descent, close to the ground any delay could be hazardous
c. Secondary stall during recovery
 Once the stall is broken, do not aggressively lift the nose to reestablish a climb as this can quickly
result in a secondary stall
 Use smooth, controlled inputs; monitor performance to ensure the airplane is ready to climb
d. Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
 A smooth controlled recovery is the goal, this will also help to avoid a secondary stall
v. RM: Stall Warning during Normal Operation
a. Recover
b. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
 When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
5. RM: Hazards
A. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only
ii. More likely to occur at low altitude, where the natural impulse is to pull up abruptly
iii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iv. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
B. Accelerated Stalls
i. Higher G loads increase the stall speed (Ex. Steep turns, aggressive pull up)
ii. Use smooth, controlled inputs
iii. Recover at the first indication
C. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. Often associated with the traffic pattern, and especially hazardous at low altitudes
a. Ex. Overshooting final and using rudder to “help the turn” with opposite aileron to maintain 30 o bank
iii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall
iv. Release the crossed-controls and recover
v. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
D. Collision Hazards
E. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish the specified configuration prior to entry
 Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
 Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

 Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls

 Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
 Failure to achieve a stall
 Improper torque correction
 Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Secondary stall during recovery

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or ay any power
setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the particular airplane.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500’ AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’ AGL (AMEL).
2. Maintain heading ±10 if in straight flight; maintain specified bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°, in turning flight.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500’ AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’AGL (AMEL).
2. Maintain heading ±10 in straight flight; maintain specified bank not to exceed 20°, ±5°, in turning flight.

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors associated
with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will understand situations
in which power on stalls are most common and most dangerous and will have the ability to
perform a power-on stall as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. Reduce the AOA
3. Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Power-On Stall Situations
4. Power-On Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-on stalls and will
Standards develop the habit of taking prompt preventative and/or corrective action when in a situation
resulting in a stall.
X.D. Power-On Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalls can be intimidating and frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make you more
comfortable with them and a much safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or any power setting.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the wing is
disrupted resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are practiced to
simulate stalls in the takeoff and climb-out conditions and configuration.

Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircraft’s particular stall characteristics and to avoid putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-on stalls simulate a stall in the takeoff configuration.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies between aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in a GA aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in the graphic below)
 As the AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the
wing hindering its ability to create lift, leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

b. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
B. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained, maintaining controllability
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
C. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA
i. An aircraft can stall at any speed, attitude, or power setting
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft. If
the airspeed is reduced further, the aircraft stalls because the AOA has exceeded the critical angle and
the airflow over the wing is disrupted
iii. High Speed
a. Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall, the wing can exceed the critical AOA at any speed
 Ex. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate change to the flight path
a AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high, but even though the nose has been raised,
the aircraft continues on its trajectory downward for some amount of time
b. If AOA is suddenly increased and the flight path remains the same, the aircraft reaches the critical AOA
at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns
a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, the wings must produce additional lift to maintain altitude
 Remember, in a turn the vertical component of lift is divided into a horizontal & vertical component
c. Additional lift comes from added back pressure which increases the AOA
 The flight path/relative wind remain the same, while the pitch is increased, leading to a higher AOA
d. If at any time during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
v. Recap: If at ANY time (low/high speed or power, straight/turning, etc.) AOA becomes excessive it will stall
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

B. Airspeed & Power Settings

i. As mentioned above, a stall can occur at any airspeed
a. Low Speed and/or Low Power Setting
 As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
 Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing stalling because the AOA has exceeded the
critical angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted
b. High Speed and/or High-Power Setting
 If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate alteration of the flight path
a Since the AOA is suddenly increased while the flight path remains the same, the aircraft reaches
the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
b More on load factors/accelerated stalls below
 Depending on the aircraft, a higher power setting may help to reduce the stall speed and increase
the lift on the wings
a Although the wing may be stalled, a higher power setting can provide increased lift due to the
propeller airflow/prop wash moving over the wing roots
b More prominent in low wing aircraft where the propeller airflow moves directly over the wing
c This airflow also likely has a relatively low angle of attack
ii. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high AOA (like stall recovery) aggravates left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction
a. Newton’s 3rd Law – Every action has an equal/opposite reaction
 The engine/propeller rotate one way; an equal force tries to
rotate the plane the opposite direction
b. Although torque reaction is more of a rolling tendency than a
yaw effect, it does contribute to the left turning tendencies
c. Be mindful, especially at high power settings
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. The high-speed rotation of the propeller sends air in a
corkscrew rotation to the rear of the aircraft
 Air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the
nose left
b. At high propeller speeds/low forward speeds (like in a stall
recovery) the rotation is compact & pronounced
 Strong force on the vertical tail causing yaw to the left
 As forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and becomes less effective
c. Countered with coordinate rudder and aileron
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
 Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)
 Precession - Resultant action of a spinning rotor when a
force is applied to its rim
a When a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead of,
and in the direction of turn

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

1. Causes a pitch/yaw moment or combo of the two depending on where applied

b Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
c Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
b. In relation to power-off stalls, lifting the nose results in a yaw to the left
 An aggressive nose raise and/or power push can result in the nose rising rapidly
 Correction is made with elevator and rudder pressures to maintain pitch attitude & coordination
v. Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor)
a. When flying at a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is
greater than the up moving blade
 Moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc
area causing a yaw to the left
b. In relation to stalls, high power at a high AOA increases P-factor
 Compensated for with right rudder
vi. Big Picture
a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination
during a power-on stall recovery
b. If turning:
 A right turn requires even more right rudder
 A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
D. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)
i. Flaps
a. Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
 Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
a The nose of the aircraft is lowered to prevent ballooning
b Generally, the lowered nose and additional lift assist in decreasing the stall speed (factors will
vary based on aircraft/flap design)
 Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
ii. Gear
a. The effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics
b. Gear extension increases drag and if not properly compensated for could lead to a stall
 Ex. Gear down and a low power setting, combined with increasing pitch to maintain altitude
E. Weight
i. As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
a. Remember, to maintain altitude lift must equal weight
b. So, the greater the weight, the greater the lift required
c. A higher AOA is required to generate the lift (all other factors remaining the same)
d. The higher AOA puts the aircraft closer to the critical AOA; thus the aircraft will stall at a higher speed
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed
a. Same as above, but opposite. Less lift is required, and the AOA can be reduced (all other factors
remaining the same), lowering the stall speed
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases the stall speed
b. A forward center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a heavier aircraft
 The farther forward the center of gravity moves, the higher the angle of attack has to be to
compensate for the extra load imposed by the tail (see picture)

641
X.D. Power-On Stalls

 Due to the higher AOA, the aircraft is closer

to the critical AOA and therefore will stall
at a higher speed
c. The aircraft is also more controllable due to
the longer arm from the CG to the elevator,
improving the stall recovery capabilities
 Additionally, the farther forward the CG,
the greater the tendency for the nose to
pitch down
a Imagine it as more “nose heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The higher AOA and increased deflection of
the stabilizer increases drag; thus the
aircraft is slower for a given power setting
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases the stall speed
b. An aft center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a lighter aircraft
 The farther aft the CG, the lower the AOA has to be to compensate for the load imposed by the tail
 Due to the lower AOA, the aircraft is farther from the critical AOA and will stall at a lower speed
c. Although stall speed is lower, the aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from CG to elevator
 Shortened arm produces less force making recovery more difficult
 As the CG moves aft, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
a Imagine it as more “tail heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The lower AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer reduces drag; thus the aircraft is
faster for a given power setting
G. Load Factor
i. Increased load factor increases the stall speed
ii. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
iii. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
a. The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
b. When an aircraft is stalled at a higher than indicated air speed due to excessive maneuvering loads, it is
called an accelerated maneuver stall
iv. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc. Anything that puts Gs on the
aircraft can increase the load factor and therefore the stall speed
H. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased bank angle increases the stall speed
ii. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns
iii. Tremendous loads are imposed as bank is increased beyond 45o
a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs is imposed on the airplane structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed on the airplane
c. At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

I.Snow, Ice, and Frost

i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Snow, ice and frost disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at
an angle of attack lower than the critical angle of attack
a. To make matters worse, lift is greatly reduced due to the disrupted air, and if ice accumulates, the
weight of the aircraft is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Possible Situations for an Unintentional Power-On Stall
A. High power, high pitch situations
B. Take off, climb, and go arounds. Most hazardous of these situations are likely:
i. Short field takeoff – higher pitch for the aggressive climb. The aircraft is closer to the stall speed
ii. Go Around – changing configuration, changing pitch attitude, changing power. May be significant nose up
trim. Distractions can include radio calls, traffic, etc. A lot to keep up with
4. Power-On Stalls
A. Differences - Considerably louder and steeper than a power-off stall
B. Entry
i. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing the Area
iii. Select an altitude - Must be able to recover prior to 1,500’ AGL
iv. *Takeoff Configuration: Takeoff Flaps (Can be practiced clean as well)
v. Note the Heading (bug the heading)
vi. CE: Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
C. Getting into the Straight-Ahead Stall
i. *Reduce power to slow to normal lift off speed (VR - 44 knots) while maintaining altitude
a. Visually - The nose will pitch above the horizon, use a cloud, or other reference to maintain direction
ii. *At VR, increase power to 2200 RPM and maintain a climb attitude (12o-15o) until the stall occurs
a. The nose will have a tendency to continue to pitch up and yaw to the left
 Establish and maintain the desired pitch attitude
a As airspeed decreases, controls become less effective, increase back pressure to maintain pitch
 With the wings level, maintain coordination/heading with sufficient right rudder

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

aAdd right rudder when applying power to counter the left turning tendencies
1. CE: Improper torque correction
b As airspeed decreases, and the rudder becomes less effective, increase right rudder pressure to
maintain coordination
 Visual references should be primary during the maneuver, but back them up with the instruments
iii. CE: Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead/turning stalls
iv. CE: Rough and/or uncoordinated control procedure
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements to control the aircraft, nothing jerky
b. Larger control inputs will be necessary as the aircraft slows as the controls become less effective
D. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. Procedure
a. In a climbing turn, the same procedures apply as a straight-ahead stall, except a specified bank angle is
maintained (the Airplane Flying Handbook mentions 15-20o of bank)
b. When power is applied and the aircraft pitched for the climb, establish the desired bank angle
c. Aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank constant
 Opposite aileron will likely be necessary to maintain the bank angle - overbanking tendency
a Overbanking Tendency:
1. The slower the airspeed, the smaller the turn radius
a. As airspeed slows in a turning stall, the radius of the turn continues to decrease
2. The smaller the radius of the turn, the greater the difference in distance traveled between
the outer and inner wing
3. Because the outer wing is traveling a further distance in the same amount of time (it’s going
faster than the inner wing), it is generating more lift. This leads to the overbanking tendency
4. Opposite aileron is required to counter the overbanking tendency
d. Maintain coordination throughout the maneuver
 This is especially important in a turning, power on stall due to the increased chance of a spin
ii. CE: Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
a. Anticipate the overbanking tendency
b. Increase control pressure as the aircraft slows and controls become less effective
E. Recognizing the Stall
i. Announce the onset of the stall
a. Stall Warning Horn
b. Reduced Control Effectiveness
c. Buffet
d. Stall
ii. Sight
a. Nose high attitude of the airplane
 Especially high in a power on stall
iii. Sound
a. Stall warning horn
b. Loss of RPM is noticeable due to the increased load on the propeller
c. Noise will tend to decrease with airspeed and the slower flow of air around the aircraft
iv. Kinesthesia (the sensing of movements by feel, “seat of the pants” sensations, your “spidey sense”)
a. In visual flight, the physical sensation of changes in direction is an important indicator to the trained
pilot
b. If properly developed, it can warn the pilot of an impending stall
 The pilot can recognize when something doesn’t feel right
 Not reliable in IMC, without visual references to verify the feelings

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

v. Feel
a. Control pressures become progressively less effective (mushy)
 The lag between control movements and response of the aircraft become greater
b. Buffeting, uncontrollable pitching or vibrations just before the stall
 Caused by turbulent air flowing from the wings, over the fuselage and to the horizontal stabilizer
c. Leaning back
vi. Aircraft Specific
a. Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
vii. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet
b. Stall Horn
c. Ranges & Limitations
viii. Common Errors:
a. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
b. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
c. Failure to achieve a stall
 Ensure a stall has developed. Indications will vary between aircraft
F. Recovery

A. Basics: Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect the autopilot
ii. Pitch nose down
a. Pitch attitude/angle of attack must be decreased positively and immediately
b. The cause of any stall is an excessive angle of attack, decreasing the angle of attack is crucial
c. Be familiar with the control pressures required for your aircraft
 Excessive pitch down can result in excessive altitude loss
 Insufficient pitch down will not break the stall
 If the nose is trimmed up, additional pressure will be required to break the stall
a If able/necessary, trim the nose down during the recovery
iii. Roll wings level
a. Regain/maintain directional control with coordinated aileron and rudder
b. Reorients the lift vector vertical for a more effective recovery and climb
c. Do not attempt to level the wings prior to reducing angle of attack
 A stalled wing can roll the opposite direction of aileron input (more info below)
iv. Thrust/power as necessary
a. Stalls can occur at high/low power settings and airspeeds so adjust power as required
b. In general, maximum allowable power should be applied to increase airspeed and help increase
airflow over the wings, assisting in stall recovery
 Power is not essential to stall recovery, reducing the AOA is the only way of recovering

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

 Right rudder will be required to maintain coordination/heading

a Use outside references - add rudder to keep the nose from yawing across the horizon
c. Stabilize/establish the desired flight path
 Establish a climb at the desired airspeed VY (or VX if necessary)
d. Configure
 Once in a climb, configure/retract the flaps and landing gear as necessary
v. Ailerons and Recovery
a. Most general aviation aircraft are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
 The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron control will be available at high AOA and give
the airplane more stable stalling characteristics
 During the recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
a Thus, ailerons can be used to level the wings
b. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using the ailerons can aggravate the stall
 EX: If the right wing dropped, and excessive aileron was applied to raise the wing, the right wing
(aileron down) would produce a greater AOA and more (induced) drag
a Increasing the AOA on an already stalled wing will aggravate the stall on that wing
b The increase in drag and aggravated stall on the low wing will yaw the aircraft in the direction of
that wing and could result in a spin
vi. Rudder and Recovery
a. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is exceeding the critical AOA while applying excessive or
insufficient rudder and, to a lesser extent, aileron.
 Therefore, it is important that the rudder be used properly during the entry and recovery
b. The primary use of rudder is to counteract any tendency of the airplane to yaw or slip
c. One wing will often drop in a power-on stall
 Maintaining directional control and coordinated flight with the rudder is vital in avoiding a spin
vii. Common Errors During Recovery:
a. Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Only lower the nose enough to break the stall, after the stall is broken establish a climb
 Excessive speeds and nose low attitudes close to the ground are extremely hazardous
b. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Do not delay recovery, recover at the first indication of stall (unless required otherwise by the
ACS/PTS) - At slow airspeeds, in a descent, close to the ground any delay could be hazardous
c. Secondary stall during recovery
 Once the stall is broken, do not aggressively lift the nose to reestablish a climb as this can quickly
result in a secondary stall
 Use smooth, controlled inputs; monitor performance to ensure the airplane is ready to climb
d. Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
 A smooth controlled recovery is the goal, this will also help to avoid a secondary stall
viii. RM: Stall Warning during Normal Operation
a. Recover
b. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
 When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
5. RM: Hazards
A. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

ii. More likely to occur at low altitude, where the natural impulse is to pull up abruptly
iii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iv. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
B. Accelerated Stalls
i. Higher G loads increase the stall speed (Ex. Steep turns, aggressive pull up)
ii. Use smooth, controlled inputs
iii. Recover at the first indication
C. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. Often associated with the traffic pattern, and especially hazardous at low altitudes
a. Ex. Overshooting final and using rudder to “help the turn” with opposite aileron to maintain 30 o bank
iii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall
iv. Release the crossed-controls and recover
v. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
D. Collision Hazards
E. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
 Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
 Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
 Rough and/or uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
 Failure to achieve a stall
 Improper torque correction
 Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Secondary stall during recovery

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or at any power
setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the airplane.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500’ AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’ AGL (AMEL).
2. Set power (as assigned by the evaluator) to no less than 65 percent available power.
3. Maintain heading, ±10° in straight flight; maintain specified bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°, in turning flight.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Select an altitude that will allow the Task to be completed no lower than 1,500’ AGL (ASEL) or 3,000’ AGL (AMEL).
2. Set power (as assigned by the evaluator) to no less than 65% available power.
3. Maintain heading, ±10° in straight flight; maintain specified bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°, in turning flight.

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to accelerated stalls and
develop the ability to recognize such stalls immediately, with the capability to take prompt,
effective recovery action.

Key Elements 1. Excessive Maneuvering Loads

2. Unusual Stall Attitudes
3. Normal Recovery

Elements 1. Aerodynamics of an Accelerated Stall

2. Various Factors & their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Accelerated Stall Situations
4. Accelerated Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands situations in which an accelerated stall is possible and has the ability
Standards to recognize and effectively recover from the stall.
X.E. Accelerated Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalling during a steep turn, or in a level, possibly even nose low attitude? Didn’t think that could happen?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Stalls entered from flight situations that impose excessive maneuvering loads on the airplane. Situations such as
steeps turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in flightpath.

Why
Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to be more rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls, and
because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds, and/or at lower than anticipated pitch, they may be
unexpected.

How:
1. Aerodynamics of an Accelerated Stall
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies, but is usually around 15-20o in a general aviation aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in graphic below)
 As AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the wing
hindering its ability to create lift, and leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

a. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
B. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips, maintaining
controllability of the aircraft
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than it would
otherwise stall
C. What is an Accelerated Stall?
i. At the same gross weight, configuration, CG location, power setting, and environmental conditions, a given
plane will stall at the same indicated airspeed provided the plane is at 1G (steady state unaccelerated flight)
ii. However, the plane can also stall at a higher indicated airspeed when subject to a load factor > 1G
a. Ex. Turning, pulling up, or other abrupt changes to the flight path
iii. Stalls encountered when the G-load, or load factor, exceeds 1G are called Accelerated Stalls
D. Increased Load Factor Increases Stall Speed
i. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
ii. The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a. An aircraft with a stall speed of 50 knots can be stalled at 100 knots by inducing a load factor of 4Gs
iii. Anything that puts Gs on the aircraft increases the load factor and therefore the stall speed
a. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc.

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

iv. Bank Angle and Load Factor

a. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all turns
b. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased beyond 45o
 At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs is imposed on the airplane structure
 At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½
c. Example: Entering a turn, increased back pressure is required to maintain altitude
 Another way of saying this is that the wings must produce additional lift to maintain altitude
(increased load factor)
a Remember, in a turn the vertical component of lift is split into a horizontal & vertical component
 The additional lift comes from added back pressure which increases AOA
a The flight path/relative wind remain the same, while pitch is increased leading to a higher AOA
 If at any time during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
v. Aggressive Pull ups and Load Factor
a. Recovering too aggressively from a steep descent can quickly and significantly increase load factor, and
AOA can quickly exceed critical AOA
b. Ex. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate change to the flight path
 AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high, but even though the nose has been raised, the
aircraft continues its trajectory downward for some amount of time (load factor is increased)
 Since AOA is suddenly increased while the flight path remains the same, the aircraft can reach the
critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
C. Hazards of Accelerated Stalls
i. Significant load factor increases can be imposed when pulling out of steep dives or in steep turns
a. Can result in structural damage at high airspeeds
b. Stay below VA
ii. Accelerated stalls tend to occur at higher airspeeds and to be more aggressive due to the higher airspeeds
a. Can catch a pilot off guard
b. A prolonged accelerated stall may result in a spin or other departure from controlled flight
2. Various Factors & their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Power Settings
i. Low Speed and/or Low Power Setting
a. As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing stalling because the AOA has exceeded the critical
angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted
c. Increased load factor only exacerbates the slow, high AOA aircraft
ii. High Speed and/or High-Power Setting
a. As discussed above
b. Depending on the aircraft, a higher power setting may reduce stall speed and increase lift on the wings
 Although the wing may be stalled, a higher power setting can provide increased lift due to the
propeller airflow/prop wash moving over the wing roots
 More prominent in low wing aircraft where the propeller airflow moves directly over the wing
 This airflow also likely has a relatively low angle of attack
C. Yaw Effects
i. Uncoordinated flight combined with high load factors/accelerated stalls can quickly lead to a spin
ii. The higher stall speed, lower than anticipated pitch attitude, and aggressive stall can catch a pilot off guard
a. If uncoordinated this can lead to a spin

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

D. Configuration
i. Flaps
a. Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
 Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
a The nose of the aircraft is lowered to prevent ballooning
b Generally, the lowered nose and additional lift assist in decreasing the stall speed (factors will
vary based on aircraft/flap design)
 Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
b. Flaps do not protect from an accelerated stall
 Lower designed g-loads in flap configurations could lead to failure/damage
E. Weight
i. As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
a. Remember, to maintain altitude lift must equal weight
b. So, the greater the weight, the greater the lift required
c. A higher AOA is required to generate the lift (all other factors remaining the same)
d. The higher AOA puts the aircraft closer to the critical AOA; thus the aircraft will stall at a higher speed
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed
a. Same as above, but opposite. Less lift is required, and the AOA can be reduced (all other factors
remaining the same), lowering the stall speed
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases the stall speed
b. A forward center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a heavier aircraft
 The farther forward the CG moves, the higher the AOA must be to compensate for the extra load
imposed by the tail (see picture)
 Due to the higher AOA, the aircraft is closer to the
critical AOA and therefore will stall at a higher speed
c. The aircraft is also more controllable due to the longer
arm from the CG to the elevator, improving the stall
recovery capabilities
 Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the greater
the tendency for the nose to pitch down
a Imagine it as more “nose heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The higher AOA and increased deflection of the
stabilizer increases drag; thus the aircraft is slower
for a given power setting
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases the stall speed
b. An aft center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a lighter aircraft
 The farther aft the CG, the lower the AOA has to be to compensate for the load imposed by the tail
 Due to the lower AOA, the aircraft is farther from the critical AOA and will stall at a lower speed
c. Although stall speed is lower, the aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from CG to elevator
 Shortened arm produces less force making recovery more difficult
 As the CG moves aft, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
a Imagine it as more “tail heavy”

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

d. Worth noting:
 The lower AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer reduces drag; thus the aircraft is
faster for a given power setting
e. by approximately ½
G. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Snow, ice and frost disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at
an angle of attack lower than the critical angle of attack
a. To make matters worse, lift is greatly reduced due to the disrupted air, and if ice accumulates, the
weight of the aircraft is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
H. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Accelerated Stall Situations
A. Steep turns
B. Stall and spin recoveries
i. Especially when close to the ground
C. Steep, aggressive pull ups, or other abrupt changes in the aircraft’s flightpath
4. Accelerated Stalls
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. *Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. At a Safe Altitude
a. Recover no lower than 3,000’ AGL
iv. Setup
a. Two methods for performing an accelerated stall per the Airplane Flying Handbook
 Below VA, roll into 45o of bank and smoothly increase back pressure to induce a stall (most common)
 Roll into a 45o bank above VA, and after the airspeed reaches VA, increase back pressure
b. Configure as required
 Never practice accelerated stalls with flaps extended due to the lower design G-load limitations in
that configuration
v. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Performing
i. Establish the desired flight attitude
a. At or Below VA
 The airplane will stall before the limit load factor can be exceeded
b. From straight and level, roll into a steep, level turn (About 45o)
ii. Then smoothly, firmly, and progressively increase the AOA until a stall occurs (at/below V A)
a. Increases wing loading, decrease airspeed, and the centrifugal force will push the pilot into the seat
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. Buffet, stall warning horn will indicate an impending stall

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

a. The nose high attitude and reduction in noise as the aircraft slows doesn’t occur in accelerated stalls
ii. The airplane typically stalls during a coordinated steep turn exactly as it does from straight and level flight,
except the buffet tends to be sharper, and the pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden
 If coordinated - Both wings stall simultaneously, just like straight and level
 If slipping - Tends to roll rapidly toward the outside of the turn (Outside wing stalls 1 st)
 If skidding - Tends to roll rapidly toward the inside of the turn (Inside wing stalls 1 st)
iii. High or increasing descent rate
iv. Aircraft Specific
a. Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
v. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet
b. Stall Horn
c. Ranges & Limitations
vi. Common Errors:
a. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
b. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
c. Failure to achieve a stall
 Ensure a stall has developed. Indications will vary between aircraft
D. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect: the autopilot is likely already disconnected
ii. Pitch: The elevator pressure should be released
a. Reduce the AOA and eliminate the stall warning
iii. Roll: Use coordinated aileron and rudder pressures to level the wings
iv. Thrust: Adjust power as necessary
a. If a high airspeed already exists, additional power may not be necessary
b. Power may even need to be reduced depending on the airspeed and attitude
c. If a spin were to develop, power should be taken to idle
v. Stabilize: Return to the desired flight path
vi. Configure: Likely no changes applicable, but establish the desired configuration
vii. Common Errors
a. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
b. Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from an accelerated stall
 Poor procedures can lead to a secondary stall, spin, or continuation of the accelerated stall
E. RM: Stall Warning during Normal Operation
i. Recover
ii. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
a. When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
5. RM: Hazards
A. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only
ii. More likely to occur at low altitude, where the natural impulse is to pull up abruptly
iii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iv. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
B. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. Often associated with the traffic pattern, and especially hazardous at low altitudes

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

a. Ex. Overshooting final and using rudder to “help the turn” with opposite aileron to maintain 30 o bank
iii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall
iv. Release the crossed-controls and recover
v. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
C. Spins
i. Stall + Yaw (or uncoordinated flight)
a. Recover at the first sign of a stall
b. Maintain coordination to prevent a spin
ii. In the case a spin develops, recover using PARE
a. Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder opposite the spin, Elevator forward
D. Collision Hazards
E. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor procedure in
recovering from an accelerated stall
Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is important that the pilot be able to determine the stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and develop the
ability to instinctively recover at the onset of a stall at other than normal stall speeds or flight attitudes.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Establish a coordinated 45° bank, increasing elevator back pressure until an impending stall is reached.
2. Acknowledge the cue(s) and recover at the first indication of an impending stall (e.g., aircraft buffet, stall horn, etc.).

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X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should understand the dynamics of a cross-controlled stall and therefore be able to
recognize situations which could lead to a cross-controlled stall. The student also should be able
to safely and effectively demonstrate and properly recover from a cross-controlled stall.

Key Elements 1. Too much rudder can hurt us

2. Little or no warning of a stall
3. Intuitive reactions are dangerous

Elements 1. Aerodynamics of Cross-Controlled Stalls

2. Recognizing Cross-Controlled Stalls
3. Cross-Controlled Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student understands the unique requirements for a cross-
Standards controlled stall and can confidently recognize and recover from a cross-controlled situation.
 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Situation intro below

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed - aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder pressure in
the opposite direction.

Why
It is imperative that this type of stall not occur during an actual approach to landing, since recovery may be
impossible prior to ground contact due to the low altitude. During traffic pattern operations, any conditions that
result in overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach, dramatically increase the possibility of an
unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a cross-controlled condition.

How:
Very interesting read on cross-controlled stalls from APS (Aviation Performance Solutions)

1. Aerodynamics of a Cross-Controlled Stall

A. Situation
i. Left turn from base to final with an overshooting wind pushing the aircraft past the centerline and
potentially into the final approach of a parallel runway
ii. The pilot rolls to 30o of bank, the safe bank limit in the pattern, but it isn’t enough to prevent the overshoot
iii. To avoid the overshoot, and help the turn, the pilot adds left rudder, causing the aircraft to roll left, and the
nose to drop. To compensate, the pilot inputs right aileron (opposite direction of the left rudder – the
aircraft is now cross controlled), and raises the nose with back elevator pressure
a. The additional left roll is caused by the left rudder input, and the difference in lift between the two
wings. When the nose swings left, the right wing swings forward and the left wing swings backward. The
right wing is accelerated and the left decelerated. Lift is increased on the right wing, resulting in left
bank. Right aileron is required to maintain the 30o banked turn
b. The nose drops due to the uncoordinated flight and additional drag. Raising the nose brings the AOA
closer to the critical AOA
iv. Still not enough to prevent the overshoot, the pilot adds additional left rudder with the same outcome.
More right aileron is required to maintain the bank angle, and backpressure is added to maintain the pitch
v. Suddenly, the aircraft rolls sharply left, inverted (or even into a spin)
vi. The pilot instinctually responds with right aileron and back elevator pressure to “fix” the situation
a. Right aileron to roll the aircraft back over
b. Back pressure to get away from the fast-approaching ground
vii. Even with these inputs, the aircraft rolls further to the left and accelerates its descent to the ground
B. Why did this happen?
i. A cross control stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded with aileron pressure applied in one direction
and rudder pressure in the opposite direction, causing uncoordinated flight

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 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

a. A cross-control stall can lead to a violent roll toward the inside wing, and/or a spin
ii. Two Important Effects of the Excessive Rudder in the Turn (opposite aileron & back pressure)
a. Opposite Aileron (creates the cross-controlled situation)
 As the right wing accelerates, right aileron is necessary to maintain bank
 Although the pilot can balance the difference in lift between the wings and maintain 30 o of bank in
the pattern, right aileron pressure increases AOA on the left wing, and decreases it on the right wing
a Right aileron pressure results in an upward deflected aileron on the right and a downward
deflected aileron on the left
1. Deflected ailerons change the chord line and therefore the AOA of each wing
a. The AOA on the left, inside wing (downward deflected aileron) increases
b. The AOA on the right, outside wing (upward deflected aileron) decreases
b The inside, low wing has a higher AOA than the outside, high wing
b. Back Elevator Pressure (leads to the stall)
 The nose drop, due to increasing drag, leads to increased back pressure
 Increased back pressure to maintain the same flight path leads to an increased AOA
c. Overall
 The aircraft AOA has been increased with the added back pressure
 The AOA of the left, inside wing is increased even further with the right aileron input
iii. The Stall and the Reaction to the Stall
a. At the point of the stall, the inside wing (left, in this case), has a higher AOA and therefore stalls first
 Suddenly, the low wing has considerably less lift than the high wing and the aircraft rolls rapidly in
the direction of the low wing – often inverted, if not corrected quickly enough
b. The pilot may react by applying even more aileron to roll right side up (in this case, right aileron)
 More opposite aileron further increases the AOA on the left wing, deepening the stall and rolling the
aircraft further left
 As the ground approaches quickly, instinct is to pull up and climb, but when inverted and stalled,
pulling up only sends the aircraft to the ground faster
a The stall gets even deeper
c. Stall + Yaw = Spin. The aircraft could very easily end up in a low altitude spin
C. The Moral of the Story
i. Stay coordinated, especially low to the ground
ii. In the case of an overshoot, or a cross controlled situation, go around and avoid the risk
D. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
E. RM: Limitations
i. Reference any aircraft limitations associated with cross-controlled stalls
2. Recognizing Cross-Controlled Stalls
A. Understand the conditions that can lead to a cross-controlled stall
i. Be alert for these conditions, especially at low altitudes
3. Performing Cross-Controlled Stalls
A. Safe Altitude
i. Before demonstrating the stall, it is extremely important to be at a safe altitude
a. This is because of the extreme nose down attitude and loss of altitude that could occur
b. *Plan for the worst-case scenario, a spin – 3,500’ AGL would allow for 3 rotations (at 500’ per rotation)
and a recovery above 1,500’ AGL

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 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

ii. Single engine stalls should be recovered by 1,500’ AGL

B. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist
i. Fuel Pump ON
ii. Mixture FULL RICH
iii. Lights ON
iv. Gauges GREEN
C. Clear the Area
i. Perform clearing turns
D. Set Up
i. Gear down (if retractable)
ii. Close the throttle
iii. Do not extend flaps because of the possibility of the airplane’s limitations being exceeded
iv. Maintain altitude until reaching normal glide speed
a. Re-trim the plane
b. Remember, at a reduced airspeed, or at gliding speed, the aircraft is closer to a stall:
 Aircraft will be slower and is therefore closer to the stall speed
 To maintain altitude, the pitch attitude must be increased so the aircraft is closer to the critical angle
of attack
v. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
E. Performing
i. Roll into a medium-bank turn
a. This should simulate a final approach turn that would overshoot the centerline of the runway
ii. During the turn, excessive rudder pressure should be applied in the direction of the turn but the bank held
constant by applying opposite aileron pressure
iii. At the same time, increase back elevator pressure to keep the nose from lowering
iv. All of these control pressures should be increased until the airplane stalls
a. Due to the sideslip, and abnormal airflow, the airplane may stall without warning
 Depending on the location of the stall warning horn, it may or may not warn the pilot of the stall
 Due to the sideslip, and the fuselage blocking a large portion of airflow over the elevator, the buffet
may not be felt until very late (right before the stall), if at all
v. CE: Failure to establish a cross-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the
hazards of a cross-controlled stall
F. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an abnormal attitude
a. The pilot must be able to recognize when this stall is imminent and must take immediate action to
prevent a completely stalled condition, and/or a spin
ii. When the stall occurs:
a. Disconnect: Likely not applicable in this situation
b. Pitch: Apply nose down pressure to reduce AOA and eliminate the stall warning
 In most aircraft, releasing the control forces will break the stall; additional nose down pressure may
be required
c. Roll: Remove the excessive rudder, and level the wings
 Do not attempt to correct with opposite aileron - this will increase the roll, possibly to an inverted
condition
 Return to coordinated flight
d. Thrust: Add power as necessary
e. Stabilize: Return to the desired flight path
f. Configure: Likely not applicable, but establish the configuration required

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 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

iii. CE: Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a cross-controlled stall
iv. CE: Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a cross-controlled
condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition
a. The pattern is the most hazardous area this can occur, simulate a pattern well above pattern altitude
(allowing ample recovery altitude) to demonstrate the hazards of the cross-controlled situation to a
student
G. Spin Recovery
i. This maneuver can result in a spin
ii. Recovery
a. Power - Idle
b. Ailerons - Neutral
c. Rudder - Opposite
d. Elevator - Briskly forward
 Break the stall
e. Rudder - Relaxed
f. Elevator - To pull out of stall
H. Bottom Line: Stay coordinated to avoid a cross-controlled stall!
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Failure to establish a cross-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the hazards of a
cross-controlled stall
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a cross-controlled stall
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a cross-controlled condition in a
gliding or reduced airspeed condition

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is imperative that this type of stall not occur during an actual approach to landing, since recovery may be impossible
prior to ground contact due to the low altitude. During traffic pattern operations, any conditions that result in
overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach, dramatically increases the possibility of an unintentional
accelerated stall while the airplane is in a cross-control condition. If overshooting, do not try to correct with rudder,
instead initiate a go-around and try again.

660
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to elevator trim stalls and their
application in executing a safe go-around. The student understands the inherent danger
involved when positive control of the airplane is not maintained, especially close to the
ground.

Key Elements 1. Maintain Positive Control

2. Anticipate Attitude Changes
3. Do Not Stall in a Go-Around

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Elevator Trim Stall Situations
3. Elevator Trim Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly and safely perform a go-around procedure, correcting for any
Standards unintentional changes in airplane attitude, and without stalling the aircraft.
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Applying full power with too much nose up trim (as in an approach to land) can have dire results if we don’t know
how to deal with it.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can happen when full power is applied for a go around and positive
control of the airplane is not maintained.

Why
A situation like this could occur during a go-around procedure or immediately after takeoff. The objective is to show
the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, maintaining positive control of
the airplane, and using proper trim techniques. It’s imperative a stall doesn’t occur during an actual go-around.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies between aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in a GA aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in the graphic)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in the graphic below)
 As the AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the
wing hindering its ability to create lift and leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in the graphic)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

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X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

b. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
B. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips, maintaining
controllability of the aircraft
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
C. Specific to the Elevator Trim Stall
i. In the event of a go around, as maximum power is applied, the nose will rise sharply and turn left
a. The combined effect of nose high trim, and increased prop wash over the tail and elevator make the
nose rise sharply
b. Torque and the left turning tendencies make the aircraft yaw/turn to the left
c. If uncontrolled, the excessive nose-up pitch can result in a stall
d. If uncorrected, the uncoordinated left turn/yaw can lead to a spin
D. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
E. RM: Limitations
i. Reference any aircraft limitations associated with elevator trim stalls
2. Elevator Trim Stall Situations
A. Primarily used to demonstrate a go-around without maintaining control of the aircraft
i. Basically, any situation where the aircraft is trimmed nose high and considerable power is added
B. Situations include:
i. Normal landing approach followed by a go around
ii. Simulated forced landing approach and the following recovery
iii. Immediately after takeoff with the trim still set for the landing approach (nose high trim)
iv. Runaway autopilot
3. Elevator Trim Stalls
A. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver
a. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN

663
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

b. Select an altitude - Must be able to recover prior to 1,500’ AGL

c. Clear the Area
d. Note the heading (bug the heading if necessary) for reference purposes
ii. Setup
a. Slowly retard the throttle while maintaining altitude
b. As airspeed decreases, configure the aircraft for landing
 Lower the gear, if applicable, and extend landing flaps
c. Once configured, close the throttle and maintain altitude until airspeed approaches normal glide speed
d. Once established on speed, trim the aircraft the maintain the glide speed
e. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Nose up trim is necessary for demonstration of the maneuver
 If safe, full nose up trim can be demonstrated to show the student the worst-case scenario
B. Performing the Elevator Trim Stall

i. Smoothly advance the power to the maximum allowable (as would be done in a go-around)
a. The nose will rise sharply and turn to the left
 With the throttle fully advanced, the pitch attitude quickly increases above the normal climb attitude
and if left uncontrolled, will lead to a stall and potentially a spin
a This could be especially hazardous when close to the ground
 Remember, this is a demonstration, so the student needs to see the effects of power/nose high trim
a Allow time for the student to see the hazards without compromising safety
b. This scenario highlights the importance of maintaining positive control of the aircraft and understanding
the effects of nose high trim and high-power settings
 Instruct the student to anticipate and correct for the excessive pitch with forward pressure, and
correct for the left turning tendencies with right rudder
 Fly the aircraft, don’t let the aircraft fly you
a As the nose rises aggressively/abnormally, correct the condition before it becomes an issue
b Power and right rudder always go together - if the nose yaws left, add right rudder to correct
ii. Recognize the stall is imminent
a. Stall warning horn and buffeting
b. Rapid pitch up, combined with rapid loss of airspeed
C. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect the autopilot (this may be the reason for the excessive trim)
ii. Pitch: Sufficient forward pressure must be applied to return the airplane to normal climbing attitude
a. This will take considerably more forward pressure than normal to overcome the nose high trim
b. Since an elevator trim stall is likely to occur near the ground, overly excessive forward pressure could
lead to impacting the ground
 Set the pitch attitude required to break the stall and establish a normal climb
iii. Roll: Coordinated roll as necessary to maintain wings level

664
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

iv. Thrust: As required (likely max power if it’s not already there)
v. Stabilize: While holding the airplane in a normal attitude, trim should be relieved, and the normal go-around
and level-off procedures completed
vi. Configure: As you would for a normal go around
vii. If a full stall occurs, recovery will require significant nose-down pitch to reduce the AOA below the critical
AOA, as well as a corresponding significant loss of altitude
a. Important that a full stall not occur during a go-around as there may not be enough altitude to recover
viii. Often times instinct is to undo the action that caused the problem
a. In this case, adding power created the excessively nose high, left yaw situation
b. Although it might be somewhat helpful, taking the power back to idle could lead to other problems,
namely:
 A significant loss of airspeed while close to the ground
 The inability to climb while close to the ground
a This could be further complicated if the pilot decides to add back pressure to climb away from
the approach ground, only to accelerate the descent
ix. CE: Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and the recovery from an elevator trim stall
x. CE: Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
a. Describe scenarios where this could occur to help understanding
 Go-around, during takeoff if the trim has not been reset to the takeoff position, etc.
b. Poor correction for torque and up-elevator trim will lead to a stall and that could quickly enter a spin
c. Keep the aircraft coordinated and lower the nose to maintain control (re-trim as needed)
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor correction for
torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and the recovery from an elevator trim stall
Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is very important that a pilot understands the elevator trim stall hazard associated with go-arounds. By understanding
the risk involved if positive control of the airplane’s attitude is not maintained future flights will be considerably safer.

665
X.H. Secondary Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to secondary stalls and the
importance of an initial proper stall recovery.

Key Elements 1. Airspeed!

2. Increased Load Factor
3. More Pronounced Stall the 2nd Time

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Secondary Stall Situations
3. Secondary Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the importance of a properly performed stall recovery.
Standards
X.H. Secondary Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Fool me once shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me. Stalling once isn’t good. Stalling twice really isn’t good.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A secondary stall is a stall that occurs after a recovery from a preceding stall.

Why
The loss of altitude associated with a single stall can be potentially hazardous. By stalling the aircraft a second time
while recovering from the first stall, the altitude loss is amplified and the second stall may be more aggressive.
Learning the proper stall recognition and recovery procedures and seeing/demonstrating a secondary stall will allow
the pilot to safely recover the first time and not aggravate the situation.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies, but is usually around 15-20o in a general aviation aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in graphic below)
 As AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the wing
hindering its ability to create lift, and leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

667
X.H. Secondary Stalls

c. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
b. A stall can occur at any speed, attitude or power setting
 If at ANY time (low speed/high speed, high power/low power, straight/turning, etc.) the aircraft’s
AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
B. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips, maintaining
controllability of the aircraft
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than it would
otherwise stall
C. Specific to a Secondary Stall
i. A secondary stall is typically caused by abrupt control inputs or attempting to return to the desired flight
path too quickly exceeding the critical AOA a second time
a. Secondary stall is often deeper and more aggressive than the first and can result in more altitude lost
 The nose may drop farther, and yaw/roll more violently
b. Attempting to recover too aggressively, recovering only with power (no pitch correction), or recovering
before the stall has been broken can quickly lead to a secondary stall
ii. Hazards Associated with a Secondary Stall
a. Prolonged Recovery
 It takes longer to recover from two stalls than one. If close to the ground and time and altitude are
limited, the secondary stall may be the difference between hitting the ground and recovering
 Startle Factor
a Not only does it take longer, and more altitude, to recover from two stalls than one, but the
startle factor and unexpected nature of the second stall could lead to an additional delay in
recovering if the pilot isn’t sure what is happening
b. Additional Loads on the Aircraft
 Aggressive pull-ups can impose additional loads, potentially damaging the aircraft
c. Spin and/or Loss of Control
 Because the secondary stall is often more aggressive and unexpected, there is a greater likelihood of
it turning into a spin or loss of control

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X.H. Secondary Stalls

B. RM: Environmental Elements

i. Turbulence
a. Bumpy air may induce a secondary stall
ii. Microbursts
a. Natural reaction close to the ground in a down draft is to pull up
b. Ensure the aircraft is fully recovered for any semblance of a chance of continued flight
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
a. Less dense air decreases performance and requires a more lengthy/difficult recovery
b. Ensure fully recovered before pitching for a climb (don’t over pitch at high altitudes)
 The normal pitch attitudes at lower altitudes/sea level may result in a stall at high altitudes
C. RM: Limitations
i. Reference any aircraft limitations associated with elevator trim stalls
2. Secondary Stall Situations
A. Attempting to recover from a stall using only pitch
i. Pitch & power are necessary to return to normal flight
ii. Lowering pitch can break the stall, but without power and/or sufficient airspeed, raising the nose will quickly
lead to another stall
B. Attempting to recover from a stall using power only
i. Pitch must be used to recover from a stall, the AOA must be reduced
ii. In most GA aircraft, adding power while maintaining the nose high stalled attitude will result in a second stall
(power-on stall in this case)
C. A stall recovery close to the ground
i. In the case the recovery must happen quickly (the aircraft is close to the ground), the pilot may prematurely
raise the nose into a second stall
D. Abrupt, overaggressive control movements
i. This may be the result of nerves, fear, etc.
ii. Use smooth, controlled movements
3. Secondary Stalls

A. Pre-Maneuver
i. *Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Perform clearing turns
iii. Select a safe altitude
a. Recover no lower than 1,500’ AGL
iv. Setup
a. Setup and configure for a power on or power off stall, as required

669
X.H. Secondary Stalls

b. Once configured, perform the initial stall

c. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Getting into the Secondary Stall
i. Upon reaching the first stall, reduce the angle of attack, then abruptly pull back on the controls
a. Do not exceed VA
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. Similar to a normal stall, but often times more aggressive/pronounced
a. The stall warning horn will sound again
b. Buffeting rapidly returns
c. Excessive back pressure
d. Controls are “mushy”, loss of control effectiveness
e. Nose down pitch, high sink rate
f. Yaw
 Depends on the stall characteristics, power on vs power off stall, and the pilot’s coordination
ii. CE: Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall
D. Recovery: Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. When a secondary stall occurs, the pilot should again perform the stall recovery procedures
ii. Pitch: Apply nose down elevator pressure as required
a. Properly reduce the AOA to break the stall
iii. Roll: Coordinated roll to maintain or return to wings level
iv. Thrust: Apply maximum power
a. Maintain coordination (correct for the left turning tendencies with right rudder)
b. Reestablish airspeed and airflow over the wing roots (low wing aircraft)
v. Stabilize: When sufficient airspeed has been regained, the airplane can be returned to straight and level
flight or established in a climb at (VX or VY)
a. Because the stall is more aggressive the second time around, the recovery may have to be more
aggressive (greater nose down pitch to break the stall)
vi. Configure: Once stabilized, establish the desired configuration based on the phase of flight
vii. Common Error
a. Improper/inadequate demonstration of the recognition of, and recovery from, a secondary stall
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor procedure in
recovering from a primary stall

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Properly recover from the stall the first time. The second stall likely will be more pronounced and is worth avoiding.

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References: 14 CFR Part 23, Type Certificate Data Sheet; Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), Airplane Flying
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to spins. The student will learn
how to recognize a spin and the proper recovery techniques.

Key Elements 1. Stall + Yaw = Spin

2. Brisk and Positive Recovery
3. Ensure Spins are Approved

Elements 1. Spins and Anxiety

2. Aerodynamics of a Spin
3. Various Factors & Spins
4. Spin Situations
5. Recognizing Potential Spins
6. Not all Aircraft are Approved for Spins
7. Spin Procedures
8. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the factors involved in creating and maintaining a spin and knows the
Standards process to recover from a spin.
X.I. Spins

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Who WANTS to do a spin? Most people are scared of them but understanding them will help in avoiding them and
remove some of the fear.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A spin is an aggravated stall that results in what is termed “autorotation,” wherein the airplane follows a downward
corkscrew path.

Why
Without an understanding of spins and the proper procedures to recover from them the pilot could be put in an
impossible situation. Understanding spins will also increase confidence and reduce the anxiety associated with spins.

How:
1. Spins and Anxiety
A. Spins are scary
i. A common perception to those unfamiliar with aviation is that a spin is a death sentence
ii. They’re scary even to a lot of pilots, BUT we’re going to set you up for success with knowledge and training
a. To get into a spin, you have to stall the aircraft
b. Through your training, the intent is that you never unintentionally encounter a stall, but in the case that
you do, you’re confident and capable of recovering
c. From there, the intent is that you’re so well trained that even if you do unintentionally encounter a stall,
you never encounter a spin
d. And, in the unlikely event that the first 2 lines of defense fail, you will know how to recover from a spin
iii. Knowledge and training can remove the anxiety and make you a far safer and competent pilot
2. Aerodynamics of a Spin
A. Requirements for a Spin
i. A spin occurs when the wings exceed their critical AOA (stall) with a sideslip, or yaw, acting on the airplane
a. There are two requirements for a spin:
 A stall
 Yaw
a Can be for any reason (rudder, adverse yaw, engine/prop effects, wake turbulence, etc.)
b The yaw can occur at or beyond the actual point of stall
B. Basically…
i. In a spin, the inboard, low wing is more stalled than the outboard wing, which creates an autorotation, or
rolling, yawing, and pitching motion around the vertical axis
C. Specifically…
i. When the aircraft stalls, one wing drops (the wing will drop in the direction of the yaw)
a. Although both wings are stalled…
 The wing that drops has an increasing angle of attack (more stalled)
a Lift decreases and drag increases on this wing

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 And the rising wing has a decreasing AOA (less stalled)

a Lift increases and drag decreases on this wing
ii. The autorotation results from the unequal angle of attack on the airplane’s wings
a. The difference in lift between the wings results in the rolling action
b. The difference in drag between the wings results in the yawing action
iii. The load factor during a spin varies with the spin characteristics of each aircraft, but is usually found to be
slightly above the 1G of level flight. There are two reasons for this:
a. Airspeed in a spin is very low, usually within 2 knots of the unaccelerated stall speed
b. An aircraft pivots, rather than turns, while it is in a spin

D. 4 Phases of a Spin
i. Entry Phase
a. The pilot intentionally or accidentally provides the elements for the spin (stall + yaw)
ii. Incipient Phase
a. Occurs from the time the aircraft stalls and starts rotating to the time the spin has fully developed
 Take approximately 2-4 turns for most aircraft
 The aerodynamic and inertial forces have not yet balanced
b. Indications
 Indicated airspeed will generally stabilize at a low and constant airspeed
 The airplane in the turn indicator will indicate the direction of the turn
a Keep in mind that the slip/skid ball is unreliable when spinning
iii. Developed Phase
a. Occurs when the airplane’s angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized in a
flightpath that is nearly vertical

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 The spin is in equilibrium – the airplane’s attitude, angles, and self-sustaining motions about the
vertical axis are constant or repetitive, or nearly so
iv. Recovery Phase
a. Occurs when rotation ceases and the AOA of the wings is decreased below the critical AOA
3. Various Factors & Spins (Very similar to information in the Stall lessons since a stall leads to a spin)
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Power Settings
i. Low Speed and/or Low Power Setting
a. As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing stalling because the AOA has exceeded the critical
angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted
c. Increased load factor only exacerbates the slow, high AOA aircraft
ii. High Speed and/or High-Power Setting
a. As discussed above
b. Depending on the aircraft, a higher power setting may reduce stall speed and increase lift on the wings
 Although the wing may be stalled, a higher power setting can provide increased lift due to the
propeller airflow/prop wash moving over the wing roots
 More prominent in low wing aircraft where the propeller airflow moves directly over the wing
 This airflow also likely has a relatively low angle of attack
iii. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
b. Extremely important in preventing a spin
C. Configuration
i. Flaps
a. Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
 Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
a The nose is lowered to maintain altitude
b Generally, the additional lift/lowered nose assist in decreasing the stall speed
1. Factors will vary based on aircraft/flap design
 Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
b. Flaps do not protect from an accelerated stall
 Lower designed g-loads in flap configurations could lead to failure/damage
ii. Gear – the effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics
a. Big picture, gear increases drag
D. Load Factor
i. Increased load factor increases the stall speed
ii. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
iii. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
a. The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
b. When an aircraft is stalled at a higher than indicated air speed due to excessive maneuvering loads, it is
called an accelerated maneuver stall
iv. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc. Anything that puts Gs on the
aircraft can increase the load factor and therefore the stall speed
E. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased bank angle increases the stall speed
ii. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns

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iii. Tremendous loads are imposed as bank is increased beyond 45o

a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs is imposed on the airplane structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed on the airplane
c. At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately

F. Weight
i. As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
a. Remember, to maintain altitude lift must equal weight
b. So, the greater the weight, the greater the lift required
c. A higher AOA is required to generate the lift (all other factors remaining the same)
d. The higher AOA puts the aircraft closer to the critical AOA; thus the aircraft will stall at a higher speed
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed
a. Same as above, but opposite. Less lift is required, and the AOA can be reduced (all other factors
remaining the same), lowering the stall speed
G. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases the stall speed
b. A forward center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a heavier aircraft
 The farther forward the center of gravity moves, the higher the angle of attack has to be to
compensate for the extra load imposed by the tail (see picture)
 Due to the higher AOA, the aircraft is closer
to the critical AOA and therefore will stall
at a higher speed
c. More controllable due to the longer arm from
the CG to the elevator - improves stall recovery
 The farther forward the CG, the greater the
tendency for the nose to pitch down
a Imagine it as more “nose heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The higher AOA and increased deflection of
the stabilizer increases drag; thus the
aircraft is slower for a given power setting
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases the stall speed
b. An aft center of gravity has the same effect on
stall speed as a lighter aircraft

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 The farther aft the CG, the lower the AOA has to be to compensate for the load imposed by the tail
 Due to the lower AOA, the aircraft is farther from the critical AOA and will stall at a lower speed
c. Although stall speed is lower, the aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from CG to elevator
 Shortened arm produces less force making recovery more difficult
 As the CG moves aft, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
a Imagine it as more “tail heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The lower AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer reduces drag; thus the aircraft is
faster for a given power setting
e. by approximately ½
H. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Snow, ice and frost disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at
an angle of attack lower than the critical angle of attack
a. To make matters worse, lift is greatly reduced due to the disrupted air, and if ice accumulates, the
weight of the aircraft is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
I. Yaw Effects
i. Uncoordinated flight is what results in a spin
a. Stall + Yaw = Spin
ii. Maintaining directional control and preventing the nose from yawing before stall recovery is initiated is key
to averting a spin
iii. Pilot must apply the correct amount of rudder to keep the nose from yawing and the wings from banking
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
4. RM: Spin Situations
A. A Stall + Yaw = Spin
i. Any situation in which you have both a stall and yaw
B. During a go-around or short field takeoff
i. High pitch attitude, high power setting, and low airspeed situations
C. Turn from base to final
i. Cross controlled situation to avoid overshooting the runway without using excessive bank
ii. The spin that occurs from cross controlling an aircraft usually results in rotation in the direction of the
rudder being applied, regardless of which wingtip is raised
D. Sloppy stall recovery while practicing maneuvers
E. Unrecognized Stall Conditions
i. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Feel & Sound
b. Buffet
c. Stall Horn
d. Stall Warning Ranges & Limitations
5. Recognizing Potential Spins
A. Be aware of situations where a spin is most likely to occur

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B. Understand what causes a spin and avoid those situations

i. A spin is dependent on yawing during a stall – Maintain coordination
C. Continued stall (and spin) recovery practice makes the pilot more competent in recognizing and avoiding a spin
D. CE: Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
6. Not all Aircraft are Approved for Spins
A. DO NOT intentionally spin an aircraft that is not authorized for spins
B. To determine if spins are approved check:
i. Airworthiness Category
ii. Type Certificate and Data Sheets
iii. AFM/POH – Limitations section
iv. Placard in the airplane stating, “No acrobatic maneuvers including spins approved”
C. In the case spins are approved, also check:
i. Weight and Balance limitations
ii. Recommended entry and recovery procedures
D. If the airplane is not certified, DO NOT attempt spins
i. Sometimes people will try to justify the maneuver
a. Technicality in the Airworthiness Standards
b. They say that the airplane was spin tested during certification
 Normal Category classification only requires that an airplane recover from a one-turn spin of not
more than one additional turn or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer
a One 360o rotation does not provide a stabilized spin, therefore prolonged spins in that aircraft
could be difficult or impossible to recover from
ii. 14 CFR Part 23
a. There are no requirements for investigation of controllability in a true spinning condition for normal
category airplanes
 The one turn margin is a check of the controllability in a delayed stall (not spin) recovery
 Therefore, in airplanes placarded against spins, there is absolutely no assurance that recovery from
a fully developed spin is possible
E. Weight and Balance Requirements
i. In airplanes approved for spins, compliance with weight and balance requirements is extremely important
for safe performance and recovery from a spin maneuver
a. Even minor weight and balance changes can affect the airplane’s spin recovery characteristics
 An aircraft that cleanly recovers from a prolonged spin with the CG at one position may fail
completely to respond to normal recovery attempts when the CG is moved aft by one or two inches
b. An aircraft approved for spins in the utility category, but loaded in accordance with the normal category,
may not recover from a spin that is allowed to progress beyond one turn
 It is common practice for aircraft designers to establish an aft CG limit that is within one inch of the
Normal Category maximum, which allows normal recovery from a one-turn spin
 When certificating an aircraft in the utility category to permit intentional spins, the aft CG limit is
usually established at a point several inches forward of that permissible for certification in the
normal category
F. CE: Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins
7. Spin Procedures
A. Preflight
i. Special emphasis on excess/loose items that may affect weight, CG, and controllability of the airplane
B. Pre-Maneuver
i. *Checklist - Fuel Pump ON; Mixture RICH; Lights ON; Gauges GREEN
ii. Clear the Area - Above and Below

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iii. Altitude – CFI ACS: Select an entry altitude that allows the Task to be completed no lower than 4,000’ AGL
a. *Approximately 500’ is lost per turn (DA20)
iv. CE: Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
C. Maneuver
i. Entry Phase
a. Where the pilot provides the necessary elements for the spin (accidentally or intentionally)
b. Procedure (similar to a power off stall)
 Reduce power to idle while simultaneously raising the nose to a stalling pitch attitude
 As the stall approaches, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin while applying full
(to the limit) back elevator pressure
 Keep the ailerons neutral
c. Maintaining a Stabilized Spin
 Maintain the above control inputs (yaw + stall)
a Full back elevator pressure (stall)
b Full rudder in the direction of the spin (yaw)
c Neutral ailerons
d. Maintaining Orientation During a Spin
 Select an outside reference point and use the turn coordinator
a The turn coordinator deflects in the direction of the spin and is reliable
b Gyroscopic Instruments may tumble and be misleading (heading indicator, attitude indicator)
 CE: Disorientation during a spin
e. CE: Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
f. CE: Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
g. CE: Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
ii. Incipient Phase
a. From the time the airplane stalls, and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed
 Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a steady-state spin are most often used in the
initial spin training/recovery techniques
 May take to 2-4 turns for most aircraft
 The aerodynamic and inertial forces have not reached a balance
 Indicated airspeed should be near/below stall speed and the turn coordinator will indicate the
direction of the spin
iii. Developed Phase
a. Occurs when the airplane’s angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized while in a
flightpath that is nearly vertical
b. Aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance, the spin is in equilibrium
c. Important to Note:
 Some training airplanes will not enter into the developed phase but could transition from the
incipient phase to a spiral dive
a In this case, the airplane will not be in equilibrium but instead will be accelerating and as a
result, G load can rapidly increase
1. In a spin, the airspeed does not accelerate
 CE: Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
d. CE: Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
iv. Recovery Phase (PARE Acronym – Power, Ailerons, Rudder, Elevator)
a. Occurs when the AOA of the wings decrease below the critical AOA and autorotation slows
 Then, the nose steepens and rotation stops – this phase may last ¼ of a turn to several turns

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b. Note: Always follow the manufacturer’s procedures. In the absence of the manufacturer’s procedures,
the recovery procedures below are recommended in the Airplane Flying Handbook, Chapter 4.
c. Step 1 – POWER IDLE
 Power aggravates the spin characteristics, resulting in a flatter spin and increased rotation
d. Step 2 – AILERONS NEUTRAL
 Ailerons may have an adverse effect on recovery
a Aileron in the direction of the spin may speed rotation, steepen spin attitude, & delay recovery
b Ailerons opposite the spin may cause flattening of the spin attitude and delayed recovery, or
may even be responsible for causing an unrecoverable spin
e. Step 3 – RUDDER OPPOSITE THE ROTATION
 Apply and hold FULL (to the stop) rudder opposite the direction of rotation until rotation stops
 Rudder is the most important control for recovery in typical, single-engine airplanes, and its
application should be brisk and full
a Avoid slow and overly cautious opposite rudder which can allow the airplane to spin indefinitely
f. Step 4 - ELEVATOR FORWARD
 To break the stall, apply a positive/brisk, straight forward movement of the elevator
a Perform this step immediately after full rudder application – Don’t wait for rotation to stop
b Hold the controls firmly in this position
c This will decrease the AOA and break the stall (spinning will stop when broken)
1. Note: If airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin
2. In the spin, the indicated airspeed is relatively low, constant/not accelerating
 CE: Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
g. Step 5 – RUDDER NEUTRAL
 Neutralize the rudder after the rotation stops
 If not neutral the increased airspeed will cause a yawing or skidding effect
 Also, if the stall is not broken and full rudder is held in the opposite direction a spin can quickly start
in the direction of the rudder pressure
h. Step 6 – ELEVATOR BACK PRESSURE
 Once broken, raise the nose to level flight - Be careful of a secondary stall and exceeding load limits
i. CE: Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
 Once the spin is stopped and the stall broken, smoothly raise the nose to maintain level flight
a Avoid aggressive movements resulting in an accelerated stall or a secondary stall
b Do not leave the aircraft in a nose low attitude while altitude decreases and airspeed increases
j. CE: Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
k. CE: Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
8. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
 Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
 Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
 Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
 Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
 Disorientation during a spin
 Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin

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 Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery

 Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
 Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Spins can be dangerous, especially when close to the ground. Understanding the reasons a spin can happen and how to
prevent one is extremely important. As long as coordination is maintained during a stall, a spin will not occur. Once in a
spin, recovery is accomplished by PARE - reducing the power to idle, maintaining neutral ailerons, and applying full
opposite rudder along with forward elevator pressure to break the spin. The recovery should be performed with brisk,
positive pressure.

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1. Environmental Elements & Slow Flight

A. Turbulence
i. Can increase the stall speed
a. Sudden changes in the relative wind, and/or aggressive control inputs to maintain altitude can lead to
exceeding the critical angle of attack and a stall
b. In moderate to severe turbulence or strong crosswinds, use a higher-than-normal approach speed
ii. When flying below minimum drag speed (L/DMAX) the aircraft exhibits speed instability
a. If disturbed by turbulence and airspeed decreases, total drag increases, leading to further loss of speed
b. Total drag continues to rise, and airspeed continues to fall
 Without power and/or changes to pitch, speed will continue to decay down to the stall
 Assuming aircraft stability doesn’t prevent the problem
B. Microbursts
i. Strong downdraft normally occurring over 1 NM or less horizontally, and vertically less than 1,000’
a. Can induce windspeeds greater than 100 knots and downdrafts as strong as 6,000 fpm
ii. At a high AOA/power and slow speed, there is minimal ability to climb, especially in the case of a microburst
iii. Do not fly in or around thunderstorms or heavy rain showers where microbursts are most common
iv. In the case of a microburst follow the POH procedures, otherwise, general techniques include:
a. FULL power and get the airplane climbing (best climb configuration & speed)
b. If still descending, ensure max power, and increase pitch as far as possible without stalling
 Intent is to keep the plane flying as long as possible in hope of exiting the shear
v. Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
a. Recognizing and avoiding microbursts, and strategies for successful escape
C. Atmospheric Conditions
i. Pressure Altitude
a. Pressure Altitude: Altitude above the standard 29.92” Hg plane (1,000 ( 29.92− Altimeter ) + Elev )
b. As air masses move, they carry different levels of pressure. Pressure levels affect performance
 Higher Pressure (lower pressure altitude): Better engine performance (more combustion)
 Lower Pressure (higher pressure altitude): Poorer performance
ii. Density Altitude/Temperature
a. Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
 120 ( ℃−15℃ ) + PA (this is an approximation)
b. Lower temperatures (the air is more compressed): Improves performance
c. Higher temperatures (the air is less compressed): Degrades performance
iii. Humidity
a. Although not directly accounted for on the performance charts, humidity decreases performance
2. Stall Warning Range & Limitations
A. Buffet: Tends to occur prior to the stall horn
i. Generally, an early indication of a stall
ii. May not always occur (Ex: Cross controlled stalls can occur with little to no warning)
a. Airplane design, attitude, configuration, etc. preventing turbulent air from the wings hitting the stab
B. Stall Horn
i. Designed to provide warning of an approaching stall and time for stall recovery
ii. Per 23.207
a. Clear & distinct stall warning with the flaps and gear in any normal position, in straight and turning flight
b. Warning must begin at least 5 knots above stall speed and continue until the stall occurs
X. RM Concepts

c. Must provide the pilot time to take action to avert the stall
C. Stall indications and horns have different operational ranges and limitations
i. Reference the POH for specific information
ii. Ex: Uncoordinated flight may inhibit airflow at the stall indicator
a. Situations where one wing (without the indicator) stalls first
3. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management
A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
d. Divide attention between inside and outside references
e. If SA is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position and then solve the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
4. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance

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i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
 Applicable in all phases of flight, especially important in high traffic areas
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Plan well and be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard
a. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons/property
ii. Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except over open water/sparsely populated areas,
then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to attitude flight and have the
ability to smoothly and steadily control the aircraft, without the use of outside references. The
student will be able to perform this as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Pitch + Power = Performance

2. Trim
3. Crosscheck
4. Adjust

Elements 1. Instrument Flying Hazards

2. Control & Performance
3. Procedural Steps
4. Establish
5. Trim
6. Crosscheck
7. Adjust
8. Straight-and-Level Flight
9. Turns to Headings
10. Constant Airspeed Climbs
11. Constant Airspeed Descents
12. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can smoothly and steadily control the airplane by reference to the instruments
Standards only. He or she will be able to establish and maintain a thorough crosscheck and make the
required adjustments to the flight attitude.
 XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Note: Basic instrument maneuver lessons A-D are often taught together, and therefore have been combined into a
single lesson plan.

Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
As you’re flying you can see that the weather ahead looks like it might be getting worse. You think you can ‘scud run’
the rest of the way but, lo and behold, you unexpectedly enter a cloud and need to get out safely.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Attitude instrument flying may be defined as the control of an aircraft’s spatial position by using instruments rather
than outside visual references.

Why
In the instance that you mistakenly fly into adverse weather it is important to be comfortable flying the airplane
without outside, visual references.

How:
1. RM: Instrument Flying Hazards
A. Failure to Maintain VFR
i. Risks include disorientation, loss of control, getting lost, icing, stress, midair/terrain, collision, and more
ii. These risks can be reduced/mitigated through thorough preflight planning and weather briefings
a. Weather Reports and Charts
 Begin looking at weather reports/expectations a few days prior flight
a Build a more detailed picture as the flight gets closer & get a full briefing on the day of the flight
 Do not go if the weather is not at least VMC along the entire route
a Apply your own weather minimums based on experience, proficiency, comfort level, and safety
b. Alternate Airports: Be familiar with alternates enroute in the case of deteriorating weather
 Know where VMC should exist and divert prior to entering IMC
 Mitigates considerable stress and risk associated with an emergency Landing
c. Terrain: Know minimum required altitudes for terrain avoidance
B. Spatial Disorientation & Loss of Control
i. Lack of orientation about the position, attitude, or movement of the airplane in space
ii. In visual flight, the eyes prevail over any false sensations
iii. In IMC, the eyes cannot correct for false sensations which can lead to disorientation
a. For more details, see II.A. Human Factors
iv. Without proficiency in instrument flight, disorientation can lead to a loss of control
C. Stress & Fatigue
i. Inadvertent IMC is a stressful and mentally fatiguing exercise, especially to the non-proficient pilot
ii. Maintain proficiency in instrument flight and have a plan
a. Statistics show that a pilot who isn’t trained in instrument flying, or has let their skills erode, loses
control after about 10 minutes once forced to rely solely on instruments

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 “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
b. Use preflight planning to know where VMC conditions should exist and planned divert airfields
D. Actions
i. In the case unexpected weather results in less than VMC, use all options to safely exit:
a. Flight Instruments – Transition to instruments. Trust the instruments to avoid spatial disorientation
 Use the autopilot, if available, to decrease risk of spatial disorientation and reduce workload
 GPS – The moving map display & satellite weather are great tools for situational awareness
b. ATC – Inform ATC of the conditions and request assistance
 Other options may include: Guard, FSS, other aircraft, cell phone, etc.
E. RM: Assistance & Emergencies
i. An emergency can either be a distress or urgency condition
a. Distress: Condition of being threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring immediate
assistance
 Do not hesitate to declare an emergency when faced with distress conditions
 Ex: fire, mechanical failure, structural damage
b. Urgency: A condition of being concerned about safety and of requiring timely but not immediate
assistance; a potential distress condition
ii. An aircraft is at least in an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel
endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety
a. This is the time to ask for help, not after it develops into a distress situation
iii. Request assistance immediately if apprehensive for your safety for any reason
a. Delay has caused accidents and cost lives
2. Control and Performance
A. Aircraft performance is achieved by controlling the aircraft attitude and power (AOA and thrust to drag) to
produce the desired performance
i. In other words, Pitch + Power = Performance
B. The three general categories of instruments are control, performance, and navigation instruments
i. Control - Display immediate attitude and power indications and permit precise adjustments
a. Control is determined by reference to the attitude indicator and power indicators
b. Control covers the Pitch + Power portion of the equation
ii. Performance - Indicate the aircraft’s actual performance
a. Performance is determined by reference to the Altimeter, airspeed indicator, VSI, heading indicator, and
turn coordinator
iii. Navigation - Indicate the position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix
a. Determined by course indicators, range indicators, glide-slope indicators and bearing pointers
3. Procedural Steps
A. Establish - an attitude/power setting on the control instruments resulting in the desired performance
i. Known or computed attitude changes and approximate power settings will help reduce workload
B. Trim - until control pressures are neutralized.
i. Trimming is essential for smooth, precise control and allows attention to be diverted elsewhere
C. Crosscheck - the performance instruments to determine if the desired performance is being obtained
i. Involves seeing and interpreting
ii. If a deviation is noted, determine the magnitude and direction of correction necessary
D. Adjust - the attitude or power setting on the control instruments as necessary
4. Establish
A. The control instruments are used to set the necessary pitch and bank attitudes, and power setting
i. Aircraft attitude, or pitch, control is accomplished by properly using the attitude indicator
a. Provides an immediate, direct, and corresponding indication of any change in pitch or bank

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ii. Aircraft power control is accomplished with the throttle

B. Pitch Control
i. Changes are made by changing the pitch attitude by precise amounts in relation to the horizon
a. Changes are measured in degrees or bar widths
b. The amount of deviation from the desired performance will determine the magnitude of correction
C. Bank Control
i. Changes are made by changing the bank attitude by precise amounts in relation to the bank scale
a. Bank angle should normally approximate degrees to turn (10o turn=10o bank), not to exceed 30o
D. Power Control
i. Made by throttle adjustments and reference to the power indicators
a. Little attention is necessary to ensure the power setting remains constant
ii. From experience, you know how far to move the throttles to change the power a given amount
a. Make power changes primarily by throttle movement and then crosscheck the indicators
 Don’t fixate on the indicators while setting the power
E. CE: Improper control applications
i. Ensure a proper understanding of the instruments and of the desired attitude
a. Smoothly apply the proper controls to attain the desired performance
b. Set the approximate pitch/power settings for the desired performance and adjust from there
5. RM: Trim
A. Trim the plane for hands off flight
i. Set the desired pitch/power and trim the control pressures away
a. Many small adjustments may be necessary
ii. Momentarily let go of the stick to check the trim, if the aircraft does not maintain attitude, re-trim
iii. Makes flying easier and opens up mental capacity to fly the airplane/handle the problem
B. CE: Faulty Trim Procedure
i. Do not fly the airplane with trim – set the pitch/power
and trim the control pressures away
6. Crosscheck
A. The continuous and logical observation of instruments for
attitude and performance information
i. The pilot maintains an attitude by reference to
instruments that will give the desired performance
B. It is impossible to establish an attitude and have
performance remain constant for a long period of time
i. It is therefore necessary to constantly check the
control and performance instruments and make
appropriate changes to maintain the desired
performance
C. Different Crosschecks
i. Select Radial Crosscheck (2 pictures, right)
a. Most popular method – great for analog
and digital displays
b. Based off the attitude indicator
 Eyes never travel directly between the
flight instruments, but move by way of
the attitude indicator

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 XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

c. Begin with the attitude indicator, scan an instrument and return to the attitude indicator before moving
to another
d. Commonly referred to as the Hub and Spoke method
 The attitude indicator is the hub and the primary reference for all maneuvers
 Move from hub (attitude indicator) to spoke (performance instrument), back to hub, repeat
ii. Inverted V Crosscheck (analog displays – pictured below, left)
a. Moving your eyes from the attitude indicator to the turn coordinator, up to the attitude indicator, to the
VSI, and back to the attitude indicator
iii. Rectangular Crosscheck (analog displays – pictured below, right)
a. Move your eyes across the top three instruments and drop down to scan the bottom three
b. This gives equal weight to each instrument, regardless of its importance to the maneuver
c. But this method lengthens the time for your eyes to return to a maneuver’s critical instrument
D.

Crosscheck and Bank

i. After establishing, check the heading indicator and turn coordinator to ensure desired performance
E. Crosscheck and Pitch
i. After establishing, check the Altimeter, VSI and airspeed indicator to ensure desired performance
F. Crosscheck Errors
i. RM/CE: Fixation
a. Staring at a single instrument
b. This occurs for a variety of reasons and eliminates the crosscheck of other pertinent instruments
c. While fixated on the instrument, increasing tension may lead to unnoticed heading or pitch changes
which leads to more errors
ii. RM/CE: Omission
a. Omitting an instrument from the crosscheck
b. May be caused by failure to anticipate major instrument indications following attitude changes
iii. CE: Emphasis (VSI - chasing is common or emphasizing pitch or bank instruments)
a. Putting emphasis on a single instrument, instead of the necessary combination of instruments
b. You may naturally tend to rely on the instrument most understood
G. RM: Instrument Interpretation
i. Not only does the pilot have to be able to crosscheck the instruments in a logical and consistent manner, he
or she must understand what they are indicating
ii. Instrument interpretation is an understanding of each instrument’s operation and the application of that
knowledge to the performance of the aircraft
a. Basically, the pilot must understand the information being received
iii. For each maneuver, learn what performance to expect and the combination of instruments to be
interpreted to control the aircraft
iv. CE: Improper instrument interpretation

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a. Improper instrument interpretation can result from a misunderstanding of the instrument’s operation
and indications (for example, chasing the VSI which is a lag instrument)
b. Be aware of the instruments and how they operate to better control the airplane
7. Adjust
A. Make the adjustments necessary in relation to the attitude indicator, then repeat the process again
i. The amount of deviation from the desired performance will determine the magnitude of correction
a. Restrict the attitude indicator’s pitch displacement to 1 bar or ½ bar width up or down
b. Use a bank angle that approximates the degrees to turn, not to exceed 30o
ii. Smooth, small adjustments lead to smooth, steady control
B. CE: Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, and power adjustments during altitude, bank, and airspeed
corrections
i. Ensure a proper understanding of the instruments and their interpretation
ii. Ensure an understanding of the aircraft performance capabilities, for example, the amount of pitch and
power required to maintain straight-and-level, or a constant airspeed climb, etc.
iii. When a deviation is noted, correct using small, smooth adjustments
8. *Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Nose on Horizon + Cruise Power = Straight and Level
Control Performance
Pitch On Horizon Altimeter Constant
Bank Constant VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish - Use the attitude indicator to establish wings level, with nose on the horizon; adjust power as needed
for cruise
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from straight-and-level flight
D. Adjust – Re-establish pitch (and power, if necessary) to correct for the deviations, trim the new control
pressures, then crosscheck again. Continue to repeat
9. *Turns to Headings
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Wings Banked/Nose Slightly High + Cruise Power = Turn to Heading
Control Performance
Pitch Nose Slightly High Altimeter Constant
Bank Wings Banked VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Turning
Turn Coord Banked/Coordinated

A. Prior to entering, determine which direction the turn should be made and the angle of bank required
i. Use an angle of bank equal to the number of degrees to turn, not to exceed 30 o
B. Establish – Apply coordinated aileron and rudder to establish the bank angle on the attitude indicator
i. If standard rate, use the turn coordinator
ii. Adjust pitch as necessary (increase back pressure) to maintain level flight
C. Trim - Trim the airplane
D. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the turn
E. Adjust – Re-establish pitch (and power, if necessary) to correct for deviations, trim the new control pressures,
crosscheck again. Repeat

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F. Roll Out
i. Apply coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to level the wings on the attitude indicator
a. Depending on the rate of turn, rollout 5-10o before the desired heading
 Or use ½ the bank angle or less as a reference for small turns
ii. Adjust the pitch and power to maintain level flight at cruise airspeed
G. CE: Improper entry or rollout procedure
i. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
a. Establish with the control instruments, trim the controls, monitor performance, adjust as req
b. Be aware of, and set, the approximate pitch and power settings for the desired performance
10. *Constant Airspeed Climbs
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
10o Nose Up + Full Power = Constant Airspeed Climb
Control Performance
Pitch 10o Nose Up Altimeter Climbing
Bank Level VSI Positive Climb
Power Climb Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish - Raise the nose of the aircraft to the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb speed
i. As the airspeed approaches the desired climb speed, set the power to the climb setting (full)
B. Trim -Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the climb
D. Adjust - Re-establish pitch (and power, if necessary) to correct for the deviations, trim the new control
pressures, then crosscheck again. Continue to repeat
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed (1 bar or ½ bar width movements)
E. Level Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm climb is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish - Reduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude on the
attitude indicator
b. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight and level flight
d. Continue to repeat the process in the new attitude
F. Turning Climbs
i. In the case of the turn, apply the same procedures as above, and establish the desired bank angle in the
desired direction on the attitude indicator
a. Monitor the performance of the turn on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
b. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed with the bank
c. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
 Crosscheck the climb, airspeed, and heading change, and plan ahead for the level-off and the roll-
out from the turn (they may not happen simultaneously)
G. CE: Improper entry or level-off procedure
i. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
a. Establish with the control instruments, trim the controls, monitor performance, adjust as req
b. Be aware of, and set, the approximate pitch and power settings for the desired performance
11. *Constant Airspeed Descents
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
3o Nose Down + Descent Power = Constant Airspeed Descent
Control Performance
Pitch 3o Nose Down Altimeter Descending
Bank Level 691 VSI Negative Climb
Power Descent Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
Pitch Bank
 XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

A. Establish - Reduce power to a predetermined setting for the descent and maintain straight and level flight as
airspeed decreases
i. As the airspeed approaches the desired level, lower the nose with the attitude indicator to maintain a
constant speed
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the desired descent
D. Adjust – Re-establish pitch (and power, if necessary) to correct for the deviations, trim the new control
pressures, then crosscheck again. Continue to repeat
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed
E. Level Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (EX: 500 fpm descent is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish - Introduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight and level flight
d. Continue to repeat the process in the new attitude
F. Turning Descents
i. In the case of the turn, apply the same procedures as above, and establish the desired bank angle in the
desired direction on the attitude indicator
a. Monitor the performance of the turn on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
b. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed with the additional bank
c. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
 Monitor the descent, airspeed, and heading change, and plan ahead for the level-off and the roll-out
from the turn (they may not happen simultaneously)
G. CE: Improper entry or level-off procedure
i. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
a. Establish with the control instruments, trim the controls, monitor performance, adjust as req
b. Be aware of, and set, the approximate pitch and power settings for the desired performance
12. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 “Fixation,” “Omission,” and “Emphasis” errors during instrument cross-check
 Improper instrument interpretation
 Improper control applications
 Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or airspeed corrections
 Improper entry or level-off procedure (specific to Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents)
 Improper entry or roll-out procedure (specific to Turns to Headings)
 Faulty trim procedure

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
In visual flight, you control aircraft attitude in relation to the natural horizon by using certain reference points on the
aircraft. In instrument flight, you control aircraft attitude by reference to the flight instruments. A proper interpretation
of the flight instruments will give you essentially the same information that outside references provide in visual flight.

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Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

Straight-and-Level Flight
1. Maintain altitude ±200’, heading ±20°, and airspeed ±10 knots.
Constant Airspeed Climbs
1. Level off at the assigned altitude and maintain altitude ±200’, heading ±20° and airspeed ±10 knots.
Constant Airspeed Descents
1. Level off at the assigned altitude and maintain altitude ±200’, heading ±20° and airspeed ±10 knots.
Turns to Headings
1. Demonstrate turns to headings, maintain altitude ±200’ and maintain a standard rate turn and rolls out on the
assigned heading ±10°; maintain airspeed ±10 knots.

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XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to recovering from unusual
flight attitudes as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Crosscheck

2. Recovery
3. Coordination

Elements 1. General
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
3. Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
4. Recovery Basics
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
7. Coordination During Recovery
8. Common Recovery Errors
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the reasons unusual flight attitudes may occur, and the proper
Standards recovery procedure for a nose low or nose high unusual flight attitude.
 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
On July 16, 1999, JFK Jr. was killed along with his wife and sister-in-law, when the aircraft he was piloting crashed into
the Atlantic Ocean. Kennedy had 310 hours of flight experience, including 55 hours of night flying and 36 hours in the
high-performance Piper Saratoga. He had completed about half of an instrument training course. The NTSB
investigation found no evidence of mechanical malfunction and determined that the probable cause was the pilot's
failure to maintain control of the airplane during a descent over water at night, which was a result of spatial
disorientation (or, not recovering properly from an unusual attitude). Factors in the accident were haze, and the dark
night.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally required for flight.

Why
Without proper recovery training on instrument interpretation and aircraft control, a pilot can quickly aggravate an
abnormal flight attitude into a potentially fatal accident.

How:
1. General
A. Since unusual attitudes (UAs) are not intentional maneuvers, they are often unexpected
i. The reaction is, therefore, instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate
a. Individuals usually react with abrupt muscular effort, which is purposeless and even hazardous in
turbulent conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there, but
what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
A. Unusual attitudes may result from a number of situations/conditions, such as:
 Turbulence  Preoccupation with cockpit duties
 Disorientation  Task saturation
 Instrument Failure  Errors in instrument interpretation/crosscheck
 Stress or Confusion  RM: Control input errors leading to a UA
B. Preventing Unusual Attitudes (Top 4 Causal Factors)
i. Environmental Factors
a. Turbulence or large variations in wind velocity over a short distance
 Clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, thunderstorms, microbursts
b. Maintain awareness of conditions that can lead to environmental factors
ii. Mechanical Factors
a. Mechanical Failures
 May cause a departure from normal flight
 Asymmetrical flaps, malfunctioning or binding flight controls, runaway trim
b. Instrument Failures

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

 Learn to recognize and be alert to instrument failure indications

 Be proficient in the use of secondary instrumentation and partial panel operations
c. Autopilot Malfunctions
 Malfunctions or misuse of the autopilot can lead to a loss of situational awareness
 Can be insidious – the pilot may not be aware there’s a problem until deep in a UA
 Disengage the autopilot and fly the airplane
a Maintain manual flight proficiency in all conditions without an automation
d. Big picture: Knowledge of systems and POH procedures helps minimize failures and prevent UAs
iii. Human Factors
a. VMC to IMC
 A loss of the natural horizon significantly increases the chances of spatial disorientation & vertigo
 Be aware of weather reports & conditions and where IMC may exist
 Be proficient in flying with the instruments and have a plan to return to VMC
b. Diversion of Attention
 Diverting attention from flying to an anomaly, malfunction, or any other distraction can lead to a UA
 Fly first
a Maintain situational awareness, monitor automated systems, etc.
c. Task Saturation
 The margin of safety is the difference between task requirements & pilot capabilities
a UAs can occur when requirements exceed capabilities
d. Sensory Overload/Deprivation
 A pilot’s ability to correlate and manage warnings, annunciations, instrument indications is limited
a Especially during a UA that can present multiple visual, auditory, and tactile warnings
 An effective crosscheck is very important to determine the issue and maintain control
a Separating time-critical info from distractions takes practice, experience, & aircraft expertise
b Also important to be able to determine if information is missing or invalid
1. For example, stall warning failure (recognize buffet, mushy controls, descent rate, etc.)
e. Spatial Disorientation (SD)
 Significant factor in many upset accidents
a More than 200 accidents from 2008-2013, more than 70% were fatal
 Everyone is susceptible to illusions, especially at night or in IMC
 Pilots experience SD or perceive the situation in one of the following ways:
a Recognized SD: Pilot recognizes the situation & safely corrects
b Unrecognized SD: Unaware of the UA and fails to take corrective action
c Incapacitating SD: Unable to recover due to some combination of:
1. Not understanding the events
2. Lacking the skills required
3. Exceeds psychological or physiological ability to cope with the situation
 Understanding, training & practice are necessary to maintain situation awareness and recover safely
f. Surprise & Startle Response
 Surprise: Unexpected event that violates expectations & affects the mental process used to respond
 Startle: Uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflexes, raised heart rate, blood pressure, etc., elicited by
exposure to a sudden, intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations
 Untrained pilots often experience a state of surprise & startle response to UAs
a Training, especially scenario-based training, can protect against these reactions/responses
 “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
a Without effective UA training, you won’t naturally know how to react

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b In surprise/startle (fight or flight) situations you will react within the limits of your training
g. See lesson II.A. Human Factors for more details on illusions, spatial disorientation, etc.
iv. Flight/Stall-related Factors (Stall factors are more focused on upsets vs UA)
a. Distractions
 Fly first
b. Potential stall situations
 Avoiding a stall means avoiding a spin
 Maintain airspeeds, configurations, procedures as described in the POH
c. Recovery Procedures
 Maintain coordination
 Practice proper UA recovery procedures
3. RM: Recognizing Unusual Attitudes (Assessment of Unusual Attitudes)
A. General Rule: If you note an instrument rate of movement or indication other than those you associate with the
basic instrument flight maneuvers, assume an unusual attitude and increase the speed of crosscheck to confirm
the attitude, or instrument error, or instrument malfunction
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there, but
what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
C. Unusual attitudes are broken down into two categories: Nose high, and Nose low attitudes
D. Nose High Attitudes (Climbing Turn)
i. Shown by the rate/direction of movement of the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator as well as the
immediately recognizable indication of the attitude indicator (except in extreme attitudes)
a. Decreasing airspeed
b. Increasing altitude
c. Positive rate of climb
d. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
e. A lot of blue on the attitude indicator
E. Nose Low Attitudes (Diving Spiral)
i. Shown by the same instruments but in the opposite directions
a. Increasing airspeed
b. Decreasing altitude
c. Negative rate of climb
d. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
e. A lot of brown on the attitude indicator
F. CE: Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
i. Be alert to situations that can lead to unusual attitudes, and any out of the ordinary instrument indications
a. Recover at the first sign
ii. Do not distract yourself with how the situation came to be, get back to straight-and-level flight
4. RM: Recovery Basics (Interpreting Flight Instruments)
A. In moderate UAs, the pilot can normally reorient with the attitude indicator, but this should not be done:
i. If the attitude indicator is spillable - its upset limits may have been exceeded and is unreliable
ii. It may have become inoperative due to mechanical malfunction, and is a reason for the UA
iii. Even if it isn’t spillable and is operating properly, errors of up to 5o pitch and bank may result
iv. Indications are difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes
B. Recovery, instead, is initiated by reference to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator
i. Follow the POH recommended recovery procedures, if they differ from the information here
C. RM: Nose High vs Nose Low Unusual Attitudes (Operating Envelope Considerations)
i. Although similar, the recovery procedures for each are different
ii. The basic intent of the nose high recovery is to prevent a stall

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iii. The basic intent of the nose low recovery is to prevent over stressing the airplane
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
A. Nose High Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid a stall) - If the airspeed is decreasing, or below that desired:
i.

Procedure
a. Power: Increase power as necessary (in proportion to the deceleration)
b. Pitch: Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose (reduces AOA to prevent a stall)
c. Bank: Correct bank with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
d. The steps listed are made in the sequence described above, but occur almost simultaneously
ii. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling
a. As the rate and movement of the altimeter and airspeed indicator needles decrease, the attitude is
approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish/verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level Flight is indicated by:
 Reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator
b. Straight and Coordinated Flight is indicated by:
 Level miniature aircraft and centered ball on the turn coordinator
c. Set power to maintain the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
A. N
o
s
e

Low Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid over G-ing) - If the airspeed is increasing, or above that desired:
i. Procedure
a. Power

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

 Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude

b. Bank
 Level the wings
 Correct bank with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
 Leveling the wings prior to raising the nose reduces the load factors in the recovery
c. Pitch
 Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying smooth back-elevator pressure
a Smooth back pressure avoids overstressing the airplane
b If ground contact is a concern, use whatever back pressure necessary to survive
d. All components of control should be changed simultaneously for a smooth, proficient recovery
ii. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling
a. As altimeter and airspeed indicator movement decreases, the attitude is approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish/verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level Flight is indicated by:
 Reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator
b. Straight and Coordinated Flight is indicated by:
 Level miniature aircraft and centered ball on the turn coordinator
c. Set power to maintain the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
d. With an operative attitude indicator, level flight exists when the miniature plane is level with the horizon
e. Without the attitude indicator, level flight is indicated by the reversal and stabilization of the airspeed
indicator and altimeter
7. Coordination During Recovery
A. The attitude indicator and turn coordinator should be checked to determine and maintain straight/coordinated
flight (wings level, ball centered)
i. Skidding and slipping sensations can easily aggravate disorientation and retard recovery
ii. A nose low recovery could result in excessive Gs and uncoordinated flight, causing big problems
8. Common Recovery Errors
A. RM/CE: Inappropriate control applications during recovery
i. It is very important to properly recognize the type of UA and apply the proper procedures
a. Improper recognition/procedures can aggravate the UA, and lead to a stall or high load factors
B. CE: Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by “feel” rather than by instrument
indications
i. Feel can be especially deceiving in IMC conditions. Without the ability to see the natural horizon, spatial
disorientation can convince the pilot the aircraft is in a state that it is not
ii. Feelings are not to be trusted. Trust the instruments
C. CE: Failure to recognize from instrument indications when passing through level flight
i. Level flight is indicated by the reversal/stabilization of the airspeed indicator and altimeter needles
ii. Increase your crosscheck to verify the passing through level flight
9. Hazards
A. Inadvertent Flight into IMC
i. Importance of Instrument Flight
a. Statistics show that a pilot who isn’t trained in instrument flying, or has let their skills erode, loses
control after about 10 minutes once forced to rely solely on instruments
ii. Recognize
a. Anytime a pilot is unable to maintain control by reference to the natural horizon, the condition is IMC
 Regardless of circumstances or weather conditions

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

b. Recognize the situation and accept it as a genuine emergency requiring action

iii. RM: Maintain Control (Control Application Solely by Reference to Instruments)
a. The only way to control the airplane safely is by using and trusting the flight instruments
 Attempts to partially control the plane by instruments can lead to disorientation and loss of control
b. The most important concern at this point is to keep the wings level
 Do not panic
 An uncontrolled turn usually leads to difficulties with overall control and can lead to disorientation
c. Believe the flight instruments regardless of your senses
 False sensations are common, and will lead to disorientation
d. Attitude Control
 Trim for hands-off level flight at cruise speed
 Don’t over-control
a Fly the attitude indicator with fingertip control
b Don’t make changes unless the instruments indicate a definite need for change
 Make smooth and small attitude changes
a The attitude indicator is the primary instrument for attitude control
1. No more than one bar width movements up or down
 Use any aids (autopilot, wing leveler, etc.)
 Maintain cruise speed (turns, climbs, descents) until required to slow for landing
 See XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight
iv. Obtain Assistance
a. ATC/Flight Following
 If able, inform ATC and ask for vectors to VMC
b. Guard (121.5), or other available frequencies
 Request help
 Guard can likely provide a frequency for a nearby controller
c. Weather charts
 Be aware of expected VMC conditions
v. Find/Return to VMC
a. The best option may be to bug your heading, engage the autopilot (if available) and perform a 180 o turn
 Return to the last known VMC (terrain, airspace, etc. permitting)
vi. Request assistance & weigh all options
C. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
Common Errors:
 Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
 Consequences of attempting to recover from a UA by “feel” rather than by instrument indications
 Inappropriate control applications during recovery
 Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight attitude

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
When recovering from an unusual attitude, it is essential to ignore the attitude indicator and use the airspeed indicator,
altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator and VSI to determine the attitude of the aircraft. Recovery should be
made promptly in the proper order to avoid damaging the airplane or inducing a stall. Once level flight has been
attained, the airplane should be reconfigured for straight-and-level flight.

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XI. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
d. Divide attention between inside and outside references
e. If SA is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position (if landing, go around; if disoriented, trust the instruments and get to a safe
attitude/altitude) and then solve the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
 XI. RM Concepts

a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
 Applicable in all phases of flight, especially important in high traffic areas
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Plan well and be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard
a. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to
persons or property on the surface
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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XII. Emergency Operations
XII.A. Emergency Descent

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to an emergency descent,
when the descent is required, and the proper procedure to perform the maneuver. The
student will have the ability to perform the maneuver as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Configuration

2. Airspeed and Load
3. Recovery

Elements 1. General
2. Emergency Descent
3. Descent Factors
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the situations which necessitate an emergency descent and can
Standards properly perform the maneuver with a smooth, controlled recovery.
 XII.A. Emergency Descent

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver is a lot of fun to practice, partly because there is not a lot too it, but also because the airplane is put in
a very nose low attitude and is descending very fast. You’re dive bombing the ground.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as rapidly as possible to a lower altitude, or to the ground for an
emergency landing.

Why
The need for this maneuver may result from an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any other
situation demanding an immediate and rapid descent.

How:
1. General
A. Objective
i. To descend as soon and as rapidly as possible, within the structural limitations of the airplane
B. Situations
i. Fire, smoke, loss of cabin pressurization, or any other demanding situation (medical, injury, etc.)
ii. CE: The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
a. If necessary and not executed, the situation can become very dangerous, and unrecoverable
 A fire can grow/spread quickly –often considered the most threatening hazard in an airplane
 In the case of decompression, symptoms of hypoxia can set in
C. POH
i. Follow the procedures outlined in the Emergency Procedures section of the POH
ii. Reference & note any applicable aircraft limitations
2. Emergency Descent
A. Prior to the Maneuver
i. Clear the area visually
a. Thoroughly clear the area and broadcast intentions to alert other aircraft
b. Ensure it is clear below the aircraft – turns are likely necessary, especially in low wing aircraft
c. CE: Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
ii. *Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
B. Procedure
i. Reduce power to idle
ii. RM: Configuring the Airplane
a. Extend the flaps and gear as required by the manufacturer
 Provides maximum drag to make increase the rate of descent, without excessive airspeed
b. CE: Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for
initiating the emergency descent
 Follow the POH

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 XII.A. Emergency Descent

 If Improper configuration can result in less than desired rate of descent, and/or structural damage
a Exceeding airspeeds or load factors
 Ex. Leaving the flaps up could decrease the rate of descent and increase airspeed, potentially
exceeding limitations (VNE), and overstressing the airplane during recovery
iii. Put the nose down to maintain the maximum allowable airspeed based on the procedure
a. *Nose down pitch is approximately 12o, but may be adjusted based on the configuration
b. This speed may vary based on flaps used, the nature of the emergency, and turbulent conditions
 Never exceed VNE or VFE and always maintain positive control of the airplane
 In an engine fire, a high-speed descent could blow out the fire, however, weakening of the structure
is a concern, and a low airspeed would result in less airframe stress
 In the case of turbulence, do not exceed VA
iv. As the nose is lowered, establish a 30-45o bank
a. Puts positive load on the aircraft (countering the negative load from the descent)
b. Assists with clearing (below and to each side) and gets the airplane off an airway
c. Technique: Use a left turn as faster traffic passes on the right (right-of-way rules)
 Balance this with other factors – terrain, airspace, other airways, etc.
v. Maintain the required airspeed until close to the desired altitude
C. Leveling Off (The most difficult part)
i. The recovery should be smooth to prevent overstressing the airplane
a. These recommendations generally work well, but in the case of a real-life emergency descent (i.e. a fire
in the cabin), do what is necessary to land safely/stay alive
b. Initiate the level off at an altitude that will ensure a safe recovery or precautionary landing
c. The 10% rule works well
 Ex: If descending at 1500 fpm, start the level off 150’ above the desired altitude
ii. Increase power to the cruise setting, or as required
iii. Once straight and level, return the airplane to a normal configuration (flaps, gear, etc. are retracted)
iv. Re-trim the aircraft and adjust/lean the mixture as necessary
v. CE: Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent
a. Follow the POH procedures
b. Avoid overstressing the airplane with an aggressive level off
3. RM: Descent Factors
A. Altitude
i. Dictates the amount of descent
a. Recommended to be at/below 10,000’ in the case of depressurization (terrain/safety permitting)
ii. In the case of an engine failure, altitude will dictate the distance the aircraft can travel
a. Use AGL, not MSL. Depending on where the aircraft is flying these altitudes can be very different
B. Wind
i. During the descent
a. Take wind into account during the descent and approach to landing
 Can have a large effect on glide distance in the case of an engine failure
 Headwind vs tailwind vs crosswind
ii. Landing
a. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
 Use the manufacturer’s flight manual to find the maximum allowable crosswind component
 Don’t exceed it, the aircraft may not be able to remain within the confines of the runway
b. Tailwind
 A tailwind increases the runway required for landing

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 XII.A. Emergency Descent

a Don’t exceed the POH tailwind limitation (exception: emergency)

c. Always verify the wind conditions and landing performance are compatible with the runway
C. Terrain & Obstructions
i. Be familiar with and especially cautious of terrain & obstructions during an emergency descent
a. It’s easy to get distracted during high speed, high rate of descents in conjunction with an emergency
b. Start the level off to preclude descending through the desired altitude and potentially impacting
terrain/obstructions
D. Glide Distance
i. In the case the engine fails, and the aircraft has to glide to the landing area, terminate the emergency
descent at a time appropriate to the situation and transition to best glide speed
a. Be established at the best glide speed at a point at which to make a safe and controlled landing
b. Know the approximate distance the aircraft can travel based on the altitude available
 Adjust the descent as necessary to land at the desired landing area
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
 Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for initiating
the emergency descent
 Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
 Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
An emergency descent is used in a situation where altitude must be lost quickly to make a landing as soon as possible. If
possible, the manufacturer’s procedures should be followed. The airplane is put into a configuration which will allow for
the maximum descent rate. Recovery should be smooth and controlled as straight and level cruise flight is reestablished.

Private Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Use a bank angle between 30° and 45° to maintain positive load factors during the descent.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Use a bank angle between 30° and 45° to maintain positive load factors during the descent.
2. Maintain appropriate airspeed +0/-10 knots, and level off at specified altitude, ± 100 feet.

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XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to performing an emergency
approach and landing. The student will be able to perform the maneuver as required in the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Emergency Checklists
3. Soft Field Power Off Approach and Landing

Elements 1. Best Glide Speed

2. ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists
3. The Approach
4. Contact ATC
5. Landing
6. Descent Factors
7. Hazards
8. Emergency Locating Devices
9. Mental Attitude

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to simulate an emergency approach and landing, taking into
Standards account the landing area, and wind while accomplishing the necessary checklists and properly
positioning the airplane to land safely on the desired landing spot.
 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding the elements behind a properly executed emergency approach and landing could be the difference
between a safe soft field landing and a dangerous, poorly performed crash.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A simulated emergency landing occurs when the power is pulled, simulating a lost engine, and the pilot must run the
checklist to attempt to restart the engine while properly configuring the airplane for an approach and landing usually
in a nearby field.

Why
To develop accuracy, judgment, planning, technique, and confidence when little or no power is available.

How:
1. Best Glide Speed
A. Airspeed at which the aircraft glides the furthest for the least altitude lost in non-powered flight
i. Used to maximize the distance flown without power
ii. Occurs at the highest lift-to-drag ratio (L/D)
a. Above or below this speed, drag increases and distance flown decreases
B.

Glide Ratio: Distance the airplane travels in relation to the altitude it loses
i. Ex: Glide ration is 11:1 in the DA20 – about 2-mile glide for every 1,000’ AGL (lose about 500’ per mile)
ii. Provides an estimate of how far you can fly
iii. Any increase or decrease from best glide reduces the glide ratio
C. Best Glide & Weight
i. L/D determines the distance the airplane can glide, not weight
ii. If the pilot maintains the proper speed, changes in weight don’t affect the best glide angle or distance flown
iii. However, a heavier plane needs to fly at a higher airspeed to obtain the same glide ratio
a. The heavier plane will travel the same distance but do it in a shorter time
iv. Many aircraft publish glide speeds that increase based on weight
D. Best Glide & Wind

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

i. With a tailwind, the airplane glides farther because of the higher groundspeed
ii. With a headwind, the airplane does not glide as far because of the lower groundspeed
E. Best Glide & Configuration
i. When drag increases, the airplane must be pitched down to maintain airspeed (no longer at L/D max)
ii. Lower pitch = a steeper glidepath and reduces distance traveled
iii. To maximize distance traveled, minimize drag-producing components
a. Flaps, landing gear, cowl flaps, etc.
F. Minimum Sink Speed
i. Airspeed use to maximize the time that the airplane remains in flight
a. Results in losing altitude at the lowest rate (lowest vertical speed)
ii. Less distance traveled versus best glide airspeed
iii. Useful when time in flight is more important than distance flown (ex: ditching at sea)
iv. Not often published but generally a few knots less than best glide airspeed
G. Since glides are often performed close to the ground and, in this case without power, accuracy and proper
technique and habits are especially important
i. Cardinal Rule: Do not attempt to “stretch” a glide by increasing back pressure/slowing below best glide
ii. Any speed other than best glide reduces distance traveled
2. ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists
A. *AVIATE: The first reaction should be to immediately establish best glide speed (73 KIAS) and fly the airplane
i. Flying the airplane is the highest priority
ii. Establish and maintain the best glide speed
a. Maintain altitude until airspeed slows to best glide
 Once stabilized, trim for best glide speed
iii. Eagerness to get down is one of the most common faults during simulated emergency landings
a. Pilots forget about speed and arrive at the edge of the field too fast for a safe landing
b. Too much speed is just as dangerous as too little
iv. CE: Improper airspeed control
a. Airspeeds other than the best glide airspeed result in diminished glide performance
b. Know the general pitch attitude required for the best glide speed
 Although this attitude can vary start there and make small adjustments
 Trim the airplane to maintain the speed and reduce workload in a busy situation
c. If airspeed is too fast, gently raise the nose, allow airspeed to settle and trim
d. If airspeed is too slow, gently lower the nose, allow airspeed to settle and trim
v. Keep in mind:
a. Aircraft are often designed to compensate for some amount of p-factor and slipstream
 These effects disappear during a glide
 Slight left rudder may be necessary to minimize drag to the greatest extent
b. Larger than normal control movements are necessary due to reduced airflow over the control surfaces
B. BEST Landing Spot: Select the best landing spot and immediately turn toward it
i. The pilot’s choice of emergency landing sites is governed by:
a. The route selected during preflight planning
b. The height above the ground when the emergency occurs
c. Excess airspeed (excess airspeed can be converted into distance and/or altitude)
ii. If possible, find a nearby airport
a. If GPS is available, use the Nearest page to make a decision as to whether the airport can be reached
 *Glide ration is 11:1 (DA20) – ~2-mile glide for every 1,000’ AGL (lose about 500’ per mile)
iii. If an airport is not available or practical, select a field that is within glide distance
a. Check in front, behind, and to BOTH sides of the airplane

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

b. Preferably hard packed, long, smooth, and with no obstacles, especially at the approach end
 Terrain’s appearance from altitude can be very misleading. For this reason, the pilot should not
hesitate to discard the original plan for one that is better upon closer inspection
c. As a general rule, the pilot should not change their mind more than once
 A well-executed crash in poor terrain can be less hazardous than an uncontrolled touchdown
elsewhere
iv. Note the wind direction (blowing fields, dust, water, smoke, etc. can indicate direction) and speed
a. Attempt to land into the wind, although factors may dictate otherwise
 Insufficient altitude, ground obstacles, terrain, etc.
 A tailwind landing (high groundspeed) could be hazardous, extending the landing distance
b. Be aware of any crosswind based on the selected landing area
 Take note of the crab necessary to maintain your course
a The steeper the crab, the stronger the wind
b Compensate for this on landing – a severe side load on a soft field could be catastrophic
c. CE: Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction
v. Be aware of traffic
a. Always continue to clear for traffic
vi. CE: Poor judgment in selection of an emergency landing area
a. Plan ahead, be aware of landing options during preflight planning
b. Once airborne, keep an eye out for potential landing sites in the case of an emergency
c. Remember, as a general rule, you can change your mind once
C. Emergency CHECKLISTs
i. *Restart
a. Mixture: RICH, Fuel Valve: IN, Ignition: BOTH, Fuel Pump/Primer: ON, Throttle ¾ “ open
 If prop is stopped (common occurrence), Ignition Switch: START
ii. *Troubleshoot
a. Mixture: RICH, Alternate Air: OPEN, Fuel Valve: OPEN, Fuel Pump: ON, Ignition: CYCLE L/R
b. Check the systems to decipher the problem (You can usually recover from the problem)
iii. It is important to determine the reason for the loss of power and attempt to restart the engine
a. If the reason for failure can be determined, it is possible the engine can be restarted
 The pilot will also have to make the decision to continue the flight, divert to another airport, or
continue the emergency landing
b. Ex: If the electric fuel pump restarts the engine, it is likely the engine driven pump failed. The pilot could
consider proceeding to a nearby airport. Whereas, if there is an oil leak, and the engine cannot be safely
restarted/expected to run, the emergency landing should be continued
iv. CE: Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
a. Prevents the pilot from missing crucial steps in a stressful situation – always follow the checklist
 Provides the best chance to regain power
b. Puts the aircraft in the proper configuration for the emergency/emergency landing
3. The Approach
A. Planning the Approach
i. Planning of the approach should be governed by the following:
a. Wind direction and velocity
b. Dimensions and slope of the chosen field
c. Obstacles in the final approach path
ii. All three factors are seldom compatible, when compromises have to be made, aim for a combination that
permits a final approach with some margin for error in judgement or technique

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

a. Ex: Overestimated glide distance may tempt a pilot to stretch the glide across obstacles on the approach
path. For this reason, it could be better to plan the approach over an unobstructed area, regardless of
wind – a collision at the end of a ground roll is safer than at flying speed
B. Proceed directly to the selected landing area
i. Goal: end up on downwind, abeam the
landing point at a normal traffic pattern
altitude for the area
ii. If you are higher than pattern altitude,
circle over the approach end, descending
to pattern altitude
a. *A complete 360o turn loses 500’ - 600’
b. Use any combination of normal gliding
maneuvers (wings level to spiral) to
arrive at the desired position/altitude
c. Make the turns in the same direction
you intend to fly the pattern
iii. RM: Following or changing the flight path
to the landing area
a. Adjustments may be made as conditions change
b. Best practice is to go directly to the landing area and circle overhead, with a plan to enter the pattern
C. Divide attention between flying and accomplishing the checklists
i. Maintain reference to the landing field and best glide speed while performing the checklists
D. Adjust the pattern as necessary, based on altitude, wind conditions, etc. to safely reach the landing area
i. Goal: make the pattern and approach as normal as possible
a. Corrections will have to be made throughout (too high, too low, when to configure, etc.)
ii. The turn to the base leg and final is
positioned as needed based on altitude,
wind, obstructions, etc.
a. A strong headwind would require a
closer base leg. A tailwind would require
a farther out base
b. Too much altitude may require a
delayed base, too little altitude may
require an early turn
c. If very low, the base leg can be
removed, and the pilot can proceed
directly to the landing area
iii. Adjust as necessary based on altitude and glide angle to reach the landing area. Options include:
Too High Too Low
 Extend the pattern  Tighten the pattern
 S-turn  Proceed direct to landing
 Configure early  Delay configuration
 Slip  Maintain best glide
iv. CE: Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area
a. Constantly evaluate the approach
b. Adjust as necessary (pattern size, configuration, slip, etc.) to maintain the proper approach
E. Stable Approach
i. The more stable the approach, the more predictable the approach

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

a. Applies to best glide/glide ratio as well as altitude lost while circling

 Estimates are only as accurate as your flying (improper airspeed = unreliable distances/altitudes)
ii. Flying the airplane is the highest priority
F. Configuration
i. Intent is to land in a normal landing configuration (emergency permitting)
ii. Flaps will be gradually lowered based on the conditions/situation/airplane performance
a. Have a standard position to lower the flaps and adjust based on the day
 Too high: Configure earlier (or delay configuration and slip, vary the base leg, etc.)
 Too low: Delay configuration (tighten the base leg and/or turn to final)
b. Once flaps are lowered, they should not be retracted
c. Landing flaps should only be lowered once the landing area is assured
G. CE: Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation
i. The pattern that works for one emergency approach and landing likely won’t work for the next one
ii. Always be aware of, and adjust for, the aircraft’s position in relation to the landing area
4. Contact ATC
A. If already on frequency with ATC, transmit “Mayday, mayday, mayday”
i. If not on a frequency, use guard on 121.5
ii. Let them know who you are, where you are, and what you’re doing
a. Mayday, mayday, mayday, Diamond 3RT, 5 miles North of XYZ VOR, engine failure, making an
emergency landing 2 miles to the N of current position
b. They’ll likely also want to know fuel and souls onboard
iii. The radios will likely be kept on until just before landing. Keep ATC apprised of the situation/plan
B. ATC Services
i. Priority
a. The frequency is basically yours, whatever you need
 If the frequency is congested, it’s possible they’ll switch to another frequency just for you
b. You become their primary focus
ii. Aircraft Separation
a. Any other potentially hazardous aircraft will be moved out of your way
iii. Advice
a. Nearby airports
iv. Emergency Response
a. If a towered airport, ATC will coordinate with the tower to prepare for the emergency landing
b. If no fire/rescue services are available, ATC will coordinate with local emergency response
C. If time and conditions permit, squawk emergency - 7700
5. Landing
A. If the engine cannot be restarted, complete the Emergency Landing Checklist
i. *Fuel Valve: OUT, Mixture: CUT-OFF, Ignition: OFF - To avoid a fire
ii. Keep the electrical equipment on as long as necessary to make radio calls, use the flaps, etc.
B. Gear
i. Gear and flaps should only be lowered after landing is assured
ii. Gear down can provide better protection in the case of stumps, rocks, or other large obstacles
iii. If the field is excessively soft, wet, short, or snow covered, a gear up landing may be safer
a. Eliminates the possibility of the airplane nosing over if the wheels dig in
C. If practical, hold the wheels off to allow for a gentle touchdown, like a soft field landing
i. At this point, the safety of the passengers is the only concern, the airplane does not matter
6. RM: Descent Factors
A. Altitude

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

i. Dictates the distance the aircraft can travel

a. Use AGL, not MSL
b. Know approximate distance traveled at best glide per 1,000’ – apply to the situation
ii. Goal is to put the aircraft at a normal pattern altitude at a normal key position
a. Adjust the path, descent, spiral as necessary to arrive at this location and altitude
B. Wind
i. During the approach
a. It can influence glide distance (headwind vs tailwind vs crosswind)
b. The stronger the wind on final, the closer the base leg needs to be to make a normal approach
ii. Tailwind
a. A tailwind increases the runway required for landing
 Only land with a tailwind if it is the safest option
b. The flight manual will publish a maximum tailwind for landing
 If possible, do not exceed this limit
iii. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
a. If possible, don’t exceed it as the aircraft may not be able to remain with the confines of the runway
C. Terrain & Obstructions
i. Be especially cautious of terrain/obstructions during an emergency approach & landing
ii. Without an engine, there may not be enough energy to clear the terrain
D. Available Landing Distance
i. Be familiar with the landing distance required for an emergency approach and pick a suitable landing area
a. The landing distance at off airport landing areas will have to be estimated from the air
b. Be familiar with the approximate distance required and what that looks like on the ground
7. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
C. Low Altitude Maneuvering
8. Emergency Locating Devices
A. ELT: Small, self-contained radio transmitter that will automatically, upon impact, transmit an emergency signal
i. Transmits on 121.5, 243, and/or 406 MHz
ii. Built into the airplane
B. Numerous private companies produce emergency locating devices that can be carried on one’s self
i. Basic Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs)
a. Transmit on 406 MHz, track your location within about 100 meters
b. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors the system and PLB registration
 Any distress signal will identify the owner with personal info
ii. Satellite Messengers
a. Range of capabilities – GPS functions, text communications, custom apps to link to your phone/tablet
9. Mental Attitude
A. The survival records favor pilots who maintain their composure and know how to apply the general concepts
and procedures developed through the years. The success of an emergency landing is as much a matter of the
mind as of skills
i. Remember, “we don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”

Common Errors:
 Improper airspeed control
 Poor judgment in the selection of an emergency landing area
 Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction

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 Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation

 Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
 Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
During an emergency approach and landing, it is important that the pilot choose the most suitable landing area within
gliding distance and properly configure the airplane to maintain the best glide airspeed and attempt to regain power. If
regaining power is not possible, the airplane should be set up for an emergency landing and an emergency approach and
landing should be executed into the wind as precisely as possible. The pilot should announce the emergency and squawk
7700 as practicable. Flying the aircraft is the number one priority.

Private & Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Establish and maintain the recommended best glide airspeed, ±10 knots.

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XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Select the aircraft Systems and Equipment Malfunctions lesson from the Navigation Pane, or use the links below:

GENERIC
Generic Aircraft Malfunctions

CESSNA
Cessna 152
Cessna 172S G1000

CIRRUS
Cirrus SR20

DIAMOND
Diamond DA20
Diamond DA40

PIPER
Piper Archer II (PA-28-181)
Piper Archer III (PA-28-181)
Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Generic
References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Malfunction Procedures

2. Power Loss
3. Electrical Malfunction
4. Vacuum/Pressure Malfunctions
5. Pitot Static Malfunction
6. EFD Malfunction
7. Flap Malfunction
8. Hydraulic Malfunction
9. Landing Gear Malfunction
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Smoke & Fire
12. Door or Window Opening in Flight
13. Pressurization Malfunction
14. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve the knowledge and procedures to handle problems that may occur in
the airplane.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into
a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
Note: This lesson provides generic procedures & malfunction discussions. Always follow the POH procedures.
1. Malfunction Procedures (MATL)
A. Maintain Aircraft Control
i. Fly the airplane
ii. Get to a safe flight state (straight-and-level, etc.)
iii. Trim the aircraft and turn on the autopilot, if possible
iv. Maintaining control continues throughout the malfunction
a. Do not let the issue, checklists, etc. distract from flying the airplane
b. Divide attention between flying and checklists/procedures
v. RM: Distractions can lead to an undesired aircraft state
a. Can quickly amplify the malfunction already being dealt with
B. Analyze the Situation
i. Indications, lights, sounds, visual (i.e., smoke, leaks, fire, etc.), smells, etc.
ii. Use all available information to determine the issue
C. Take the Proper Action
i. Apply any memory items
ii. RM: Checklist usage – Use the appropriate checklist from the POH
a. Checklist is the safest, most effective way to handle the problem
iii. Don’t go rogue and make up your own procedure/guess
a. Potential to not fix the problem and/or cause other problems
D. Land, as conditions require/permit
i. Based on the emergency, decide on a landing area (divert, field, ditching, etc.)
ii. This may have to occur in conjunction with the checklist(s)
2. Power Loss
A. Rough running engine:
Possible Causes Corrective Action
Improper mixture Adjust mixture for smooth op

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Defective ignition or valves Consult maintenance personnel

Detonation / preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, open cowl flaps, land as soon as practical
Induction air leak Reduce power. Consult maintenance
Plugged fuel nozzle Reduce power. Consult maintenance
Excessive fuel pressure / fuel flow Lean mixture
Induction Icing Leave icing conditions, use alternate air source
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps / Enrich Mixture / Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
A. Oil Pressure Malfunctions
i. High Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
b. Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP
ii. Low Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause – Broken pressure relief valve, insufficient oil, burned out bearings
b. Corrective Action – Land as soon as possible or feather the propeller and stop the engine (multi-engine)
iii. Fluctuating Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause – Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defective pressure relief valve
b. Corrective Action – Land as soon as possible or feather propeller and stop engine (multi-engine)
B. Engine Overheat
i. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
C. Fuel Starvation
i. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty tanks
ii. In general, turn on boost pumps, switch tanks, verify fuel is on, adjust mixture
3. Electrical Malfunction
A. Electrical Power
i. Generally, power comes from a generator or alternator
ii. If the generator/alternator fails, typically a battery
provides power for a limited amount of time
B. Battery Time
i. The higher the amperage load (electrical draw) on the
battery, the faster the energy gets consumed
a. Ex: 25-amp hour battery can produce 5 amps per hour
for 5 hours
 Increasing to 10 amps, it may only last 2 hours
 40 amps may discharge the battery in 10-15 mins
ii. Battery condition matters
a. Over time, power is reduced due to internal resistance
iii. Very important to shed non-essential loads to provide
maximum time
C. Consumers
i. See picture to right for average amperage
ii. Gear and flaps use significant amounts of power

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a. Using them may result in a total loss of power

D. Procedures
i. Follow the applicable checklist(s) in the POH
a. Reduce electrical load
b. Fly on the backup instruments
ii. Generic Steps
a. Shed all but the most necessary electrical equipment
 Can vary based on the situation (day/night, VMC/IMC)
b. Notify ATC immediately – Request vectors for landing at the nearest suitable airport
c. Expect a no-flap landing and manual gear extension
4. Vacuum/Pressure Malfunctions
A. What’s Lost?
i. Heading Indicator, Attitude Indicator, and/or Turn Coordinator
ii. Traditionally, turn coordinators use a different power source than
the heading / attitude indicators
a. Ex. Vacuum for the attitude and heading gyros, and electric
for the turn coordinator
b. If the heading & attitude indicators fail, the turn coordinator
is still usable, and vice versa
B. Failure results from a loss of the suction or pressure source (vacuum
failure)
i. As the gyroscopes slow down, they will begin to wander, displaying incorrect information
ii. Can be slow and insidious
C. Many small aircraft do not have a warning system for vacuum failure
i. Look for vacuum failure indications – monitor the vacuum pressure gauge
D. Compare the Attitude Indicator with the Turn Coordinator and VSI
i. Along with providing pitch / bank information, this compares the static, suction, and electric systems
ii. Identify the failed component(s) and use the remaining functional instruments to maintain control
E. Assess the situation - when and where to land may vary based on the conditions and failure(s)
i. Day VMC with backup instruments may allow the pilot to return to their home field
ii. Night, reduced visibility, or minimal horizon may require an emergency and landing at the closest field
5. Pitot Static Malfunction
A. General
i. Errors in the ASI and VSI almost always indicate a pitot blockage, static blockage, or both
ii. Moisture, ice, dirt, insects, etc. can cause a blockages
iii. Always preflight the pitot tube and static ports
B. Blocked Pitot System
i. Pitot system measures the difference between ram air pressure in the pitot tube and static air pressure from
the static port
a. Static pressure is vented to instrument casing
b. Ram air is connected to a diaphragm in the case
ii. Ram air blocked, with drain hole open
a. Air already in the system vents through the drain hole and
remaining pressure in the pitot tube drops to match the outside
(static) air pressure
b. Airspeed decreases to zero as ram air pressure and static
pressure become equal
 Not an instantaneous drop, but happens quickly

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

iii. Ram air blocked, and drain hole blocked

a. Big Picture
 Airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter
 Ram air pressure in the pitot tube is trapped
a Accelerating/decelerating does not affect indications
 Static pressure changes with altitude
b. In a climb
 Ram air pressure remains constant
 Static pressure decreases
 Diaphragm expands, just like would happen with an increase in
ram air pressure/acceleration
 Airspeed increases as altitude increases
c. In a descent
 Ram air pressure remains constant
 Static pressure increases
 Diaphragm contracts, just like would happen with a decrease
in ram air pressure/deceleration
 Airspeed decreases as altitude decreases
d. Airspeed acts like an altimeter, increasing in a climb and
decreasing in a descent
C. Blocked Static System
i. Static system blocked, with pitot tube open
a. Airspeed operates but is inaccurate
 When above the altitude where the static port(s) were blocked,
airspeed indicates lower than actual
a Trapped pressure is higher than normal for the altitude
 When at a lower altitude, airspeed indicates higher than actual
a Trapped pressure is lower than normal for that altitude
b. Altimeter freezes at the altitude where the block occurred
c. Vertical Speed shows a continuous zero indication

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

D. Alternate Static Source

i. Provides alternate source of static pressure in the case the primary becomes blocked
ii. Normally inside the flight deck
a. Cabin pressure is lower than exterior pressure due to venturi effect of air flowing around the fuselage
iii. Instrument indications when the alternate static source is used:
a. Altimeter indicates slightly higher than actual
b. Airspeed indicates greater than actual
c. Vertical speed shows a momentary climb and then stabilizes if altitude is constant
6. Electronic Flight Display (EFD) Malfunction
A. In the case of an EFD failure, the system reverts to a composite, reversionary mode
i. Moving map is eliminated
ii. PFD and engine instruments are combined on the remaining screen
B. Pilots often become overly reliant on the moving map
i. What should be a supplementary source of data becomes a primary navigation tool
ii. Significant loss of situational awareness if the pilot is not prepared for this failure
C. Stay Prepared
i. Follow the flight on an enroute chart while monitoring the moving map
ii. Have a Chart Supplement to prevent losing access to airport information

7. Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure (no flap approach and landing)
i. Requires substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
ii. Losing altitude is more difficult so a wider, longer pattern may be necessary
iii. Flown in a relatively nose-high attitude compared to flaps extended
a. On final, this can make it difficult to see the runway

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

b. Can lead to errors in judgement of height/distance and cause the perception the plane is close to a stall
iv. Landing
a. Airplane is slightly less stable in pitch and roll axes with power reduced and flaps retracted
b. Tend to float during roundout
c. Don’t force the plane onto the ground
d. Don’t flare excessively as it risks a tail strike
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
i. A situation in which one flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in position
ii. Indicated by a roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
iii. Countered with opposite aileron
a. Yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side requires opposite rudder
b. Almost full aileron may be necessary at reduced airspeeds to maintain wings level
 Do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
iv. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
a. The wing with the retracted flap will stall earlier - possible cross-controlled stall condition
v. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher-than-normal airspeed
8. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. If the hydraulic pump were to fail, there are alternate means to raise / lower the gear
i. Some airplanes will automatically lower the gear
9. Landing Gear Malfunction
A. Alternate gear extension procedure
i. If this does not solve the problem, a gear up landing is required
B. Considerations
i. Airport with crash and rescue facilities
ii. A smooth, hard runway surface tends to cause less damage than a rough, unimproved grass strip
a. The hard surface does create sparks that could ignite fuel
 Can request for the runway to be foamed, if available
iii. Burn off excess fuel
a. Reduced landing speed and chance of fire
b. If the malfunction is limited to one leg, consume as much fuel from that side as practicable
 Reduced weight on that side allows you to delay contact with the surface until the last moment
a Reduced impact speed = reduced damage
C. Landing the Airplane
i. One Leg Retracted
a. Land in a nose-high attitude with wings level
b. As airspeed slows, apply aileron to keep the unsupported wing airborne as long as possible
c. After touchdown, the airplane will veer strongly in the direction of the faulty gear leg/dragging wing
 Use full opposite rudder and aggressive braking to maintain some degree of directional control
d. On a narrow runway, or one with ditches/obstacles on the edges, landing with all gear up may be safer
ii. Nose Wheel Retracted
a. Hold the nose off the ground until almost full-up elevator is applied
b. Release back pressure to allow the nose to slowly settle to the surface
 Applying full back pressure results in the nose abruptly dropping to the surface
a Can result in burrowing and/or additional damage
 Try to gently set the nose on the ground
c. Do not apply brakes unless necessary to avoid a collision with obstacles
iii. Main Gear Retracted (Nose extended)
a. Initial contact should be made on the aft fuselage with a nose high attitude

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Helps to prevent porpoising and/or wheelbarrowing

b. Allow the nose-wheel to gradually touchdown
c. Use nose-wheel steering as necessary
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Grip the controls and maintain control of the plane while disengaging the electric trim system
i. Disengage button, circuit breaker, etc.
B. If the reason for the runaway trim is obvious and has been resolved, engage the breaker
11. Smoke & Fire
A. In-Flight Smoke / Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
i. Engine Fire
a. Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
b. Indicated by smoke / flames from cowling; and / or discoloration, bubbling, melting of cowling
c. Unless the POH says otherwise, 1st step should be to shut off fuel
d. If the flames are put out, do not attempt to restart the engine
e. Perform an emergency landing
f. Keep in mind:
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 Airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 Airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
ii. Electrical Fires
a. First indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation
b. Try to identify the problem by checking circuit breakers, lights, instruments, avionics
 If it cannot be detected, the battery master and generator should be turned off
a Any materials which have been ignited may continue to burn
c. If power is essential for the flight, attempt to identify / isolate the faulty circuit:
 Electrical master off, then all individual electrical switches off
 Electrical master on
 Turn on electrical switches one at a time, waiting after each switch to check for signs of fire
a Turn off / do not use any equipment that restarts the fire. Other equipment can be used
iii. Cabin Fires
a. Usually result from smoking, electrical system malfunctions, and heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
 Attacking the fire, and getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
c. In general, identify and shutdown the cause of the fire
d. Smoke can often be cleared by opening air vents – only after using the fire extinguisher
 If smoke increases, immediately close them
e. Windows can also be used to help clear smoke
f. Use oxygen if the smoke is severe; initiate an immediate descent
B. Ground Smoke / Fire
i. Engine Fire / Smoke - Shut down the engine, turn off the electrics and evacuate the airplane
ii. Electrical Fire / Smoke - Immediately turn off the master switch, and shutdown the engine
a. Use the fire extinguisher and evacuate as necessary
12. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. Follow the POH procedures. In general, adhere to the following:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land (climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing)
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
13. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen (emergency descent)
B. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression
14. RM: Hazards
A. Startle Response
i. Uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflex, raised heart rate, blood pressure, etc. elicited by exposure to a
sudden intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations
ii. Protect against startle response through scenario-based training incorporating realistic distractions
iii. The pilot should react in a calm, controlled manner and:
a. Maintain aircraft control
b. Analyze the situation
c. Take the proper action
d. Land, as conditions require/permit
iv. Reactions or inputs outside of checklists may likely aggravate the situation
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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XII.C. DA20

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 4. Participate in discussion

5. Take notes
6. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
*The following procedures are from the DA20 POH, changes will have to be made for your aircraft
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. In-Flight Smoke/Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
i. Engine Fire
a. Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
b. Checklist
 Shut off the fuel supply to the engine  Airspeed: 73 knots
a Fuel Shut-Off Valve: CLOSED  Fuel Pump: OFF
 Cabin Heat: CLOSED
c. If the flames are put out, do not attempt to restart the engine
d. Perform an emergency landing
e. Keep in mind that
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
ii. Electrical Fires
a. Indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation
b. Checklist
 GEN/BAT Master: OFF
 Cabin Air: OPEN
 Fire Extinguisher: Use only if smoke development continues
c. If the fire is extinguished and electric power is required to continue the flight:
 Avionics Master: OFF
 Electrically Powered Equipment: OFF
 Restore electrical power systematically allowing time to monitor the
system voltmeter and amp meter-Watch carefully for smoke

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a Circuit Breakers: PULL ALL f Circuit Breakers: Push AVIONICS & AVIONICS MASTER
b Circuit Breakers: PUSH BATTERY g Avionics Master: ON
c GEN/BAT Master: ON BAT (½ only) h Circuit Breakers: Activate systems as required
d Circuit Breakers: Push GEN & GEN CONTROL i Radio: ON
e GEN/BAT Master Switch: ON j Land ASAP
d. Try to identify the faulty circuit by checking circuit breakers, lights, instruments, and avionics
 If it cannot be detected, the battery master switch and generator should be turned off
a However, any materials which have been ignited may continue to burn
e. If there is smoke in the cockpit, open the windows
iii. Cabin Fires
a. Usually result from:
 Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
 Electrical system malfunctions
 Heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
 Attacking the fire
 Getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
c. Checklist
 GEN/BAT Master: OFF  Cabin Heat: CLOSED
 Cabin Air: OPEN  Fire Extinguisher: As Required
a If smoke increases, close  Land ASAP
immediately – possible fire in
heating system/baggage
B. Ground Smoke/Fire
i. Engine Fire/Smoke
a. Checklist
 Fuel Shutoff Valve: CLOSED  GEN/BAT Master: OFF
 Cabin Heat: CLOSED  Ignition: OFF
 Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF  Evacuate Immediately
ii. Electrical Fire/Smoke
a. If smoke in the cabin indicates an electrical fire, immediately turn off the master switch
b. Checklist
 GEN/BAT Master: OFF
 In Engine is running
a Throttle: IDLE d Ignition: OFF
b Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF e Canopy: OPEN
c Fuel Shutoff Valve: CLOSED f Fire Extinguisher: As Required
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. Checklist
i. Mixture: FULL RICH v. Ignition: CYCLE, L - BOTH - R – BOTH
ii. Alternate Air: OPEN vi. Throttle: AT PRESENT POSITION
iii. Fuel Shutoff: OPEN vii. If no improvement, reduce the throttle to
iv. Fuel Pump: ON minimum required power and land ASAP
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. High Oil Pressure
i. Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
ii. Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

B. Low Oil Pressure

i. Possible Cause - Broken Pressure Relief Valve, Insufficient Oil, Burned Out Bearings
ii. Corrective Action - Land ASAP or feather the prop and stop engine
C. Checklist
i. Oil Temp: CHECK
ii. If Pressure drops below Green Arc but Temp is normal: LAND AT NEAREST FIELD
iii. If Pressure drops below Green Arc and Temp is rising: REDUCE THROTTLE TO MIN REQ POWER
a. Be prepared for engine failure and emergency landing
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty tanks
B. Check the fuel flow gauge
C. Fuel Shutoff: OPEN
D. Mixture: FULL RICH
E. Electric Fuel Pump: ON
i. Check the fuel flow gauge again
5. Engine Overheat
A. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
B. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction (not applicable to DA20)
A. If the hydraulic pump were to fail, there are manual means to raise/lower the gear
i. Some airplanes will automatically lower the gear (DA42)
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. The generator/alternator is the cause of most electrical system failures (indicated on the ammeter)
i. Once the generator goes offline, the only electrical source remaining is the battery
a. The battery although may have very little time available
B. Electrically powered gear and flaps use up power at rates much greater than most other equipment
i. Selecting these motors on a partially depleted battery could result in immediate loss of power
C. Steps
i. Turn off all but the most necessary electrical equipment
a. Save as much power as possible
ii. Notify ATC immediately and request vectors for a landing at the nearest airport
iii. Expect to make a no flap landing, and anticipate a manual gear extension
D. Checklist
i. Total Electrical Failure
a. Battery Circuit Breaker: RESET, if c. Master Switch: OFF if power not restored
tripped d. If unsuccessful, land at the nearest
b. GEN/BAT Master: check ON suitable airport

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

ii. Generator Failure (GEN. Annunciator Light Illuminated)

a. GEN/BAT Master: Cycle Generator Master Switch OFF - ON
b. Generator Circuit Breaker: RESET, if tripped
c. Generator Control Breaker: RESET, if tripped
d. If GEN cannot be brought online: Switch off all non-flight essential electrical consumers
 Monitor the Ammeter and Voltmeter
 Land at the nearest airport
iii. Low Voltage Indication (Needle in yellow arc) While on the Ground
a. Engine RPM: Increase RPM until needle is in the Green Arc (Should occur before 1100 RPM)
b. Non-Flight Essential Electrical Consumers: Switch OFF consumers until in the Green Arc
c. If needle remains in the yellow arc, and the ammeter is indicating left of center (discharge), discontinue
any flight activity
d. Low Voltage Indication (needle in yellow arc) While in the Air
 Non-Flight Essential Electrical Consumers: OFF
 If needle stays in the yellow arc, and the ammeter indicates a discharge, use GEN FAILURE
8. Induction Icing
A. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing or
stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
i. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
B. Corrective Action
i. Use the Alternate Air source
C. Icing Checklist
i. Leave icing area (change altitude or flight direction to reach a higher temp)
ii. Continue to move the control surfaces to maintain mobility
iii. Alternate Air: ON
iv. Increase RPM to avoid icing of prop blades
v. Cabin Heat: ON DEFROST
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Checklist
i. Control Stick: Grip stick and maintain control of the airplane
ii. Trim Motor Circuit Breaker: PULL the breaker
iii. Rocker Switch: Check if depressed
B. If the reason for the runaway trim is obvious and has been resolved, engage the breaker
11. Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure
i. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
a. This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
b. The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
 This can make the runway difficult to see
c. A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

d. The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout

ii. If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
i. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
ii. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
iii. Countering
a. Countered with opposite aileron
b. The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
 Aileron and opposite rudder results in a cross controlled situation
c. Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
 Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
a The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
iv. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
a. The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible cross-controlled stall condition
v. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Cessna 152

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the aircraft to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. In-Flight Smoke/Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
 Engine Fire in Flight
 Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
 Checklist
 Shut off the fuel supply to the engine  Cabin Ht & Cabin Air: Off
a Mixture Control: Idle Cutoff a Except wing root
b Fuel Shut-Off Valve: Off  Airspeed: 85 KIAS
 Master Switch: Off  Forced Landing: Execute
 If fire is not extinguished at 85 KIAS, increase glide speed to find an airspeed which will provide an
incombustible mixture
 Perform an emergency landing
 Keep in mind that
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
 Electrical Fire in Flight
 Indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation (acrid)
 Checklist
 Master Switch: Off
 All Other Switches (except ignition): Off
 Vents/Cabin Air/Heat: Closed
 Fire Extinguisher: Activate (if available)
If fire appears out, and electrical power is necessary for continuance of flight:
 Master Switch: On
 Circuit Breakers: Check for faulty circuit, do not reset
 Radio/Electrical Switches: ON ne at a time, with delay after each until short circuit is localized

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Vents/Cabin Air/Heat: Open when it is ascertained that the fire is completely extinguished
 After discharging an extinguished in a closed cabin, ventilate the cabin
 If the fire returns when restoring power (i.e. the system that received power is a cause of the fire),
immediately turn off the switch/system and fight the fire
 Wing Fire
 The POH does not specify whether this checklist applies inflight or on the ground
 Basically, remove all power sources from the wing
 Checklist
 Navigation Lights – Off
 Strobe Lights: Off
 Pitot Heat: Off
 Perform a sideslip to keep the flames away from the fuel tank and cabin, and land as soon as possible,
with flaps retracted
 Cabin Fire
 POH does not specify whether this checklist applies inflight or on the ground
 Usually result from:
 Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
 Electrical system malfunctions
 Heating system malfunctions
 Two immediate demands:
 Attacking the fire
 Getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
 Checklist
 Master Switch: Off
 Vents/Cabin Air/Heat: Closed (to avoid drafts)
 Fire Extinguisher: Activate (if available)
a After discharging a fire extinguisher in a closed cabin, ventilate the cabin
 Land as soon as possible (on the ground the best course of action is likely to evacuate)
B. Ground Smoke/Fire
 During Start on Ground
 Checklist
 Cranking: Continue
a To get a start which would pull the fuel and flames into the engine
If Engine Starts
 Power: 1700 RPM (for a few minutes)
 Engine: Shutdown (check for damage)
If Engine Fails to Start
 Cranking: Continue, in an attempt to obtain a start
 Engine: Secure
a Master Switch: Off
b Ignition Switch: Off
c Fuel Shutoff Valve: Off
 Fire Extinguisher: Obtain
a Have ground attendants obtain if not installed
 Fire: Extinguish using fire extinguisher, wool blanket, or dirt
 Fire Damage: Inspect

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss

A. No specific rough running engine checklist, but in the Amplified Emergency Procedures section the POH
references Rough Engine Operation or Loss of Power
 Carburetor Icing
 A gradual loss of RPM and eventual engine roughness may result from the formation of carburetor ice
 To clear the ice:
 Apply full throttle
 Pull the carb heat knob full out until the engine runs smoothly
 Remove the carb heat and readjust the throttle
 If conditions require continued use of carb heat in flight, use the minimum amount of heat necessary to
prevent ice from forming and lean the mixture slightly for smoothest engine operation
 Spark Plug Fouling
 Slight engine roughness can be caused by spark plug fouling (carbon or lead deposit on the spark plug)
 Verify by turning the mags switch momentarily from Both to either L or R. An obvious power loss in
single mag operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto trouble
 Procedure (assuming spark plugs are the issue. Magento malfunction is described below)
 Lean the mixture to the recommended lean setting for cruise flight
 If the problem does not clear up in several minutes, determine if a richer mixture setting will
produce smoother operation. If not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using the Both
position of the mags switch unless extreme roughness makes a single mag position necessary
 Magneto Malfunction
 Sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually a sign of a magneto problem
 Changing the mags from Both to L and R positions will identify the malfunctioning magneto
 Procedure
 Select different power settings and enrichen the mixture to determine if continued operation on
Both mags is practicable. If not, change to the good mag and continue to the nearest airport for
repairs
 Forced Landing - Precautionary Landing with Engine Power Checklist
 Airspeed: 60 KIAS
 Wing Flaps: 20o
 Selected Field: Fly over, noting terrain and obstructions, then retract flaps upon reaching a safe
altitude and airspeed
 Radio and Electrical Switches: Off
 Wing Flaps: 30o on final approach
 Airspeed: 55 KIAS
 Master Switch: Off
 Doors: Unlatch prior to touchdown
 Touchdown: Slightly tail low
 Ignition Switch: Off
 Brakes: Apply heavily
 As mentioned in the checklist above, before attempting an off airport landing with engine power available,
one should fly over the landing area at a safe but low altitude to inspect the terrain for obstructions and
surface conditions
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. High Oil Pressure
 Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
 Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

B. Low Oil Pressure

 Possible Cause - Broken Pressure Relief Valve, Insufficient Oil, Burned Out Bearings
 Corrective Action - Land ASAP, anticipate engine failure, follow the forced landing procedures in the POH
(shown above)
C. POH Amplified Emergency Procedures – Low Oil Pressure
 If low oil pressure is accompanied by normal oil temperature, there is a possibility the oil pressure gauge or
relief valve is malfunctioning
 A leak in the line is not necessarily cause for an immediate precautionary landing because an orifice in
this line will prevent a sudden loss of oil from the engine sump
 However, a landing at the nearest suitable airport would be advisable to inspect the source of the
trouble
 If a total loss of oil pressure is accompanied by a rise in oil, there is good reason to suspect an engine failure
is imminent – reduce power immediately and select a field suitable for a forced landing. Use only the
minimum power necessary to reach the landing site
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine or engine failure, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty
tanks
B. The POH does not have a specific fuel starvation checklist
 Check the fuel gauges to determine if fuel starvation is in fact the problem. IF the engine cannot be restarted
(as described below), execute the Forced Landing checklist
C. Engine Failure During Flight:
 Airspeed: 60 KIAS
 Carburetor Heat: On
 Primer: In and locked
 Fuel Shutoff Valve: On
 Mixture: Rich
 Ignition Switch: Both (or Start if propeller is stopped)
 Continue with Emergency Landing without Engine Power Checklist
5. Engine Overheat
A. There is no specific engine overheat checklist in the POH, but the following is applicable
B. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
 If a total loss of oil pressure and a rise in oil temperature occur at about the same time, it could mean the
engine is about to fail. Reduce power immediately and select a field suitable for a forced landing. Use only
the minimum power necessary to reach the landing site
 Execute the Emergency Landing without Engine Power, or Precautionary Landing with Engine Power if
required
C. Although the POH does not have a specific, engine overheat checklist, the following can serve as guidelines:
 Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce pwr
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. Brake failure

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Symptoms of impending brake failure:

 Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
 Noisy or dragging brakes
 Soft or spongy pedals
 Excessive brake travel
 Weak braking action
 If during taxi or landing roll, braking action decreases let up on the pedals and the reapply the brakes with
heavy pressure
 If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
 If one brake becomes weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
 *Not in the POH* If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled
landing without excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. General
 The generator/alternator is the cause of most electrical system failures
 Once the generator goes offline, the only electrical source remaining is the battery
 The battery although may have very little time available
 Electrically powered gear and flaps use up power at rates much greater than most other equipment
 Selecting these motors on a partially depleted battery could result in immediate loss of power
 Malfunctions in the electrical system can be detected through regular monitoring of the ammeter and low-
voltage warning light
 The cause of these malfunctions is usually difficult to determine
 A broken alternator drive belt or wiring is the most likely cause of alternator failures
 A damaged or improperly adjusted alternator control unit can also cause malfunctions
B. Electrical power malfunctions generally fall into two categories:
 Excessive Rate of Charge
 After 30 minutes of cruise flight, the main battery ammeter should be indicating less than 2 needle
widths of charging current. If the charging current remains above this value on a long flight, the battery
electrolyte could overheat and evaporate
 Electronic components can be adversely affected by higher than normal voltage
 The Alternator Control Unit should disconnect the alternator if the charge increases to more than
31.5 volts
a If the ACU does not operate correctly, the alternator should be turned off, alternator circuit
breaker pulled, nonessential electrical equipment turned off, and the flight terminated as soon
as practical
 Insufficient Rate of Charge
 i.e. the alternator is not providing the necessary charge
 If the over-voltage sensor shuts down the alternator, or the alternator circuit breaker trips a
discharge will be show on the ammeter followed by the low-voltage warning light
 This may be a nuisance trip, attempt to energize the alternator system by:
a Turning off the radios
b Checking the alternator circuit breaker is in
c Turning the master switch off and back on
d If this doesn’t reset the system, there is an alternator system problem
1. The flight should be terminated and the current drain on the battery minimized to extend
the amount of time on battery power

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

2. If the emergency occurs at night, power must be conserved for later use of the landing light
and flaps
C. General Steps to any electrical malfunction
 Turn off all but the most necessary electrical equipment
 Save as much power as possible
 Notify ATC immediately and request vectors for a landing at the nearest airport
 Expect to make a no flap landing, and anticipate a manual gear extension
D. Checklists
 Ammeter Shows Excessive Rate of Discharge:
 Alternator: Off
 Alternator Circuit Breaker: Pull
 Nonessential Electrical Equipment: Off
 Flight: Terminate as soon as practical
 Low Voltage Light Illuminates During Flight:
 Radios: Off
 Alternator Circuit Breaker: Check In
 Master Switch: Off (both sides)
 Master Switch: On
 Low-Voltage Light: Check Off
 Radios: On
If low-voltage light illuminates again:
 Alternator: Off
 Nonessential Radio and Electrical Equipment: Off
 Flight: Terminate as soon as practical
Note:
a Illumination of the low-voltage light may occur during low RPM conditions. Under
these conditions, the light will go out at higher RPM. The Master Switch does not
need to be recycled since an overvoltage has not occurred
8. Induction Icing
A. General
 Flight into icing conditions is prohibited and extremely dangerous
 The best action is to turn back or change altitude to escape the icing conditions
B. See Carburetor Icing Checklist in Section 2.A., above
C. Inadvertent Icing Encounter Checklist:
 Pitot Heat: On
 Turn back or change altitude to get out of icing conditions
 Cabin Heat: Pull full out for maximum defrost air temperature
 Cabin Air: For greater airflow at reduced temperatures, adjust the cabin air as required
 Throttle: Open to increase engine speed and minimize ice buildup on the propeller blades
 Watch for signs of carburetor air filter ice and apply carb heat as required
 An unexpected loss of engine speed could be caused by carburetor ice or air intake filter ice
 Lean the mixture for maximum RPM if carburetor heat is used continuously
 Plan a landing at the nearest airport
 With extremely rapid ice build-up, select a suitable off airport landing site
 With ice accumulation of 0.25” or more on the wing leading edge, be prepared for significantly
higher stall speed
 Leave wing flaps retracted

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 With severe ice build-up on the horizontal tail, the change in wing wake airflow direction
caused by flap extension could result in a loss of elevator effectiveness
 Open the left window, and, if practical, scrape ice from a portion of the windshield for visibility
 Perform a landing approach using a forward slip, if necessary, for improved visibility
 Approach at 65 to 75 KIAS depending on the amount of ice accumulation
 Perform the landing in a level attitude
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
 Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
 Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
 Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
 Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
 Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
 A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. If installed, follow the manufacturer’s checklist
11. Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure - this is a general recommendation and not from the Cessna 152 POH
 This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more depending on the
aircraft – reference the POH performance)
 The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
 This can make the runway difficult to see
 A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed
 The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
 If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap- this is a general recommendation and not from the Cessna 152 POH
 A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
 The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
 Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
 Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
 Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
a The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
 Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
 Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen
 Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Cessna 172S G1000

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the aircraft to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. In-Flight Smoke/Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
 Engine Fire in Flight
 Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
 Checklist
 Shut off the fuel supply to the engine  Cabin Ht & Cabin Air: Off
a Mixture Control: Idle Cutoff a Except overhead vents
b Fuel Shut-Off Valve: Off  Airspeed: 100 KIAS
c Fuel Pump: Off a See note below
 Master Switch: Off  Forced Landing: Execute
Note: If fire is not extinguished at 100 knots, increase glide speed to find an airspeed within limitations
which will provide an incombustible mixture
 Perform an emergency landing
 Keep in mind that:
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
 Electrical Fire in Flight
 Indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation
 Checklist:
 STBY BATT Switch: Off
 Master Switch (Alt & BAT): Off
 Cabin Vents: Closed (to avoid drafts)
 Cabin Ht & Cabin Air: Off (Push full in. To avoid drafts.)
 Fire Extinguisher: Activate (if available)
 Avionics Switch (Bus 1 & Bus 2): Off
 All Other Switches (except Magnetos): Off

741
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

If the fire is extinguished and electric power is necessary to continue the flight to the
nearest suitable airport or landing area:
 Circuit Breakers: Check
 Master Switch (ALT and BATT): On
 Stby Batt Switch – Arm
 Avionics Switch (Bus 1): On
 Avionics Switch (Bus 2): On
 If the fire returns when restoring power (i.e. the system that received power is a cause of the fire),
immediately turn off the switch/system and fight the fire
 Wing Fire
 The POH does not specify whether this checklist applies inflight or on the ground
 Basically, remove all power sources from the wing
 Checklist:
 Land and Taxi Light Switches: Off
 Nav Light Switch: Off
 Strobe Light Switch: Off
 Pitot Heat Switch: Off
Note: Perform a sideslip to keep the flames away from the fuel tank and cabin. Land as soon as possible
using flaps only as required for final approach and touchdown
 Cabin Fire
 POH does not specify whether this checklist applies inflight or on the ground
 Usually result from:
 Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
 Electrical system malfunctions
 Heating system malfunctions
 Two immediate demands:
 Attacking the fire
 Getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
 Checklist
 Stby Batt Switch: Off  Cabin Vents: Open (when sure the
 Master Switch (Alt and Bat): Off fire is completely extinguished)
 Cabin Vents: Close  Cabin Ht and Cabin Air: On (when
 Cabin Ht and Cabin Air: Off sure the fire is completely
 Fire Extinguished: Activate extinguished)
a Ensure the fire is out before  Land ASAP
exterior air is used to remove
smoke in the cabin
B. Ground Smoke/Fire
 During Start on Ground
 Checklist
 Magnetos: Start (continue cranking)  Magnetos: Off
If Engine Starts  Stby Batt Switch: Off
 Power: 1800 RPM (for a few minutes)  Master Switch (Alt & Batt): Off
 Engine: Shutdown (check for damage)  Engine: Secure
If Engine Fails to Start  Parking Brake: Release
 Throttle: Full  Fire Extinguisher: Obtain

742
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Mixture: Idle Cutoff  Airplane: Evacuate

 Magnetos: Start (continue cranking)  Fire: Extinguish
 Fuel Shutoff Valve: Off  Fire Damage: Inspect
 Fuel Pump: Off
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. No specific rough running engine checklist, but in the Amplified Emergency Procedures section the POH
references Rough Engine Operation or Loss of Power:
 Spark Plug Fouling
 Slight engine roughness can be caused by spark plug fouling (carbon or lead deposit on the spark plug)
 Verify by turning the mags switch momentarily from Both to either L or R. An obvious power loss in
single mag operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto trouble
 Procedure
 Lean the mixture to the recommended lean setting for cruise flight
 If the problem does not clear up in several minutes, determine if a richer mixture setting will
produce smoother operation. If not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using the Both
position of the mags switch unless extreme roughness makes a single mag position necessary
 Magneto Malfunction
 Sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually a sign of a magneto problem
 Changing the mags from Both to L and R positions will identify the malfunctioning magneto
 Procedure
 Select different power settings and enrichen the mixture to determine if continued operation on
Both mags is possible. If not, change to the good mag and continue to the nearest airport for repairs
 Idle Power Engine Roughness
 An excessively rich idle fuel flow may cause low speed engine roughness during flight
 During most in-flight low engine speeds (power off stalls, approach to landing, etc.), the mixture control
is normally in the full-rich position. However, to improve engine roughness (caused by an improperly
adjusted fuel servo) during low engine speeds while in flight, you should lean the mixture.
 You may also have to lean the fuel mixture if this low engine speed results in power loss and you
need to restart the engine during flight.
 In all cases, you should land the airplane at the nearest airport for repairs if low speed engine roughness
requires you to adjust the fuel mixture control to improve engine operation.
 Engine Driven Fuel Pump Failure
 Failure of the engine driven fuel pump will be shown by a sudden reduction in the fuel flow indication
immediately before a loss of power while operating from a fuel tank containing adequate fuel
 Procedure
 Immediately set the Fuel Pump switch to On to restore engine power
 The flight should be terminated as soon as practical
 Excessive Fuel Vapor
 Fuel vapor in the fuel injection system is most likely to occur on the ground, typically during prolonged
taxi operations when operating at higher altitudes and/or in unusually warm temperatures
 Excessive fuel vapor accumulation is shown by fuel flow indicator fluctuations greater than 1 gal per
hour
a This condition, with leaner mixtures or with larger fluctuations, can result in power surges, and if
not corrected, may cause power loss
 Procedure
 To slow vapor formation and stabilize fuel flow on the ground or in the air, set the Fuel Pump switch
to On and adjust the mixture for smooth engine operation

743
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 If vapor symptoms continue, select the opposite fuel tank

 When fuel flow stabilizes, set the Fuel Pump to Off and adjust the mixture as desired
 Forced Landing - Precautionary Landing with Engine Power Checklist:
 Pilot and Passenger Seat Backs: Most upright position
 Seats and Seat Belts: Secure
 Airspeed: 65 KIAS
 Wing Flaps: 20o
 Selected Field: Fly over (noting terrain and obstructions)
 Wing Flaps: Full (on final app)
 Airspeed: 65 KIAS
 Stby Batt Switch: Off
 Master Switch (Alt & Batt): Off (when landing assured)
 Doors: Unlatch prior to touchdown
 Touchdown: Slightly tail low
 Mixture Control: Idle Cutoff
 Magnetos Switch: Off
 Brakes: Apply heavily
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. High Oil Pressure
 Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
 Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP
B. Low Oil Pressure
 Possible Cause - Broken Pressure Relief Valve, Insufficient Oil, Burned Out Bearings
 Corrective Action - Land ASAP, anticipate engine failure, follow the forced landing procedures in the POH
(shown above)
C. POH Amplified Emergency Procedures – Low Oil Pressure
 If the low oil pressure annunciator (Oil Press) comes on, check the oil pressure indicator (Oil Pres on Engine
page or Oil PSI on System Page) to confirm the low oil pressure condition
 If oil pressure and temperature remain normal, it is possible that the oil pressure sending unit or relief
valve is malfunctioning – land at the nearest airport to determine the source of the problem
 If a total loss of oil pressure and a rise in oil temperature occur at about the same time, it could mean that
the engine is about to fail – reduce power immediately and select a field suitable for a forced landing. Use
only the minimum power necessary to reach the landing site
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine or engine failure, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty
tanks
B. The POH does not have a specific fuel starvation checklist
 Check the fuel gauges to determine if fuel starvation is in fact the problem. IF the engine cannot be restarted
(as described below), execute the Forced Landing checklist
C. Engine Failure During Flight:
 Airspeed: 68 KIAS
 Fuel Shutoff: On
 Fuel Selector: Both
 Fuel Pump: ON
 Mixture: Rich (if restart has not occurred)
 Magnetos: Both (or start if propeller is stopped)
 If prop is windmilling, engine will restart automatically within a few

744
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

seconds. If prop has stopped, turn mags switch to start, advance throttle
slowly from idle and lean the mixture from full rich as required to obtain
smooth operation
5. Engine Overheat
A. There is no specific engine overheat checklist in the POH, but the following is applicable
B. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
 If a total loss of oil pressure and a rise in oil temperature occur at about the same time, it could mean the
engine is about to fail. Reduce power immediately and select a field suitable for a forced landing. Use only
the minimum power necessary to reach the landing site
 Execute the Emergency Landing without Engine Power, or Precautionary Landing with Engine Power if
required
C. Although the POH does not have a specific, engine overheat checklist, the following can serve as guidelines:
 Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce pwr
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. Brake failure
 Symptoms of impending brake failure:
 Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
 Noisy or dragging brakes
 Soft or spongy pedals
 Excessive brake travel
 Weak braking action
 If during taxi or landing roll, braking action decreases let up on the pedals and the reapply the brakes with
heavy pressure
 If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
 If one brake becomes weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
 *Not in the POH* If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled
landing without excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. General
 The generator/alternator is the cause of most electrical system failures
 Once the generator goes offline, the only electrical source remaining is the battery
 The battery although may have very little time available
 Electrically powered gear and flaps use up power at rates much greater than most other equipment
 Selecting these motors on a partially depleted battery could result in immediate loss of power
 Malfunctions in the electrical system can be detected through regular monitoring of the main battery
ammeter (M Batt Amps) and the main electric bus voltmeter (M Bus Volts)
 Electrical power malfunctions generally fall into two categories:
 Excessive Rate of Charge

745
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 After 30 minutes of flight, the main battery ammeter should be indicating less than 5 amps. If the
charging current remains above this value on a long flight, the battery electrolyte could overheat
and evaporate
a Electronic components can be adversely affected by higher than normal voltage
b The Alternator Control Unit should disconnect the alternator if the charge increases to more
than 31.75 volts
1. If the ACU does not operate correctly, the Master Switch (Alt only) should be turned Off
 Insufficient Rate of Charge
 i.e. the alternator is not providing the necessary charge
a The ACU can de-energize the alternator due to a minor disturbance in the electrical system,
resulting in a nuisance opening of the Alt Field circuit breaker
b Attempt to energize the alternator system by turning the Master Switch (Alt) Off, check the Alt
Field circuit breaker is in and then turning the Master Switch (Alt) back on
1. If this doesn’t reset the system, there is an alternator system problem (more below)
B. General Steps to any electrical malfunction
 Turn off all but the most necessary electrical equipment
 Save as much power as possible
 Notify ATC immediately and request vectors for a landing at the nearest airport
 Expect to make a no flap landing, and anticipate a manual gear extension
C. Checklists
 High Volts Annunciator or M Batt Amps More than 40:
 Master Switch (Alt): Off
 Electrical Load – Reduce Immediately. All Off:
 Avionics Switch (Bus 1)
 Pitot Heat
 Beacon Light
 Land Light
 Taxi Light
 Nav Light
 Strobe Light
 Cabin Pwr 12V
Note: The main battery supplies electrical power to the main and
essential buses until M Bus Volts decreases below 20 volts at which
point the standby battery system will automatically supply power to
the essential bus for at least 30 minutes

Note: Select Com 1 Mic and Nav 1 on the audio panel and tune to the
active frequency before setting Avionics Bus 2 to Off. If Com 2 Mic and
Nav 2 are selected when Avionics Bus 2 is set to Off, the Com and Nav
radios cannot be tuned
 Com 1 and Nav 1: Tune to active frequency
 Com 1 Mic and Nav 1: Select
 Com 2 Mic and Nav 2 will be inoperative once Avionics Bus 2 is selected
Off
 Avionics Switch (Bus 2): Off (keep on if in clouds)
Note: With Avionics Bus 2 Off, the following will be inoperative
a Autopilot

746
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

b Comm 2
c Transponder
d Audio Panel
e Nav 2
f MFD
 Land as soon as practical
Note: Make sure a successful landing is possible before extending the flaps. The flap
motor is a large electrical load during operation
 Low Volts Annunciator Below 1000 RPM:
 Throttle: 1000 RPM
 Low Volts Annunciator: Check Off
 If it remains On, authorized maintenance personnel must do an electrical
system inspection prior to the next flight
 Low Volts Annunciator (does not go off at higher RPMs):
 Master Switch (Alt only): Off
 Alt Field Circuit Breaker: Check in
 Master Switch (Alt and Bat): On
 Low Volts Annunciator: Check off
 M Bus Volts: Check 27.5 V minimum
 M Batt Amps: Check charging (+)
If Low Volts Annunciator remains On
 Master Switch (Alt only): Off
 Electrical Load – Reduce Immediately. All Off:
 Avionics Switch (Bus 1)
 Pitot Heat
 Beacon Light
 Land Light
 Taxi Light
 Nav Light
 Strobe Light
 Cabin Pwr 12V
Note: The main battery supplies electrical power to the main and
essential buses until M Bus Volts decreases below 20 volts at which
point the standby battery system will automatically supply power to
the essential bus for at least 30 minutes
Note: Select Com 1 Mic and Nav 1 on the audio panel and tune to the
active frequency before setting Avionics Bus 2 to Off. If Com 2 Mic and
Nav 2 are selected when Avionics Bus 2 is set to Off, the Com and Nav
radios cannot be tuned
 Comm 1 and Nav 1: Tune to active frequency
 Com 1 Mic and Nav 1: Select
 Com 2 mic and Nav 2 will be inoperative once Avionics Bus 2 is selected
to Off)
 Avionics Switch (Bus 2): Off (keep on if in clouds)
Note: With Avionics Bus 2 Off, the following will be inoperative
aAutopilot
b Comm 2

747
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

cTransponder
d Audio Panel
e Nav 2
f MFD
 Land as soon as practical
Note: Make sure a successful landing is possible before extending the flaps. The flap
motor is a large electrical load during operation
8. Induction Icing
A. POH Amplified Emergency Procedures
 Flight into icing conditions is prohibited and extremely dangerous
 The best action is to turn back or change altitude to escape the icing conditions
B. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing or
stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine. In extremely rare instances, ice can completely block the fuel
injection air reference tubes
 Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
 In all situations mentioned, the throttle should be positioned for maximum RPM (in some instances, the
throttle may need to be retarded to obtain maximum RPM). The mixture should then be adjusted for
maximum RPM
C. Corrective Action
 Use the Alternate Air source
D. Icing Checklist
 Pitot Heat: On
 Turn back or change altitude to get out of icing conditions
 Cabin Ht: On
 Defroster Outlets: Open (max windshield defrost)
 Cabin Air: Adjust (max defroster heat and airflow) – Checklist continued below
 Watch for signs of induction air filter icing:
 A loss of engine RPM can be caused by ice blocking the air intake filter
 Adjust throttle to hold engine RPM
 Adjust mixture for changes in power
 Plan a landing at the nearest airport
 With extremely rapid ice build-up, select a suitable off airport landing site
 With ice accumulation of 0.25” or more on the wing leading edge, be prepared
for significantly higher power requirements, higher approach and stall speeds
and a longer landing roll
 Leave wing flaps retracted
 With severe ice build-up on the horizontal tail, the change in wing wake
airflow direction caused by flap extension could result in a loss of elevator
effectiveness
 Open the left window, and, if practical, scrape ice from a portion of the
windshield for visibility
 Perform a landing approach using a forward slip, if necessary, for improved
visibility
 Approach at 65 to 75 KIAS depending on the amount of ice accumulation
 Perform the landing in a level attitude
 Missed approaches should be avoided whenever possible because of severely
reduced climb capability

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

9. Door or Window Opening in Flight

A. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
 Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
 Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
 Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
 Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
 Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
 A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Checklist
 Control Wheel: Grasp firmly (regain control)
 A/P Trim Disc Button: Press and Hold (throughout recovery)
 Elevator Trim Control: Adjust manually (as necessary)
 Auto Pilot Circuit Breaker: Open
 A/P Trim Disc Button: Release
B. Do not engage the autopilot until the cause of the malfunction has been corrected
11. Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure
 This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more depending on the
aircraft – reference the POH performance)
 The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
 This can make the runway difficult to see
 A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed
 The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
 If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
 This is a general recommendation and not from the Cessna 172 POH
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
 A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
 The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
 Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
 Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
 Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
a The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
 Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
 Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen
 Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

749
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

750
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Cirrus SR20

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. General Info

2. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations
3. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
4. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
5. Fuel Starvation
6. Engine Overheat
7. Hydraulic Malfunction
8. Electrical Malfunction
9. Induction Icing
10. Door or Window Opening in Flight
11. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
12. Flap Malfunction
13. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. General Info
A. Review Emergency / Abnormal Procedure Overview
i. Section 3 Emergency Procedures
a. Introduction
b. Airspeeds for Emergency Operations
c. Emergency Procedures Guidance
d. Perspective +: Review entire Introduction
ii. Section 3A Abnormal Procedures
a. Introduction
b. Abnormal Procedures Guidance
c. Perspective +: Review entire Introduction
B. Highlights:
i. Methodology (MATL)
a. Maintain Aircraft Control
b. Analyze the Situation
c. Take Appropriate Action
d. Land as Soon as Conditions Permit
ii. Memory Items
a. Checklist steps emphasized by underlining
b. Should be memorized for accomplishment without reference to the procedure
iii. Land as Soon as Practicable vs Possible
a. Practicable: Extended flight is not recommended and the pilot should proceed to land
 Not necessarily at the first or closest landing location
 Pilot should use discretion and consider all factors
b. Possible: Land without delay at the first site a safe landing can be made
2. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. Ground Smoke/Fire

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

i. Engine Fire During Start – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH

a. May be caused by fuel igniting in the fuel induction systems. Attempt to draw the fire back into the
engine by continuing to crank the engine
b. If flames persist, perform Emergency Engine Shutdown on Ground & Emergency Ground Egress
ii. Emergency Engine Shutdown on Ground – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
iii. Emergency Ground Egress checklists – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
B. In-Flight Smoke/Fire
i. General
a. In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
b. Prepare to land without delay while completing the fire and /or smoke procedures
c. If it cannot be verified that the fire is completely extinguished, land immediately at the nearest suitable
airfield or landing site
d. Keep in mind that with a fire:
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
ii. Engine Fire in Flight – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
a. Often caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
iii. Wing Fire in Flight – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
iv. Cabin Fire in Flight – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
a. May result from:
 Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
 Electrical system malfunctions
 Heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
 Attack the fire
 Get the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
c. Indication of an electrical fire is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation (acrid smell)
3. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. Engine Partial Power Loss – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
B. Indications
i. Fluctuating RPM, reduced or fluctuating MP, low oil pressure, high oil temp, rough engine sound
a. Mild engine roughness may be caused by fouled spark plug(s)
b. Sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually a magneto malfunction
C. Notes
i. Low oil pressure may be indicative of imminent engine failure refer to Low Oil Pressure checklist
ii. A damaged prop may cause extremely rough operation
a. Immediately shut down the engine and perform the Forced Landing checklist
iii. If a fuel leak is responsible for the power loss, air cooling may prevent a fire
a. As power is reduced and the aircraft slowed, cooling may not be sufficient to prevent a fire
iv. BOOST may clear the problem if there is vapor in the lines or the fuel pump has partially failed
a. The electric pump will not provide sufficient pressure if the engine driven pump fails entirely
v. Selecting the other fuel tank may fix the problem if fuel starvation or contamination is the issue
vi. Cycling the ignition may help identify a magneto or spark plug problem
vii. Intake icing may lead to engine roughness – Opening the alternate air may fix the problem
D. General Plan
i. If you can safely maintain level flight, land at a suitable airfield as soon as conditions permit

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ii. If you can’t safely maintain level flight, use partial power to set up a forced landing
iii. Always be prepared for a complete engine failure
a. Consider CAPS deployment
4. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. Low Oil Pressure – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH
i. Depending on the SR20 model, checklist titles include:
a. Low Oil Pressure
b. Oil Pressure Out of Range
c. Oil Temperature High
B. Overview
i. If low oil pressure is accompanied by rising oil temperature, the engine has likely lost a significant amount of
oil and failure may be imminent
a. Immediately reduce power to idle and select a suitable forced landing field
ii. Prolonged use of high power will lead to engine damage and total failure
iii. Full power should only be used when
a. Operating close to the ground and only for the time needed to climb to a safe altitude
iv. If low oil pressure is accompanied by normal oil temperature, the pressure sensor, gage, or relief valve could
be the problem
a. Land as soon as practical and determine the cause
5. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty tanks
i. Likely course of action is to initially run the Engine Partial Power Loss checklist
ii. In the case of fuel starvation, run the Engine Failure in Flight checklist
a. Leads to the Engine Airstart checklist
B. POH Checklists
i. G1/G2
a. Engine Failure in Flight
b. Engine Airstart
ii. Perspective / Perspective +
a. Low Fuel Quantity
b. Fuel Imbalance
c. Engine Failure in Flight
d. Engine Airstart
iii. Section 3A Abnormal Procedures
a. Perspective
 Low Fuel Quantity, Left/Right Fuel Tank Quantity, Fuel Filter in Bypass Mode, Fuel Imbalance
b. Perspective +
 Fuel Low Total Caution, Fuel Imbalance Caution & Advisory
6. Engine Overheat
A. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
B. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

C. POH Checklist References

i. G1 / G2: Low Oil Pressure (generally accompanied by a high oil temperature)
a. Engine Partial Power Loss
b. No specific high oil temperature checklist
ii. Perspective: Oil Temperature High
a. High Cylinder Head Temperature checklist – worth mentioning/reviewing
iii. Perspective +: Oil Temp Warning
a. High Cylinder Head Temperature checklist – worth mentioning/reviewing
7. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. General Brake Failure Procedures – Verify with the POH
i. Symptoms of impending brake failure:
a. Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
b. Noisy or dragging brakes
c. Soft or spongy pedals
d. Excessive brake travel
e. Weak braking action
ii. If braking action decreases during taxi/landing let up on the pedals then reapply with heavy pressure
iii. If brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
iv. If one brake is weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly w/ opposite rudder to maintain direction
v. If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled landing without
excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
B. POH Checklists
i. Section 3 Emergency Procedures
a. Perspective: Left/Right Brake Over-Temperature Annunciation
b. Perspective +: Brake Temp Warning
ii. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures
a. Brake Failure During Taxi
b. Landing with Failed Brakes
8. Electrical Malfunction
A. Procedures, checklists, and text vary by model
i. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures – Review the applicable procedures
B. G1 / G2 (same checklist titles, but different procedures and text)
i. Alternator Failure
ii. Low Volts Warning Light Illuminated
C. Perspective
i. Section 3, Emergency Procedures
a. High Voltage on Main Bus 1 / 2
b. High or Low Voltage on Essential Bus
ii. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures
a. Low Voltage on Main Bus 1/2
b. Battery 1 Current Sensor
c. Low Alternator 1/2 Output
D. Perspective +
i. Section 3, Emergency Procedures
a. M BUS 1 / 2 Warning
b. ESS Bus Warning
ii. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures
a. M Bus 1 / 2 Caution

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

b. Batt 1 Caution
c. Alt 1 / 2 Caution (Failure)
9. Induction Icing
A. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing or
stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
i. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
B. Flight into known icing conditions is prohibited
C. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures
i. Inadvertent Icing Encounter
D. If unrecognized, a rough running engine may be the first indication of induction icing
i. Engine Partial Power Loss checklist might be used
ii. Also opens the alternate induction air but does not include pitot/cabin heat, windshield defrost
iii. Once recognized, also run the Inadvertent Icing Encounter checklist
10. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. General information (verify with POH)
i. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
a. Concentrate on flying, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
b. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
 Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
c. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
d. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
 A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
B. Section 3A, Abnormal Procedures
i. Review Door Open in Flight checklist
11. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Any failure or malfunction of the electric trim can be overridden by use of the control yoke
i. Basic process – Maintain control, turn off and de-power the system, fly the plane
B. Section 3A, Abnormal Flight Procedures
i. Electric Trim/Autopilot Failure checklist
12. Flap Malfunction
A. General Info – Total Flap Failure
i. Necessitates a no flap approach and landing
a. Requires substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
b. Airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
 Can make the runway difficult to see
c. A wider, longer pattern may be required to avoid diving to lose altitude & building airspeed
d. Airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap General Info (verify with POH)
i. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
ii. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
iii. Countering
a. Countered with opposite aileron
b. The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
 Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
c. Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
 Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
a The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
iv. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a. The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
v. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher-than-normal airspeed
C. SR20 Flap Malfunction Checklists
i. Normal Procedures
a. Landing with less than full flaps is recommended only if the flaps fail to deploy or to extend glide
distance due to engine malfunction
 Use power to achieve a normal glidepath and low descent rate when at 50% or 0% flaps
 Maintain published speeds for the flap setting
a See Section 4, Normal Procedures, Airspeeds for Normal Operation, Landing Approach
 Adjust and account for longer landing roll
ii. G1 / G2
a. No specific flap checklists
iii. Perspective
a. Flap System Exceedance
iv. Perspective +
a. Flaps Overspeed Caution
b. Takeoff Flaps Caution
c. Flaps Climb Advisory
13. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Not applicable for the SR20, but in general, descend and/or use supplemental oxygen
i. An emergency descent may be required
ii. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. DA40

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. Ground Smoke/Fire
i. Engine Fire when Starting on the Ground:
a. Fuel Tank Selector: Off
b. Cabin Heat: Off
c. Brakes: Apply
After standstill:
d. Throttle: Max Power
e. Master Switch (Alt/Bat): Off
When engine has stopped:
f. Ignition Switch: Off
g. Canopy: Open
h. Airplane: Evacuate immediately
ii. Electrical Fire with Smoke on the Ground
a. Master Switch (Alt/Bat): Off
If the engine is running:
b. Throttle: Idle
c. Mixture Control Lever: Lean – shut off engine
When the engine has stopped:
d. Ignition Switch: Off
e. Canopy: Open
f. Airplane: Evacuate immediately
B. Smoke and Fire During Takeoff
i. If Takeoff can Still be Aborted
a. Throttle: Idle
b. Cabin Heat: Off
c. Brakes: Apply – bring the aircraft to a stop

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

d. After Stopping continue with Smoke and Fire on the Ground checklist
ii. If Takeoff Cannot be Aborted
a. Cabin Heat: Off
b. If possible, fly along a short-cut traffic pattern and land on the airfield
Warning: If the takeoff can no longer be aborted and a safe height has not been reached,
then a straight-ahead emergency landing should be carried out. Turning back can be fatal.
c. Airspeed:
 74 KIAS (2646 lb)
 72 KIAS (2235 lb)
 66 KIAS (2205 lb)
 59 KIAS (1874 lb)
After climbing to a height from which the selected landing area can be reached safely:
d. Fuel Tank Selector: Off
e. Electrical Fuel Pump: Off
f. Cabin Heat: Off
g. Master Switch (Alt/Bat): Off
h. Emergency Windows: Open if required
i. Carry out emergency landing with engine off. Allow for increased landing distance due
to the flap position
Caution: In the case of extreme smoke development, the front canopy can be unlatched
during flight to improve ventilation. Flight characteristics will not be affected significantly.
C. In-Flight Smoke/Fire
i. General
a. In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
b. Prepare to land the aircraft without delay while completing the fire suppression and /or smoke
evacuation procedures. If it cannot be visually verified that the fire has been completely extinguished,
land immediately at the nearest suitable airfield or landing site
ii. Engine Fire in Flight
a. Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
b. Checklist:
 Cabin Heat: Off
 Select appropriate emergency landing field
When it Seems Certain the Landing Field Will Be Reached:
 Fuel Tank Selector: Off
 Throttle: Max Power
 Electrical Fuel Pump: Off
 Master Switch (Alt/Bat): On
 Emergency Windows: Open if required
 Carry out emergency landing with engine off
Note: In case of extreme smoke, the front canopy may be unlatched in flight to
improve ventilation. Flight characteristics will not be affected significantly
c. Keep in mind that
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
iii. Electrical Fire with Smoke in Flight
a. Indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation (acrid smell)

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

b. Checklist:
 Emergency Switch: On (if installed)
 Master Switch (Alt/Bat): Off
 Cabin Heat: Off
 Emergency Windows: Open, if required
 Land at an appropriate airfield as soon as possible
Note: Switching off the Master (Alt/Bat) will lead to total failure of all electronic
equipment, however by switching the emergency switch On (IFR model DA40s), the
emergency battery will supply power to the attitude gyro and flood light
In case of extreme smoke, the front canopy can be unlatched during flight for
improved ventilation. Flight characteristics will not be affected significantly
iv. Cabin Fires
a. Usually result from:
 Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
 Electrical system malfunctions
 Heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
 Attack the fire
 Get the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. Engine Running Roughly Checklist:
Warning: An engine which is running very roughly can lead to the loss of the propeller. If the
engine is running roughly, operation should only be continued if there is no other alternative
i. Airspeed:
a. 76 KIAS (2646 lb)
b. 73 KIAS (2535 lb)
c. 68 KIAS (2205 lb)
d. 60 KIAS (1874 lb)
ii. Electrical Fuel Pump: Check On
iii. Fuel Tank Selector: Check selected tank
iv. Engine Instruments: Check
v. Throttle: Check
vi. RPM Lever: Check
vii. Mixture Control Lever: Set for smooth running
viii. Alternate Air: Check (only if the electronic ignition control unit is installed)
ix. Ignition Switch: Check Both
x. Ignition Circuit Breaker (IGN): Pull (only if the electronic ignition control unit is installed);
if rough running is cleared by doing this, the circuit breaker should remain open
xi. Throttle/Mixture/RPM: Try various settings
Warning: If the problem does not clear itself immediately, and the engine is no longer
producing sufficient power, then an emergency landing should be carried out
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. Loss of Oil Pressure Checklist
i. Check oil pressure warning light and oil pressure indicator
ii. Check oil temperature
a. If the oil pressure drops below the green sector and the oil temperature is normal
(oil pressure warning light does not illuminate or flash):

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Monitor the oil pressure warning light - it is probable that the oil pressure
indication is defective
 Monitor the oil and cylinder head temperatures
b. If the oil pressure indication drops below the green sector while the oil or cylinder
head temperature is rising, or the oil pressure warning light illuminates or flashes
(or both of these happen together):
 Reduce the engine power to the minimum required
 Land as soon as possible
 Be prepared for engine failure and emergency landing
c. Oil pressure trending to zero, combined with vibration, loss of oil, possibly unusual
metallic noise and smoke:
 A mechanical failure in the engine is apparent
 Shutoff the engine immediately and carry out Emergency Landing with Engine
Off checklist
B. High Oil Pressure Checklist
i. Check oil temperature
a. If the oil temperature is normal, it is probable that the fault lies in the oil pressure
indication, which should thus be ignored (the aircraft should be serviced)
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty tanks
i. Most likely course of action is to run the Engine Running Roughly checklist
ii. In the case of fuel starvation, run the Emergency Landing with Engine Off checklist
B. Low Fuel Pressure with the Electrical Fuel Pump Set to On Checklist
i. Fuel Flow: Check
a. If the fuel flow is high, there is possible a leak. Land at the nearest suitable airfield
b. If the fuel flow is in the green sector and the engine is running smoothly, the likely
cause is a defective fuel pressure indication, which should thus be ignored (the
aircraft should be serviced)
c. Monitor the engine for power loss and rough operation that could indicate fuel
starvation. If the engine is no longer producing sufficient power, then an emergency
landing should be carried out
C. Emergency Landing with Engine Off Checklist
a. Adjustable Backrests (if installed): Upright
b. Select suitable landing area. If no level landing area is available, a landing on an
upward slope should be sought
c. Consider wind
d. Approach: If possible, fly a short-cut rectangular pattern. Inspect the landing area on
the downwind leg. Continue to consider/adjust for wind
e. Airspeed
 76 KIAS (2646 lb)
 73 KIAS (2535 lb)
 68 KIAS (2205 lb)
 60 KIAS (1874 lb)
f. If Time Allows: Advice ATC
g. Fuel Tank Selector: Off
When it is certain that the landing field will be reached:
h. Flaps: LDG

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

i. Safety Harnesses: Tighten

Caution: If sufficient time is remaining, the risk of fire in the event of a collision with
obstacles can be reduce as follows:
 Ignition Switch: Off
 Master Switch (Alt/Bat): Off
j. Touchdown: Lowest possible airspeed
5. Engine Overheat
A. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
B. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
C. High Oil Temperature
i. Check cylinder head and exhaust gas temperature
a. If neither of these is high, it is probable that the fault lies in the oil temperature
indication. The aircraft should be serviced. A stable oil temperature indication of 26 o
F or 317o F suggests a failure of the oil temperature sensor
b. If the cylinder head temperature or exhaust gas temperature is also high:
 Check oil pressure. If the oil pressure is low, proceed with the Loss of Oil
Pressure Checklist
 If the oil pressure is in the green sector:
a Check mixture setting, enrich mixture if necessary
b Reduce power. If this produces no improvement, land at the nearest
appropriate airfield
D. High Cylinder Head Temperature
i. Cylinder head temperature in yellow sector, or above:
a. Check mixture setting, enrich mixture if necessary
b. Check oil temperature
 If the oil temperature is also high:
a Check oil pressure. If the oil pressure is low, proceed with the Loss of Oil
Pressure Checklist
b If the oil pressure is in the green sector:
1. Reduce power; if this produces no improvement, land at the nearest
appropriate airfield
2. Be prepared for possible emergency landing
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. General Brake Failure Procedures – Not in the POH
i. Symptoms of impending brake failure:
a. Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
b. Noisy or dragging brakes
c. Soft or spongy pedals
d. Excessive brake travel
e. Weak braking action

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

ii. If during taxi or landing roll, braking action decreases let up on the pedals and the reapply the brakes with
heavy pressure
iii. If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
iv. If one brake becomes weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
v. If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled landing without
excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. Complete Failure of the Electrical System
i. A total failure of the electrical system is extremely unlikely
ii. If a total failure should occur, all circuit breakers should be checked, pulled and reset. If this does not help:
a. Set Emergency switch to On (if installed)
b. When necessary, use the flood light for lighting the instruments as well as levers
and switches, etc.
c. Set power based on lever positions and engine noise
d. Prepare landing with flaps in the given position
e. Land at the nearest appropriate airfield
B. Alternator Failure
i. Indicated by an illuminated or flashing alternator warning light
ii. Alternator Failure During Flight:
a. Circuit Breakers: Check; if all are OK, proceed with step 2
b. Electrical Equipment: Switch Off all equipment which is not needed
c. Voltmeter: Check regularly
Caution: Items of equipment not needed for safe operation and secure landing of
the aircraft can be switched off with the Essential Bus switch (if installed). When the
essential bus switch is on, only the following items are supplied with battery power
for at least 30 minutes:
 NAV/COM 1
 Transponder
 Attitude Gyro
 VM 1000 Engine Instrument
 Annunciator Panel
 GPS
 Landing Light
 Pitot Heat
 Flaps
C. Low Voltage Caution on the Ground
i. Engine Speed: 1200 RPM
ii. Electrical Equipment: Off
iii. Ammeter: Check
a. If the caution light does not go out, and the ammeter flashes and reads zero:
 Terminate flight preparation
D. Low Voltage Caution in Flight
i. Electrical Equipment: Off
ii. Ammeter: Check
iii. If the caution light does not go out, and the ammeter flashes and reads zero:
a. Follow the Alternator Failure Checklist

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

8. Induction Icing
A. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing or
stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
i. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
B. Unintentional Flight into Icing Checklist
i. Leave the icing area (change altitude or turning back, to reach zones with a higher
ambient temperature)
ii. Pitot Heat: On
iii. Cabin Heat: On
iv. Air Distributor: Up
v. RPM: Increase to prevent ice build-up on the propeller blades
vi. Alternate Air: Open
vii. Emergency Window(s): Open, if required
Caution: Ice build-up increases the stalling speed. If required for safety, engine speeds
up to 2700 RPM are admissible without time limit
viii. ATC: Advise
Caution: When the Pitot Heat fails, and the alternate static valve is installed:
ix. Alternate Static Valve: Open
x. Emergency Window(s): Close
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
B. Door Warning Light On
i. Airspeed: Reduce immediately
ii. Canopy: Check visually if closed
iii. Rear Passenger Door: Check visually if closed
Canopy Unlocked
iv. Airspeed: Below 140 KIAS
v. Land at the next suitable airfield
Rear Door Unlocked
vi. Airspeed: Below 140 KIAS
vii. Land at the next suitable airfield
Warning: Do not try to lock the rear door in flight. The safety latch may disengage, opening
the door. Usually this results in a separation of the door of the airplane
Note: If the rear door has been lost, the aircraft can be safely flown to the next suitable
airfield
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Checklist:
i. Control Stick: Grasp firmly and regain aircraft control
ii. AP DISC Switch: Press and hold throughout recovery
iii. Trim: Retrim the aircraft manually as required
iv. Autopilot Circuit Breaker: Pull

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

The Avionic Master switch may be used as an alternate means of removing all power from
the autopilot and electric trim system. If necessary, perform steps i-iii, then turn the Avionic
Master switch off before locating and pulling the autopilot circuit breaker. Turn the Avionic
Master switch On as soon as possible to restore power to all other avionics equipment.
Primary attitude, airspeed and altitude instruments will remain operational at all times.
11. Flap Malfunction
A. General
i. Total Flap Failure
a. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
 The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
a This can make the runway difficult to see
 A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed
 The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
b. If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
ii. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
a. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
b. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
c. Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
a Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
a Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
1. The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
d. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
e. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
B. DA40 Failures in Flap Operating System
i. Failure in Position Indication or Function:
a. Check flap position visually
b. Keep airspeed in white sector
c. Re-check all position of the flap switch
ii. Modified Approach Procedure Depending on the Available Flap Setting:
a. Only Up or T/O available
 Airspeed:
a 76 KIAS (2646 lb)
b 73 KIAS (2535 lb)
c 68 KIAS (2205 lb)
d 60 KIAS (1874 lb)
 Land at a flap approach angle, use throttle to control aircraft speed and rate of
descent
b. Only LDG available
 Perform normal landing
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Not applicable for the DA40, but in general, descend or use supplemental oxygen
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Piper Archer II (PA-28-181)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap Malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. Ground Operations
i. Engine Fire During Start - Usually the result of overpriming
a. Procedures
 The first attempt to extinguish the fire is to try to start the engine and draw the
excess fuel back into the induction system
 Fire Prior to Engine Start – Move the mixture to idle cut-off, open the throttle and
crank the engine
a This is an attempt to draw the fire back into the engine
 If the Engine has Started – Continue operating to try to pull the fire into the
engine
 In either case (above), if the fire continues more than a few seconds, the fire
should be extinguished by the best available external means
a The fuel selector valves should be off and the mixture at idle cut-off if an
external fire extinguishing method is to be used
B. Flight Operations
i. General
a. Presence of fire is noted through smoke, smell, and/or heat in the cabin
b. The source of the fire must be promptly identified. Check for the source of the fire first
 Identifiers like instrument readings, characters of the smoke (smell, color, location), etc.
ii. Electrical Fire in Flight
a. Fuel Selector: Off
b. Master switch: Off
c. Vents: Open
d. Cabin Heat: Off
e. Land as soon as practicable
iii. Engine Fire in Flight

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 Fuel Selector: Off

 Throttle: Closed
 Mixture: Idle Cut-Off
 Electrical Fuel Pump: Check Off
 Heater and Defroster: Off
 If radio communication is not required, Master Switch: Off
 Proceed with Power Off Landing Procedure
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. General
i. Engine roughness is usually due to carburetor icing which is indicated by a drop in RPM, and may be
accompanied by a slight loss of airspeed or altitude
a. If too much ice is allowed to accumulate, restoration of full power may not be possible; therefore,
prompt action is required
B. Procedure
i. Carburetor Heat: On
a. RPM will decrease slightly and roughness will increase
b. Wait for a decrease in engine roughness or an increase in RPM, indicating ice
removal
If roughness continues after one minute:
ii. Carburetor Heat: Off
iii. Mixture: Adjust for maximum smoothness
iv. Electrical Fuel Pump: On
v. Fuel Selectors: Switch Tanks
a. To see if fuel contamination is the problem
vi. Engine Gauges: Check (if any indications are abnormal, proceed accordingly)
vii. Magneto Switch: L then R then Both
a. If operation is satisfactory on either magneto, proceed on that magneto at reduced
power, with mixture full rich, to a landing at the first available airport
viii. Prepare for power off landing
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. General
i. Can be a partial or total loss of oil pressure
a. Partial Loss
 Usually indicates a malfunction in the oil pressure regulating system, and a landing should be made
as soon as possible to investigate the cause and prevent engine damage
b. Complete Loss
 May signify oil exhaustion or may be the result of a faulty gauge
 In either case, proceed toward the nearest airport and be prepared for a forced landing. If the
problem is not a pressure gauge malfunction, the engine may stop suddenly
a Maintain altitude until such time as a dead stick landing can be accomplished
b Don’t change power settings unnecessarily, this may hasten complete power loss
 Depending on the circumstances, it may be advisable to make an off airport landing while power is
still available, particularly if other indication of actual oil pressure loss, such as sudden increases in
temperatures, or oil smoke, are apparent, and an airport is not close
B. Procedures
i. Land as soon as possible and investigate cause
ii. Prepare for power off landing

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked fuel lines or empty tanks
i. Unless recognized immediately, the most likely course of action is to run the Engine Roughness checklist, or
Engine Power Loss in Flight checklist
ii. In the case of fuel starvation, a power off landing will be necessary using the Power Off Landing checklist
B. Plan ahead while on the ground, and monitor fuel while in flight to prevent fuel starvation
i. If at any point during flight the fuel required is not in line with the fuel available create a new plan. Divert
immediately if necessary, don’t rely on hope!
5. Engine Overheat
A. General
i. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
a. Watch the oil pressure gauge for an accompanying loss of pressure
b. A steady rise in oil temperature is a sign of trouble. Land at the nearest airport and let a mechanic
investigate the problem
ii. Rising oil temperature may be the result of a low oil level, and obstruction in the oil cooler, damaged or
improper baffle seals, a defective gauge, or other causes
B. High Oil Temperature Procedures
i. Land at the nearest airport and investigate the problem
ii. Prepare for power off landing
C. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. General Brake Failure Procedures – Not in the POH
i. Symptoms of impending brake failure:
a. Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
b. Noisy or dragging brakes
c. Soft or spongy pedals
d. Excessive brake travel
e. Weak braking action
ii. If during taxi or landing roll, braking action decreases let up on the pedals and the reapply the brakes with
heavy pressure
iii. If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
iv. If one brake becomes weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
v. If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled landing without
excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. Alternator Failure
i. Ammeter: Check to verify inoperative alternator
a. Loss of alternator output is detected through zero reading on the ammeter. Before
executing the following procedure, ensure that the reading is zero and not merely low
by actuating an electrically powered device (like the landing light). If no increase in the

771
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

ammeter reading is noted, alternator failure can be assumed

If ammeter shows zero:
ii. ALT switch: Off
Reduce electrical loads to minimum:
iii. ALT circuit breaker: Check and reset as required
iv. ALT switch: On
a. Switching the alternator off and then on attempts to reset the overvoltage relay. If the
problem was caused by a momentary overvoltage condition (16.5 volts or more), this
procedure should return the ammeter to normal operation.
If power not restored (ammeter still indicates zero), or the alternator will not remain reset:
v. ALT switch: Off
If alternator output cannot be restored, reduce electrical loads and land as soon as practical.
The battery is the only remaining source of electrical power
B. Electrical Overload
i. If abnormally high alternator output is observed (more than 20 amps above known electrical load for the
operating conditions) it may be caused by a low battery, a battery fault, or other abnormal electrical load
a. If the cause is a low battery, the indication should begin to decrease toward normal within 5 minutes
b. If the condition persists, attempt to reduce the load by turning off non-essential equipment
C. Electrical Overload Checklist – For aircraft with interlocked Bat and Alt switch operation
i. Electrical load: Reduce
If alternator loads are reduced:
ii. ALT switch: Off
iii. Land as soon as practical. The battery is the only remaining source of power. Anticipate
complete electrical failure
iv. Expanded POH Info: When the electrical load cannot by reduced, turn the ALT switch Off and land as soon as
practical
D. Electrical Overload Checklist – For aircraft with separate Bat and Alt switch operation
i. Alt switch: On
ii. Bat switch: Off
If alternator loads are reduced:
iii. Electrical load: Reduce to minimum
iv. Land as soon as practical
If alternator loads are not reduced:
v. Alt switch: Off
vi. Bat switch: As required
vii. Land as soon as possible. Anticipate complete electrical failure
viii. Expanded POH Info: Turn the Bat switch off and the ammeter should decrease. Turn the Bat switch on and
continue to monitor the ammeter. If the alternator output does not decrease within 5 minutes, turn the Bat
switch off and land as soon as practical. All electrical loads are being supplied by the alternator.
8. Induction Icing
A. General
i. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing
or stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
a. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
ii. Induction icing can happen under certain moist atmospheric conditions at temperatures between -5 oC and
20oC, even in summer weather

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a. This is due to the high air velocity through the carburetor venturi and the absorption of heat from this
air by vaporization of the fuel
iii. Carb heat should be set to full on whenever used
a. Partial carb heat may melt part of the ice, which will refreeze in the intake system
B. Carburetor Icing Checklist
i. Carburetor Heat: On
ii. Mixture: Adjust for maximum smoothness
C. If the pilot is unaware of icing, the Engine Roughness checklist will also lead to turning on the carb heat in case
induction icing is the cause of the problem
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. POH Amplified Emergency Procedures
i. The cabin door is double latched so the changes of it opening during flight are remote
a. However, a partially open door will not affect the normal flight characteristics of the aircraft and a
normal landing can be made with the door open
b. If both latches are open, the door will trail slightly open, and airspeed will be reduced slightly
B. Open Door Checklist
i. To close the door in flight:
a. Slow the aircraft to 87 KIAS
b. Cabin Vents: Close
c. Storm Window: Open
d. If upper latch is open: Latch
e. If side latch is open: Pull on armrest while moving latch handle to latched position
f. If both latches are open: Latch side latch then top latch
C. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following general information:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
a. The Piper Archer does have a checklist to close the door in flight. Do not lose control of the aircraft
trying to close the door. Fly the plane first.
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. In case of Electric Trim Malfunction (if installed)
i. AP DISC/TRIM INTER Switch: Press and hold throughout recovery
ii. Pitch Trim circuit breaker: Pull
iii. Aircraft: Retrim manually
When disconnecting the autopilot after a trim malfunction, hold the control wheel firmly. Up to
45 lbs. of force on the control wheel may be necessary to hold the aircraft level
11. Flap Malfunction
A. General (no specific procedures in the Archer POH)
i. Total Flap Failure
a. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
 The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
a This can make the runway difficult to see
 A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed

773
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

 The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout

b. If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
ii. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
a. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
b. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
c. Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
a Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
a Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
1. The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
d. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
e. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Not applicable for the Piper Archer, but in general, descend or use supplemental oxygen
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

774
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Piper Archer III (PA-28-181)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. General Info

2. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations
3. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
4. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
5. Fuel Starvation
6. Engine Overheat
7. Hydraulic Malfunction
8. Electrical Malfunction
9. Induction Icing
10. Door or Window Opening in Flight
11. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
12. Flap Malfunction
13. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

775
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. General Info
A. Review 3.1 General in the POH
i. CAS Messages
ii. PFD Annunciations & Alerts
iii. Aural Alerts
iv. Terminology (Land as soon as practical vs possible)
B. Review 3.3 Airspeeds for Safe Operation
2. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. Ground Operations
i. Engine Fire During Start - Usually the result of overpriming
a. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
b. Intent is to draw the fire back into the engine
B. Flight Operations
i. General
a. Presence of fire is noted through smoke, smell, and/or heat in the cabin
b. Essential that the source of the fire be promptly identified
 Identifiers like instrument readings, characters of the smoke (smell, color, location), etc.
 Pilot judgement and a thorough understanding of the systems is critical
ii. Engine Fire in Flight
a. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
iii. Electrical Fire in Flight
a. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
3. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. General Considerations
Possible Causes Corrective Action
Improper mixture Adjust mixture for smooth op
Defective ignition or valves Consult maintenance personnel
Detonation / preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, land as soon as practical

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Induction air leak Reduce power. Consult maintenance

Plugged fuel nozzle Reduce power. Consult maintenance
Excessive fuel pressure / fuel flow Lean mixture
B. Engine Roughness – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
i. May be caused by blockage in the injector nozzles, induction system icing, or ignition problems
ii. Follow the procedures, check the gauges for abnormal readings and proceed accordingly
C. Engine Power Loss in Flight – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
i. Complete power loss is usually caused by fuel interruption
4. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. Checklist Information
i. Can be a partial or total loss of oil pressure
a. Partial Loss
 Usually indicates a malfunction in the oil pressure regulating system,
 Landing should be made as soon as possible to investigate the cause and prevent damage
b. Complete Loss
 May signify oil exhaustion or may be the result of a faulty gauge
 In either case, proceed toward the nearest airport and be prepared for a forced landing
 If the problem is not a pressure gauge malfunction, the engine may stop suddenly
a Maintain altitude until such time as a dead stick landing can be accomplished
b Don’t change power settings unnecessarily, this may hasten complete power loss
B. Oil Pressure Checklist – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
5. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine
i. Unless recognized, likely to run Engine Roughness checklist, or Engine Power Loss in Flight checklist
a. Engine Power Loss In Flight – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
 Complete power loss is usually caused by fuel flow interruption
 Water in the fuel may take time to clear – allowing the prop to windmill may restore power
 If the selected tank is empty, it can take up to 10 seconds after switching tanks to restart
b. Engine Roughness – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
 May be caused by blockage in the injector nozzles
 Adjusting mixture, turning on electric fuel pump & swapping tanks may help with fuel issues
ii. If power is not regained, a power off landing will be necessary using the Power Off Landing checklist
B. Plan ahead while on the ground and monitor fuel while in flight to prevent fuel starvation
i. If at any point the fuel remaining does not reasonably resemble the plan, assess the situation
ii. If necessary, divert immediately – don’t rely on hope!
6. Engine Overheat
A. General
i. Oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
a. Watch the oil pressure gauge for an accompanying loss of pressure
ii. General Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
B. Oil Temperature – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

i. Causes: Low oil level, oil cooler obstruction, damager or improper baffle seals, faulty indication, etc.
ii. Land as soon as possible and have the cause investigated
7. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. General Brake Failure Procedures – Not in the POH
i. Symptoms of impending brake failure:
a. Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
b. Noisy or dragging brakes
c. Soft or spongy pedals
d. Excessive brake travel
e. Weak braking action
ii. If braking action decreases, let up on the pedals and the reapply with heavy pressure
iii. If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build pressure
iv. If one brake is weak or fails, use the other sparingly with opposite rudder to offset the good brake
v. If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available
a. Make a controlled landing w/o excessive float – slow straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
8. Electrical Malfunction
A. Alternator Failure
i. If a momentary overvoltage caused the failure, resetting the ALTR switch should fix the problem
ii. If the alternator does not reset, the battery is the primary source of power
a. Essential Bus is only bus powered
b. When the battery dies, the emergency battery should automatically activate
 If it doesn’t turn off BATT MASTR and ALTR switches
c. About 30 mins of power
iii. Alternator Failure – Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
B. Complete Electrical Failure
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
ii. Inoperative Equipment while on Emergency Bus
a. PFD, Engine instruments (except oil pressure), Com / Nav 1, Standby instrument, Audio panel, Avionics
lighting/dimming
C. Emergency Battery Voltage
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
ii. Complete electrical failure is imminent – Land as soon as possible
9. Induction Icing
A. General
i. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing
or stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
a. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
ii. Induction system icing can lead to engine roughness
B. Engine Roughness Checklist
i. Without a direct indication of icing, engine roughness is likely the first sign of the problem
ii. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
a. Directs you to open the alternate air intake
10. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. Open Door Checklist
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
B. General Information (POH takes precedence)
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off

778
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
a. The Piper Archer does have a checklist to close the door in flight. Do not lose control of the aircraft
trying to close the door. Fly the plane first.
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
11. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Electric Pitch Trim Failure
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
B. Electric Pitch Trim Runaway
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
ii. Basically, maintain control, disengage the autopilot/trim system and turn it off (pull CB)
iii. Fly first!
C. Autopilot Out-Of-Trim
i. Reference checklist in Section 3 of the POH Flight Operations
ii. Do not attempt to overpower the autopilot – the servos will oppose and trim opposite your input
12. Flap Malfunction
A. General (no specific procedures in the Archer POH)
i. Total Flap Failure
a. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 Requires substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
 Flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
a Can make the runway difficult to see
 Wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude & building up speed
 Tendency to float considerably during roundout
ii. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
a. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
b. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
c. Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 Yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
a Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Close to full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
a Do not attempt to land with a crosswind from the side of the deployed flap
1. Additional roll control to counteract the crosswind may not be available
d. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 Wing with the retracted flap will stall earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
e. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher-than-normal airspeed
 Use POH published flaps speeds and adjust for the higher landing distance
13. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Not applicable for the Piper Archer, but in general, descend and/or use supplemental oxygen
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

779
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

XII.C. Piper Arrow (PA-28R-201)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
4. Fuel Starvation
5. Engine Overheat
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
7. Electrical Malfunction
8. Induction Icing
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Flap Malfunction
12. Pressurization Malfunction

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
Standards The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

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Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the airplane to
provide as safe a flight as possible.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from
progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. Ground Operations
i. Engine Fire During Start - Usually the result of overpriming
a. Procedures
 The first attempt to extinguish the fire is to try to start the engine and draw the excess fuel back into
the induction system
 Fire Prior to Engine Start – Move the mixture to idle cut-off, open the throttle and crank the engine
a This is an attempt to draw the fire back into the engine
 If the Engine has Started – Continue operating to try to pull the fire into the engine
 In either case (above), if the fire continues more than a few seconds, the fire should be extinguished
by the best available external means
a The fuel selector valves should be off and the mixture at idle cut-off if an external fire
extinguishing method is to be used
b. Checklist
 Starter: Crank engine
 Mixture: Idle cut-off
 Throttle: Open
 Electric Fuel Pump: Off
 Fuel Selector: Off
 Abandon if fire continues
B. Flight Operations
i. General
a. Presence of fire is noted through smoke, smell, and/or heat in the cabin
b. The source of the fire must be promptly identified. Check for the source of the fire first
 Identifiers like instrument readings, characters of the smoke (smell, color, location), etc.
ii. Electrical Fire in Flight
a. BATT MASTR switch: Off

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

b. ALTR switch: Off

c. Vents: Open
d. Cabin Heat: Off
e. Land as soon as possible
iii. Engine Fire in Flight
a. Fuel Selector: Off
b. Throttle: Closed
c. Mixture: Idle Cut-Off
d. Electrical Fuel Pump: Check Off
e. Heater and Defroster: Off
f. Proceed with Power Off Landing Procedure
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. General
i. Engine roughness may be caused by dirt in the injector nozzles, induction system icing, or ignition problems
B. Procedure
i. Mixture: Adjust for maximum smoothness
ii. Alternate Air: Open
iii. Electrical Fuel Pump: On
iv. Fuel Selectors: Switch Tanks
a. To see if fuel contamination is the problem
v. Engine Gauges: Check (if any indications are abnormal, proceed accordingly)
vi. Magneto Switch: L then R then Both
a. If operation is satisfactory on either magneto, proceed on that magneto at reduced
power, with mixture full rich, to a landing at the first available airport
vii. If roughness persists, prepare for a precautionary landing/power off landing
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. General
i. Can be a partial or total loss of oil pressure
a. Partial Loss
 Usually indicates a malfunction in the oil pressure regulating system, and a landing should be made
as soon as possible to investigate the cause and prevent engine damage
b. Complete Loss
 May signify oil exhaustion or may be the result of a faulty gauge
 In either case, proceed toward the nearest airport and be prepared for a forced landing. If the
problem is not a pressure gauge malfunction, the engine may stop suddenly
a Maintain altitude until such time as a dead stick landing can be accomplished
b Don’t change power settings unnecessarily, this may hasten complete power loss
 Depending on the circumstances, it may be advisable to make an off airport landing while power is
still available, particularly if other indication of actual oil pressure loss, such as sudden increases in
temperatures, or oil smoke, are apparent, and an airport is not close
B. Procedures
i. Land as soon as possible and investigate cause
ii. Prepare for power off landing
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked fuel lines or empty tanks
i. The most probable cause of loss of fuel flow/pressure is either fuel depletion or failure of the engine driven
fuel pump

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 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

a. If loss of fuel flow/pressure occurs, check that the fuel selector is on a tank containing fuel and turn on
the electric fuel pump
ii. Unless recognized immediately, the most likely course of action is to run the Engine Roughness checklist, or
Engine Power Loss in Flight checklist
a. If the engine roughness/failure was caused by fuel exhaustion, it may take up to 10 seconds for the
empty fuel lines to fill with fuel and power to be restored
iii. In the case of fuel starvation, a power off landing will be necessary using the Power Off Landing checklist
B. Plan ahead while on the ground, and monitor fuel while in flight to prevent fuel starvation
i. If at any point during flight the fuel required is not in line with the fuel available create a new plan. Divert
immediately if necessary, don’t rely on hope!
5. Engine Overheat
A. General
i. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
a. Watch the oil pressure gauge for an accompanying loss of pressure
b. A steady rise in oil temperature is a sign of trouble. Land at the nearest airport and let a mechanic
investigate the problem
ii. Rising oil temperature may be the result of a low oil level, and obstruction in the oil cooler, damaged or
improper baffle seals, a defective gauge, or other causes
B. High Oil Temperature Procedures
i. Land at the nearest airport and investigate the problem
ii. Prepare for power off landing
C. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. General Brake Failure Procedures – Not in the POH
i. Symptoms of impending brake failure:
a. Gradual decrease in braking action after brake application
b. Noisy or dragging brakes
c. Soft or spongy pedals
d. Excessive brake travel
e. Weak braking action
ii. If during taxi or landing roll, braking action decreases let up on the pedals and the reapply the brakes with
heavy pressure
iii. If the brakes become spongy or pedal travel increases, pumping the pedals should build brake pressure
iv. If one brake becomes weak or fails, use the other brake sparingly while using opposite rudder, as required,
to offset the good brake
v. If both brakes have failed, select the longest landing surface available. Make a controlled landing without
excessive float and slow the aircraft straight ahead with aerodynamic braking
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. Alternator Failure
i. Ammeter: Check to verify inoperative alternator
a. Loss of alternator output is detected through zero reading on the ammeter. Before

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executing the following procedure, ensure that the reading is zero and not merely low
by actuating an electrically powered device (like the landing light). If no increase in the
ammeter reading is noted, alternator failure can be assumed
If ammeter shows zero:
ii. ALTR switch: Off
iii. Reduce electrical loads to minimum:
iv. ALTR FIELD circuit breaker: Check and reset as required
v. ALTR switch: On
a. Switching the alternator off and then on attempts to reset the overvoltage relay. If the
problem was caused by a momentary overvoltage condition (16.5 volts or more), this
procedure should return the ammeter to normal operation.
If power not restored (ammeter still indicates zero), or the alternator will not remain reset:
vi. ALTR switch: Off
If alternator output cannot be restored, reduce electrical loads and land as soon as practical.
The battery is the only remaining source of electrical power
B. Electrical Overload
i. If abnormally high alternator output is observed (more than 20 amps above known electrical load for the
operating conditions) it may be caused by a low battery, a battery fault, or other abnormal electrical load
C. Electrical Overload Checklist
i. BATT MASTR: Switch: Off
If ammeter reading does NOT decrease:
ii. ALTR Switch: Off
iii. Land as soon as possible. Use Emergency Landing Gear Extension to lower the gear
If ammeter reading DOES decrease:
iv. BATT MASTR Switch: On
v. Ammeter: Monitor
If ammeter reading does NOT begin to decrease within five minutes:
vi. BATT MASTR Switch: Off
vii. Land as soon as possible
a. If the battery is depleted, the landing gear must be lowered using the emergency
extension procedure. The gear position lights will be inoperative
If ammeter reading DOES begin to decrease within five minutes:
viii. Proceed with flight
ix. Ammeter: Monitor
8. Induction Icing
A. General
i. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system, reducing
or stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
a. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
ii. The Engine Roughness checklist is likely the most applicable checklist, especially if the onset of icing has not
been noticed by the pilot
a. This checklist will direct the pilot to open the alternate air source
iii. Exit the icing – Run the checklist and attempt to exit the icing (climb/descent to better conditions, turn
around, ATC vectors, etc.)
9. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. POH Amplified Emergency Procedures
i. The cabin door is double latched so the changes of it opening during flight are remote

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a. However, a partially open door will not affect the normal flight characteristics of the aircraft and a
normal landing can be made with the door open
b. If both latches are open, the door will trail slightly open, and airspeed will be reduced slightly
B. Open Door Checklist
i. To close the door in flight:
a. Slow the aircraft to 87 KIAS
b. Cabin Vents: Close
c. Storm Window: Open
d. If upper latch is open: Latch
e. If side latch is open: Pull on armrest while moving latch handle to latched position
f. If both latches are open: Latch side latch then top latch
C. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following general information:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
a. The Piper Archer does have a checklist to close the door in flight. Do not lose control of the aircraft
trying to close the door. Fly the plane first.
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. In case of Electric Trim Malfunction (if installed, and depending on the system installed)
i. Trim Interrupt/AP Disconnect switch: Depress and hold throughout recovery
ii. Trim Master switch: Off
iii. Circuit Breaker: Pull
iv. Trim Interrupt/AP Disconnect switch: Release
v. Aircraft: Retrim manually
vi. Leave system off until corrected
11. Flap Malfunction
A. General (no specific procedures in the Archer POH)
i. Total Flap Failure
a. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
 This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
 The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
a This can make the runway difficult to see
 A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up airspeed
 The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
b. If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach angle
ii. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
a. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
b. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
c. Countering
 Countered with opposite aileron
 The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
a Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
 Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
a Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap

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1. The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
d. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
 The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
e. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Not applicable for the Piper Arrow, but in general descend or use supplemental oxygen
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be prepared
and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.

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XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency equipment and
survival gear, understanding that certain equipment should be taken on certain flights to aid in
survival and rescue operations. The student will have knowledge in accordance with the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Equipment for the Situation

2. Equipment Care
3. Equipment Storage

Elements 1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear

2. Equipment Use and Care
3. Ballistic Parachute
4. Emergency Autoland Systems

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Basic Survival Kit

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands that flights over different terrain, and during different seasons
Standards require different emergency equipment and survival gear. The student also knows that the
gear must be properly cared for and stored to ensure it functions correctly upon use.
 XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Would you want to crash land in the desert with a life raft, life preserver, warm clothes and an average water supply
as your survival equipment? Or, wouldn’t you rather have survival gear tailored to the flight you are taking? We want
to be properly prepared for an emergency landing.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Emergency equipment and survival gear refers to the equipment that should be carried onboard an airplane based on
the flight being taken to aid in survival and rescue operations.

Why
By carrying and understanding flight tailored survival equipment you will greatly increase odds of survival & rescue.

How:
1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear
A. For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is wise to take and know how to use survival equipment for the type of
climate and terrain
i. Basic plan is equipment and gear for 48-72 hours, adjust as required
B. A survival kit should provide sustenance, shelter, medical care and a means to summon help
i. Consider the area and how long you may be stranded
C. Consider the terrain, the climate/season, and type of emergency communication equipment needed
i. Mountainous terrain in December requires different survival gear than coastal flying in August
ii. Flying over the Midwest US poses different threats than a coastal flight
iii. If a forced landing occurs at sea, chances for survival are governed by the degree of proficiency in
emergency procedures and by the availability and effectiveness of water survival equipment
D. General items to consider
i. First Aid Kit & Field Medical Guide vi. Fire starter
ii. Flashlight and batteries vii. Shelter, survival blanket
iii. Food and Water (water purification/filtration) viii. Signaling device(s), PLBs, GPS etc.
iv. Tackle kit, Equipment to attain food ix. Maps & Compass
v. Rope, paracord x. Water/windproof layer
vi. Multi-tool or Knife, hatchet xi. Sunscreen, bug spray
E. More specific items should be considered based on the type of terrain and wildlife
i. Climate Extremes
a. Cold
 Warm clothes and layers, gloves, headgear, boots, snowshoes
 Waterproof layer(s)
 Blanket(s)
 Shovel
 Hand/body warmers
b. Hot

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 Light clothing & hat (sun protection), sun glasses, sunscreen, extra water
ii. Mountainous Terrain
a. Mosquito head net
b. Hiking boots
c. Warm/Cold weather clothing to adapt to temperature changes
d. Bear spray, or similar items depending on the wildlife
iii. Overwater
a. Life vests, Dry suit/survival suit
b. Raft
F. Think outside the box
i. What parts of the airplane/baggage could be used for survival?
a. Ex: The aircraft cover could be used for shelter, warmth, etc.
2. Equipment Use and Care
A. Onboard emergency equipment can often consist of an ELT, a fire extinguisher, emergency axe, and the survival
gear you have packed
B. ELT
i. Purpose - transmit a downed aircraft’s location for search and rescue personnel
a. Broadcast on emergency frequencies of 121.5 and 243.0 (no longer monitored by satellite) and 406 MHz
on newer ELTs
ii. Operation/Use – If “armed” and when subject to crash-generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically
activate and continuously emit their respective signals, analog or digital
a. Transmitters will operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide temperature range
b. A properly installed, maintained, and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue operations and
save lives if it survives the crash and is activated (especially 406 MHz transponders)
c. Pilots/passengers should know how to activate the aircraft's ELT if manual activation is required
 Be able to verify the ELT is functioning/transmitting an alert
iii. Servicing - Must be checked every 12 calendar months
a. FAR 91.207 – The battery must be replaced after 1-hour cumulative use or ½ its useful life
b. ELT Testing
 Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs – Test only during the first 5 minutes after any hour
a If operational tests must be made outside of this period, they should be coordinated with the
nearest FAA Control Tower
b Tests should be no longer than three audible sweeps
 Digital 406 MHz ELTs – Test in accordance with the unit's manufacturer's instructions
 Airborne tests are not permitted
iv. Storage – The ELT must be attached to the airplane in such a manner that the probability of damage to the
transmitter in the case of a crash is minimized
a. Fixed/deployable automatic transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft as practical
C. Fire Extinguisher
i. Purpose - Used to fight/extinguish fires
ii. Operation – Usually, pull the pin, point and squeeze the handle to spray
a. Adjust based on operating instructions
b. Aim at the base of the fire
iii. Servicing – Verify the extinguisher isn’t expired, has been inspected, and contains the proper charge
iv. Storage – Ensure it is attached/secured where it is supposed to be, securely in its mount
a. The last thing you need is to have to find the fire extinguisher during a fire
D. Emergency Axe
i. Purpose – To provide a means to exit in case the doors cannot be opened

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 XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

ii. Operation – If the door(s) cannot be opened, use the emergency axe to break through the canopy
a. In some aircraft, the axe can be used to cut through a portion of the fuselage
b. An axe is also a great addition to your survival gear
iii. Servicing – Ensure the axe is onboard and properly mounted, and inspected as required
iv. Storage – The axe should be stored in its mount as the manufacturer intends
E. RM: Survival Gear (for 48-72 hours)
i. Purpose – Used for survival (food, water, shelter, warmth, etc.)
ii. Operation/Use – The operation/use will vary by equipment. Use based on the instructions
iii. Servicing – Verify the equipment is in good working order and does not need replaced, cleaned, etc.
a. Ensure electronic equipment is in good working order and properly charged/ready for use
b. Adjust the contents of the survival gear based on the trip, weather, terrain, etc.
iv. Storage – Store the gear safely and accessibly on the airplane
3. Ballistic Parachute
A. Understand and follow the procedures for arming/disarming and the conditions under which it should be used
B. Conditions for Deployment
i. Examples include:
a. Catastrophic loss of controllability due to a collision or mechanical failure
b. Pilot incapacitation
c. Loss of control
ii. Airframe will be lost, but if deployed in an acceptable flight regime it can prevent injuries & save lives
C. Passenger Brief
i. RM: Conditions for a safe deployment
a. When & How to deploy it
b. What to expect
ii. Applicable hazards (Ex. Ground hazards with a deployed parachute, surface winds)
iii. Evacuation procedures once on the ground
4. Emergency Autoland (EAL) Systems
A. Designed to be deployed in the case of pilot incapacitation
B. How it Works
i. Manually activated by a pilot or passenger
ii. Automatic Activation
a. If the system sense erratic flying, it stabilizes the aircraft, and checks for pilot responsiveness
b. Without further input, it initiates an emergency descent
c. If no further input, it initiates the process for an automated landing
iii. Transmits automated messages on the last selected frequency and Guard & squawks 7700
a. Call sign and intention to divert to a particular airport and runway
C. Passenger Brief
i. RM: Conditions for a safe deployment
a. When & How to deploy it
b. What to expect
ii. Evacuation procedures on the ground
iii. Any applicable hazards
D. FAA Safety Team Emergency Autoland Overview

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Emergency equipment should be tailored to the type of flight that will be taken. Gear should be stored and serviced
properly to ensure it functions properly during an emergency. Survival manuals can be obtained to help in planning.

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XII. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Can lead to slow speeds, unintended aircraft attitudes, collisions, disorientation, missed radio calls, etc.
b. Remove distractions from your field of view or, in the case of a person, explain the situation and ask
them to stop what they are doing
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
a. Focus on the tasks at hand and stay ahead of the aircraft
b. Ensure checklists have been completed, and both you and the aircraft are prepared for what’s next
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
d. Divide attention between inside and outside references
e. If SA is lost, admit it
 If there’s another pilot, let them take over while you catch up, if not, get the aircraft in a safe
position (if landing, go around; if disoriented, trust the instruments and get to a safe
attitude/altitude) and then solve the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
a. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
a. Prioritize based on importance and time available
b. Checklists and standard operating procedures are extremely helpful and enhance safety
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
a. If more time is needed, find somewhere to hold/circle, or slow down
b. Ask for assistance, if possible (ATC, another pilot, Guard, passengers, etc.)
c. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
 XII. RM Concepts

a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
 Applicable in all phases of flight, especially important in high traffic areas
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program to enhance the see and avoid concept
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
 Especially within 10 miles of an airport, in reduced visibility, where flocks of birds may be expected
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Plan well and be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard
a. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
b. A personal minimum may be to only fly over high terrain during daylight
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
 Avoid all structures by at least 2,000’ as guy wires can extend 1,500’ horizontally from a structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to
persons or property on the surface
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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3. Low Altitude Maneuvering

A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
i. There is considerably less time to handle any issues at a low altitude
ii. Avoid distractions, maintain situational awareness, and fly precisely
B. Be aware of, and avoid obstructions on and around the airfield
i. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. Keep airspeed in your crosscheck, especially at the lower speeds associated with takeoff and landing
c. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction
 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)
 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again
d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes to preventing CFIT include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to
safely operate the aircraft throughout its entire operating range
b. How the flight is planned and handled largely determines the safety of the flight
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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XIV. Postflight Procedures
XIV.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to postflight procedures and
be able to perform them as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Shutdown Checklist

2. Postflight Inspection
3. Securing the Airplane

Elements 1. Parking
2. Engine Shutdown
3. Deplaning passengers
4. Postflight Inspection
5. Securing the Aircraft
6. Common Error

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely ‘postflight’ the airplane based on different situations and at different
Standards airports.
 XIV.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Have you ever forgotten to turn something off after a flight? Leaving certain things running can be dangerous or
costly. Properly securing an airplane isn’t important just to save on costs though, weather and other situations can
cause damage and/or injuries.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Postflight procedures are completed at the end of the flight when the airplane is parked, shutdown and properly
secured.

Why
The postflight is just as important as preflight in maintaining the plane and keeping it safe for the next flight.

How:
1. Parking
A. Select a parking location and heading that
avoids the propeller/jet blast of other planes
i. Also ensure you are not parked in a way that
will blast other aircraft
ii. Be considerate of others
B. Whenever possible, park heading into the wind
i. Often, your choice is limited to designated
parking spots and tie downs - work with
what you have
C. Hand signals may be used if ramp personnel are
available – be familiar
D. After stopping, allow the airplane to roll forward
to straighten the nosewheel
2. Engine Shutdown
A. Follow the procedures in the manufacturer’s
checklist for shutting down and securing
i. Read each item aloud and perform the task
ii. CE: Hazards resulting from failure to follow
recommended procedures
a. Like always, it is very important to follow the manufacturer’s checklist
b. Follow the published procedures to avoid missing important steps/creating an unsafe situation
B. Set the parking brake to keep the plane from moving
C. *Checklist:
i. Throttle Idle v. Mixture Idle Cut-Off
ii. Fuel Pump Off vi. Magnetos Off
iii. Avionics Master Off vii. Master Switch Off
iv. Electrical Equipment Off

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 XIV.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

D. *While the engine is running, move the ignition switch from BOTH to OFF and back to BOTH
i. This ensures the magnetos are properly grounded at every engine shutdown
E. Once the engine is shutdown, secure the cockpit
i. Gather belongings and complete any securing checklist items (control lock, windows, shades, etc.)
F. *Double check that the master is off, the magnetos are off and the key has been removed, electrical equipment
is off, the trim is neutral, flaps are up, and the mixture and throttle are idle
3. RM: Deplaning Passengers
A. Ensure passengers understand the safe procedures for exiting the airplane (after engine shutdown)
i. Inform them when it is safe to unbuckle and exit
B. Be aware of potential hazards nearby – other aircraft starting, taxiing in/out, etc.
i. Ensure the passengers know where to go to prevent wandering into an unsafe situation
C. The aircraft should be shutdown/configured to allow for safe movement of passengers
i. Chock to prevent movement
D. Do not let the passengers disembark until required checklists are complete and safety precautions met
4. Postflight Inspection
A. Postflight Inspection
i. Check the general condition of the aircraft
a. Inspect the outside for any damage that may have occurred
b. Look for leaks, streaks, stains
c. Check oil, and other required fluids and replenish as necessary
B. Document all Discrepancies
i. Don’t leave the problem for someone else
a. Not only dangerous, but just rude
ii. Allows maintenance to fix issues
iii. If not fixed, informs the next pilot of the discrepancies
a. They are able to make an informed go/no go decision
iv. Can see trends/repeating problems
C. Fuel the Airplane
i. If another flight is planned, the tanks should be filled based on that flight’s fuel requirements
ii. If the aircraft is going to be inactive, fill the tanks to prevent water condensation from forming
iii. Refueling Procedures
a. Ensure the ramp personnel use the proper type/grade of fuel
 If possible, be there when the fueling takes place to ensure the proper grade
b. Always check/drain the fuel prior to the next flight to be sure the proper fuel was used and
water/sediment hasn’t accumulated since the last flight
5. Securing the Aircraft
A. An essential part of every flight
i. Remove personal belongings
ii. Verify the nosewheel is straight
iii. Tiedown/chocked
a. Tie downs may vary significantly between chains and well-worn ropes
 Chains are not flexible and therefore should not be made taught to prevent structural damage
 Ropes are flexible and may be reasonably cinched to the tie down rings
b. Brakes should be set based on local procedures – some request the brakes set, some don’t
iv. Flight controls secured, gust locks
v. Covered (airframe, propeller, shades, inlet covers, pitot covers, etc.) and/or hangered
vi. Windows closed
vii. Locked

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 XIV.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

viii. Any other requirements for your aircraft

B. RM: Airport Specific Security Procedures
i. Address any specific procedures (hours of operation, gates, codes, other requirements)
6. CE: Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures
A. Be aware of the parking areas (ramps space, FBOs, etc.) at the destination
i. If necessary, contact the FBO or parking management to verify the location and any procedures
B. RM: Activities & Distractions
i. Taxiing and parking around buildings, people, etc. is no time to be distracted (sterile cockpit)
ii. Follow all checklist(s) step by step, and ensure the airplane is left in a safe condition for the next flight
a. Don’t operate by memory
b. If distracted, restart the checklist to ensure completion
iii. Activities other than those associated with landing, parking & securing should be delayed
iv. Do not skip the postflight inspection, assuming the next pilot will catch any issues in their preflight
a. They might not catch the issue which could be very hazardous
b. The issue could have been found and possibly fixed prior to them showing up (be considerate)
v. If a discrepancy is noted, attempt to have the issue inspected/fixed prior to the next flight
vi. Leaving the airplane in an unsafe place, condition, or situation can result in damage and/or injuries

Common Errors:
 Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures
 Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
When parking and shutting down the airplane it is very important, to follow the manufacturer’s established guidelines to
ensure everything is properly shut down and secured.

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XV. Appendix
A. Flight Review

A. Flight Review
References: Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check (AC 61-98),
FAR 61.56 – Flight Review, Certificate: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors (AC 61-65), WINGS – Pilot Proficiency
Programs (AC 61-91)

1. Purpose
A. A routine evaluation of a pilot’s ability to conduct safe flight
B. Not a test or checkride, rather a training event in which proficiency is evaluated
2. Role of the Instructor
A. Provide an evaluation, however instruction is also encouraged (they should leave a better pilot)
B. As long as deficiencies are corrected, providing instruction does not prevent a successful review
3. FAR 61.56
A. Flight Review Requirements – Minimum of 1 hour ground and 1 hour flight training, covering:
i. Current operating/flight rules (part 61/91)
ii. Maneuvers/procedures that, at the discretion of the CFI, demonstrate safe operation
B. Aircraft –Must be accomplished in an aircraft for which the pilot (and CFI) is rated (FAR 61.56(c)(1))
i. If a pilot holds multiple ratings, a flight review in any one counts for all
C. Exceptions to the Flight Review:
i. 61.56(d) – Passed a proficiency check, or practical test in the last 24 months
ii. 61.56(e) – Completed one or more phases of WINGS in the last 24 months (more info: AC 61-91)
iii. 61.56(f) – CFI who has completed a renewal of a flight certificate in the last 24 months (61.197)
4. Planning the Flight Review
A. Tailor the Review to the Pilot’s Needs (talk to the pilot to create a plan)
i. Type of aircraft, and type of flying usually done by the pilot
ii. Amount and recency of flight experience
iii. Specific topics/weaknesses they would like to focus on or review
B. AC 61-98 Focus Areas
i. Pilot Deviation Avoidance
a. Review airspace types/ground operating procedures/best practices to avoid deviations
ii. Automation Competency
a. Numerous accidents/incidents have been attributed to a lack of proficiency in automation
iii. AOA Systems (Safety initiative aimed at reducing the GA accident rate/loss of control accidents)
a. If equipped with AOA indicator, evaluate proper use. If not, review AOA aerodynamic principles
C. Build the Plan Based on the Individual - See sample Topics/Maneuvers below
D. Agreement on the review
i. Review the plan with the pilot to reach an understanding of how the flight review will be conducted
ii. Review the criteria for satisfactory completion of the flight review (ex. ACS/PTS standards)
5. Post Flight Review
A. Debrief the pilot
i. Satisfactory or not, provide a comprehensive analysis of performance, including ways to improve
B. If unsatisfactory, log the flight as dual instruction given, not as a failure (not a checkride)
i. Offer a practical course of action to regain proficiency
6. Endorsement
A. AC 61-65: I certify that [First name, MI, Last Name], [grade of pilot certificate], [certificate number], has
satisfactorily completed a flight review of § 61.56(a) on [date].
A. Flight Review

Ground Review Topics (AC 61-98) o Clearances (AIM 4-4)

Pilot o Procedures (AIM 5)
 Experience  Weather
o Recent Flight Experience (61.57) o Meteorology (AIM 7-1)
 Responsibility o Wake Turbulence (AIM 7-4)
o Authority (91.3)
o ATC Instructions (91.123) Flight Activities (AC 61-98)
o Preflight Action (91.103)  Preflight Preparation
o Safety Belts (91.107) o Weather Information
o Flight Crew at Station (91.105) o Cross-Country Flight Planning
 Cautions o Performance and Limitations
o Careless or Reckless Operation (91.13) o Operation of Systems
o Dropping Objects (91.15)  Preflight Procedures
o Alcohol or Drugs (91.17) o Inspection(s)
o Supplemental Oxygen (91.211) o Cockpit Management
o Fitness for Flight (AIM 8-1) o Before Takeoff Check
Aircraft  Airport Operations
 Airworthiness o Radio Communications
o Basic (91.7)
o Airport, Runway, Taxiway Signs/Markings/Lights
o Flight Manual, Markings, Placards (91.9)
o Certification Required (91.203)  Takeoffs, Landings, Go-Arounds
o Instruments/Equipment Requirements (91.205) o Normal/Crosswind Takeoff/Climb and Landing*
 ELT (91.207) o Soft Field Takeoff/Climb and Landing
 Aircraft Lights (91.209) o Short Field Takeoff/Climb and Approach
 Transponder Requirements (91.215) o Go-Around / Rejected Landing*
 Inoperative Instrument/Equip (91.213)  Performance Maneuvers
 Maintenance o Steep Turns
o Responsibility (91.403)
o Maintenance Required (91.405)  Navigation
o Maintenance Records (91.417) o Pilotage / Dead Reckoning
o Operation after Maintenance (91.407) o Nav Systems and Radar Services
 Inspections o Diversion
o Annual, ADs, 100-hour (91.409) o Lost Procedures
o Altimeter & Pitot Static (91.411)  Slow Flight and Stalls*
o VOR Check (91.171) o Slow Flight
o Transponder (91.413) o Power Off Stalls
o ELT (91.207)
o Power On Stalls
Environment
o Spin Awareness
 Airports
o Markings (AIM 2-3)  Basic Instrument Maneuvers
o Operations (AIM 4-3, 91.125, 91.126) o Straight and Level / Turns to Headings*
o Traffic Patterns (91.126) o Recovery from Unusual Attitudes*
 Airspace o Radio Comm/Navigation Systems
o Altimeter Settings (91.121, AIM 7-2)  Emergency Operations
o Min Safe Alts (91.119, 91.177) o Emergency Approach and Landing
o Cruising Alts (91.159, 91.179, AIM 3-1-5) o Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
o Speed Limits (91.117)
o Automation Failure
o Right-of-Way (91.113)
o Formation (91.111)  Postflight Procedures
o Cntrld Airspace (AIM 3-2, 91.129, 130, 131, 135) o After Landing, Parking, and Securing
o Class G (Aim 3-3)
o Special Use (AIM 3-4, 91.133, 137, 141, 143, 145) NOTES
o Emergency Rules (91.139, AIM 5-6) Possible Structure: Out-and-back. One leg focuses on XC procedures,
 ATC and one leg focuses on air work. Remember, some ground review
o Services (AIM 4-1) can be gauged and/or accomplished in flight.
o Radio Comms (AIM 4-2, Pilot Controller Glossary)
 Flight Review

Structure activities and review based on pilot’s normal flying. For

example, a different plan for someone who flies local/single airport
flights vs long-distance XCs in busy terminal areas.

*Maneuvers critical to flight – recommended to be reviewed

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B. Plan of Action

The intent is to use time and altitude as efficiently as possible during your student’s training flights. Below are two
sample plans designed to conserve energy and minimize drone time while incorporating all maneuvers. The instructor
should tailor the individual plan based on airfield, airspace, maneuver and training requirements, etc.

HIGH TO LOW

PRIVATE PILOT COMMERCIAL PILOT

“High” Alt

Descent

Low Alt
 B. Plan of Action

1. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS 1. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER Climb

o Maneuvering during Slow Flight o Chandelles (Up to altitude)
o Power-Off Stalls
o Power-On Stalls 2. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS
“High” Alt
o Maneuvering During Slow Flight
2. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER o Power-On Stalls
o Steep Turns o Power-Off Stalls

3. BAI FLIGHT 3. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS (CONT)

o Straight-and-Level o Steep Turns
o Constant Airspeed Descent o Lazy Eights
o Constant Airspeed Climb 4. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Descent
o Turns to Heading o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Unusual Attitudes o Steep Spiral / Emergency Approach

4. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Low Alt 5. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS

o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions o Eights on Pylons
o Emergency Approach / Go-Around 6. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
o Normal / Crosswind
5. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS
o Soft-Field
o Rectangular Course
o Short-Field
o S-Turns
o Power-Off 180
o Turns Around a Point
o Go-Around
6. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
o Normal / Crosswind
o Soft-Field
o Short-Field
o Slip to a Landing
o Go-Around

The student climbs to training altitude, transitions from the climb into slow flight and stalls, completes
the maneuvers, and attitude instrument flight (if applicable), and then uses a simulated engine failure
to descend to ground reference maneuver altitudes before returning to the airfield for landings.

LOW TO HIGH

PRIVATE PILOT COMMERCIAL PILOT

Low Alt

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 B. Plan of Action

1. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS Low Alt

1. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
o Normal / Crosswind o Normal / Crosswind
o Soft-Field o Soft-Field
o Short-Field o Short-Field
o Slip to a Landing o Power-Off 180
o Go-Around o Go-Around

2. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS 2. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS

o Rectangular Course* o Eights on Pylons
o S-Turns
3. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS Climb
o Turns Around a Point
o Chandelles (Up to altitude)
3. BAI FLIGHT
o Straight-and-Level 4. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS
“High” Alt
o Maneuvering During Slow Flight
o Constant Airspeed Climb
o Power-On Stalls
o Constant Airspeed Descent o Power-Off Stalls
o Turns to Heading
o Unusual Attitudes 5. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS (CONT)
o Steep Turns
4. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS o Lazy Eights
o Maneuvering during Slow Flight
o Power-Off Stalls 6. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Descent
o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Power-On Stalls
o Steep Spiral / Power-Off 180
5. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER
o Steep Turns

6. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Emergency Approach & Landing

The student begins in the pattern, and transitions to the applicable ground reference maneuvers. BAI
or Chandelles can be accomplished during the climb to an altitude where slow flight, stalls, and
maneuvers can be practiced. Finally, a simulated engine failure descends back to the airfield.

*Rectangular course doesn’t make a lot of sense after patterns

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C. Common Carriage

References:
 FAA Order 8900.1. Volume 2, Chapter 2, Section 2
 CFR 61.133
 AC 120-12A: Private vs Common Carriage
 NBAA Certification of Commercial Aircraft Operations – Which Rules Apply?

This is a basic overview of common vs private carriage, certificates, and the like. For considerably more detail, use the
reference links above, and additional information here:

 How to Become a Certificated Air Carrier

 FAR Part 119 – Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators

1. FAR 61.133: Privileges and Limitations

A. Privileges – A person holding a commercial pilot certificate may act as PIC of an aircraft:
i. Carrying persons or property for compensation or hire
ii. For compensation or hire
iii. In both cases, the pilot must be qualified for the type of operation
B. Limitations
i. Commercial certificate without an instrument rating in the same category and class
a. Carriage of passengers for hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50 nautical miles at night is
prohibited
 Limitations is lifted with an instrument rating in the same category and class
C. These privileges allow the pilot to act as PIC – i.e., someone can hire you to fly their plane
i. Commercial certificate does not allow you to operate as an air carrier or commercial operator
D. The type of operation you’re hired to fly for will dictate the applicable FARs and governing regulations that they
(and therefore you, as the pilot) operate under
i. The operation has to decide whether they fall under common carriage or private carriage and drill down
from there
a. Also applies if you’d like to start you own business as an air carrier or commercial operator
2. What is Common Carriage & Private Carriage?
A. Common Carriage and Private Carriage are common law terms
i. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 uses the term “common carriage” but does not define it
ii. AC 120-12 provides guidelines to define common carriage and its opposite, private carriage
B. Common Carriage
i. A carrier becomes a common carrier when it “holds itself out” to the public (or a segment of the public) as
willing to provide transportation to any person who wants it
ii. Holding Out
a. Makes a person a common carrier
b. Can be done in many ways, does not matter how it’s done
c. Examples
 Signs and advertising are most direct means of holding out
 Actions of agents or salesman who obtain passengers from the general public
 A reputation to serve all (even without advertising)
iii. 4 elements defining a common carrier
a. A holding out of a willingness to
 B. Plan of Action

b. Transport persons or property

c. From place to place
d. For compensation
iv. As a pilot with a commercial certificate, you cannot “hold out”
a. Illegal without the proper Part 119 certificates (more below)
C. Private Carriage
a. Carriage for hire which does not involve “holding out”
b. Carriage for one or several select customers, generally on a long-term basis
 Too many contracts = willingness to make a contract with anybody (common carriage)
3. Governing Regulations
A. Once you’ve decided whether the operation falls under common carriage or private carriage, the next step is to
decide what FAR regulations it falls under
B. Common carriage operations are required to be conducted under FAR Part 121, or Part 135 (depending on the
type of aircraft, seating configuration, and payload capacity)
i. An operational certificate is required (issued under Part 119)
ii. Two basic types of Air Operator Certificates:
a. Air Carrier Certificate: Issued for interstate, foreign, or overseas transportation, or to carry mail
b. Operating Certificate: Intrastate common carriage operations
C. Private carriage, on the other hand, is conducted under Part 125, Part 135 (again, depending on the type of
aircraft, seating configuration, and payload capacity), or Part 91 Subpart D
i. Most private carriage also requires an operating certificate (exceptions for Part 91)
D. If they both require operating certificates, then what’s the difference?
i. Regulations and limitations
ii. Generally, private carriage is less regulated than common carriage
a. Ex. Part 121 pilots rest rules
4. Kind of Operation
A. Note: this is getting into extra, possible overly confusing information. Unless the learner is considering starting
their own operation it may not be necessary
B. The final step is to decide the kind of operation
i. Part 121
a. Domestic: Between two points inside the contiguous 48 states
b. Flag: Between a point outside of contiguous 48 states to a point inside the contiguous 48
c. Supplemental: Cargo, charter, departure location/times are negotiated with customer (vs scheduled)
ii. Part 135
a. Commuter: Scheduled time and locations with at least 5 round trip flights per week
b. On-demand: Departure time and location and arrival location are negotiated with the customer
C. FAA Order 8900.1. Volume 2, Chapter 2, Section 2
i. Table 2-4 looks at the Operating Certificate, Seating/Payload, 14 CFR Operating Part, & Kind of Op.
5. FAR 119.1(e) Exceptions
A. Operations for compensation or hire that do not require an air carrier or commercial operator certificate
i. Student instruction
ii. Nonstop commercial air tours (a lot more detail to this in the FAR)
iii. Ferry or training flight
iv. Aerial work (crop dusting, seeding, spraying, banner towering, aerial photography, and more)
v. Parachute operations within 25 statute miles of the airport
vi. Part 375 operations (foreign civil aircraft in the US)
vii. Emergency mail service
viii. Operations under part 91.321 (carriage of candidates in elections)

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 B. Plan of Action

6. Confused?
A. Discuss any proposed operation with the FAA
i. Early discussions can prevent a lot of pitfalls and potential illegal operations
B. As a commercial pilot you can be hired to fly for an operation but, other than the FAR 119.1(e) exceptions, you
cannot hold out or offer your services without the proper FAA/FAR approval and certificates

808