Republic of the Philippines

Province of Cotabato
MAKILALA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Makilala, Cotabato

Agriculture Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

Course Number: AGRI 1 Instructor: WARREN S. ANFONE

Course Title: Introduction to Agriculture
Credits: 5 units
Module No: 1
Duration: 2 weeks

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES: After reading this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the importance of history and development of agriculture
2. Differentiate a capitalistic and non-capitalistic agriculture
3. Explain agriculture as an industry, science and profession
TOPIC/SUBJECT MATTER:
1. Brief historical development of World Agriculture and Philippine Agriculture.
2. Agriculture as an Economic factor in capitalist and non- capitalist Societies.
3. Agriculture as an industry, a science and a profession.

III. REFERENCES:
https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/13828647/Family_and_capitalist_farming_conceptual_and_historical_perspectives.pdf
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-2.0/section/17.9/primary/lesson/agriculture-and-human-
population-growth-hs-es/
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/southwestern-university-phinma/bs-nursing/introductiontoagriculture/34276604?origin=search-
results
IV. COURSE CONTENT:

V. BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WORLD AGRICULTURE AND PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE

V.1 Origin of Agriculture

The word "agriculture" comes from the Latin words "ager," meaning "field," and "cultura," meaning
"cultivation" or "growing." Therefore, "agriculture" essentially means the cultivation of fields or the practice of
farming. Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants, raising animals, and other activities for the production of
food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products used to
sustain and enhance human life. It encompasses a wide
range of activities, including crop production, livestock
breeding, aquaculture, and forestry.

Paleoanthropologists believe the oldest fossil

evidence of Homo sapiens—anatomically modern
humans—dates back to 196,000 years. Agriculture has
been a fundamental part of human civilization since the
transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled
communities, around 10,000 BC.

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A. Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle (Neolithic Age)
We have gotten our food by gathering it from the wild for the great bulk
of the time since our species first appeared on the evolutionary stage.
Wild plant-based foods and fungus, including wild descendants of certain
species that are commonly cultivated today, were essential staples in the
paleolithic diet. While the prehistoric hunt for wild animals is generally
depicted as an epic battle against woolly mammoths, woolly rhinos, huge
elk, and other prehistoric megafauna, early people often ate insects and
scavenged the carcasses of deceased animals.

B. Transition to Agriculture (Neolithic Revolution)

People began a gradual transition away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle toward producing crops and
raising animals for nourishment. The origins of agriculture date back to around 10,000 BCE during the Neolithic
Revolution. It is believed to have independently arisen in various parts of the world. Some of the earliest
evidence of agriculture comes from:

1. The Fertile Crescent “Fertile soil” (around 10,000

BCE): Fertile crescent came from the two rivers, the
Tigris and the Euphrates, regularly flooded the region,
and the Nile River also runs through part of it.
Irrigation and agriculture developed here because of
the fertile soil found near these rivers. It is Located in
the Middle East, this region, which includes parts of
modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and
Turkey, is often considered the “cradle of
civilization” or “birthplace of agriculture”. Early
inhabitants began cultivating wheat, barley, peas, and lentils. Additionally, Fertile crescent came from the
two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, regularly flooded the region, and the Nile River also runs through
part of it. Irrigation and agriculture developed here because of the fertile soil found near these rivers.

2. China (around 9,000 BCE): Early Chinese agriculture developed along the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.
Rice and millet were among the first crops cultivated.

3. Mesoamerica (around 8,000 BCE): In regions like present-day Mexico and Central America, early
farmers began domesticating maize (corn), beans, and squash.

4. The Andes (around 8,000 BCE): In South America, the Andean region saw the early cultivation of
potatoes, quinoa, and the domestication of llamas and alpacas.

5. Sub-Saharan Africa (around 5,000 BCE): Early agriculture in this region included the domestication of
sorghum, millet, and yams.

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C. Reasons for the Shift from Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture
Why did mankind abandon hunting and gathering in favor of agriculture? There are numerous probable
explanations, all of which are likely to have had a role at various times and in different parts of the world. These
are:

1. Stable Food

Agriculture provided a more reliable and predictable food source

compared to the uncertainties of hunting and gathering. Cultivating crops
and domesticating animals ensured a consistent and steady supply of food.

2. Population Growth

As human populations increased, the pressure on wild resources

grew. Agriculture could support larger populations by producing more food
per unit of land than hunting and gathering.

3. Sedentary Lifestyle
Farming allowed people to settle in one place, leading to the
establishment of permanent homes, villages, and eventually cities. This
sedentary lifestyle facilitated the development of complex societies.

4. Climate Change

Post-Ice Age climate changes made certain regions more suitable

for farming. Warmer temperatures and predictable seasonal patterns
favored the growth of crops and the domestication of animals.

5. Resource Management

Agriculture enabled better control and management of resources, such as

water and fertile land. Reduced the risk of overhunting may have
contributed to the extinction of woolly mammoths and other megafauna,
reducing the availability of wild animals.

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D. Impact of Agriculture

1. Food Sustainability
Farming was likely more labor intensive than hunting and
gathering, but it is estimated that it provided 10 to 100 times more
calories per acre. More plentiful food supply could support denser
populations, and farming was a way for people to stay connected to
their land. Small villages became towns, and towns became cities.

2. Diversification of Roles
Agriculture generated enough food, allowing people to pursue
other pursuits. Soldiers, priests, bureaucrats, artists, and scholars
were among those who did not need to be farmers.

3. Social Hierarchies
As early civilizations grew, political and religious leaders rose to
power, dividing society into classes of "haves" and "have-nots."

4. Ownership and Resource Distribution

Agriculture led to a system of ownership over land, food, and
currency that was not (and currently is not) evenly distributed among
the people. In contrast, hunter-gatherer communities generally saw
resources as belonging to everyone.

VII. AGRICULTURE HISTORY IN THE PHILIPPINES

A. Pre-Colonial Period

1. Early Settlers (c. 2500 BCE - 500 BCE)

o Subsistence Farming: The earliest inhabitants practiced subsistence farming, growing root
crops such as taro, yam, and eventually rice. These practices were primarily for local
consumption.
o Kaingin System: Slash-and-burn agriculture (kaingin) was widely used to clear forest land for
planting. This method, while effective for small-scale farming, was unsustainable for long-term
use on larger scales.
o Hunting and Fishing: In addition to farming, early Filipinos relied on hunting and fishing to
supplement their diet, leading to a mixed subsistence economy.
2. Austronesian Migration (c. 2000 BCE - 1500 BCE)
o New Crops and Techniques: The arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples brought new
agricultural techniques, including wet-rice cultivation, which became a staple in lowland areas.
o Terrace Farming: In mountainous regions, early Filipinos developed terrace farming, which
allowed them to grow rice on steep hillsides, maximizing arable land.
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B. Spanish Colonial Period (1521 - 1898)

3. Early Spanish Period (1521 - 1700)

o Introduction of New Crops: The Spanish introduced maize, tobacco, coffee, and cacao to the
Philippines, diversifying the agricultural landscape.
o Encomienda System: The Spanish implemented the encomienda system, where large
agricultural estates (haciendas) were granted to Spanish settlers. This system focused on the
production of cash crops for export, often at the expense of local food production.
4. Economic Changes (1700 - 1898)
o Galleon Trade: The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade (1565-1815) linked the Philippines with the
global economy, leading to increased demand for Philippine agricultural products.
o Sugar Cane and Abaca: Sugar cane and abaca (Manila hemp) became major export crops,
transforming the agricultural economy and increasing the reliance on monoculture farming.
o Religious Orders: Large agricultural estates were often managed by religious orders, which
played a significant role in the agricultural development of the country.

American Colonial Period (1898 - 1946)

5. Land Reforms and Infrastructure (1898 - 1930s)

o Land Reforms: The American colonial government implemented land reforms aimed at breaking
up large estates and redistributing land to tenant farmers, although the success was limited.
o Infrastructure Improvements: The construction of roads, railways, and irrigation systems
facilitated the expansion and modernization of agriculture.
o Education and Research: The establishment of agricultural schools and experimental stations
introduced modern farming techniques and scientific research into Philippine agriculture.
6. Economic Development and Challenges (1930s - 1946)
o Global Economic Depression: The 1930s Great Depression affected agricultural exports,
leading to economic difficulties for farmers.
o World War II: The war disrupted agricultural production, causing food shortages and significant
damage to agricultural infrastructure.

C. Post-Independence Period (1946 - Present)

7. Rehabilitation and Growth (1946 - 1960s)

o Post-War Reconstruction: Efforts to rehabilitate the agricultural sector included rebuilding
infrastructure and promoting the development of new crop varieties.
o Government Initiatives: The government launched initiatives to improve agricultural productivity,
including the promotion of fertilizers, pesticides, and improved irrigation techniques.
o Establishment of IRRI: The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960,
focusing on the development of high-yielding rice varieties and sustainable farming practices.
8. Green Revolution (1960s - 1980s)
o High-Yielding Varieties: The Green Revolution introduced high-yielding varieties of rice and
other crops, significantly increasing agricultural productivity.
o Irrigation Expansion: The expansion of irrigation infrastructure allowed for more intensive and
reliable crop production.
o Agricultural Credit Programs: The government implemented programs to provide credit to
farmers, enabling them to invest in modern farming inputs and equipment.
9. Modernization and Challenges (1980s - Present)
o Mechanization and Biotechnology: Continued efforts to modernize agriculture through
mechanization and the adoption of biotechnology have improved productivity and efficiency.
o Land Reform Issues: Ongoing issues with land reform and land distribution have affected
agricultural development and farmer livelihoods.
o Environmental and Climate Challenges: Environmental degradation, climate change, and
natural disasters pose significant challenges to agricultural sustainability and food security.
10. Recent Developments
o Organic Farming: There has been a growing emphasis on organic farming and sustainable
agricultural practices to promote environmental health and food safety.
o Agribusiness and Value-Added Products: Efforts to develop agribusiness and produce value-
added agricultural products have aimed at increasing the profitability of farming.
o Export Expansion: The Philippines has expanded its agricultural exports and participated in
international trade agreements, opening new markets for Filipino farmers.
o Technological Advancements: Technological advancements, including precision agriculture
and digital tools for farmers, have improved agricultural productivity and efficiency.

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VIII. AGRICULTURE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN CAPITALIST AND NON-CAPITALIST SOCIETIES

CAPITALIST NON-CAPITALIST

Characteristic: Characteristic:

➢ Privately owned farms (Registered under ➢ Smallholder farmers (personal farm) in rural
Gov’t) that areas
➢ Operate on a large scale to maximize profit ➢ often use traditional methods, rely on family labor,
through efficient production methods. and may not participate extensively in market
➢ Use advanced technology, transactions.
➢ Employ wage laborers, ➢ Subsistence farmers grow crops or raise livestock
➢ Processing facilities, and distribution networks, primarily to meet the needs of their own families
➢ Aiming to maximize efficiency and profit. or local communities.

Importance in the economy: Importance in the economy:

➢ Efficiency and Productivity ➢ Food Sovereignty and Local Resilience:

➢ Market Integration and Trade ➢ Preservation of Cultural and Ecological
➢ Employment and Economic Growth Diversity:
➢ Innovation and Technological Advancement ➢ Diversification of Rural Economies:
➢ Food Security and Stability

IX. AGRICULTURE AS AN INDUSTRY, A SCIENCE AND A PROFESSION

A. AGRICULTURE AS INDUSTRY
Agro-industries are those that use agricultural produce as a source of raw materials. They are a main
means of transforming raw agricultural inputs into value-added goods, as well as a source of income and
employment, contributing to general economic development. The scale of these businesses varies greatly,
ranging from small-scale cottage industries to large-scale factories.

Classification of Agro-industries:

Because of their diversity, it is challenging to classify agro-industries into distinct categories. However, the
majority can be grouped into the following categories:

1. Storage
2. Pre- and post-distribution
3. Packaging and marketing
4. Food and beverage industries
5. Fibers and textiles
6. Abattoirs, and associated meat processing and leather industries
7. Transport
8. Farm and agro-industrial machinery
9. Animal feeds
10. Farm chemicals, including pesticides and fertilizers

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B. AGRICULTURE AS A SCIENCE
Agricultural science is a broad field that combines various areas of biology, including exact, natural,
economic, and social sciences, to understand and improve agricultural practices. Agriculture involves activities
that change the environment to grow plants and raise animals for human use. The main branches of agriculture
are:

1. CROP PRODUCTION AND CROP SCIENCE

It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops, fodder crops, fiber crops, sugar,
oil seeds, etc. It includes:

Agronomy:
• Focuses on crop and soil science to improve the productivity and sustainability of farming systems.
• Involves the study of plant genetics, breeding, and plant physiology.
Horticulture:
• Deals with the production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, spices,condiments, and
beverages. Five (5) main branches of Horticulture are:

a) Floriculture- Cultivation of flowers (cut and potted) and foliage

b) Pomology- Production and cultivation of fruit crops
c) Nursery/ Plant propagation mgt. - Development and dissemination of plant seeds,
shrubs, trees, ornamental plants, and ground covering
d) Olericulture- cultivation, processing and marketing of vegetables
e) Landscape Horticulture-Design, construct, and take care of landscapes in homes,
businesses, and public areas.
Soil Science:
• Studies soil composition, formation, and fertility management.
• Aims to enhance soil health for better crop growth.
Plant Pathology:
• The study of plant diseases and how to manage them.
• Involves diagnosing, treating, and preventing diseases caused by pathogens like fungi, bacteria, and
viruses.
Entomology:
• Focuses on the study of insects and their impact on crops.
• Includes pest management and the role of beneficial insects in crop protection.

Weed Science:
• Studies the biology and management of weeds that compete with crops.
• Develops strategies for effective weed control to improve crop yields.
Plant Nutrition:
• Focuses on the role of nutrients in plant growth and development.
• Involves soil fertility management and the use of fertilizers.
Irrigation and Water Management:
• Studies the efficient use of water resources for crop production.
• Involves the design and management of irrigation systems to optimize water use.
Agroecology:
• Integrates ecological principles into crop production.
• Focuses on sustainable farming practices and the interaction between crops, soil, and the environment.
Crop Physiology:
• Examines the functioning of plants and how they respond to environmental factors.
• Studies growth processes, photosynthesis, and stress physiology.
Biotechnology:
• Uses genetic engineering and molecular biology techniques to improve crops.
• Involves developing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for enhanced traits like pest resistance and
drought tolerance.

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2. ANIMAL SCIENCE
• It involves the study of livestock production, including breeding, nutrition, and health. This animal
production are the ff:
a. Swine production (Hog raising)
b. Small ruminant production (goat, sheep, etc.)
c. Large ruminant production (cattle, carabao, etc.)
d. Poultry production (chicken, duck, geese, swan and etc.)
e. Dairy production- milk production
f. Slaughtering- meat production
g. Animal nutrition- health
h. Animal physiology and anatomy
i. Animal genetics and breeding
j. Veterinary medicine- disease treatment, diagnosis, prevention and medication
3. FORESTRY
• Deals with production of large-scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood, timber, rubber, etc.
and also raw materials for industries.

4. FISHERY
• Deals with practice of breeding and rearing fishes including marine and inland fishes, shrimps, prawns
etc. in order to provide food, feed and manure.

5. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
• Deals with farm machinery for field preparation, inter-cultivation, harvesting and post-harvest processing
including soil and water conservation engineering and bio-energy.

6. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
• Agricultural economics is the study of economic principles applied to the production, distribution, and
consumption of agricultural goods and services. It analyzes the economic factors influencing agriculture
and the impact of agricultural policies.

7. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
• Agricultural extension involves the dissemination of knowledge and technology to farmers and other
stakeholders in the agricultural sector. It bridges the gap between research and practice to improve
agricultural productivity and sustainability.
AGRICULTURE AS PROFESSION

Agriculture is an occupation that has existed since the dawn of humans, possibly forthousands of years.
Agriculture may have been the sole reason of our civilization’s emergence. People used to regard agriculture to
be their way of life, and they would migrate from one location to another in search of water to cultivate crops.
This established the groundwork for a culture, communities, and societal interactions, among other things.
Farmers who choose agriculture as a profession have a wealth of knowledge about a variety of topics such as
soil fertility, seasonal crops, rainfall forecasts, pesticides, crop rotation techniques, farming equipment, and so
on, that it demands to be treated as seriously as any other profession in the world.

Agriculture as a profession encompasses the practice, science, and business of cultivating plants and
raising animals for food, fiber, fuel, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. It is one of the
oldest and most vital professions, forming the backbone of human civilization by ensuring food security and
economic stability.

1. Agronomist
Studies crops and soils and how they interact; how to get healthier crops (both field crops and aquatic).

2. Animal Scientist
Studies the best and most nutritional diets for animals on the farm (including horses); healthy babies for
animal moms, diseases of animals.

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3. Beekeeper
Cares for bees that produce honey; also uses bees to help farmers pollinate crops.

4. Agricultural Engineer
Designs machinery used for farming to produce more and better food

5. Entomologist
Studies insects and how they affect agriculture – both helpful, such as bees, and harmful.

6. Food Scientist
Studies better ways to preserve, process, package, and distribute food, including ingredients; studies
what happens to color, flavor, nutritional properties when food is cooked, shipped, or stored.

7. Horticulturist
Specializes in growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, and plants, and comes up with new and different plants.

8. Marketing/ sales
Designs sales and marketing campaigns and advertisements, works with customers, does market
research.

9. Microscopist
Investigates using a microscope to study plant and animal cells, bacteria, and viruses

10. Nematologist
Studies worms (nematodes or roundworms) that don’t have segments like earthworms; many are
parasites that live on or in animals and plants.

11. Plant ecologist

Studies how plants grow, the effects of climate and soil.

12. Plant Geneticist

Studies plants’ genes and how to strengthen or weaken certain traits like tolerance to cold, size, or
sweetness of fruit

13. Plant Pathologist

Studies diseases of plants and ways to prevent or cure them.

14. Plant Physiologist

Studies life processes of plants and photosynthesis.

15. Soil conservationist

Takes care of the land/soil to prevent erosion, etc.

16. Soil Scientist

Studies properties of soil (sand, silt, clay ratios); effect on plants and what farmers can do to get best
results.

17. Veterinarian
Person who is an animal doctor and practices veterinary medicine. Veterinary medicine is the application
of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production
animals.

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18. Agricultural researcher
Develop effective, safe and environmentally sustainable techniques for raising livestock and harvesting
crops. Specialty areas in this field can include animal science, food science, bio resource science and soil
science.

19. Extensionist
Application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education.

20. Agricultural Instructor

Responsible for the instruction of Agriculture courses in the areas of Animal science, Plant science and
Agriculture business and management, and related courses for majors and non-majors.

X. OVERALL IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN HUMAN SOCIETY

Agriculture plays a crucial role in the development and sustainability of human societies.

1. Food Security: Agriculture provides the majority of the world's food supply, ensuring that populations
have access to essential nutrients and sustenance.
2. Economic Development: In many countries, agriculture is a significant part of the economy, providing
jobs, generating income, and contributing to GDP.
3. Employment: Agriculture is a major source of employment, especially in developing countries, where a
large percentage of the population relies on farming for their livelihood.
4. Raw Materials: Agriculture supplies raw materials for various industries, including food processing,
textiles, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.
5. Sustainability: Sustainable agricultural practices help maintain healthy ecosystems, conserve
resources, and ensure the long-term viability of food production.
6. Rural Development: Agriculture is vital for the development of rural areas, providing infrastructure,
services, and economic opportunities that improve the quality of life for rural populations.
7. Cultural Heritage: Agriculture is deeply intertwined with cultural practices, traditions, and heritage,
shaping the identities and lifestyles of many communities around the world.
8. Environmental Impact: Properly managed agriculture can contribute to environmental conservation,
such as through the maintenance of biodiversity, soil health, and water resources.
9. Innovation and Technology: The agricultural sector drives research and innovation, leading to
advancements in farming techniques, crop varieties, and sustainable practices that benefit society as a
whole.
10. Global Trade: Agriculture is a critical component of global trade, with many countries relying on
agricultural exports and imports to balance their economies and meet the needs of their populations.

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