Agriculture is the science, art and occupation of cultivation of crops and
producing and raising livestock for human consumption. Agriculture is the very
basis of civilization. It is the food we ate, the clothing we wear, the material of our
hone, the garden around us, and many of our traditional and values.
Agriculture is derived from Latin word “Ager” and “Cultura”. Ager means land
and cultural means cultivation. Therefore the term agriculture means cultivation of
land. It is also referred as the science of producing crops and livestock from the
natural resources of the earth. The primary aim of agriculture is to cause the land to
produce more abundantly and at the same time, to protect it from deterioration and
misuse. It is synonymous with farming the production of food, fodder and other
industrial materials.
The ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
From earliest times human distributions have been correlated with the
distribution of plants. The history and development of agriculture is intimately
related to the development of civilization. For last 30-40,000 yrs (advent of
cromagnon) very little physical evolution is evident in fossil record but there has
been tremendous cultural evolution. The advent of stationary human societies and
consequent development of civilization were possible only after the establishment
of agriculture. Humans did not “put down roots” and remain in one place until they
learned to cultivate the land and collect and store agricultural crops. The origin of
agriculture provided “release time” for the development of art, writing, culture and
technology.
I. The Beginnings of Agriculture
Agriculture began approximately 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic
Revolution, marking the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled farming
communities. Early agriculture developed independently in various regions at least
4 separate times in 4 different places:
Mideast------------------Fertile crescent (Wheat, barley, and lentils were among the first
domesticated crops)
China -------------------Yellow River (Early cultivation of rice and millet)
Egypt---------------------Aswan (Wheat and barley)
Central America -----Tehuacan Valley (Maize, beans, and squash became staple
crops)
Nomadic tribes migrated annually in the fall and spring from the foothills of
surrounding mountains to nearby valleys following the natural migrations of animal
herds. Also, valleys provided the plants needed for food, fiber and fuel during the
winter that were not available at high elevations. In the spring the animals moved
back to the foothills and spent summer in cooler locations.
II. Agricultural Evolution
Agricultural evolution refers to the gradual development and improvement of
farming practices, tools, and techniques over thousands of years. Agriculture has
evolved through several key stages, from early hunting and gathering to modern
high-tech farming. Below are the major stages of agricultural development:
1. Primary/Primitive Agricultural Stage (Neolithic Revolution – 10,000
BCE - 4000 BCE)
During this stage, early humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers,
constantly moving in search of food. They lived in caves, tree branches, or
earth holes for protection from wild animals. At this time, people had no
knowledge of crop cultivation and survived on natural fruits, roots, and wild
plants (Childe, 1951).
2. Hunting Stage (Old Stone Age / Paleolithic Era – Before 10,000
BCE)
People gradually developed stone tools to protect themselves and hunt
animals. They discovered that large stones could be broken to create sharp
tools for hunting. Their diet mainly consisted of raw meat, fruits, and roots,
and they wore animal skins for clothing. Women played a crucial role in
gathering edible plants, which supplemented the diet of early humans
(Leakey, 1995).
3. Fire and New Stone Stage (Mesolithic Era – 10,000 BCE - 8000
BCE)
The discovery of fire was a transformative moment in human history. It
is believed that fire was discovered accidentally, possibly from friction
between stones. This allowed people to cook meat, stay warm, and protect
themselves from wild animals. Additionally, humans developed better stone
tools, such as sharpened blades and arrowheads, improving hunting
efficiency (Diamond, 1997).
4. Animal Domestication Stage (~8000 BCE - 3000 BCE)
By this stage, humans had become skilled hunters. Instead of killing all
captured animals, they began domesticating the gentler ones for food, labor,
and companionship. Animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, and dogs were the
first to be domesticated. Women and children often took care of these
animals, leading to the early development of animal husbandry (Clutton-
Brock, 1999). However, humans were still nomadic, moving with their animals
in search of food and water.
5. Crop Production Stage (3000 BCE - Present)
After thousands of years of nomadic life, humans sought permanent
settlements. Observing that plants could grow from discarded seeds, women
likely played a pioneering role in agriculture. Early humans used fire and
digging sticks to clear land and plant small grains near their homes. Over
time, they refined their techniques, leading to organized crop production and
eventually to the development of irrigation, plowing, and metal tools (Harlan,
1992).
III. Modern Agriculture and the Green Revolution
1. Emergence of Modern Agriculture (18th Century - Present)
Modern agriculture began in the 18th century during the Agricultural
Revolution in Europe, which introduced innovations that significantly
increased food production. The adoption of crop rotation, selective breeding,
mechanized tools (e.g., seed drills), and improved irrigation helped
transform farming from subsistence-based to commercial agriculture
(Overton, 1996).
The Industrial Revolution (19th century) further boosted agricultural
productivity with the invention of mechanized farm equipment, chemical
fertilizers, and advanced irrigation techniques (Grigg, 1974). This led to a
global expansion of commercial farming, supporting rising populations and
economic growth.
2. The Green Revolution (1960s - 1980s)
The Green Revolution, which began in the 1960s, was a period of
agricultural transformation that significantly increased global food
production. Led by scientists such as Norman Borlaug, the revolution
introduced:
High-yielding crop varieties (HYVs), particularly in wheat and
rice.
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides to enhance crop yields and
protect plants.
Irrigation advancements to ensure consistent water supply.
Mechanization, such as tractors and harvesters, to increase
efficiency (Evenson & Gollin, 2003).
3. Agriculture in the 21st Century
Today, modern agriculture is advancing with the help of technology
and sustainable farming practices. These innovations aim to address climate
change, food security, and environmental sustainability, ensuring the future
of global agriculture. Key developments include:
Precision farming, using AI, drones, and satellite imagery to
optimize resources.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for improved crop
resistance.
Climate-smart agriculture, focusing on sustainable and eco-
friendly farming techniques (Foley et al., 2011).
IV. Philippine Agriculture
Early Agriculture and Agricultural Development in the Philippines
The history of agriculture in the Philippines reflects a gradual transition from
hunter-gatherer societies to shifting cultivation and eventually to permanent
farming. The post-war period brought significant technological advancements, but
physical, biological, and socio-economic challenges continue to affect agricultural
productivity. Addressing these issues through modern technology, government
support, and sustainable farming practices is crucial for ensuring food security and
economic stability in the country.
1. The Pygmies/Negritos
The Negritos, considered the aboriginal people of the Philippines, are
believed to have migrated from Central Asia approximately 25,000 years
ago via land bridges (Bellwood, 1997). They were hunter-gatherers,
depending on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild fruits for survival. Unlike
later settlers, they did not practice agriculture and led a nomadic lifestyle,
moving from place to place in search of food.
2. The Indonesians and Early Agriculture
The Indonesians, who arrived in the Philippines from Southern Asia
around 5,000 years ago, were the second wave of migrants. They
introduced basic agricultural practices, specifically the "Kaingin" system,
also known as shifting cultivation, slash-and-burn farming, or swidden
agriculture (Scott, 1994). This system allowed them to clear forests
temporarily for farming.
a. The Kaingin System (Shifting Cultivation)
Indonesian immigrants practiced the Kaingin system, where
they cleared forests by cutting trees, shrubs, and bushes, allowing
them to dry before burning them. They then used pointed sticks to
create holes in the ground and planted crops such as rice, corn, and
vegetables (Moya et al., 2015). However, after one or two cropping
seasons, weeds overtook the land, forcing farmers to abandon the
plot and clear new forest areas. Over time, Kaingin farming, along
with commercial logging, contributed to significant deforestation in
the Philippines, leading to soil erosion and biodiversity loss
(Poffenberger, 2000).
b. Regular Tillage and Permanent Farming
An advanced farming method was later introduced with the use
of wooden plows and harrows drawn by carabaos. This technique
involved stirring and loosening the soil, improving weed control and
making planting easier. Unlike shifting cultivation, this method
allowed farmers to settle permanently in one location, leading to the
development of agricultural tools and equipment that improved land
preparation and crop production (Jocano, 1975).
3. Agricultural Development in the Post-War Period
The post-war period in the Philippines was characterized by significant
advancements in agriculture, including:
a. Introduction of technological improvements in farming.
b. Campaigns for modern farm inputs and mechanization in the
1950s.
c. Development of markets for tractors and power tillers in the 1960s.
d. Establishment of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in
1960, which played a major role in developing high-yielding rice
varieties.
e. Introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, increasing food
production.
f. Expansion of international agricultural trade, particularly for major
export crops such as coconut, tobacco, sugar, and pineapple (Barker
& Herdt, 1985).
