Student Name: Zakir Ud Din

Tutor Name: Khurshid Ahmad

Assignment No: 02

Course Name: General Methods of Teaching

Course Code: 8601

Student Id No: 0000461105

B.Ed (1.5) Spring 2023

 Assignment No: 02

Question #1; What are group projects? How are group projects used in schools?
Answer;
Group Projects:
A group project is an ideal opportunity to sharpen your problem-solving and team-building techniques, which
are important skills you’ll need throughout your career. Working in groups involves shared and learned values,
resources and ways of doing things. Effective groups learn to succeed by combining these factors. Your group,
and each individual within it will only be as effective as they are willing to respect differences within the
group. The aim of group work is to produce better (more effective, more detailed, more comprehensive)
presentations reports.
Why Group Projects are important?
Group work creates more opportunities for critical thinking and can promote student learning and
achievement. Student group work enhances communication and other professional development skills. For
example, in their meta-analysis examining over 168 studies of undergraduate students, Johnson et al. (2014)
determined that students learning in a collaborative situation had greater knowledge acquisition, retention of
material, and higher-order problem solving and reasoning abilities than students working alone. There are
several reasons for this difference. Students’ interactions and discussions with others allow the group to
construct new knowledge, place it within a conceptual framework of existing knowledge, and then refine and
assess what they know and do not know. This group dialogue helps them make sense of what they are learning
and what they still need to understand or learn (Ambrose et al. 2010; Eberlein et al. 2008). In addition, groups
can tackle more complex problems than individuals can and thus have the potential to gain more expertise and
become more engaged in a discipline (Qin et al 1995; Kuh 2007).
How Group Projects are Used In Schools?
In fact, it’s better if it’s not. It’s a good idea to talk about how the work is going, and if anyone needs help.
What if you’re not the leader? Important roles to play during a meeting include:
• The starter makes suggestions and offers ideas.
• The asker asks members to share information or ideas on a topic.
• The peacemaker looks at opposing views and finds something useful in each of
them, helping people work out differences.
Try not to play any of these negative roles:
• The non-participant does not contribute and/or discourages the others.
• “Captain Critical” responds to other people’s ideas with criticism.
• The dominator interrupts and talks more than listens.
• The clown distracts the group and keeps it from focusing on the work.
More on Group Projects
• Interaction with the Group is based upon mutual respect and encouragement.
• Often creativity is vague
Ideas are important to the success of the project, not personalities. A group’s strength lies in its ability to
develop ideas individuals bring.
• Conflict can be an extension of Creativity
The group should be aware of this eventuality. Resolution on conflict balances the end goals with mutual
respect. In other a group project is a cooperative, rather than a competitive, learning experience.
The two major objectives of a group project are:
• What is learned: factual material as well as the process
• What is produced: written paper, presentation, and/or media project
Role of instructors/teachers/professors:
The group’s challenge is to interpret these objectives, and then determine how to meet them.
• Group work is only as effective as teachers or instructors manage and guide the process.
• Group projects promote the cooperative and collaborative attitude among the students.
• Students must be aware of, and should be prepared for this group process.
• Cooperative group projects should be structured so that no individual can coast on the efforts of his/her team-
mates.
Scoring:
• Rewards ideally should be intrinsic to the process, with group members deriving their reward from their
contributions to the group and project.
• External reinforcement (Grades, etc) for individuals can be based upon improvement, as opposed to
comparative, scoring. Traditional, comparative scoring works to the detriment of teams with low-achieving
members. Evaluation based upon improvement rewards the group for an individual’s progress. Peer,
comparative evaluations can have a negative effect on teams: low scoring members are considered
“undesirable” and drag upon performance.
High achievers versus low achievers
We assume high achievers mentor or teach low achievers.In the process of teaching others, we can learn more
about the topic. As we tutor, even simple questions from the tutee make us look at our subject matter freshly.
As we explain, we gain a deeper understanding of the topic. Low achievers then tutor or teach high achievers!
• High achievers profit in cooperative learning in other ways:
Leadership skills, self-esteem gains, conflict resolution skills, and role-talking
abilities which become part of the learning process, and betterment of the student.

Question #2:
Explain
(i) the structure of guided discussion method.
(ii) the assessment procedure of classroom discussion.
Answer; (i) Part 1.

 Guided Discussion Method:

Guided discussion method helps the instructor to query the student on a certain topic to assess the knowledge
and learning of student that what the student knows, and what he does not know. In this method, teacher
“draws out” information and encourages students’ questions. There are different types of questions in guided
discussion method:
1. Overhead/How/Why: This category of questions is directed to the whole group.
2. Rhetorical: Rhetorical questions prompt group thought and thinking.
3. Direct: direct questions are asked of a particular student.
4. Reverse: In response to a question, another question is asked.
5. Relay: Relay the question to the group if asked by a student.
An effective question is that which is suitable for the subject, contains an objective, organizes main and
subordinate points logically, and guides students in their preparation. Guided discussion is effective when it
is planned and followed by a logical sequence.
 Structure of Guided Discussion Method;
Below is the structure of guided discussion:
• Objectives: Before starting guided discussion, the instructor should have clear objectives.
• Introduction: The instructor should introduce the discussion simply by posing a question or telling of a story
to help get the discussion off the ground.
• Discussion: The instructor should try to keep students focused on topic. It demands attention from the
instructor and continual evaluation of students’ knowledge.
• Summary: Before moving to the next section, the instructor should summarize previous section.
• Conclusion: Review and recap is indispensable in guided discussion to have an idea what was covered in the
discussion. This will help the student grasp the “larger picture.” The instructor should clarify any questions
(Kinne, 2000).It indicates that the guided discussion method has a clear meaning and is designed for
specific purpose to stimulate thought of students by relating new information with
previous knowledge.

Answer Part (ii)

 The Assessment Procedure of Classroom Discussion:
Classroom Discussion: Classroom discussion is an important teaching strategy because of its relation to the
development of participatory citizenship, critical thinking, and classroom community. Class discussion
facilitates learners to observe, assess and share knowledge about specific subject matter. It also gives a feeling
for students to sight from multiple angles, to make fresh thoughts, ideas, and improve their communication
and expression talents (Larson and Keiper, 2000).
There are several definitions of classroom discussion. The Dictionary of Education as cited in Jones et al
(1994, p.1) describes discussion as:
"An activity in which people talk together in order to share information about a topic or problem or to seek
possible available evidence or a solution. It is used more and more in student-centered learning venues as a
means of engaging students in the “active” construction of learning through collaboration and the exchange
of perspectives”.
Structure of Classroom Discussion
Marilla and Svinicki (2011, Pp.133-134) have elaborated the structure of classroom discussion. The discussion
class is necessarily a tiny crowd trying to complete an assignment. As such, the class can perform its tasks
more effectively if each student in the group is conscious of the different types of activities and responsibilities
he/she can perform to make discussion smoother. Every individual has his own specific style of acting in
classroom discussion.
PRACTICING IN ASKING QUESTIONS
Classroom discussion is different from what is typically considered discussion. The purpose of classroom
discussion is to enable the teacher to pull the content dictated by the curriculum out of the class by imposing
a limited discussion-like format. For effective discussions, teacher should use questions as a guide. Teacher
should also practice to develop his own questions. If discussion goal is to teach pupils essay writing skills, list
of questions should be prepared relevant with an essay. Flexible questions, that are planned in a logical order
work better. Before starting a discussion, preparation of a list of things that must be covered helps to focus on
hierarchy of questions. Care must be taken to not insist on a particular order. Rather, questions connected with
one another assist teacher to adapt during discussions.
Teacher may ask variety of questions to stimulate students’ thinking and guide discussion. There may be
definitional questions like “what does it mean?” there may be evidential questions i.e. “what reasons can you
give to defend your point of view?” or there may be policy questions i.e. “what should be done?” (Larson and
Keiper, 2010). The type of the questions should depend upon the educational objectives and the students.
Kinne (2000) has suggested that teachers should develop the skills of asking questions by keeping the goal of
discussion clearly in mind to encourage active participation and analysis. There are some typical types of open
questions:
• Hypothetical: "What you will do if...?"
• Speculating: "How can we resolve this issue?"
• Defining: "Can anyone give additional elaboration about the feasibility of that
idea?"
• Probing: "Why do you feel that?"
• Clarifying/Summarizing: "Am I exactly saying what you think that...?"
ASSESSING THE DISCUSSION
As with the other tasks teacher has to perform assessment task during discussion. One consideration is the
sequence and follow-up of discussion and other is grading. Arends (2004) has given following thoughts on
follow-up and grading of classroom discussion:
1. Follow-Up Discussions:
To follow-up discussion, teacher should make formal and mental notes. These notes help to focus on the
discussion content and decide subsequent lessons. For example, it might be possible that teacher identifies
some serious gaps in students’ learning and knowledge about a topic. He/she can then arrange a presentation
on that particular topic and assign some reading tasks to students. This will also help students to identify the
topics of their interest. The information gained through discussion will also aid teachers to plan lessons and
identify strengths and weaknesses of students’ thinking processes as well as group’s capability to involve in
productive discourse. Teacher can also find assistance to plan lessons to strength areas targeted for
improvement. For this purpose, rating scale can be used by the teacher to sought information from pupils to
judge what they thought regarding discussion and their role in it.
2. Grading Classroom Discussion:
Grading classroom discussion is an important and challenging task for teachers because it is difficult to
quantify students’ contribution in any satisfactory way. If students are not graded, they might think it as less
necessary then the task on which they are graded. Before grading discussion, teacher has to confront the issue
whether to reward quantity or quality. There are two methods which teacher can use in the grading dilemma.
One method is to give bonus points to students who consistently come up with valid ideas. Before using this
method, teacher should tell it to students. Care should be taken that students who want to contribute should be
given chance to participate. Second method is to use discussion as a springboard for a reflective writing
assignment. In this method, students are given a post-discussion writing essay in which they reflect in words
what the discussion meant to them. Teacher should tell students about this method before leading discussion.
This method is very effective but its one serious drawback is that it requires much time to read and assign
grades to each essay.

Question #3 Discuss the importance of asking questions in classroom discussion. State tips to ask
effective questions.
Answer.
 Importance of asking questions in classroom:
In classroom discussion, questions are starting points. A question is any sentence which has an interrogative
form or function. In classroom settings, teacher questions are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that
convey to students the content elements to be learned and directions for what they are to do and how they are
to do it. Discussion, when combined with probing, open-ended questions, requires students to organize
available information for the purpose of arriving at their own defensible answers. The type of the questions
depends upon the discussion goals. Perhaps teacher is using some writer's ideas to produce ideas for students'
writing, or extracting major concepts from a text and organizing them into an academic summary. Teacher
might wish to determine whether or not an author’s choices are useful. All these choices will depend upon the
planning of discussion goals. If teacher is wishing to teach students summary skills, then the discussion
questions should be planned to achieve this goal. Teacher might form questions which motivate students to
describe an author’s purpose and find out the major ideas. Mostly, discussions will be dynamic, focusing on
numerous rationales and goals, dynamic, focusing on numerous rationales and goals.
Questions can do more than measure what students know. Appropriately challenging, engaging, and effective
questions stimulate peer discussion and encourage students to explore and refine their understanding of key
concepts.

 Questions can diagnose student understanding of material.

 Questions are a way of engaging with students to keep their attention and to reinforce their
participation.
 Questions can review, restate, emphasize, and/or summarize what is important.
 Questions stimulate discussion and creative and critical thinking, as well as determine how students
are thinking.
 Questions help students retain material by putting into words otherwise unarticulated thoughts.

Tips to Ask Effective Questions

One of the teacher’s prime tasks is to facilitate discussion. In order to have energetic and substantive
discussions, teacher needs to be acquainted with the skill to ask effective questions. Following are some handy
tips for teacher to ask questions:
• Discuss the Elements of a Successful Discussion
From television talk shows, students usually gain the perception that discussion is a heated debate. In fact,
successful discussion isn’t essentially adversarial. Certainly, pupils might challenge a concept that has been
discussed, but they might also examine the concept or discuss questions or present examples given by another
student’s remarks.
• Brainstorm
Brainstorming about a topic helps teacher to get students’ involvement and participation. Role of teacher is to
record their views, ideas and concepts on the blackboard.
• Rearrange Your Classroom
Students’ seated in a square or a horseshoe gives them confidences to speak to one another and not to focus
their attention entirely on teacher.
• Pause
Considerable amount of pause to give students’ time to think and generate their answers is necessary. Teacher
shouldn’t feel forced to call on the students who raise their hands first. If students are not provided with a
pause or thinking time, then class will resemble a game show in which those who raise their hand first are the
winners.
• Avoid unproductive questions
Certain types of questions are unproductive.
• Recall questions
Teacher shouldn’t ask questions to which the answer is clear.
• Rhetorical questions
Teacher should avoid asking questions exclusively for dramatic effect.
• Yes or no questions
Yes or No questions should not be asked because these slow down discussion.
• Leading questions
Open-ended questions are preferred.
• Guess What I’m Thinking questions
Don’t ask questions where teacher has already devised the answer students’ desire.
• Ask the kinds of questions that stimulate discussion
Recall or simple agreement or disagreement questions are ineffective. In contrast, open-ended questions are
effective because these engage higher-order thinking skills i.e. analysis, interpretation, application, prediction,
generalization, and evaluation.
• Questions for students’ input: Keeping in view the remedial measures to stop pollution, what steps you will
take?
• “How” and “why” questions: How might this argument be made more persuasive? Why do you think
that____ made this argument?
• Evaluative questions: How convincing is the Iqbal’s poetry?
• Prediction questions: If ozone layer will destroy, what will happen next?
• Justification questions: What confirmation compelled you to wrap up that…?
• Rationale questions: Can you give the reason for your point of view?
• Generalization questions: How you will generalize your opinions?
• Facilitate, don’t orchestrate:
Resist the temptation to react to student comments yourself. Utilize multiple strategies that get discussions
going:
• Ask other students if they agree or disagree with the previous student’s comments.
• Collect multiple responses to the same question.
• Ask students to comment on a previous student’s comments.
• Redirect a student’s question to the other students.
• Encourage students to respond to one another:
Generate an atmosphere where students are encouraged to respond to the preceding student’s remarks before
affixing their own observations. For example, the pupils might question the comment given by a student or
elaborate on it.
• Give students the opportunity to lead a discussion.
Teacher’s role might be to sum up the discussion before presenting his own ideas.
• Build in reflection.
Students should be asked to reflect on the discussion. They might be asked to give
their own reflection on the discussion.

Question #4 Give an account on cooperative learning strategies techniques.

Answer:
 Cooperative Learning:
Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their
own and each other’s learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1993, p. 9). Further these are principles and techniques
for helping students work together more effectively (Jacobs, Power, & Loh, 2002, p. 1). According to
UNESCO 2003:
Cooperative learning is the process of getting two or more students to work together to learn. Students often
work in small groups composed of participants with differing ability levels and using a variety of learning
activities to master material initially developed by an instructor, or construct knowledge on substantive issues.
Gerlach (1994) described the definition of cooperative learning as “Cooperative learning is based on the idea
that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk
that learning occurs.” While Gokhale (1995) defines cooperative learning as “An instruction method in which
students work in groups toward a common academic goal.”
 STRATEGIES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning strategies could be used in the planning, translating and reviewing. The teachers should
encourage the students to participate in good discussions. Different cooperative strategies included:
1. Jigsaw:
Groups with five students are set up. The faculty member divides an assignment or topic to the group. Each
student is assigned some material to learn and to teach to his group members. The representative of the students
working on the same topic gets together and discusses the important concepts and the ways to teach it to the
whole class. After the practice in these “expert” groups the original groups get together and teach each other.
Tests and assessments follow.
2. Think-Pair-Share:
This is a simple and quick technique; the instructor develops and poses questions preferable one demanding
analysis, gives the students a few minutes to think about a response, and then asks students to share their ideas
with a partner. This “think-time” can be spent writing, also. Students then turn to a partner and share their
responses. This task gives them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts. “Pair” and “share’
components encourage learners to compare and contrast their understanding with those of another, and to
rehearse their response first in a low-risk situation before going public with the whole class. And then
responses can be shared within a four-person learning team, within a larger group, or with an entire class
during a follow-up discussion. All students have an opportunity to learn by reflection and by verbalization.
3. Three-Step Interview:
Common as an ice-breaker or a team-building exercise, this structure can also be used also to share information
such as hypotheses or reactions to a film or article. In it each member of a team chooses another member
to be a partner. In the first step students form dyads (pair of individuals); one student interviews the other.
Then Students switch roles. And at the third step the dyad links with a second dyad. This four-member learning
team then discusses the information or insights gleaned from the initial paired interviews.
4. Numbered Heads Together:
Members of learning teams usually composed of four individuals, count off: 1, 2, 3, or 4, the instructor poses
a question, usually factual in nature, but requiring some higher order thinking skills. Students discuss the
question, making certain that every group member knows the agreed upon answer. The instructor calls a
specific number and the team members originally designated that number during the count off respond as
group spokespersons. Because no one knows which number the teacher will call, all team members have a
vested interest in understanding the appropriate response. Again, students benefit from the verbalization, and
the peer coaching helps both the high and the low achievers. Class time is usually better spent because less
time is wasted on inappropriate responses and because all students become actively involved with the material.
5. Round Robin:
It is primarily a brainstorming technique in which students generate ideas but do not elaborate, explain,
evaluate, or question the ideas. Group members take turns responding to a question with words, phrases, or
short answers. The order of responses is organized by proceeding from one student to another until all students
have had an opportunity to speak. This technique helps generating many ideas because all students participate,
because it discourages comments that interrupt or inhibit the flow or ideas. The ideas could be used to develop
a piece of good paragraph on a given topic.
6. Three-minute review:
Teacher stops any time during a lecture or discussion on the various formats of letter writing, report writing,
etc and give team members three minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer
questions.
7. Numbered Heads:
A team of four is established. Each member is given number 1, 2, 3 and four. Questions are asked of the group.
Groups work together to answer the questions so that all can verbally answer the questions. Teacher calls out
a number (three) and the number three in each group is asked to give the answer. This could be used for
comprehension exercises.
8. Buzz Groups:
Buzz groups are teams of four to six students that are formed quickly and extemporaneously. They discuss
on a particular topic or different topics allotted to them. The discussion is informal and they exchange the
ideas. Buzz Groups serve as a warm-up to whole-class discussion. They are effective for generating
information and ideas in a short period of time. This technique could be used to write essays on current issues.
9. Talking Chips:
In talking chips, students participate in a group discussion, surrendering a token each time they speak. This
technique ensures equitable participation by regulating how often each group member is allowed to participate.
This technique encourages silent students to participate and solve communication or process problems, such
as dominating or clashing group members.
10. Critical Debate:
This activity could be used while drafting argumentative essays. In this individual students select their side of
an issue in contrary to their own views. They form teams and discuss, present, and argue the issue against the
opposing team. It exposes the class to a focused, in-depth, multiple-perspective analysis of issues. It can move
students beyond simple dualistic thinking, deepen their understanding of an issue, and help them to recognize
the range of perspectives inherent in complex topics. This technique is suitable for tertiary level students.
11. Write Around:
For creative writing or summarizing, teachers could give a sentence starter (for e.g. If there were no plants on
the earth. A man met an alien on the sea shore) then all students in each team have to finish the sentence.
Then, they pass the paper to the right, read the one they receive, and add sentence to than one.
After a few round, four summaries or stories emerge. Students should be given time to add a conclusion and/or
edit their favorite one to share with the class.
12. Praise-Question-Polish:
In this technique the group members take turns to read aloud their papers as their other group members follow
along with copies. First, the respondents are asked to react to the piece of writing by asking them to identify
what they liked about the work (Praise), then identify what portion of the writing they did not understand
(Question), finally offering specific suggestions for improvement of the writing (Polish). The students would
be able to improve their own writing by critically evaluating the writing of their peers.

Question #5 Classify the audio visual aids.

Answer:
 Audio - Visual Aids:
The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing are called Audio- Visual aids. For example: -
television, film projector, film strips etc. Most teaching tools are visual in nature. Blackboards and
whiteboards, posters, calendars, charts, drawings, and overhead projectors are all examples of visual teaching
tools. This type of tool is important because many people learn best through use of visual/special thinking.
Some teaching tools are aurally-based. These aural aids include recordings of spoken broadcasts and songs.
Audio-visual teaching tools include film projectors, videocassettes, DVDs, and movies on the Web. Though
audio-visual aids were once seen as a method for students to teach themselves, they are now considered to be
educational tools rather than a replacement for teachers.
 SELECTING THE AUDIO VISUAL MATERIAL
For selecting the audio visual material these points may be kept in mind.
1. Audio visual aids should be integrated with learning.
2. Should be according to the age, intelligence and experiences of the students.
3. Should be suiting the physical, psychological, intellectual and social development of the group.
4. Language should be familiar and understandable.
5. Should be accurate, truthful and realistic.
6. Should be motivational and highly informative.
7. Should be available in the need.
 PREPARING FOR THE AUDIO-VISUAL ACTIVITIES
Their role is to add a visual dimension to the points that you made orally. They cannot make those points for
you; they can only reinforce them. When you plan for audiovisual aids, follow these simple guidelines:
1. We can use them to summarize or show the sequence of content.
2. We can use them to visually interpret statistics by preparing charts and graphs that illustrate what you will
say.
3. We can use them to illustrate and reinforce your support statements.
4. We can use them to add visual clarity to your concepts and ideas.
5. We can use them to focus the attention of the target group on key points.
 KINDS OF AUDIO VISUAL MATERIALS
Teachers may wish to combine different types of media in a single presentation. The media used most often
are overhead projection transparencies, flip charts, slides, blackboards, and handouts. Teachers may
occasionally use videotapes and/or films. According to Edger Dale: “audio visual aids are those devices by
the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training
situations is helped” These are also termed as multi sensory materials.Audio visual aids are sensitive tools
used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses
of the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding. A.V aids are multisensory materials
which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realisticand
clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning. Audio visual material must be seen in their
relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the
relationship between audio visual material and teaching learning process. Audio visual materials are produced,
distributed and used as planned components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is
motivation, classification and stimulation.According to Kinder S. James: “Audio visual aids are any device
which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic”.
 Classifications of Audio-Visual Aids
1. Projected aids: Projected aids are those which require projection material or any
electric power.
2. Non-Projected aids: Non-Projected aids are those which require no projection
material or any electric power.
 Projected Aids:
By projected aids we mean those aids where a bright light is passed through a transparent picture, and by
means of a lens, an enlarged picture is thrown or projected on the screen. Projected aids mainly fall into three
groups, viz; opaque projections, transparent still projections and cine projections.
1. Projectors;
The name ‘Overhead projector’ comes from the fact that the projected image is behind and over the head of
the speaker/teacher. In overhead projection, a transparent visual is placed on a horizontal stage on top of light
source. The light passes through this transparency and then is reflected at 90° angle on the screen at eh back
of the speaker. The over head projector is the most used in all a.v. aids. It projects transparencies with brilliant
screen images suitable for use in a lighted room. The teacher can write or draw diagrams on the transparency
while he teaches; these are projected simultaneously on the screen by the OHP.
(i) During presentations:
● Keep the screen above the heads of the participants.
● Keep the screen in full view of participants.
● Make sure you are not blocking any ones view when presenting.
● Darken the room appropriately by blocking out sunshine and dimming nearby.
● Turn the screen off between slides if you are going to talk for more than two.
● Talk to the audience, not to the screen.
(ii) Purposes:
● To develop concepts and sequences in a subject matter area
● To make marginal notes on the transparencies for the use of the teacher that
can carry without exposing them to the class.
● To test students performances, while other classmates observe
● To show relationships by means of transparent overlays in contrasting color
● To give the illusion of motion in the transparency
(iii) Uses of Projectors:
1. Large image: It projects a very large image on the screen form a minimum of projection distance.
2. Face the class: In this projector the image is projected over the shoulder of the teacher. Therefore, he can
face the class at all times. He can maintain eye contact with the students. It helps the teacher to keep watch on
the class as or indicates points of importance on the transparency.
3. Lighted room: O.H.P. can operate in an illuminated room. There is no need of darkening the room. It enables
the teacher to develop a ‘circuit of understanding’ by watching expression of others.
4. Bright image: The lens and mirror arrangement in overhead projector makes it possible to have a bright
image even in a well lighted room.
5. Simple operation: It is simple, easy and convenient to operate the overhead projector. It does not need
separate projector operator or the instructor. It permits the teacher to face the class and at the same time operate
the machine. Slides can be changed quite easily.
(iv) Limitations:
1. Cannot be used for long time.
2. Writing by some types of writing pens get blotted out on plastic.
3. Transparencies create a storage problem.
(v) Advantages:
It permits the teacher to stand in front of the class while using the projector, thus enabling her to point out
features appearing on the screen by pointing to the materials at the projector itself and at the same time, to
observe the students reactions to her discussion. Gains attention of the student.
2. Multimedia:
today. Unless clearly defined, the term can alternately mean .a judicious mix of various mass media such as
print, audio and video or it may mean the development of computer-based hardware and software packages
produced on a mass scale and yet allow individualized use and learning. In essence, multimedia merges
multiple levels of learning into an educational tool that allows for diversity in curricula presentation.
A primary application of the interactive multimedia for instruction is in an instructional situation where the
learner is given control so that he/she may review the material at his or her own pace and in keeping with
his/her own individual interests, needs, and cognitive processes. The basic objective of interactive multimedia
material is not s much to replace the teacher as to change the teacher’s role entirely. As such multimedia must
be extremely well designed and sophisticated enough to mimic the best teacher, by combining in its design
the various elements of the cognitive processes and the best quality of the technology. With today’s
multimedia courseware, once a programme has been designed and built in with the appropriate responses, it
should be flexible and permit change and alteration. Today’s multimedia is a carefully woven combination of
text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video elements. When you allow an end user, i.e. the viewer of a
multimedia project, to control ‘what’ and ‘when’ and ‘how’ of the elements that are delivered and presented,
it becomes interactive multimedia.
Benefits to Learners
● Work at own pace and control their learning path
● Learn from an infinitely patient tutor
● Actively pursue learning and receive feedback
Benefits to Teachers
● Allows for creative work
● Saves time for more challenging topics
● Replaces ineffective learning activities
● Increases student contact time for discussion
Specific uses of multimedia include:
● Drill and practice to master basic skills
● The development of writing skills
● Problem solving
● Understanding abstract mathematics and science concepts
● Simulation in science and mathematics
● Manipulation of data
● Acquisition of computer Skills for general
● Purposes, and for business and vocational training
● Access and communication to understand populations and students
● Access for teachers and students in remote locations
● Individualized and cooperative learning
● Management and a
 Non-Projected Aids
There are many non-projected teaching aids such as Charts, posters, maps, graphs and
models. The detail of each is given below;
1. Charts:
A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which presents a
clear visual summary. Edgar Dale defines charts as, “a visual symbol summarizing or
comparing or contrasting or performing other helpful services in explaining subject-matter”.
The main function of the chart is always to show relationships such as comparisons, relative
amounts, developments, processes, classification and organization.

Characteristics:
1. Charts can be carefully stored and preserved for use in the future.
2. They have an educational value.
3. Usually the charts are teacher made.
4. Charts can be of any size.
5. Charts display specific information.
6. Easy to carry.
Types of charts:
● Picture charts
● Time charts
● Table charts
● Graphic charts
● Flow or organization charts
● Tree charts
● Pie charts
Uses of charts:
1. Motivates the students
2. Shows continuity in the process
3. Shows relationships by means of facts, figures and statistics
4. Presents matter symbolically
5. Presents abstract ideas in visual form
6. Summarizes information
7. Shows the development of structures
8. Creates problems and stimulates thinking
9. Encourages utilization of other media of communication
2. Posters;
S.L.Ahulwalia’s view: “A poster is a pictorial device designed to attract attention and
communicate a story, a fact, an idea, or an image rapidly and clearly.” Good’s Dictionary of
Education: A poster is a “placard, usually pictorial or decorative, utilizing an emotional appeal
to convey a message aimed at reinforcing an attitude or urging a course of action”.The poster
can be defined as a graphic representation of some strong emotional appeal that is carried
through a combination of graphic aids like pictures, cartoons lettering and other visual arts on
a placard. It aims for conveying the specific message, teaching a particular thing, giving a
general idea etc. Posters exert a great influence on the observer.
Characteristics:
1. Brevity: Use of minimum words, i.e., four or five.
2. Idea: Idea or a feeling should be put in original form.
3. Simplicity of lay-out: It refers to the arrangement of the elements of the poster.
4. Efficient use of colors: (i) Use bold illustrations, (ii) Avoid fancy lettering style,
(iii) Proper use of color,
5. Makes the poster more attractive.
Uses of posters:
1. Presents a single idea or a subject forcefully.
2. Publicizes important school and community events and projects.
3. Adds atmosphere to the class-room.
4. Captures attention by some attractive feature and thus convey the message
attractively and quickly.
5. Motivates the class.
6. Strong lasting impression.
7. Satisfies the viewer emotionally and aesthetically.
3. Maps
Maps constitute an indispensable aid in teaching many subjects like geography, history,
economics and social studies. The learning of these subjects becomes unreal, inadequate and
incomplete without map media. A resourceful teacher will turn the fear of map into the genuine
love by motivating the students. This, however, presupposes the invariable uses of maps at
every possible opportunity by the teacher in the class-room, and the possession of individual
atlases (a combination of maps) by the students. Every student should also know certain
elementary aspects of map preparation such as copying, enlarging and reducing, symbolizing,
coloring, and preparation of hey. Many students develop aversion for maps because they do
not know skills relating to map preparation.
Meaning
Maps are called as “Encyclopedia of Man’s Existence”. The map as a record of spatial
concepts tells a story as nothing else can. A map is an accurate representation plane surface in
the form of a diagram drawn to scale, the details of boundaries of whole of earth’s surface,
continents, countries etc. Geographical details like location of mountains, rivers, altitude of f
a place, contours of the earth surface and important locations can also be represented, taught
and learnt accurately. Maps depict the climatic conditions, natural conditions, location etc. of
certain countries and continents.
Purpose or Uses of Maps
1. To depict geographical features of earth’s surface and to understand the position of earth in
the universe.
2. To show relationship between places
3. To furnish information concerning distances, directions, shapes and sizes.
4. To clarify descriptive materials.
5. To reduce the scale of areas and distances and thus bring the abstract concepts of size,
distance and directions into the region of reality.
6. To understand the lines-boundary lines, lines of communication, lines indication the rivers,
contours, meridians and parallels.
7. To understand the colors, tints, shadows, symbols in a map or globe.
 4. Graphs
Graph is defined as a visual representation of numerical data. Graph is fundamentally a tool
for expressing number relationships, which is much easier to visualize than can be done if the
statement were made only in words and figures. It offers a judicious technique for analyzing,
comparing and prophesying of facts which are vital to an intelligent study of a problem.
Characteristics of graphs:
1. Graphs are by nature a summarizing device.
2. Effective tool for comparisons and contrast or for presenting complicated facts.
3. Made according to exact specifications and depict specifically quantitative data for analysis,
interpretation or comparison.
4. Graphs, being symbolic are abstract in character.
5. Self explanatory and simple.
6. Regarded as flat pictures which employ dots, lines or pictures to visualize numerical and
statistical data to show statistics or relationships.
Kinds of graphs
● Line grap
● Bar graph
● Circle or pie graph
● Pictorial graph
● Flannel graph
Uses of Graphs
1. Awareness: The teacher should be well aware of the method of drawing of graph in a neat
and accurate manner.
2. Neatness: The graph should be neat, clean and artistic. It should be of good quality.
3. Accuracy: The scales and the measurement of the graph should be accurate and intelligible
to the students.
4. Drawing and paper: The graph should be properly drawn. The graph paper should be good.
The pencil that is used should also be good.
5. Hints: The hints should be properly explained. The marks on the graph should be such that
the students may know them by themselves.
6. Blackboard: The teacher may draw a graph on the black board.
5. Models
Models can be particularly helpful in the case of buildings and other fixed structures. The
construction of a poultry shed or grain store, for example, or the layout and dimensions of a
fish pond, can be shown using a model, which can be assembled and taken to pieces in front
of the audience.
6. Textbooks
Textbooks are books containing information about a particular subject, organized in a manner
calculated to make presenting the information easier. Teachers can read a textbook to confirm
or expand their personal knowledge and/or assign readings from a textbook for students to
complete.
7. Handouts
Handouts are sometimes used as visual aids. This is a mistake. Avoid handouts duringyour
presentation if at all possible. You, the presenter, are the most important thing to focus on, and
handouts are distractions from you. People look at it, flip through it, waiting for their copy,
hand a friend a copy, point out some item to their neighbor, doodle on it, fold it, and wonder
why it is taking you so long to cover so little information. They may also wonder why they
have to sit and listen to you right now when they can take this information home and read it
later. At times, handouts must be used, and we will discuss how best to use them later.

END
 References:
o Book
o Google
o Research articles
o Notes
o Workshop class