I.
The Self
1. Individual differences
Types of individual differences
- Physical differences:
Example: A student with a physical disability, such as using a wheelchair, may need
accommodations like accessible seating or modified physical education activities to
participate in class fully.
- Intellectual differences:
Example: In a math class, one student may grasp algebraic concepts quickly and
advance to more complex topics, while another may need additional time and
resources to understand the same material.
- Emotional differences:
Example: A student might struggle to manage anxiety during exams, needing extra
support like a quiet room for testing, while another student might handle stressful
situations with ease and not require additional accommodations.
- Differences in interests and aptitudes:
Example: In a project-based class, one student might choose to focus on designing a
science experiment because of their interest in biology, while another prefers to create
an art piece due to their strength in visual creativity.
- Learning differences:
Example: A student with dyslexia may find reading assignments challenging but
could perform well in oral presentations or group discussions. Teachers may provide
audio versions of reading materials or allow for alternative ways to demonstrate
knowledge.
Types of learning styles
Field independence & field dependence:
o Field-independent learners: Prefer to work independently, analyze details,
and may be better at abstract thinking. (Individual assessment: Use individual
quizzes or tests that focus on critical thinking rather than group
discussions.)
o Field-dependent learners: Tend to rely on external cues, prefer working in
groups, and are more socially oriented. (Use real-life examples and
storytelling in lessons to help these learners connect with the material.
They tend to grasp concepts better when they are presented in a familiar
or social context.)
Example: A field-independent learner might thrive in tasks requiring individual
problem-solving, while a field-dependent learner might excel in collaborative group
projects.
Left & right dominance:
o Left-brain dominant: Analytical, logical, and detail-oriented.
o Right-brain dominant: Creative, intuitive, and holistic in thinking.
Example: A left-brain dominant student might excel in logical subjects like
mathematics or science, while a right-brain dominant student may be more inclined
toward artistic or creative subjects like music or drama.
Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic:
o Visual learners: Learn best through images, diagrams, and visual aids.
o Auditory learners: Prefer learning through listening, such as lectures or
discussions.
o Kinesthetic learners: Learn best through hands-on activities and physical
movement.
Example: A visual learner might benefit from charts and diagrams in a science class,
an auditory learner may excel by listening to recorded lectures, and a kinesthetic
learner could perform better through lab experiments.
Reflectivity and impulsivity:
o Reflective learners: Take time to think before responding or making
decisions.
o Impulsive learners: Tend to respond quickly, sometimes without much
deliberation.
Example: In a discussion-based class, a reflective learner might pause to consider all
points before contributing, while an impulsive learner might quickly offer their
thoughts.
Ambiguity tolerance:
o High ambiguity tolerance: Comfortable with uncertainty and complexity in
learning tasks.
o Low ambiguity tolerance: Prefers clear, structured tasks and may struggle
with ambiguity.
Example: A student with high ambiguity tolerance might thrive in open-ended
projects with no clear right or wrong answers, whereas a student with low ambiguity
tolerance might prefer tasks with clear instructions and specific goals.
A student might share how positive feedback on a presentation, emphasizing their
clear communication, gave them more confidence in public speaking.
Pygmalion Effect: A phenomenon where higher expectations lead to improved
performance. For instance, if a teacher believes in a student's potential and communicates
high expectations, the student may perform better.
Golem Effect: The opposite of the Pygmalion effect, where lower expectations lead to
decreased performance. If a teacher has low expectations for a student, the student might
internalize this and underperform.
Imagine a learner in your class who seems to be working very hard but not really
making much progress and is consequently starting to doubt their abilities.
What kind of feedback would you give this learner?:
o The feedback should be encouraging and constructive. You might
acknowledge the learner’s effort, which is key to maintaining their motivation,
while also providing specific guidance on areas where they can improve. For
example, you could say, “I see how hard you’ve been working, and that’s
great! Let’s look at a few strategies that might help you break through this
challenge.”
What kind of factors would influence your choice of words and actions?:
o The learner’s emotional state (since they are starting to doubt their abilities)
should influence your tone and word choice. A supportive and empathetic
approach is essential. You might also consider the learner’s personality,
learning style, and the specific areas where they are struggling.
What would you do to support him/her?:
o Offer regular, positive reinforcement to boost confidence, provide extra
resources or tutoring, and set small, attainable goals so the learner can
experience success step by step. Frequent check-ins to monitor progress and
offering growth-oriented strategies would also be helpful.
Have you ever acted in a self-handicapping way?
Have you ever witnessed any learner behaviors that you feel could be interpreted
as a form of self-handicapping?:
o Self-handicapping occurs when learners sabotage their own efforts to avoid
failure, such as procrastination or making excuses for not studying. You may
have seen students avoiding tasks they find difficult or setting themselves up to
fail as a way to protect their self-esteem.
What steps could you take to intervene and help such learners?:
o Interventions could include:
Helping students recognize the behavior.
Encouraging them to set realistic goals.
Providing tools to manage time better.
Building their self-esteem by celebrating small successes.
Helping them reframe failure as an opportunity for growth rather than
something to avoid.
II. BELIEF
Here are examples for each contextual factor in language learning:
1. Macro (Broad, societal influences):
o National cultures: In some countries, learning multiple languages is highly
valued (e.g., in Switzerland, where multiple languages are official), which
encourages strong language programs in schools. In contrast, some
monolingual cultures might emphasize one dominant language, limiting
exposure to others.
o Educational cultures: A country's educational system may emphasize rote
learning versus communicative language teaching. For instance, in some Asian
countries, there is a focus on grammar and written language due to exam-
oriented systems, while Western educational cultures may focus more on
communicative skills and critical thinking.
2. Micro (Immediate, classroom-level situations):
o Immediate situations (lesson, teachers, peers): A teacher's choice of task
(e.g., a communicative activity or grammar drill) influences how students
engage with the language. Similarly, peer interactions—whether learners are
supportive or competitive—can impact the learning atmosphere. For example,
if peers speak the target language outside of class, it may foster more fluency.
3. Interactional (Personal, individual experiences):
o Particular experiences: A student may have a memorable language-learning
experience during a trip abroad, sparking a strong motivation to continue
studying the language.
o Interactions with specific individuals: A student’s relationship with a
particular teacher or language partner can greatly influence their learning. A
supportive teacher who provides positive feedback might boost a learner’s
confidence, whereas negative interactions might cause anxiety or
demotivation.
