LEARNING CONTENT VIII

Objectives:
1. Identify different kinds of pasta.
2. Practice the principles of cooking pasta.
3. Trace the origin of cereals.
4. Classify kinds of cereals
5. Follow the principles in cooking cereals

Pasta Cookery

Today’s healthy pasta meals have roots that stretch back to ancient times. Thousands of
years ago, people ground wheat, mixed it with water to make a wheat paste, dried it, and then
boiled it to go with meals. Today’s consumers welcome pasta to their tables for its versatility and
convenience, just as nutrition scientists recognize pasta meals for their place in healthy eating
patterns.

Types of Pasta

Angel Hair
Angel hair is long, very thin, delicate strands of pasta.
Chunky sauces can be too heavy for it, so go with a thin
cream sauce or just toss it with a compound butter.

Cannelloni
Cannelloni is a large tube-shaped pasta. Think ziti, but
then supersize it. Because of the size, it’s the ideal
specimen for stuffing with fillings such as cheese or
sauce and is often baked as a casserole.

Conchiglie
These shell-like portions of pasta are available in a few
different sizes. Consider pairing it with sauces that will get
caught in the shell-shaped center, like thick cheese-, cream- or
tomato-based sauces. (This type of pasta also works well in
soup.)

Ditalini

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Translated as “little thimbles,” ditalini are very tiny tubes of pasta. It goes well with creamy sauces like in
mac 'n cheese, but is most often found in soup.

Farfalle
These pasta portions bear a strong resemblance to small bow
ties. In fact, some call farfalle “bow tie pasta.” And it's as
versatile as it is fun! These guys are well suited for tomato-
based or cream sauces, along with butter or olive oil. It also
works when combined with vegetables, like in our recipe for
farfalle with fried eggplant, ricotta and tomato sauce.

Lasagna
Large, wide, flat sheets of pasta with ridged edges, lasagna is
most famously used in the dish that bears the same name! The
ultimate comfort food, this pasta casserole is composed of
layers of noodles, sauce, cheese and other fillings.

Linguine
Long, thin, flat strips of pasta that resemble flattened spaghetti,
linguine is often used in conjunction with clam-based sauces or
in other seafood dishes. But it’s fairly versatile! It works with slightly “wet” sauces, from tomato- to cream-
based and beyond.

Macaroni
Think of the hollow space inside these small, bent tubes of pasta
like a vehicle for gooey deliciousness. Cream sauces, melty
cheeses or tomato sauces without many chunks can all stuff
themselves in macaroni, yielding flavorful results. And of
course, let’s not forget about classic macaroni and cheese!

Manicotti
Similar to cannelloni, manicotti are large, ridged tubes of pasta
that practically beg for a filling. It's frequently stuffed with
ricotta, then baked with tomato sauce.

Orecchiette
Orecchiette translates as “little ears,” and the small pasta shapes
do indeed resemble little cartoon ears, or perhaps misshapen
bowls. When making orecchiette dishes, consider slightly
thicker sauces or juicy ingredients like broccoli and sausage,
which can fill the little vessels in the pasta shape with flavor.

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Pappardelle
These flat ribbons of pasta are almost like fettuccine, but
significantly wider and built to hold up to sturdy sauces. So,
bring on the thick, chunky meat sauces for this workhorse
pasta.

Fettuccine
Fettuccine are flat ribbons of pasta, somewhere between
linguine and pappardelle in width. Since this is a fairly sturdy
pasta, it can hold up to thicker sauces and works well with
chunks of meat or vegetables.

Pastina
These tiny spheres of pasta can get lost in sauce. Keep it simple
by serving it with a light topping, such as olive oil or butter,
some seasoning, and maybe a shake of Parmesan cheese. It’s
also great in soups, like a classic chicken noodle!

Penne
These medium-sized, ridged tubes of pasta feature edges cut
at a diagonal. Penne pairs well with a number of sauce types,
including cream-, tomato- or meat-based sauces. Try to keep
the consistency of sauces less chunky though, as you want that
the sauce to flow into the hollow tubes of pasta and imbue
them with flavor.

Rigatoni
These medium-sized tubes of ridged pasta tend to be slightly
larger and fatter than penne, with flat ends. The larger hollow
space means that it’s well suited to slightly chunkier or more
textured sauces — think meat sauces, cream sauces and dishes
with vegetables.

Rotelle
Shaped like little wagon wheels, these cuties are often referred
to as “wagon wheel pasta.” Thick but not-too-chunky cream
and tomato sauces work well with rotelle, and it's also well
suited to pasta salad dishes.

Rotini
These small- to medium-sized, tightly-wound spirals of pasta
are best used with sauces that can seep into those nooks and
crannies. We love it with cream or tomato sauces, though it's
also great when baked in casseroles.

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Tagliatelle
These flat ribbons of pasta fall somewhere between fettuccine
and pappardelle in width, and work well with oil, garlic and
seafood dishes. But they're also thick enough to stand up to
heavier, meaty sauces.

Torchio
These elegant twirls of pasta are perfect for sauces that will get
caught up in their bell-like shape. Think thicker (but not too
chunky!) cream- or tomato-based options.

Ziti
Choose sauces or toppings that are thick enough to “stick” to
the smooth sides of these medium-sized tubes of pasta. Ziti is
famously employed in baked ziti, which is a casserole made
using tomato sauce and cheese.

5 Classic Pasta Sauces

Marinara
A simple tomato sauce will never go out of style. A can or two
of good tomatoes, a lot of garlic, and a bit of fresh herbs,
simmered together until your kitchen smells like an Italian
restaurant, is effortless comfort food at its very best. While a jar
of marinara will do just fine in a pinch, it’s hard to beat
homemade sauce. This classic recipe requires just five
ingredients and takes only 20 minutes to make.
How to use it: Spaghetti is king when it comes to marinara, but
penne or ziti is a close second, since some of the sauce can nestle inside those short shapes so you
get plenty of it with each bite.

Ragù
Amp up that marinara sauce with ground meat and you’ve got a
hearty ragù on your hands. The best meat sauces are simmered
low and slow, so the juices from the meat have plenty of time to
flavor the sauce. The result is a deeply flavored sauce that carries
meaty richness in every bite. Spend a lazy afternoon watching it
on the stove or let it do its thing in the slow cooker.
How to use it: Tagliatelle is the most classic pairing with a traditional ragù like Bolognese. The
wide noodles — similar to fettuccine, which you can also use — won’t get weighed down by the
ground meat. Although creamy polenta isn’t pasta, it’s also a wonderful bed for ragù.

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Pesto
The bright, fresh mix of basil, garlic, olive oil, nuts, and cheese are an easy favorite. Knowing how
to make a straightforward basil pesto will not only give you a
quick pasta sauce to add to your repertoire, but also have
something to dress up pizza, swipe on sandwiches, and even
add to chicken salad.

How to use it: Fusilli, orecchiette, and penne catch the rough
texture of pesto sauce quite well in their nooks and crannies.
Although if all you have is spaghetti, you’ll be just satisfied with your meal.

Brown Butter
Brown butter is the one-ingredient pasta sauce that’s equal parts
fast and fancy — it’s nutty, rich, and decadent. It comes together
in minutes and makes just about any bowl of noodles feel a little
fancy. Simply melt butter in a saucepan and cook it for a few
extra minutes until it smells nutty and has a toasted-brown hue.

How to use it: Pretty much any pasta shape will benefit from a
bath in luxe brown butter. Ravioli is particularly lovely.

Alfredo
It’s hard to deny the pleasure of this classic cream sauce bolstered with butter and Parmesan. Don’t
save decadent Alfredo sauce for a night at your local Italian restaurant
— it’s quite simple to make at home and can be enjoyed as is or with
a topping of chicken.

How to use it: Fettuccine, no question. Or go rogue and use it as a sauce

for pizza.

How to Cook Pasta

The formula for pasta seems oh-so-obvious. Water + pasta = dinner — right? But
sometimes the supposedly simplest things prove to be the trickiest.

It turns out the window for pasta perfection — not stuck together, and neither mushy nor
hard in the center — is slim. And then there are all the other factors to consider. Should you add
salt to the water? Or oil? What about a cold-water rinse at the end?

1. Use a large pot

Pick a roomy pot that gives the pasta plenty of space to move around in. This is a good
time to call that eight-or 12-quart stockpot into action.

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 2. Load up the pot with lots of water
You want five or six quarts of water for a standard 16 oz. package of pasta.

When you’re hungry and want to get to spaghetti time stat, you might be tempted to use
less water, so it boils quicker. Don’t. Just like pasta needs a roomy pot, it needs plenty of
H2O to totally submerge every strand.

Here’s a tip for making the water boil faster. Put a lid on the pot, but keep it partially
uncovered so you’ll hear when the water starts to boil. Leaving a gap will also help keep
the water from boiling over before you turn it down.

3. Salt the water

Salt it good! Don’t just give a single tap of the shaker — you want at least a tablespoon for
6 quarts of water. In fact, a chef we know uses 2 tablespoons of coarse salt for 6 quarts of
water! You want it to be sea-water salty. Not that we go around sipping the sea, blech.
But the salty water is essential because it boosts the pasta’s flavor.

4. Bring the water to a full, rolling boil

Again, don’t let hanger make you dump in the pasta when the water is at a mere simmer.
You want a vigorous boil. Remember, the pasta is going to cool down the temperature of
the water once you drop it in. To bring the water back up to a boil more quickly, put the lid
back on.

5. Stir to keep the pasta from sticking

Stand guard and stir the pot at least two- or three-times during cooking. Don’t let the strands
clump. They should swirl, unencumbered and free.

6. Test the pasta two minutes before it’s “ready”

Check the pasta packaging for the cook times. This is where it gets tricky. Ever notice that
the instructions give a range of time? For instance, regular dry spaghetti takes between 6
to 8 minutes. Or is that 5 to 7 minutes? Or 10 to 12? Depends on the package and the pasta.

Start checking the pasta’s doneness on the earlier range of the time frame. Fish out a single
strand of pasta using a pasta fork (or whatever — we find a pair of chopsticks is perfect).
Let it cool, then bite into it.

How does it feel on your teeth? Does the center resist just enough or is there still a bit of a
crunch? Does the pasta have a springy bounce to it? That’s what you want.

Unless you love it softer — sometimes a bowl of slightly soggy noodles tastes like home.
But no matter your preference, it’s better to err on the side of al dente because you can fix
that if a not-quite-cooked texture isn’t your thing

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 7. Save a scoop of pasta water
Once you think the pasta is cooked to your liking, take two seconds to do this little step
that most home cooks skip: Before you drain the water, scoop out a cup or two in a Pyrex
measuring cup or really anything that won’t crack.

This starchy water can work wonders in sauces, to either bind the sauce and pasta together,
or to thin down thicker sauces so they’ll coat the noodles.

8. Drain, toss with sauce, and serve hot

Place a colander in the kitchen sink and drain your pasta. Put the drained pasta back into
the pot with sauce (or into the saucepan if the sauce is still cooking and the pan is large
enough), add your pasta water, and toss to evenly coat. Serve piping hot.

How to fix undercooked pasta: If there’s more bite than you like, put it back in the pot with
your saved cooking water (see below), add your sauce, and cook over medium high heat
for an extra minute or two. Bonus: The sauce will bind with the pasta and create a new kind
of yumminess.

Pasta perfection tips

 Cooking times can vary according to pasta shape, amount, and type (whole-wheat, gluten-
free, etc.). Use the suggested cooking time on the package as a suggestion, not gospel.
 Unlike dried pasta, fresh pasta takes only two or three minutes to cook, max. It’s trickier
to cook than dried, so save it until you’ve got dried down.
 Stuffed pasta, like ravioli, will rise to the surface and float when ready.
 Don’t add oil to the pasta water. Some cooks are under the false assumption that olive oil
will keep the strands from clumping. But that’s nothing a good stir won’t solve, plus oil
could leave your pasta too slick for the sauce to cling.
 Don’t rinse your pasta when it’s done cooking. That washes away all the happy starches
that bind it to the sauce.

Cereal Cookery

Term “cereals” is used for two things – as a “sort-of” synonym for “grains” and for
“breakfast cereals”. We will talk about both here.

Cereal (coming from “Ceres” which was the ancient Roman goddess of agriculture) is
basically grass but cultivated and grown for the edible components of its grain. They are a rich
source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein if they are used as whole gran
(which is their natural form). If they are refined, they lose most of their useful parts and are left
with carbohydrates.

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Types of Grains

 Maize - or corn is a staple food of people in the Americas, and Africa> It is also used for
food of livestock around the world and is mainly used for that.
 Rice - grows in tropical and some temperate parts of the world. It is staple food in many
parts of the world like Far East, South Asia, and Latin America. It has the third-highest
worldwide production, after sugarcane and corn.
 Wheat - primarily grows in temperate regions and it is a staple food there.
 Barley - where wheat cannot grow, barley can. It is grown for malting and as food for
livestock.
 Sorghum - staple food in Asia and Africa especially among the poor. It is also used as food
for livestock.
 Oats - once popular worldwide as a winter breakfast food and food for livestock it is today
used in cereals and is famous for that.
 Rye - grown in cold climate and used for food and as an ingredient in alcoholic drinks.

Types of Cereals

 Hot Cereals - served and eaten hot, they can be wholesome and unsweetened and sugary
and processed. Unsweetened version is healthier and it can be enriched with much healthier
variants like honey and fruit.
 Whole-Grain Cereal – healthier variant because (as we said) it has much more vitamins,
minerals and other useful stuff for human body. It can help reduce cholesterol and sugar in
blood and prevent overeating among other things.
 Bran Cereal – has much higher quantities of insolvable fiber. It helps digestion and prevents
constipation. It also gives filling of satiety which lasts longer eliminating the need for food
for a longer time.
 Sugary Cereal – cereal with high (sometimes too high) quantities of sugar. Targeted at
children, it is highly processed (which means not much of useful ingredients is in there),
and has large amounts of additives and preservatives.
 Organic Cereal – an imprecise term but nevertheless used to describe cereals that don't use
pesticides, artificial fertilizers, and no genetically modified ingredients. Their sweeteners
are also natural (like honey for instance).

Understanding Cereal Products

When faced with all those cereal choices, the three things to consider are whole grains,
fiber and the amount of sugar per serving. A good cereal is one that is 100 percent whole grain and
provides 16 grams of whole grains per serving—a third of the way toward the goal of 48 grams of
whole grains a day. Next, focus on fiber (out of a daily goal of 20 to 35 grams). Cereals range in
fiber from less than 1 gram to more than 10 grams per serving.

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 Then, check the sugar content. Cereals often contain many forms of sugar under different
disguises. The nutrition label will tell you how much sugar there is, in grams, per serving. Many
cereals have more than 12 grams per serving, which is the equivalent of 3 teaspoons of sugar.
Cereals that contain dried fruits, such as raisins, blueberries or cranberries, also tend to be high in
sugar, not only from the fruits themselves but also because they may be coated in more sugar.

Healthy Shopping Tips for Cereals

 A top choice is a cereal labeled 100 percent whole grain. At the very least, look for a cereal
with a whole grain at the top of the ingredients list. Don’t rely on one that simply says
“made with whole grains,” because that could be any amount—often, very little. Seals from
the Whole Grains Council, which you’ll find on some cereals, can help you identify good
sources of whole grains.
 For money savings, look for store brand or “minor” brand cereals. The nutrition and quality
are often just as good as national brands.
 Look for a cereal that provides at least 5 grams of fiber per serving. Keep in mind that if
you eat more than the serving listed, you will get more fiber (but also more calories, sodium
and sugar).
 Be wary of cereals with added dried fruit, as the fruit is often sugar-coated. A better
alternative is to buy a plain cereal and add your own raisins or fresh fruit (such as berries,
peaches, bananas, grapes) at home.
 Limit sugar to 8 grams per serving; 4 or 5 grams is even better. A little more sugar is okay
for fruited cereals, especially if they are also good sources of fiber.
 Although it shouldn’t be the priority for your picks, look for a cereal with at least 3 grams
of protein per serving. Protein can help keep you full longer than eating carbohydrates
alone (the milk you add provides some protein, too). Some cereals have 10 or more grams
of protein per serving, rivaling the protein content of two medium-size eggs.
 Note how much sodium is in your favorite cereals and search for similar cereals with less—
preferably under 180 milligrams per serving (sodium can be as high as 400 milligrams per
serving).
 Check the fat content. Most cereals are low in fat, but some contain more than you may
think, even unwanted saturated and Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils.
 If you’re not used to or don’t care for high-fiber, whole-grain cereal, go half-and-half by
mixing one with your favorite lower-fiber cereal. Another alternative: Health-food stores
often sell cereals that mimic sugary mainstream cereals but are made with whole grains
and have less sugar. These can even make for a healthful dessert.
 Don’t forget to pick up milk. Choose low-fat or nonfat dairy milk. If you’ll be using a soy,
almond or any other nondairy beverage, select one that is fortified with calcium and vitamin
D and is unsweetened, or at least low in added sugar. This would be particularly important
if your cereal is already bringing its own sugar to the bowl.

Principles in Cooking Cereals

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 Cooking improves cereals in many ways. For the average person, proper cooking has
almost as much to do with the nutriment finally obtained as the proportions of nutrients originally
present. Flavor and appearance are improved, with the gain in digestibility that comes from
appetizing foods which stimulate the flow of digestive juices. Cooking to convert nutrients ' into
more digestible forms, is very important in the case of cereals which contain so much starch; and
since the starch in these foods is surrounded by cell-walls of crude fiber (largely cellulose) upon
which the digestive juices are unable to act, these walls must be broken down. Part of this
disintegration may be accomplished in milling, and part by thorough mastication but complete
digestion of the starch is assured only by thorough cooking.
Parching is one of the simplest methods of cooking grains. The invisible moisture in the
cells is expanded by the heat, and the cell walls burst. Some of the starch is also made soluble or
changed to dextrin by this process. The digestibility of protein seems to be lessened by cooking at
high temperatures, but the starch can be made almost perfectly digestible.

The softening of cellulose is more perfectly accomplished by cooking for a long time in
the presence of a large amount of moisture, as in steaming, or cooking with water or milk in a
double boiler. The glutinous material which surrounds the starch grains and prevents their
digestion is disintegrated so that the digestive juices can act. In general, the cruder fiber a cereal
contains, the longer it should be cooked. Shows that oats require more cooking than rice; whole or
partially crushed grains than finely ground ones. There is danger in undercooked cereals, not only
of loss of valuable nutriment through failure of digestion, but in irritation of the alimentary tract.
This should be especially remembered in preparing partially cooked breakfast foods.

When cereals are cooked in water some of it is absorbed, and soluble substances in the
food pass into the remaining water. If this is thrown away, as when rice is boiled in a large quantity
of water and subsequently drained dry, a considerable part of the nutriment is lost. Rice water
frequently contains enough dissolved starch to form a jelly on cooling. For this reason, steaming
is a preferable method. Practical application of the fact that certain nutrients in cereals are soluble
is made in the preparation of all kinds of cereal waters and starchy jellies.

Gruels are thin porridges made from flour or other finely ground grain products, with either
water or milk. They are cooked for a long time to ensure the starch being changed to soluble starch,
or even partially dextrinized. Time for cooking should therefore be conscientiously kept by the
clock.

By passing the material through a cheese-cloth or sieve, the course, undissolved portions
are removed, and the smooth product does not irritate weakened digestive organs; hence this
method is desirable for invalids and young children.

In cooking all cereal products, the following points should be observed:

 Use a double boiler.

 Observe carefully the correct proportions of cereal, water and salt.

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  Cook at boiling temperature (212° F.).
 Watch the time by the clock, and always cook the full time prescribed, preferably longer.
 Serve attractively.
 Improper cooking and poor serving are largely responsible for unpopularity of cereal foods.
Care of Cereals
Cereals must be kept in a cool, dry place; warmth will favor the development of the maggot
eggs; and moisture, when absorbed, makes them musty.

Role of Cereals in Cookery

1. Cereals are used as thickening agent, e.g. corn flour in custard, corn flour in white sauce
and macaroni in soups.
2. Cereals are used as coating agent, e.g. maida paste in cutlets or bread crumbs in cutlets.
3. Cereals are used in sweet preparations, e.g. rice payasam and wheat halwa.
4. Malted cereals are used in the preparation of beverages and weaning mixes.
5. Cereal products like corn flakes and rice flakes are used as ready to use foods.
6. Fermented foods made from cereals are used as breakfast foods or snacks, e.g. idli, dhokla.

LEARNING CONTENT IX

Objectives:
1. Differentiate batter and dough.
2. Classify kinds of batter and dough.
3. Identify methods of mixing dough.
4. Describe a well-made crust.
5. Define and describe quick breads.
6. Identify kinds and methods of mixing quick bread.
7. Define and describe kinds of yeast breads.
8. Follow principles in making yeast breads.
9. Describe and differentiate kinds of pastry.
10. Define and classify kinds of cakes.
11. Name kinds of cookies.
12. Describe kinds of frosting.
13. Identify tools in making and applying frosting to cakes.

Batters and Doughs

Dough and batter are two commonly used words in kitchens and restaurants. They are two stages
in baking process and are used for making various recipes. Dough is a comparatively a solid mixture than
batter which is more liquid in nature.

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Batter

Batter has so many things in common with dough that many mistakes it as dough. Batter can be
made with a blender. Batter is made with water, flour, egg and milk – a perfect combination for making
cakes. Batter is also used as a coating for fried foods and a number of recipes such as cookies and omelets
can be made with it.

If you go by the rules followed by bakers, the more flour is added to the mixture, keeping the
quantity of water constant, the more solid form it will take. If the ratio of water and flour (and other
ingredients) exceeds 1:2, the mixture turns harder and changes its category from batter to dough.

To fluff up the batter, baking powder is added. In making some particular recipes, carbonated water
or beer is used to aerate the batter. To make the batter a little more solid, it is fried or steamed. By adding
sugar or salt, batter may be made sweet or savory respectively. Some users include herbs fruits or vegetables
to add different flavors to the recipes. Apart from the purpose aerating the batter, beer is used to add color
and flavor to the foods such as fish and chips. Beer battering is a very popular practice in the USA, Australia,
New Zealand, Ireland and Britain.

Dough

Dough is made by mixing water with flour and kneading it into the shape of round balls or into any
other shape of the maker’s choice. The whole process is done with hands.

In making dough, flour made from rice, rye, almonds and other cereal crops is also used. The type
of product, cooking and baking techniques, nature of the products also determines the form of dough,
particularly its viscosity and elasticity.

Fermented dough is used to make breads. Some types of bread dough also contain milk or egg.
Sometimes dough conditioners are also used before making the final products. Among dough products,
notables are flatbreads such as Pita, Lavash, Naan, Sangak, Yufka and Crackers are also made from dough.
Pasta and noodles are also made with unfermented dough.

Various techniques are used in producing different products. For yeast-based breads, dough is
mixed, kneaded and left to rise. Temperature and time are of great importance for this process as they affect
the final product.

Dough for biscuits and flatbreads is shaped and cooked directly after mixing. In making some types
of dough-based food, such as tortillas, heat is directly applied.

Difference of Batter and Dough

In cooking terms, the word batter has two definitions:

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  A mixture of flour, egg, and milk or water that is thin enough to be poured or dropped from a spoon.
This includes cake and pancake or waffle batter as well as the majority of cookie batters.
 A coating, often of flour and egg though sometimes with bread, which is applied to food that is
meant to be fried. For instance, deep-fried fish is often battered.

The word dough has a different meaning:

 A mixture of mostly flour or meal and a liquid (often milk and/or water) that is stiff enough to be
kneaded or rolled. This covers many baked breads, rolls, and some rolled cookies.

With these two definitions, we can clearly see that the difference between batter and dough is that
batter is thin while dough is quite thick. This plays into the techniques used to mix each type of baking
mixture.

Dough Batter
Definition and Characteristics
 Main ingredient is flour  Mixture of flour egg, and water or milk
 Though mixed with liquid (like water or  Thin enough to be dropped from a spoon (like
milk), it keeps its shape as a mass cake or waffle batter)
 Can be kneaded (bread dough)  Is also the name of a coating for fried foods
 Best mixed by hand, with a wooden spoon, or  Can usually be mixed with an electric hand
with a dough hook or stand mixer
 Can be shaped by hand; does not necessarily  Needs to be shaped by a baking form
need a pan to keep its shape
Examples
 Shortcrust for easy sweet or savory galettes  Pancake or crepe batter
 Yeast dough for cinnamon buns  Sponge cake for swiss rolls
 Choux pastry for eclairs  Batter for frying fish, tempura, pakora, etc.
 Cookie dough for cookies

Mixing Batter and Dough

The consistency of a batter is why you can—the majority of the time—beat it with an electric mixer.
This makes quick work of the process because the liquid to solid ratio is balanced to create a lighter mix
that almost any mixer can handle.
The only exception to using a mixer for a batter is when you add solid ingredients like chocolate
chips. Any baker who has attempted to 'beat in' chips knows that this is often too much for the average
mixer. You will burn up the mixer's motor if you try to do so. If your batter recipe says 'stir in' any
ingredient, there's a good reason and you should follow the advice.
On the other hand, a dough is designed to be thick and has nowhere near the amount of liquid found
in the average batter. When making bread doughs, it's best to not use an electric mixer unless it is a
commercial-grade or has a motor that can handle thick dough (check your instruction manual).

This is the primary reason why bread dough is often mixed by hand with a wooden spoon. Once
enough flour is added and the dough becomes too stiff to stir, kneading finishes up the mixing process.

How to shape Batter and Dough?

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 Cake and muffin batters are much thinner and rely on the form of the baking pan to create the shape.

Drop cookies are in between a dough and batter. They are thicker than cake batters and will spread
out and flatten during the baking process. There's no designated shape or form other than a ball of batter.

In contrast, dough is often shaped by hand because it is extremely stiff. This gives the baker greater
freedom to choose the shape of their bread.

 You might use a loaf pan to create traditional bread loaves.

 You can 'free-form' the loaf into a round or allow a rectangular loaf to spread freely on a baking
sheet. This gives the bread a more artisanal bakery look.
 You can also braid bread dough or cut it into breadsticks.

Rolled cookie dough and biscuits are often cut into shapes. Many sweet bread rolls are shaped by
hand but use the sides of a pan for containment.

Types of Batters

Pour Batters
Are fluid and pour; contain about 2/3 to 1 cup water for every cup flour. Pancakes and waffles, a specialized
kind of pancake, as are crepes, are one of humankind's oldest forms of
bread. Popovers are closely related, but are in a slightly different branch
of the pancake family. They all pour, with waffle batters being the
thickest, pancakes in the middle and crepes, thinned with eggs, are as
thick as heavy cream. Popovers are made from the thinnest of all quick-
bread batters with a liquid to flour ratio of 1:1. Examples are Crepes,
Pancakes, Popovers, Waffles.

Drop Batters
Do not contain as much water as pour batters; contain about 1/2 to 3/4
cup water for every cup flour. Examples are Coffee Cakes, Doughnuts
or Donuts, Dumplings, Loaves or Tea Breads, Muffins.

Main Categories of Dough

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 Leavened Dough
The leavened dough is fermented for a period of time until it achieves its
final form. The rising is done through leaveners, like yeast, baking soda,
and baking powder. The fermented dough can be created by two methods:

Sponge Dough Method

Sponge dough method involves creating a mixture of flour, water, and yeast, which is left to rise until it at
least doubles in size. Then more flour, sugar, salt, and fat is added to the dough and kneaded. This method
gives the bread a flakier texture with a slightly different flavor.

Straight Dough Method

In the straight dough method, all the ingredients are combined in a single session and then kneaded to a
smooth and elastic consistency. Kneading depends on the type of bread you want to make.

Examples of baked food made from leavened dough include all kinds of pieces of bread, pizza, pretzels,
and most rolls.

Unleavened Dough
The unleavened dough does not require any leavening agent and is used
for all baked goodies that do not need to rise but instead stay thin and flaky.
These kinds of dough usually have a higher percentage of fat, which
prevents them from hardening. Some examples of baked treats made from
unleavened dough include shortcrust pastry, crackers, flatbread, tortillas,
and pasta.

Types of Pastry Dough

Laminated Pastry Dough

Laminated dough involves folding and refolding pieces of pastry slathered
with butter many times until many layers are created. Gluten is also
developed during the folding process.
Examples of unleavened laminated dough include phyllo dough and puff
pastry dough. An example of leavened laminated dough includes the
breakfast favorite, the croissant.

Non-Laminated Pastry Dough

The non-laminated dough includes rubbing in fat or butter into the flour
without folding it. Unleavened non-laminated pastries include choux
pastries, éclairs, and pie dough. Leavened non-laminated pastries
include the brioche.

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Types of Dough

Bread Dough
Bread dough is the most common type of dough. This dough
can be made from different types of wheat and various
amounts of water and yeast. Bread dough needs to be
kneaded carefully for a long time to develop the gluten so
that the bread can become firm yet elastic and rise
beautifully while baking.

Bread dough can be made from a single or a combination of flour giving it a different taste and texture.
There are some bread types that use baking soda as leaveners instead of yeast. This bread is known as soda
bread.

Sourdough
Sourdough is one of the oldest types of bread dating back to
3700 BCE in Switzerland; however, the origin of sour bread
fermentation is believed to be in the Fertile Crescent several
thousand years before that.

The bread is made by naturally occurring bacteria in the flour called lactobacilli, and yeast. The ingredients
generally consist of a starter that includes flour and water and some salt. These pieces of bread have quite
a soft crust with a chewy middle and large air bubbles. It also has a very long shelf life.

Sourbread, as the name indicates, has a sour taste due to the lactic acid produced by the bacteria. No milk,
yeast, fat, or sweetener is added to the bread, which makes it markedly different and more natural than other
types of bread.

Rich Dough
The Rich dough is a type of leavened dough that is fortified
with eggs and fats, like butter, oil, cream. If properly made, this
dough can stretch thin, has a smooth texture, and is translucent.

The rich dough can make bread that is soft, fluffy, and tender,
like cake, as the extra fat in the flour shortens the gluten. Although this dough can have high sugar content,
sugar is not necessary to produce rich dough.

Pie Dough
Pie dough is made from a few standard ingredients including
flour, water, salt, and fat in different ratios. Some ore advanced
recipes also include baking powder or vinegar, or flavoring
agents like eggs, lemon juice, cider, and sugar. The flour is
often all-purpose but can be a combination of bread, pastry, or
cake flour.

The fat incorporated into the pie dough can be butter, shortening, or lard and even oil and is used cold and
hard. The success of a pie crust depends on how cold the ingredients are kept, how the fat is distributed into

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the flour, and how much gluten is developed. The resulting texture can be flaky or mealy and tender, with
a beautiful golden-brown color.

Pate Brisee
Pate brisee is a type of pie dough, also known as mealy pie
dough. This is one of the most popular pie doughs and is perfect
for creating desserts with fluted edges. The dough is made from
one-part water, two parts, butter or fat, and three parts flour, and
can be mixed together to resemble cornmeal.

This delicious French pastry dough is made without sugar and works well for liquid fillings, like custards.
It also typically contains one egg for every pound of flour and other ingredients like lemon juice, salt, and
vanilla extract, for flavor.

Pate Sucree
Pate sucree literally translates to sugar dough and is also known
as the short dough. Like the pate brisee, this dough contains one-
part water, two parts fat, and three parts flour by weight. It also
contains an egg for every pound of flour and has several
flavoring agents, just like pate brisee. However, it has a much
higher sugar content, giving it a sweet taste. The flavor is more
cookie-like also and it is the preferred dough for making dessert tarts and cookies.

Pate Sablee
Sablee dough is one of the most popular ingredients used to
make crumbly, compact, and crispy desserts. The term
translates literally into “sandy dough” and it is named so
because of its cookie-like, crumbly texture.

This delicate dough is made by creaming fat with sugar, then incorporating eggs, and then flour in the end.
The crust is either partially or whole baked prior to filling (blind baking). Some recipes also require egg
yolks for a more tender crust, though this is not necessary.

Puff Pastry Dough

This flaky puff pastry dough was invented by French baker,
Cladius Gele, and is laminated, unfermented dough. Unlike
other basic types of dough, puff pastry requires a lot of hard
work and effort.

There are two steps to making a puff pastry: the dough is first
rolled out around butter. It is then turned, rolled, and folded
many times and giving long resting sessions so that the butter spreads evenly throughout the dough. As the
dough is baked, the water evaporates and the butter melts, separating the layers of dough and giving the
puff pastry its distinctive layers and buttery, crisp, and flaky texture.

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Phyllo Dough
Phyllo dough involves stretching the unleavened dough
into very thin, translucent sheets. The dough is popularly
used to make Middle Eastern desserts like the decadent
baklava. However, if you add some vegetable fat to the
mixture, you can get a thicker version of phyllo dough.
This dough can be used to make crisp, crumbly pie crusts,
especially for meat pies.

Choux Pastry Dough

The concept of choux pastry was first invented in 1540
to commemorate the wedding of Catherine de Medici
with King Henry II. The choux pastry dough is fortified
dough paste that requires egg, milk, butter, and water to
make. It is not strictly a dough since the liquid content is
high in it and it is piped through a pastry tip.

If the dough is formed perfectly, it can produce a crispy crust, a light interior, and a perfect golden-brown
color. During baking, water evaporates, leaving the center somewhat empty and hollow. This space can be
filled with whipped cream, custard, or jelly. Therefore, the dough is used to make a mouthwatering variety
of desserts, including éclairs, cream puffs, croquembouche, profiteroles, and Paris-Brest.

Croissant Dough
Croissant dough is very similar to a pastry puff dough but
with added yeast for some extra fluffiness. The dough is
created by enfolding butter and taking it to a series of
turns to create central layers of butter in between the
dough sheets. During baking, the steam separates the
layers of dough.

Although a lot of hard work is involved in it, if the lamination is successful, the resulting bread is very light
and flaky in texture.

Brioche Dough
The dough used to create brioche pastries is non-
laminated, yeast-based dough, which is mixed with butter
and eggs. The resulting bread is soft like cake and has a
tender, creamy, and slightly sweet consistency, without
the signature crunchiness or crispiness that is associated
with most pastries.

This dough is typically rolled into balls to make its characteristic round shape though it can also be made
into an ordinary loaf shape. Brioche Nanterre is made by placing two loaf-shaped sections of brioche dough
side by side and baking them. When the dough rises, the two separate sections fuse together.
Pasta Dough

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Who doesn’t love pasta? Pasta dough is made from unfermented dough, typically consisting of wheat, eggs,
and salt. Sometimes, rice flours, bean flour, or legume flour is used to make the dough gluten-free and give
it a different taste.

This dough is quite hard and requires a lot of kneading so that it is moistened all the way through. The pasta
dough can be rolled into sheets or molded into different shapes. However, the best part is that it can be used
both fresh and dried.

Fresh pasta dough can be made with the hand at home and baked or boiled. Dry pasta is store-bought and
has an extremely long shelf life.

Textures of Dough

Dough that has a higher amount of fat, less water, and less gluten, is less elastic than bread dough and can
be made with two different textures: flaky and mealy.

Flaky Dough
A flaky dough texture is created by mixing the fat with the flour for a smaller amount of time. This results
in bigger chunks of fat spread unevenly in the flour, but it also depends on the type of fat used and the
temperature in which it is added to the flour. When the dough is rolled out, it creates a layer of fat and a
flaky texture once the dough is baked.

The flaky dough is best used to make top crusts of pastries but can also be used as bottom crusts for liquid
fillings.

Mealy Dough
Mealy dough makes crusts that are crisper and more compact. The texture is created by incorporating small
fat particles evenly in the dough, which creates a denser texture. The dough cannot absorb as much water
as flaky dough can and dough requires the fat to be mixed in longer so that the mixture looks like cornmeal.
After baking, the crust is short and tender.

This kind of dough works well for liquid fillings, like custard, especially if you don’t blind bake the crust
(partially baking the crust beforehand). It is also the perfect dough for making bottom crusts of fruit pies as
it does not get soggy.

Quick Breads

Quick breads are bread type products that are leavened with baking powder and baking soda instead
of yeast. Quick breads include muffins, biscuits, scones, cornbread, and quick loaf breads like banana bread
and zucchini bread.

The name “quick bread” comes from the fact that these items can be baked immediately in contrast
to the long rising times that yeast breads need to go through.

Quick breads cover a wide range, from biscuits and scones, which are made from a dough, to
muffins and loaves that are made from a batter. They can be large or small, savory (salty) or sweet. The
major thing that identifies them is the fact that they are, as their name implies, quick to make.

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 The basic ingredients of any quick-bread recipe are all-purpose flour, liquids, typically milk, salt
and leavening agent, such as baking powder and/or baking soda. They usually contain added fat from butter
or vegetable oil, eggs and sugar, but in varying proportions, making some sweeter and richer. Their batters
and dough lend themselves well to flavorful and colorful additions, such as berries, nuts, fruit and dried
fruit.

Quick breads are wonderfully versatile, appropriate whenever the richness of a cake is undesirable.
They are often served at breakfast and brunch, for snacks, and they finish a meal well in place of a sweeter
dessert. When used for a dessert, they can be topped with ice cream or a syrup. Slices can be toasted or
dipped in eggs and made as French toast. They make great sandwiches—though a bit fragile unless “stuck”
together with cream cheese or peanut butter.

Categories of Quick Breads

Quick breads are separated into two main categories: those made with batters and those made with
doughs. Quick breads that are made with a batter include muffins, cornbread, and quick loaf breads (like
banana bread and zucchini bread). Quick breads that are made with a dough include biscuits and scones.

How to Bake Quick Breads?

There are two methods for mixing quick breads: the creaming method and the muffin method. With
the creaming method, sugar and fat (butter, margarine, or shortening) are beat together to entrain air in the
mixture and provide added lift to the batter. With the muffin method, the liquids are combined in one bowl,
the dry ingredients in another, and then the two are mixed together. The creaming method tends to make a
more cake-like bread. The steps for each method follow.

The Creaming Method

1. Place softened butter, margarine, or shortening in a bowl. Add the sugars, spices, and salt and beat
until light and fluffy and air is entrained throughout the mixture. (Do not let the butter or margarine
get warm enough that it approaches the melting point. Friction from the mixing, especially with an
electric mixer, will increase the temperature.)
2. Add the eggs one at a time, beating after each addition.
3. Add any liquid ingredients and stir lightly.
4. Stir or whisk the remaining dry ingredients together. Add them to the mixture and stir until just
combined.
5. Remove to the baking pan(s) and bake.
The Muffin Method
1. Sift or whisk the dry ingredients together to thoroughly disperse the salt, sugar, and leavenings
throughout the flour.
2. Combine all the liquid ingredients including the melted fat.
3. Make a well in the dry ingredients and add the liquid ingredients. Mix with a spatula until just
combined—some lumps may remain.
4. Remove to the baking pan(s) and bake.
Pointers for Success
1. Do not over mix. Over mixing will develop the gluten and make the bread tough instead of tender.
2. Choose low gluten flour, either pastry or all-purpose flour. Bread flour will make a tough loaf.

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 3. Do not scoop the flour. Sift or whisk the flour to make it light and fluffy, not packed, then spoon it
into the measuring cup.
4. The creaming method produces a more cake-like product and is well-suited for those recipes that
have a high fat or sugar content. Consider the creaming method for those recipes that call for more
than four tablespoons of butter per loaf.
5. Bake soon after mixing before the effect of the leavenings begin to dissipate.
6. If you use dry milk in your recipe, add it to liquid ingredients so that it can be stirred and thoroughly
dissolved.
7. Commercial muffins tend to be very high in fat and sugar—more like a tea cake than a bread. Your
quick bread should be more bread-like and not as rich as commercial muffins.
8. Grease pans well and consider dusting the pans with flour as well. (If you use butter, always dust
your pans to absorb the water in the butter.) With the high sugar content, the loaves tend to stick in
the pans. Non-stick pans are helpful.
9. Breads are easier to remove from the pan if they set for five or ten minutes before removing the
bread.
10. Test for doneness by inserting a toothpick into a crack in the center of the loaf. If the bread is done,
the toothpick should come out clean.
11. Quick breads are best if they are tightly wrapped and stored in the refrigerator overnight. After the
bread has completely cooled, wrap it tightly in plastic or foil. As the bread chills, both the flavor
and the moisture permeate the bread. The bread can be stored in the refrigerator for five to seven
days.
12. Quick breads can also be frozen. Place the wrapped breads in freezer-grade plastic bags and freeze
them for up to three months. When ready to use, thaw the loaves in the refrigerator while still
wrapped.

Yeast Breads

Yeast is a one-celled microorganism growing all around us and on us. It grows when it has food
and water and suspends growth when it does not. In suspended animation, it is light enough to be blown by
the wind, like a seed. If there is water and food where it lands, it will reproduce and continue the cycle. It
is also on human skin and can be transferred to food through contact, with clean or dirty hands. Yeast has
been exploited by humans for thousands of years to make bread, beer, and wine. It does so by turning sugar
into alcohol and gas to gain energy.

Which Yeast is used in Baking?

Yeast used in baking is predominately Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bakers and baking companies
have produced numerous strains, meaning clones of yeast with special attributes. This is similar to a
gardener breeding a tulip with special colors, height or hardiness. Just as there are hundreds of tulip
varieties, there are hundreds of yeast strains. The yeast strains which are popular today are bred for gas
production and fermentation speed. Beyond S. cerevisiae there are several yeasts which are useful in
sourdoughs, although S. cerevisiae is common there, too.
There are also special strains of yeast which have been created for lean doughs or enriched doughs.
Bakers have access to many strains, just like brewers have different yeasts to choose from. The public only
has a few strains from which to choose.

What Yeast Eats

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 Yeast eats sugar, glucose to be specific. If there is no glucose around but there are other sugars,
starches or alcohols, yeast creates machines (enzymes) to convert
these into glucose. The yeast carries information in its DNA for
dozens of machines specific to many food sources.

Flour has a lot of starch in it, which is made of long chains

of sugar molecules. Flour carries its own enzymes that work on the
starches and chop them into simple sugars. This happens after the
flour has been rehydrated with water or other liquids. Then the yeast uses the sugars for energy.

The Differences Between Regular Yeast, Instant Yeast, and Bread Machine Yeast
Taste and ease of use. Instant and bread machine yeast is dried in a certain way to allow it to be mixed into
flour without being proofed first. It is slightly more expensive than the old-fashioned technology. Regular,
active dried yeast results in a slightly different flavor, which some people prefer. We have also found coarse,
dried yeast in bulk at health food stores. The way it is manufactured, it takes about twice as long to
reconstitute but functions the same as powdered yeast once you proof it.
Cake yeast is compressed fresh yeast and is refrigerated. It has a shorter shelf life than the dried yeast, but
its flavor is preferred in many German cakes.

Main Types of Yeast Bread

Baguette
Known to many Americans as “French bread,” this elongated oval
is arguably one of the most recognizable breads in the western world.
By definition, a baguette is four simple ingredients: Yeast, water,
flour, salt.

Rye
While some of us might think of this as a singular type of bread, rye is actually a category quite vast in its
own right. Made from varying proportions of rye and wheat flour,
rye can range from dark (black bread rye) to light (buttermilk rye).
Rye is a favorite of many Eastern European and Nordic countries. In
Finland they actually hang “rye rings” on rafters, and spray them
with water before they eat them. Because of its dense texture and
strong, almost sour flavor, rye is great for sandwiches or even toasted
with a creamy cheese, smoked salmon, or a sweet jam.

Miche
Miche is a bread with a story. Sometimes referred to as pain de campagne (“country bread” in French), this
bread originated centuries ago in Western Europe when families used to bring all the grain, they’d been
able to harvest (mostly wheat, at that time) to the village baker. Over a large fire, with all gathered around,

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the baker would work his magic, and families would leave with large, round loaves that could last an entire
week. So, it seems appropriate that the signature shape of a miche be perfectly round and hearth-like. It’s
about as communal a bread as they come.

Pugliese
Pronounced “pool-yee-AY-zee,” this bread was born of economic resourcefulness. In the southeast region
of Italy, Puglia, the wheat source was primarily durum, is a hard grain that doesn’t make the most pleasant
bread when used all alone. Hundreds of years ago, the enterprising community discovered that using
mashed potatoes as a supplement to the durum flour was the perfect solution. The potato addition literally
stretched the bread, making the crumb chewy and tasty, which is
why we can still find it in artisanal bakeries today.

Challah
Best known for its role in the Jewish faith, challah is a bread that has
climbed far beyond religious boundaries. The addition of eggs and
fat (sometimes oil, other times butter) gives challah a richness and
sweetness that delivers on the indulgence its braided look suggests. Despite its religious associations,
challah isn’t beholden to rigid baking laws. That exterior sheen that takes challah to the next level of eye
pleasing is a product of an egg wash that’s painted on the dough just
before it goes in the oven. Challah often comes in rolls, which are a
great replacement for brioche when serving burgers.

Fundamental Principles in Bread Making

1. Read the recipe and practice accuracy in measuring ingredients.
2. Prepare pan by greasing use lukewarm water for yeast.
3. Knead the dough by folding opposite side towards you using the heels of the palm.
4. Punching is done to expel extra carbon dioxide and incorporate oxygen needed for the growth of Yeast,
to achieve uniform fermentation, to distribute yeast, sugar and other ingredients evenly.
7. When dough looks double in size, test by gently pressing two fingers into it. If the dents remain, the
dough has doubled and is light.
8. Apply the baking test, when they are golden brown and sound hallow when tapped lightly.
9. Remove rolls and laves from pans as they come from the oven.
10. To keep the tops of yeast breads soft, brush immediately with butter or margarine as they come from
the oven.
11. Store bread when completely cooled.

Pastry

Pastry is essentially a type of bread and so many different types exist that there is no one way to
classify them. Their chief differences have to do with their fat, the type used, its proportion, and how it is
introduced it into the flour. The two main types of classification used here are: NONLAMINATED
PASTRY, where solid fat is cut into the flour insufficient cutting of fat into the flour cause tough crust., or
added as melted or liquid oil; or LAMINATED PASTRY, where solid fat is repeated folded into the dough
using a technique called lamination. Those include Pie and Tart Crusts, Choux or Pâte à Choux, Brioche,
Croissant, Danish, Puff Pastry, Phyllo, and Strudel.

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 All pastries have the minimum of ingredients - flour, liquid (water or milk), salt (it is omitted if
margarine or salted butter is used) and fat (usually butter, but can be shortening, lard or oil or in other term
it is called hydrogenated shortening) - in different proportions by weight, being handled and baked in
various ways. Some pastry calls for cold shortening. Additional ingredients are found in some recipes, such
as eggs and sugar, contribute to leavening, flavor and browning. Except for croissant, Danish and brioche,
which make use of yeast, most leavening agents for pastries are steam and air. They are decorated - braided,
shaped, filled - in a myriad of ways.

The Five Basic Types of Pastries

The five basic types of pastries are shortcrust pastry, filo pastry, choux pastry, flaky pastry and puff
pastry. These pastry types are combined with various ingredients and flavors around the world to create
such cultural staples as: samosas in India, empanadas in Spain, pain au chocolat in France and spanakopita
in Greece.

1. Flaky Pastry: The most rustic and simple of all the pastry doughs, flaky pastry is used for sweet
and savory pies, quiche, sausage roffs, and turnovers. Well-made crusts are usually tender and
flaky. It benefits from a hands-off attitude because the flakiest of doughs is the result of pea-sized
chunks of butter and gentle hand work. Overworking this dough will yield tough and crumbly
pastry, which is the last thing you want in a homemade pie. Cold water is usually sprinkled in flour
mixture to produce tender but flaky pastry. Pricking the pastry is needed before pouring the filling.
2. Shortcrust Pastry: A much more forgiving and foolproof variety of pastry, shortcrust pastry is
resilient if overworked. This dough is much more cohesive than flaky pastry, because it's often used
as the sturdy base for tarts. In fact, this dough is so sweet and sturdy, it's not too dissimilar to
shortbread cookie dough.
3. Puff Pastry: This is a flaky pastry characterized by fat and air being trapped between the layers of
the dough to give a delicate, layered, and crisp finish. This time-consuming pastry is considered a
go-to for pastry chefs, and worth the time to make. It is often used for pie crusts, as wrapping for
meats, as well as vol-au-vents, cream horns and mille feuilles.
4. Choux Pastry: Choux pastry, or pâte à choux, is made of flour, water, butter, and eggs—its texture
is thick and sticky. Instead of using a rising agent, the batter is beaten together on the stovetop until
it forms a thick mass. The process traps steam, which gets released in the oven, creating a puff
pastry. This creates a crispy outer shell and hollow interior that can be filled with a variety of
fillings and is used for eclairs and profiteroles.
5. Filo Pastry: This type of pastry is made in very thin sheets and used as a casing for numerous
delicate savory and sweet dishes such as baklava and börek in Middle Eastern and Balkan cuisine.

Examples of Pastries

Cinnamon Roll
A cinnamon roll is a sweet rolled pastry made with a yeasted dough,
gooey cinnamon-sugar filling, and topped with cream-cheese icing.
They're commonly eaten as a breakfast pastry in Northern Europe and
the United States.

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 Morning Bun
Morning buns are made from laminated croissant dough that puffs up
during baking, resulting in flaky and buttery layers. The rolls are filled
with a cinnamon-sugar mixture and finished with a honey glaze and
sanding sugar.

Sticky Buns
Sticky buns are made
with a caramel glaze,
which gives the buns
their name. The glaze is
poured into the baking
dish, followed by toasted pecans. The buns are placed onto the sticky mixture, and after baking, the pan is
inverted so that the glaze oozes over the top.

Baklava
Baklava is a Greek, sweet dessert pastry made of layers of filo
filled with chopped nuts and sweetened with syrup or
honey.

Scones
Technically, scones are a biscuit-like quick bread, but in the United States we refer to them as pastries.
They are usually made of wheat or oatmeal flour and baking powder for leavening. The dough is rolled into
a disc, from which wedges are cut and baked until golden brown with a flaky, soft interior. Scones can be
sweet or savory and are often eaten for breakfast, but are also served with afternoon tea.

Croissants
A type of puff pastry from France, croissants are a rich, flaky roll
named for their distinct crescent shape. Typically eaten at
breakfast, croissants can be made by layering yeast-leavened
dough with butter, and combined with cheese or chocolate.
Pies
A pie is a baked dish of fruit, meat or vegetables, typically made
of a pastry-dough crust and often topped with pastry. While
apple pie is a fixture in North American culture, other popular
pie flavors include cherry, peach, pecan and blueberry. Usually
fillings need to be cooled before pouring into the crust.

Danishes
A sweet pastry and specialty of Denmark, Danishes are a
popular breakfast buffet item, available in flavors like apple,
cherry, chocolate and cheese. When baked correctly, they are
fluffy and crispy on the outside, and buttery and flaky on the
inside.

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Macarons
Macarons (not to be confused with macaroons) are a sweet
French meringue-based confection made with egg whites,
sugar and almonds, sandwiched around a layer of ganache or
buttercream. They are round and bite-sized, and come in a wide
variety of colors and flavors, like pistachio, rose and salted
caramel.
Éclairs
An oblong, hollow pastry made with choux dough and filled
with custard or chocolate-flavored cream, éclairs are a staple at
any gourmet bakery or French patisserie. They are topped with
fondant icing — the same type of icing that is commonly used
on profiteroles.

Strudels
A German type of layered pastry, strudels are made with filo
pastry and a filling that is usually sweet. Popular varieties include
apple, cheese and sour cherry. They are often served with cream.

Cannoli
Cannoli originate from Italy, and are made with a tube-like shell
of fried pastry dough filled with a creamy, sweet filling usually
made with ricotta cheese. They can range in size no bigger than a
finger to as large as a fist.

Pretzels
Unmistakable with their unique knotted shape, pretzels are made
with baked dough in both soft and hard varieties. Originating in
Europe, pretzels can be made with both sweet and savory flavors
and a variety of toppings and coatings.

Tarts
A baked dish made with a filling over a pastry base, tarts
(unlike pies) have an open top. Traditionally baked with short
crust pastry, tarts can be made with sweet ingredients like
custard and fruit, or savory ingredients (often called quiches).

Profiteroles
Called cream puffs in the United States, profiteroles are a French
dessert made with choux pastry balls filled with whipped cream,
pastry cream, custard or ice cream. The puffs may be left plain or
topped with powdered sugar, fondant icing or chocolate ganache.

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Cakes and Cookies

Cakes

There are many different types of cake recipes and numerous ways of categorizing them. The
general classification used is whether or not they contain fat, also known as shortening (not the be confused
solely with just processed shortening), and are called: Shortened (Butter or Oil) Cakes or Unshortened
(Foam) Cakes. Chiffon cakes make up the third category, but here they're often included with unshortened
(foam) cakes.

Cakes can be Filled, Frosted and Glazed. Cakes tend to be special and are often decorated, being
associated with life's milestones -- weddings, showers, engagements, birthdays -- or they can be enjoyed as
a simple dessert with fruit or consumed as a snack.

A basic flour mixture serves as the foundation for sweet and rich cakes and what are known as little
cakes, called cookies, and their savory cousins being quick-breads and yeast breads. Basic ingredients for
made-from-scratch cake recipes often include flour, sweetener (sugar), fat (butter, vegetable oil), liquid
(milk), leavening agent (steam, beaten eggs, baking powder and/or baking soda), and flavorings (salt,
vanilla extract). Cakes can also be purchased ready-made or baked with packaged mixes that come ready
to be combined with water, eggs and vegetable oil.

Cakes lend themselves to limitless variations depending on the proportion of their ingredients, the
way they are mixed, flavorings added to the basic ingredients, the shapes of the pans used in baking, and
cooling and storing methods. Any number of fillings, frosting and final decorations can be chosen to make
every cake unique and an artistic expression of its maker.

Types of Cake
Butter Cake
Any recipe for cake that begins "cream butter and sugar" is a
butter cake. After the creaming, you add eggs to aerate the
batter a bit, flour (and sometimes another liquid, like milk) to
give it structure and texture, and baking powder or baking soda
to ensure that it rises in the oven. Different types of cake batter
within the butter cake family include chocolate, white, yellow and marble; for white and yellow cakes
coloring typically depends on whether they have whole eggs, or extra egg yolks in them (yellow cake) or
egg whites only (white cake).

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 Pound Cake
Pound cake is a relative of butter cake. It's so called because
it can be measured as a matter of proportion: a pound of butter,
a pound of sugar, a pound of eggs, and a pound of flour. In
some pound cake recipes, you'll see the eggs separated and the
egg whites whipped and folded into the batter, to leaven it; in
other recipes you'll find leaveners like baking soda and baking
powder, bringing it well into the butter-cake fold. These cakes
are usually very lightly flavored and served plain or topped with a simple glaze or water icing. A pound
cake is usually baked in a loaf or Bundt pan. Many coffee cakes, sour cream cakes, and fruit crumb cakes
are variations of pound cake.

Sponge Cake
Any recipe that contains no baking soda or baking powder
but lots of whipped eggs or egg whites? That's a sponge cake
and there are several different types of sponge cake. which
will be called different things wherever you are.

Genoise Cake
In Italy and France, a sponge cake is called genoise; in
genoise, whole eggs are beaten with sugar until they're thick
and ribbony, and then flour (and sometimes butter) is added
and the batter is baked; the result is wonderful baked in a
round cake pan and simply frosted, but genoise is also pliable
enough to be baked in a jelly-roll pan and rolled up into a
roulade.

Genoise lacks much assertive flavor of its own, but it is often used to construct layered or rolled cakes when
a lighter texture than a butter cake is desired. To add flavor and moisture, genoise cake layers are always
moistened with a flavored syrup, and they are often sliced into thin horizontal layers and stacked with rich
fillings such as buttercream. These layer cakes, common in the coffeehouses of Europe, are called
"European-style" to distinguish them from American-style butter layer cakes, which generally have fewer,
thicker layers.

Biscuit Cake
Biscuit (always pronounced the French way as bees-kwee)
cakes are another type of sponge cake containing both egg
whites and yolks, but, unlike genoise, the whites and yolks
are whipped separately and then folded back together. This
creates a light batter that's drier than a genoise but holds its
shape better after mixing. For this reason, it's often used for
piped shapes such as ladyfingers. If baked in a tube pan like an angel food cake, it makes a very chewy
sponge cake that was popular in the early 20th century but has since fallen out of favor. However, it's still
known in a slightly different form as the classic Passover sponge cake, in which the flour is replaced by
matzoh cake meal and potato starch.

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 Angel Food Cake
Angel food cakes are made with egg whites alone and no
yolks. The whites are whipped with sugar until very firm
before the flour is gently folded in, resulting in a snowy-
white, airy, and delicate cake that marries beautifully with
fruit. Most angel food cakes have a spongy, chewy quality
derived from their relatively high sugar content and the absence of egg yolks. Baked in ungreased two-
piece tube pans, angel food cakes are cooled by being inverted, since this type of cake would collapse if
cooled right-side-up in the pan or if removed from the pan while still warm. There's also no butter here, so
the cake is fat free.

Chiffon Cake
This fairly recent American creation was invented by a
salesman who sold the recipe to General Mills, which spread
the recipe through marketing materials in the 1940s and 1950s.
A classic chiffon cake is kind of a cross between an oil cake
and a sponge cake. It includes baking powder and vegetable oil,
but the eggs are separated and the whites are beaten to soft peaks before being folded into the batter. This
creates a cake with a tender crumb and rich flavor like an oil cake, but with a lighter texture that's more like
a sponge cake. Chiffon cakes can be baked in tube pans like angel food cakes or layered with fillings and
frostings.
Baked Flourless Cake
These include baked cheesecakes and flourless chocolate
cakes. For easy removal, they're often made in a springform
pan, though some can also be made in regular round layer cake
pans. Often the filled pan is placed in a larger pan that's half-
filled with water to insulate the delicate, creamy cake from the
oven's strong bottom heat, which might give the baked cake a porous rather than silky texture. This is called
baking the cake in a water bath.
Unbaked Flourless Cake
These types of cakes are typically molded in a dessert ring or
springform pan then simply chilled before unmolding. They
include unbaked cheesecakes and mousse cakes. They often
have a crust or bottom layer that's baked before the mousse
is added. Sometimes other layers, such as genoise or biscuit, are alternated with the mousse.

Carrot Cake
Carrot cake uses the leavening practices of butter cake, but
instead of butter uses a neutral oil like vegetable or canola oil.
For this reason, it will keep a little longer than butter cakes
but can sometimes come out on the greasy side. (The process
is pretty much the same: instead of starting out beating butter
and sugar, you start out whipping eggs and sugar, then add
oil.)

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 Red Velvet Cake
Red velvet cake is essentially a butter cake, though it is
frequently made with oil instead of butter. In addition, cocoa
is added to the cake batter to create the distinct red velvet
flavor — originally it was a reaction between buttermilk and
the raw cocoa widely available at the time of red velvet's
inception that caused a ruddy-hued crumb. These days you'll
more often find them tinted with food coloring.

Types of Frosting

Nothing transforms a cake or cupcake from good to heavenly like a light, creamy frosting. But with
so many different types of frostings and icings you can make, it's no simple matter to decide which the best
one for topping your treats is.

When considering the many different types of frostings there are for cakes, cupcakes, and other
baked goods, you can think about them in six broad categories: buttercream frosting, cooked frosting,
whipped cream frosting, royal icing, ganaches, and glazes.

Buttercream
Buttercream is by far the most common type of frosting, and it's
made by combining a type of fat—usually, but not always
butter—with sugar. Buttercream sometimes uses eggs to impart a
smooth and airy consistency and the possibilities for adding flavor
and color are nearly endless. There are at least five distinct types
of buttercream frosting, although it can get confusing since one or
two of them are known by multiple names:

 Simple Buttercream: Also known as American buttercream, this one is essentially a combination
of fat (i.e. butter) and confectioners’ sugar (aka powdered sugar). Optional ingredients include eggs
(either whole eggs, just the yolks or just the whites), milk, half and half or nonfat milk solids. Note
that cream cheese frosting is merely simple buttercream which uses cream cheese instead of butter
as the fat.
 Decorator's Buttercream: Because butter tends to melt at room temperature (or at least become very
soft), buttercream frosting is not ideal for producing the decorative flowers and curlicues you see
on fancy wedding cakes. The solution is to so-called decorator's buttercream, which—instead of
butter—is made with vegetable shortening. In addition, decorator's buttercream is whipped
considerably less than ordinary buttercream. What it lacks in lightness, it makes up for in stability,
making it ideal for producing those decorative flourishes. Unfortunately, it lacks flavor, so it's not
uncommon for a small amount of butter to be included.
 Meringue Buttercream: Sometimes called Swiss or Italian meringue buttercream, this variation is
made by beating a hot syrup of sugar and water into a basic egg white foam, then whipping softened
butter into the resulting meringue to make the frosting. Heating the meringue gives it extra stability,
which means this frosting is extremely light and airy.
 French Buttercream: This is probably the richest buttercream and yet it's also extremely light in
texture. It's made by adding boiling syrup into beaten egg yolks and then whipping into a foamy
consistency, to which softened butter is then added and beaten some more until light and creamy.

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  Pastry-Cream Buttercream: Also known as German buttercream, this variation is made by
combining pastry cream (which is a custard with some sort of added starch, such as flour or
cornstarch) with butter, and possibly additional confectioner's sugar.

Cooked Frosting
Seven-minute frosting is the classically cooked frosting and it's made by heating sugar, water, and corn
syrup to a boil, then pouring this boiling syrup into a bowl of stiff-peak meringue with the beater going.
The trick is adding the hot liquid slowly, aiming for the side of
the bowl rather than directly into the meringue.

Heating the meringue through the addition of this hot

liquid coagulates the proteins in the egg whites, which
stabilizes the meringue and helps the frosting hold its shape.
Seven-minute frostings are delicate and can be
absorbed into the cake if not eaten the first day. You can use
meringue powder to make seven-minute frosting, but note that
pasteurized eggs (including liquid egg whites you buy in a carton) will not form as foamy a meringue.

Whipped Cream Frosting

Whipped cream frostings consist of whipped cream, powdered
sugar, and flavorings—what could be simpler? As with
buttercream, the cornstarch in the powdered sugar helps
stabilize the frosting. It's possible to overbeat this type of
frosting, which can cause it to turn grainy, so beat just until
firm peaks appear. Cakes, cupcakes, shortcakes, and cookies
with this type of frosting must be refrigerated.

Royal Icing
Royal icing is a hard, brittle icing used for decorating cakes
and cookies. You can make it from scratch, using powdered
sugar, egg whites, and liquid, but many bakers prefer using
meringue powder, which is available at bakery supply stores
and even some grocery stores. The meringue powder is
combined with a liquid, then usually tinted with food coloring.

Ganache
Ganache is simply chocolate melted with heavy cream. This
frosting makes a beautiful shiny coating on cakes and cookies.
Here's an easy dessert trick to pull off with homemade
ganache: If you chill and beat the ganache until it's fluffy and
stiff, then form the mixture into balls, you'll end up with
truffles. You can also chill and beat a ganache and use the
fluffy result to quickly frost a layer cake.

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 Glaze
Glazes are the simplest frostings. Powdered sugar is
combined with a liquid to form a thin consistency. Glazes are
usually poured or drizzled over the tops of cakes and cookies.
This forms a shiny hard crust when the glaze sets. Melted
chocolate can be used as a glaze on its own.

Cake Making and Decorating Tools

1. Cake Pans
To make beautiful cakes, you need professional cake pans. They have straight sides instead of
slanted, which help keep the sides of your cake straight after it's stacked so you won't need to carve
down the edges as much to even things out.

2. Parchment Paper
Whether you're placing it in the bottom of your cake pans for a perfect release or laying down a
surface for trimming and filling cakes, parchment paper can be used for a variety of things. You
can even place your cakes on large pieces of parchment paper when covering them in fondant to
avoid sticking and lowering your risk of the fondant tearing.

3. Sharp Knife or X-Acto Blade

A clean, sharp knife helps get cakes out of their pans efficiently — you just need to run the blade
around the entire edge. Assuming you put parchment paper in the bottom of the pan, the cake should
slip right out when you flip it over.

Knives are also really useful when working with fondant, as you can use them to carve shapes,
stripes and other details. X-Acto knives are perfect for this kind of work, helping you create smooth,
precise lines. Just be careful when using with silicone mats, as they're super easy to slice right
through.

4. Shortening
Air is the enemy of fondant (especially if you live in a humid climate), so it's imperative you keep
it covered at all times. Leaving fondant out for even a few minutes can cause it to dry out and crust,
which gives it a gross skin and makes it tear easily. Shortening, on the other hand, is fondant's best
friend. When fondant starts to dry, adding a small amount of shortening conditions it so it's
workable again.

5. Cake Boards or Drums

If you expect to move your cake around at all — even if that's just getting it into the fridge —
setting it on a stiff, stable board is necessary to keep the cake together and perfectly aligned. For
large cakes, use a drum, aka three cake boards that have been glued and pressed together before
being covered in foil. That'll help provide enough stability to handle the extra weight.

6. Powdered Sugar or Cornstarch

Fondant is super sticky, especially when you're rolling it out to cover a cake. It's best to use
powdered sugar or cornstarch on the surface to keep the fondant from sticking. It doesn't matter
which, but keep one in a shaker and disperse it evenly while rolling out your fondant.

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 7. Offset Spatula and Bench Scraper
If you're struggling for a beautiful, clean crumb coat and final coat, these two tools will save you.
Spread your buttercream icing using the offset spatula. Once you have a thick coat of icing, smooth
it out using a bench scraper.

8. Turntable or Lazy Susan

Decorating a cake without a turntable is almost impossible, as it gives you access to the entire cake
with just one swivel. Use one to torte, fill, crumb coat and decorate your cake in a fast, efficient
manner.

9. Large and Small Fondant Rollers

While a regular rolling pin may be sufficient when you're first starting out, you may want a plastic
or silicone fondant roller if you plan to invest a lot of time and energy into cake decorating. First,
these rollers don't have handles — ones with them aren't usually strong enough to roll the fondant
as thin as you'll need. Second, they come in different sizes. Small rollers are used for rolling out
just enough fondant for decorations, while large ones are for rolling out enough to cover an entire
cake.

10. Fondant Smoothers

Like the name promises, fondant smoothers help smooth the fondant onto the cake and help release
any air bubbles that got trapped under the fondant. If you can only buy a few new tools, make sure
to get one or two so you always have it on hand.

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Cookies

The word cookie refers to "small cakes" derived from the Dutch word "koekje" or "koekie."
Cookies contain many of the same ingredients as cakes except that they have a lower proportion of liquid
with a higher proportion of sugar and fat to flour.

Cookie recipes can be prepared in myriad shapes, flavors and textures, and can be decorated. Every
country seems to have its favorite: in North America it's the chocolate chip; in the United Kingdom it's
shortbread; in France, it's sables and macarons; and it's biscotti in Italy.

Cookie Dough Basics

Most cookies are made from the same basic ingredients. The dry ingredients consist of all-purpose
flour, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. The sweetness comes from granulated and/or brown sugar. The
fat is either softened butter, margarine, shortening, or occasionally oil. Eggs and vanilla extract are also
used. For different flavored cookies, you can add any or all of these: chocolate, cocoa, nuts, raisins, oatmeal,
spices or extracts.

Making the dough is pretty consistent with all cookies. Mix your dry ingredients in a medium-sized
bowl. In a large bowl, cream your butter and sugars, then add your slightly beaten eggs and vanilla. To this
mixture, slowly add the dry ingredients until well mixed. At this point, the extra flavorings are added to the
dough. Then, the dough is prepared the way dictated by the cookie type.

Storing Cookies

 Soft cookies, such as bar cookies, are stored in a container with a tight lid. If they tend to dry out,
add a slice of apple to the container.
 Crisp cookies should be stored in a container with a loose lid, like a cookie jar. If there is a lot of
humidity in your area, add a piece of bread to the container. The bread helps to absorb the moisture.

Types of Cookies

Bar Cookies
Bar Cookies are prepared by putting the dough in a rectangular
pan. They are baked and then cut into squares. Most drop cookie
recipes can be converted to this type of cookie. These are the
easiest cookies to make because several batches are baked at once.

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 Drop Cookies
Drop Cookies are the easiest individual cookies to make. Balls of
dough are dropped from a spoon onto a cookie sheet.

Molded Cookies
Molded Cookies feature dough that is formed by the hands into
shapes such as wreaths, crescents, canes, or balls. Balls are
sometimes flattened with the bottom of a glass.

Pressed Cookies
Pressed Cookies are made by pressing the dough through a cookie
press or pastry tube to form different shapes. These are also
known as "spritz cookies."

Refrigerator or Icebox Cookies

Refrigerator or Icebox Cookies are prepared by shaping the dough
into long rolls and then refrigerating them. Once cold, the dough
can be sliced and baked. This is a great prepare-ahead-of-time
dough because it can also be frozen.

Rolled Cookies
Rolled Cookies take a little more preparation. With a rolling pin,
the chilled dough is rolled out. The dough is cut into shapes by
using a knife, pastry wheel or cookie cutter.

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