PâLI LANGUAGE &

LITERATURE

Text Book for

Diploma course in Buddhist Studies
Paper 1

The Buddha taught in the Pàli language,

which was the contemporary spoken and
literary language of the common people.

The original teachings of the Buddha

documented in the Tipiñaka
are preserved in the Pàli literature in
pristine purity

Mahabodhi Research Centre

(Affiliated to Karnataka Sanskrit University, Bengaluru)
Maha Bodhi Society
14 Kalidasa Road, Gandhinagar, Bengaluru - 560009, INDIA
Buddha Vachana Trust
14 Kalidasa Road, Gandhinagar,
Bangalore – 560 009, India
Tel: 080 22250684
Email: info@mahabodhi.info
Web: www.mahabodhi.info

© Buddha Vachana Trust

All rights reserved

1st Course - 2018

2nd Course - 2019

Printed at:
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Tel: 080-41116613, Mob: 9739856236
 CONTENTS

Definition of pàli 1
The second great council 7
The third great council 10
The fourth great council 13
The fifth great council 15
The sixth great council 15
Vinaya piñka (code of discipline) 19
Survey of tipiñaka 17
Sutta piñaka 24
Abhidhamma piñaka 31
Extra-canonical literature 37
The pàli language 40
Pàli alphabet 41
Grammar
Pàli lesson 1 42
Pàli lesson – 2 44
Pàli lesson – 3 46
Pàli lesson 4 49
Pàli lesson 5 52
Pàli lesson 6 55
Pàli lesson 7 59
Pàli lesson 8 62
Pàli lesson 9 66
Pàli lesson 10 69
Reference Books:
1. Comprehensive Pali Course Part
Author - Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita
Published by - Buddha Vachana Trust, Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore (2006)

2. History of Pali language and Literature

Author - Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita
Published by - Buddha Vachana Trust, Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore (2005)

3. 2500 years of Buddhism,

Author – P. V. BAPAT
Publishers by – Publication Division, Ministry of Information and broadcasting, Govt. of India
1956)

iii
iv
 PâLI LANGUAGE
AND
LITERATURE
CHAPTER ONE

Definition of Pàli
The word Pàli, strictly speaking, means Buddha vacanaü, 'the
Word of the Buddha', or 'the Texts' of the TIPIòAKA containing the
original Teachings of the Buddha. âcariya Buddhaghosa, the
celebrated Buddhist savant and scriptural commentator, (412 A.C.),
used this definition to distinguish the texts of the canonical literature
from the extra-canonical literature, such as, the commentaries, sub-
commentaries, chronicles etc.
The Visuddhi Magga, The path of purification, considered as the
magnum opus of the âcariya, abounds in expressions, such as "Imàni
tàva Pàliyaü, aññhakathàyaü pana - These occur in the texts (of the
Tipiñaka), however in the commentaries etc."; "Neva Pàliyaü na
aññhakathàyaü àgataü - This occurs neither in the texts nor in the
commentaries etc." Since the subsequent commentarial and other
literature have all been written in the idioms of the Tipiñaka texts, the
language of this extensive literature has come to be known by the
common expression, 'Pàli Language'.
The well-known lexicon Abhidhànapadãpikà defines Pàli thus:
"Tanti, Buddhavacanaü, panti'ti Pàli - Pàli means: (1) The Sacred
Text-Tanti (Skt-Tantra = Vedic Text). (2) The Word of the Buddha. (3)
Lit. line or tradition - Panti (Skt-païkti)". Further, "Papàleti, rakkhatãti
Pàli - that which protects, preserves, is Pàli". What does it preserve? It
preserves the Buddha-Word (Vacanaü) in the form of the Sacred Texts
(Tanti) and in the form of a Canonical Tradition (Panti).

1
Origin
Different philologists have tried to derive Pàli from various terms.
The three most commonly accepted ones are: Pariyàya, Pàñha and
Panti. Pariyàya frequently occurs in the Tipiñika in the sense of Buddha
vacana. "Ko nàma ayaü bhante, dhamma pariyàyo? - What, Venerable
Sir, is the name of this Teaching?" Pariyàya later became paliyàya as is
evident in this Asokan Bhàbri Edict: "Imàni Bhante, dhamma-
paliyàyàni. - These, Ven'ble Sirs, are the texts of the Dhamma
(Buddha's Teachings)". In course of time Paliyàya, became further
shortened into Pàli.
Pàñha means 'reading', i.e., canonical reading. Both expressions, "Iti
pi pàñho" and "Iti pi pàli", meaning "This is the canonical reading",
frequently occur in the commentaries. Metathesis is very common in
Indo-Aryan languages. Thus from pàñha to pàli (Pàñha - Pàdha - Pàëa -
Pàli), would be quite a normal transposition of sounds.
As mentioned above, Panti means a line or tradition. The words,
Ambapàli - a line of mango trees, Dantapàli - a row of teeth, are
commonplace terms in Pàli literature. Pàli implies a 'direct line' an
'original tradition', i.e., of the Buddha's dispensation (Sàsana).
Pàli is called ‘The Pàli Canon’ because it preserves the ‘Buddha
Scripture’, known as the ‘Tipiñaka’ containing the original teachings
of the Buddha. Thus the Pàli Canon is distinct from the later extra-
canonical literature (aññhakathà and so on).
Home of Pàli
Pàli is also known as 'Màgadhi' or 'Màgadhi nirutti', meaning the
language of Magadha, the region in which Buddhism had arisen. "Sammà
Sambuddhena Vuttappakàro Màgadhiko vohàro - The Màgadhi medium
as used by the Supremely Enlightened One". Precisely due to this identity
with Pàli, Màgadhi has acquired the appellation of "Målabhàsà
Sambuddho càpi bhàsare - Indeed, it is this Màgadhi language, the
standard vernacular, in which the Supremely Enlightened One has taught
(the Dhamma" - Kaccàyana Vyàkarana.

2
 Thus Buddhist tradition considers Magadha as the home of pàli. In
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when research studies of
Pàli and Buddhalogy were in their early stage, some Western scholars
advanced a variety of theories with regard to the home of Pàli. For
instance, Dr. Rhys Davids thought that since the Buddha was born in
the Kosala country, he must have preached in Kosalan dialect; hence
the home of Pàli must be Kosala.
It is, however, well-known that the Buddha began his mission, lived,
preached and established his Saïgha, in an organized way, in the
kingdom of Magadha. Further, since Kosala became part of Magadha
even in the time of Buddha, Màgadhi would also include Kosalan.
Màgadhi, having become the official language of a large area of
North, East and Central India, incorporated elements of various local
dialects. This is evident from the variety of inflexions in Pàli. Thus
Màgadhi formed itself into a composite language and became the
standard vernacular understood by all, in much the same way as
modern standard Hindi is understood in an even larger area, in spite of
dialectical and linguistic peculiarities.
Westergard, Kuhn, Oldenberg, Franke and Sten Konot sought the
home of Pàli, rather unsuccessfully, by comparing Pàli with the
Asokan edicts. Some of these scholars thought Ujjayini must have
been the home of Pàli, since the Girnar Inscriptions resemble it most
and since Prince Mahinda, who established Buddhism, based on the
Tipiñaka, in Sri Lanka, hailed from this area. Oldenberg and some
others thought it must have been the language of Kaliïga, which,
geographically and culturally, happened to be nearest to Sri Lanka
where Pàli still is kept alive after it was lost in the country of its origin,
India.
These theories have now been refuted as being far-fetched by
modern research work. During the course of the 20th century, the
labours of Indian and foreign scholars in the field of Indian linguistics,
have produced conclusive results, and irrefutable facts have not come
to light. Celebrated Pàli scholars like Geiger, Winterniz, Venerables
3
Kashyap and Siddhàrtha, Bharat Singh Upadhyàya and a number of
others, have conclusively proved the validity of the traditional view of
Magadha being the home of Pàli.
Standard Vernacular
This brings us to the question of the status of Pàli, that is, whether it
was a dialect or a full-fledged standard language, the lingua franca,
understood by all. As to the literary merit of Pàli language, there can be
no doubt. Even a cursory glance at the Pàli literature would show its
abundant richness, refinement and precision. And, as to its being a
cultivated spoken language, not a rustic language (gamma, gràmya), as
made out by sanskritists, the Canon itself is evidence enough.
In the Vinaya Piñaka, two ex-brahmin monks with a predilection for
Chandas sought Buddha's permission to render the Buddha-vacana
into the Chandas, the Vedic scriptural language. If granted, only a
small group of priestly brahmins, conducting rituals, sacrifices etc.,
would have benefited. They said: "Handa mayaü, Bhante, Buddha-
vacanaü chandaso-àropemàti - Most Ven'ble Sir, if we might render
the Word of the Supremely Enlightened One (Buddha-vacana) into the
scriptural language (i.e., vedic chandas)." The Buddha promptly
rejected the request and gave a clear instruction saying that the
Buddha-Vacana should be acquired and mastered in Buddha's own
language, that is, Màgadhi, the standard vernacular of the masses, in
which he taught.
The Buddha said: "Anujànàmi bhikkhave sakàya niruttiyà Buddha-
vacanaü pariyà-puõituü (Vin. 4.331) - I Prescribe that the words of
the Buddha are to be learnt in his own language (i.e., in Màgadhi)."
Commenting on "Sakàya niruttiyà", âcariya Buddhaghosa says,
"Ettha sakanirutti nàma Sammà saübuddhena vuttappakàro
Màgadhiko vohàro - the same language (sakanirutti) means Màgadhi
language as was used by the Supremely Enlightened One."
Endorsing the âcariya, Dr. Geiger says, "The real meaning of this
injunction is, as is also the best in consonance with the Indian spirit,

4
that there can be no other form of the Words of the Buddha than that is
which the Master himself preached.... This language of the Buddha
was, however, surely not just a popular dialect, but a language of the
higher and cultured classes, which had been brought into being
already in pre-Buddhist times through the needs of inter-
communication in India. Such a lingua-franca naturally contained
elements of all dialects" (Pàli Literature & Language).
Chronology
With regard to chronology, Pàli is the early form of Middle Indo-
Aryan language. From Geiger's observation mentioned above, it may
be noted that Pàli, being pre-Buddhistic, is pre-Yaska and, therefore,
pre-panini, who quotes Yaska.
The celebrated western grammarian, A.A. Macdonald, assigns 500
B.C. to Yaska, and 300 B.C. to Panini, whose grammar is the oldest
preserved in Sanskrit. From his observation, it is therefore clear that
Pàli is older than Sanskrit both having descended from the earlier
language - primitive Prakrit.
While Pàli is the earlier form of the Màgadhi prakrit, Sanskrit
originates from Chandas, Vedic language. Again, while Pàli shares
various grammatical forms in common with the Vedic language,
Sanskrit has done away with them.
One of the characteristics of the Vedic language is its variety of
inf lections. For instance, in Vedic, words ending with 'a' in the
instrumental plural have the terminal 'bhih' which Sanskrit has given
up but Pàli has retained. Vedic Ambra continues as Amba in Pàli, while
in Sanskrit it has become Amra; Pàli, while in Sanskrit it has become
Amra Pàli, retains the ba. The plural terminals of the first and third
persons - 'masi' and 're' respectively, are preserved in Pàli while they
are lost in Sanskrit.
According to the Vedic grammatical rules found in Panini's
grammar (Vaidic prakriya sutra No. 3/1/84 = Varna vyatyayah), 'ha'
becomes 'bha', which Pàli has kept, while Sanskrit has given up.
5
Similarly, change of case-endings (supam vyatyayah) as between the
locative, nominative and genetive, are, like the Vedic language, not
uncommon in Pàli, while in Sanskrit this is not allowed. There are
equivalents in Pàli of the Vedic subjunctive moods which have
disappeared in Sanskrit. These examples amply prove that Pàli is older
than Sanskrit.

--o0o–

6
 CHAPTER TWO

The Second Great Council

(Dutiya Saïgàyana)
A hundred years after the Parinibbàna of the Blessed One the
Second Great Council was held at Vesàli, the capital of the Vajji
Republic. In this Saïgàyana the Sacred Canon was once again recited
for eight months, and its authencity re-affirmed by Seven hundred
Arahats, endowed with Pañisambhidà ¤àna, under the presidentship of
the Venerable Sabbakàmi Mahà Thera. King Kàlàsoka was the chief
lay-supporter (dàyaka), like Ajàtasattu of the First Council. He made
all the necessary arrangements for the meeting of this Council.
This Council was necessitated by a dispute which arose regarding
ten points of the Vinaya. Some Vajji monks wanted to change certain
rules of monastic discipline in violation of the Vinaya, to suit their lax
life. For instance, they wanted to handle and possess money, carry salt
in a horn to improve the taste of alms-food, drink fermented drinks and
usher in such intemperate practices as would destroy the very basis of
the holy life in the dispensation of the Buddha.
They formulated ten rules on their own which if allowed, would
completely nullify the spirit of voluntary poverty and spiritual purity,
the Buddha had enunciated. So the Venerable Yasa, one of the early
Elders ordained by Buddha and now 165 years of age, seeing the
decline among the disputing Vajji monks, created a public opinion
against their degenerate practices.
These ten formulations were:
1. Kappati siïgilona kappo.
It is allowable to carry salt in a horn-container during the alms-
7
 round to f lavour the alms-food. This practice goes against the
vinaya pàcittiya rule No. 38 dealing with non-hoarding of food
(sannidhikàraka) which was laid down by the Buddha in Sàvatthi.
2. Kappati dvaïgula kappo.
It is allowable to eat after the sun had crossed two fingers breath,
from the meridian at mid-day, which becomes 'untimely eating'
(vikàlabhojana). This practice violates the vinaya pàcittiya rule No.
37 dealing with eating or partaking food at the wrong time which
was laid down by the Buddha in Ràjagaha.
3. Kappati gàmantara kappo.
It is allowable to eat twice in a village. This practice goes against the
vinaya pàcittiya rule No. 36 dealing with eating twice in the same
village, which was laid down by the Buddha in Sàvatthi.
4. Kappati àvàsa kappo.
It is allowable to have a separate Uposatha while staying in the same
monastery (àvàsa). This practice goes against the vinaya pàcittiya
rule called dukkaña dealing with Uposatha - that is the monastic
Community meeting to recite the Pàtimokkha rules, which was laid
down by the Buddha in Ràjagaha.
5. Kappati anumati kappo.
It is allowable to conduct a formal act of Saïgha without the
presence of all the concerned members and expecting that the
absentee monks will automatically agree. This practice goes
against the vinaya pàcittiya rule called dukkaña dealing with
conducting the Saïgha community meeting as a whole, which was
laid down by the Buddha in Champeyyaka.
6. Kappati àcinna kappo.
It is allowable to blindly follow the elders saying that since my
teacher or preceptor has done it, so I will also do it, without
understanding the purpose of such conduct. This practice goes
against the Vinaya pàcittiya rule dealing with unquestioned
8
 following.
7. Kappati amathita kappo.
It is allowable to drink butter milk at wrong time. This practice goes
against the vinaya pàcittiya rule, which was laid down by the
Buddha in Sàvatthi.
8. Kappati jalogi kappo.
It is allowable to drink fermented (alcoholic) drink. This practice
goes against the vinaya pàcittiya rule dealing with drinking of
intoxicating and fermented liquor, which was laid down by the
Buddha at Kosambi.
9. Kappati adasakaü nisãdana kappo.
It is allowable to use expensive and stylish bed coverings. This
practice goes against the vinaya pàcittiya rule connected with bed
coverings etc, which was laid down by the Buddha in Sàvatthi.
10.Kappati jàtaråpa rajata kappo.
It is allowable to handle gold, silver etc. This practice goes against
the Vinaya pàcittiya rule connected with handling of money, gold,
silver etc, which was laid down by the Buddha at Ràjagaha.
With the support of the Saïgha and the King, the Venerable Yasa
together with Venerable Revata and Ajita convened this Council and
settled, once for all, these questions of discipline of the Order. The
disputant monks were expelled from the Saïgha and they formed an
order of their own which they called Mahàsàïghika. There were many
splits in this group, so much so that a hundred and fifty years later in the
time of Emperor Asoka, at least eighteen sects had mushroomed. The
so-called Northern Buddhism or Mahàyana originated from one of
these splinter sects.
Apart from settling controversies regarding the rules of the Order,
another important feature of the second Saïghàyana was the
confirmation of the various classifications of the Tipiñaka under
various heads, such as, the Five Nikàyas, Nine Aïgas and so on.
9
 CHAPTER THREE

The Third Great Council

(Tatiya Saïgàyana)
Two hundred and fifty years after the Mahà Parinibbàna of the
Buddha, the Third Great Council was held with the support of the great
Buddhist Emperor Asoka at Pàtaliputta (Patna). In this Saïgàyana, one
thousand Arahat Theras endowed with supernormal attainments
recited the entire Tipiñaka for nine months. This Council was presided
over by Asoka's Teacher, the Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, and was
significant in many ways. Not only from the Buddhist point of view
was it important, but also from the view-point of the Indian civilization
as a whole. For, it was in this Council that the Saïgha, in active
collaboration with the Emperor, decided to send 'Messengers of
Dhamma' (Dhammadåtas), throughout the then known world.
Asokan Messengers of Dhamma
The places and names of the Asokan Messengers of Dhamma,
(dhammadåtas) were as follows:
1. Gàndhàra and Kashmira, (Kashmir and its north & western
countries, including what is now Afghanistan, and some central
Asian countries), under the leadership of Arahat Majjhantika with
a group of elders.
2. Yonaka (Macedonia, Greece), (including the Greco-Bactrian
states of Europe, modern Israel, Syria, Iraq and Egypt), under
Arahat Mahàrakkhita and a group of elders.
3. Cina-Himavanta, (China and the Himalayan countries of Ladakh,
Himachal, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and Sikkim), under Arahat
Majjhima and a group of five elders.
10
4. Suvaõõabhåmi, (Burma and the South East Asian countries of
Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam),
under the Arahats Sona and Uttara and a group of elders.
5. Sri Lanka, under the Arahat Mahinda and a group of five bhikkhus.
6. Mahiüsakamaõdala, (modern Karnataka and the Deccan states,
including Andhra), under Arahat Maharevata and a group of
bhikkhus.
7. Mahàraññha, (modern Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh), under
Arahat Mahà Dhammarakkhita and a group of bhikkus.
8. Vanavàsi, (the southern part of India, including Karnataka, Goa
and Kerala), under the Arahat Rakkhita and a group of bhikkhus.
9. Aparantaka, (western India, including modern Gujarat, Rajasthan,
and Pakistan), under the Arahat Yonaka (Greek) Dhammarakkhita
and a group of bhikkhus.
Apart from spreading the Teachings of the Buddha, these great
Dhamma-missionaries contributed, in a most enduring way, towards
the promotion of civilization in a vast area and among many primitive,
often hostile, races. This is indeed an exemplary service to mankind
and something unique in the history of the world.
The purpose of the Great council
The purpose of conducting the Third Great Council was to remove
the impurity that had crept into the body-politic of the Buddhist
community as a result of the influx of fake monks into the Saïgha. A
large number of sectarian ascetics and mendicants had falsely donned
the robe of the bhikkhu to make a comfortable living through the gain
and honour, which were showered on the bhikkhus both by the
Emperor and by the people.
This ulterior motive had debased not only their lives but also posed
a danger to holy life as such. Further they injected their pernicious
heretical views threatening to deteriorate Buddhist life and defile the
noble Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha.
11
 In order to safeguard the purity of the minds of the innocent
votaries, it was essential to purge the Saïgha of the evil elements and to
restore the Dhamma of the Buddha to its pristine purity. Therefore, the
Holy Order, under the leadership of the Venerale Moggaliputta Tissa,
got the Third Great Council convened with the support of the Emperor.
It is recorded that sixty thousand fake monks were disrobed during
this Synod. Further, in order to counteract the perverted views of the
heretics, the great Arahat Moggaliputta Tissa compiled a treatise
entitled Kathàvatthu, the Points of Controversy, with one thousand
dialogues. Five hundred heretical controversial points were exposed
and negated by five hundred genuine dhamma points culled from the
Abhidhamma Piñaka. This work was also recited together with the
texts of the Tipiñaka, and adopted as a part of the Abhidhamma Piñaka.
In keeping with the two previous Saïgàyanas, on this occasion, one
thousand Arahats recited the Tipiñaka, which was classified under
various heads, such as, Nikàyas, Aïgas and Dhammakhandhas. The
Third Council had a splendid success, both in preserving the original
teaching of the Buddha and in propagating it.
Of the nine great Messengers of Dhamma who went to various
countries both in and out of India, the Venerable Elder (Thera)
Rakkhita, belonging to Yonaka country (modern Macedonia), went to
Vanavàsi, and the Venerable Elder Mahàrevata went to Mahiüsaka
Manóala. Both Vanavàsi and Mahiüsaka Manóala are included in
present Karnataka State.

- o0o -

12
 CHAPTER FOUR

The Fourth Great Council

Tipiñaka committed to writing in 93 B.C.
Through the efforts of the Arahat Mahinda, one of the nine
Dhammadåtas and son of Emperor Asoka, the Buddha-Sàsana
became firmly rooted in the soil of Sri Lanka. And both the bhikkhus
and the kings of the successive generations worked actively to promote
the cause of Dhamma.
A hundred and twenty-five years after Mahinda, Sri Lanka was
thrown into a turmoil of war, famine and pestilence caused by the
invasions of the Chola rulers of South India. The Saïgha was forced to
abandon the holy city of Anuràdhapura and went to the forest solitude
of the Kandyan hills. Anuràdhapura had become the main centre of
Buddhism with Mahà Vihàra as the seat of religious learning and piety.
The holy Arahats, the heirs of the Lord, endured great hardship
during the foreign occupation, only to preserve the treasure of the
Dhamma. Five hundred Arahats gathered in a conference, in a remote
rock cave called Alu Lena (âloka vihàra), which was presided over by
the Venerable Rakkhita Mahàthera. These noble Elders of the Holy
Order thought that the situation prevailing in the country definitely
indicated a future spiritual decline. Therefore, they decided to commit
into writing the Sacred Canon and its commentaries which had been
brought from India by Arahat Mahinda and his companions.
Until now the Pàli Canon had been preserved in its original form
by oral tradition through a line of Arahat-teachers who handed down
the Canon to their pupils. King Vaññhagàmini Abhaya, who was
informed of this far-reaching decision, made the necessary
13
arrangements.
Thus, the Fourth Great Council was held in 93 B.C. at Alu Leõa
near Matale, in which the Sacred Tipiñaka and its commentaries were
recited by five hundred Arahats and then committed to writing on ola
leaves under the direct supervision of the Chief Adigar (Recorder of
the King). It is recorded that these ola manuscripts were checked over a
hundred times by these holy Arahats, each one separately, before
passing them as authentic documents of the Tipiñaka and its
commentaries. This written version has been preserved upto our time
with utmost fidelity and care by successive generations of kings and
Elders of the Saïgha.

- o0o -

14
 CHAPTER FIVE

The Fifth Great Council

Two thousand four hundred fourteen years after the Great Demise
(Mahà Parinibbàna) of the Buddha, in 1871, under the auspices of
King Mindon Ming of Myanmar, the Sacred Canon and the
commentaries were recited for five months and inscribed on seven
hundred and twenty-nine marble slabs. Two thousand and four
hundred distinguished Theras of the country participated in the
Council at Mandalay. Each of these slabs is separately housed in a
beautiful Pagoda style pandal and scrupulously kept under perfect
condition to this day. This is known as the Fifth Great Council.
The Sixth Great Council
In commemoration of the 2500th Buddha Jayanti, in May, 1954, an
International Mahà Saïgha of 2500 distinguished Theras from the
various Buddhist countries - Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka,
Cambodia, Laos, India, Bangladesh and from other countries like
China, Japan, Nepal, etc., participated in the Sixth Great Buddhist
Council held at Yangon, under the auspices of the Government of
Myanmar. The Prime Minister U.Nu played the major role in
organizing this Saïgàyana which has brought out a splendid recension
of the Tipiñaka, its commentaries (Aññhakathà) and sub-commentaries
(Tãka) in Myanmar script. This noble undertaking was concluded on
the full-moon day of Vesakha (May) in 1956 marking the 2500th
anniversary of the Buddha's Great Demise.
From the above account it is clear that in the First Saïgàyana the
Pàli Canon was authoritatively collaged and established to preserve
the purity of the Buddha's original teachings; in the second, all
15
controversies regarding monastic discipline, as contained in the
Vinaya Pitaka, were firmly uprooted once and for all; in the third, all
philosophical interpolations and metaphysical speculations were
nipped in the bud and the purity of Buddha's Dhamma reaffirmed; the
fourth Saïgàyana, committed the Tipiñaka and the canonical literature
into writing, thus the preservation of the original teachings by
Theravàda was made enduring. Further, this Council laid a strong
foundation for the f lourishing of Pàli post-canonical literature, which
later became more and more widespread.
- o0o -

16
 CHAPTER SIX

SURVEY OF TIPIòAKA
Pàli Literary development can be divided into the following
periods, viz.,
1. The Canonical literature: contemporary with the Buddha
2. The Commentarial literature: 5th century A.C.
3. The Sub-commentarial literature: 12th century A.C.
The canonical literature consists of three Piñakas (Tipiñaka) viz.,
Vinaya Piñaka, Sutta Piñaka and Abhidhamma Piñaka. A break up of
these Piñakas is as follows:
I. Vinaya Piñaka: Monastic Discipline
The Vinaya Piñaka conists of the following works:
1. Pàràjika
2. Pàcittiya
3. Mahàvagga
4. Cålavagga
5. Parivàra
II. Sutta Piñaka: Discourses
The Sutta Piñaka consists of five major Nikàyas or divisions :
1. Dãgha Nikàya (Lengthy discourses).
2. Majjhima Nikàya (Middle-length discourses).
3. Saüyutta Nikàya (Subject-wise Connected discourses).
4. Aïguttara Nikàya. (Numerically-arranged discourses).
5. Khuddaka Nikàya (Compact-treatise discourses).

17
 The last division (Kuddaka Nikàya) consists of 18 treatises. These
are:
1. Khuddaka Pàñha (Compact Handbook).
2. Dhammapada (Path of Wisdom).
3. Udàna (Solemn Utterances).
4. Itivuttaka (Inspired Sayings, lit. 'Thus was said' by the Buddha).
5. Sutta Nipàta (Treatise of important discourses).
6. Vimànavatthu (Lit. Divine Mansions, Accounts of divinities).
7. Petavatthu (Stories of departed ones or spirits).
8. Theragàthà (Inspired verses of the Elder monks).
9. Therigàthà (Inspired verses of the Elder nuns).
10. Jàtaka (Stories of Buddha's past lives).
11. Niddesa (Exposition).
12. Pañisambhidà Magga (Analytical Way).
13. Apadàna (Biographical Treatises).
14. Buddhavaüsa (Chronicle of Buddhas).
15. Cariyàpiñaka (Buddha Gotama's past lives).
16. Nettipakarana (Exegetical treatise).
17. Petakopadesa (Treatise on Methodology).
18. Milinda Paõha (Questions of Milinda, the Greek King).
III. Abhidhamma Piñaka: Higher Teachings
The Abhidhamma Piñaka consists of seven works as follows:
1. Dhammasaïgani (Book of phenomena).
2. Vibhaïga (Analysis of Phenomena).
3. Dhàtukathà (Categories of Elements).
4. Puggala Pa¤¤atti (Individual Types).
5. Kathàvatthu (Points of Controversies).
6. Yamaka (Applied Logic).
7. Paññhàna (Philosophy of Relations).
- o0o -
18
 Vinaya Piñka (Code of Discipline)
Vinaya literally means guidance and contains the rules of
monastic discipline. The five books of Vinaya Piñaka are arranged
according to subject-matter into these three parts:
1. Vibhaïga - Pàràjika and Pàcittiya;
2. Khandaka - Mahàvagga and Cålavagga;
3. Parivàra.
Vibhaïga gives an elaborate explanation of all the rules laid down
by the Buddha for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis. These rules, 227 for
Bhikkhus and 311 for Bhikkhunis, are contained in the Pàtimokkha
'Code Book'.
Pàtimokkha
The bhikkunis have more Pàtimokkha rules in keeping with
feminine circumstances. Literally, it means that which 'delivers'
(mokkha) one from blame or impurity. It is divided into eight sections,
viz., Pàràjika, Saïghàdisesa, Anãyata, Nissaggiya Pàcittiya, Pàcittiya,
Pàñidesanãya, Sekhiya and Adhikaraõa Dhammà, these are formulated
according to the gravity of the offenses, so as to shield a monk or nun
from conduct not commensurate with holy life. These rules, therefore,
reflect the nature of transgressions and their remedies.
Pàtimokkha is recited twice a month on fullmoon and newmoon
days, known as Uposatha observance, in which all the resident monks
and nuns of a given area (seperately) gather in a special Chapter House
called Sãmà. Before reciting the Patimokkha, the fully ordained
monastics mutually perform the act of confession of transgressions, if
any. At the end of each section of the recital, the reciter asks the
assembly whether it is blameless in respect thereof. If any member
remembers an offence he/she had committed and had forgotten to
make a clean breast of it earlier, then the member has to confess and
receive absolution, that is, a formal release from offence. The
19
completion of the recitation, therefore, is an indication that all those
participating are blameless and pure.
Historical analysis (Vibhaïga)
In the Vibhaïga, consisting of Pàràjika Pàli and Pàcittiya Pàli, the
bhikkhu and bhikkhuni Pàtimokkha rules are treated analytically and
in detail: At first an historical account is given, as to how a rule came to
be framed.
After laying down a rule, the Buddha gives an exhortation, which
ends with "Netaü appasannànaü và pasàdàya, pasannànaü và bhiyyo
bhàvàya - This (=offence) does not lead to the rousing of conviction in
those who are not convinced, nor to the further growth of conviction in
those who are already convinced." That is to say, the bhikkhu's or
bhikkhuni's conduct should not only bring about self-purification, but
it should also inspire others to lead the pure life.
After a rule is laid down by the Buddha, it is followed by a word for
word commentary. If a situation requires a rule to be modified, the
Buddha amends the-rule, which is again explained in detail.
The Khandhakas, the second part of the Vinaya, consist of the two
books, Mahàvagga and Cålavagga. These deal with all such Saïgha
matters which have not been dealt with in the rules of the Pàtimokkha.
From the view-point of history, Khandakas contain very valuable
materials which throw a f lood of light on various aspects of
contemporary Indian life.
There is the inspiring account of how the Buddha attained
Supreme Enlightenment, how he embarked upon his compassionate
mission of spreading the Dhamma 'For the welfare and happiness of
the many - bahujana hitàya, bahujana sukhàya', and how he established
the Holy Order of bhikkhus to serve as a 'Living example' of the truth
he preached.
The Saïgha also ensures the continuity of the Buddha's
20
dispensation by passing on the Teaching from generation to generation
of teachers (âcariya Paramparà).
Khandhakas also provide the stimulating stories of the Buddha's
famous disciples, like the venerables Sàriputta, Moggallàna, Mahà
Kassapa, ânanda, Upàli, Aïgulimàlà etc., lay devotees, like the kings
Bimbisàra, Pasenàdi, Ajàtasattu etc., and philanthropists like
Anàthapiõóka, Upàsikà Visàkhà, Jivaka the physician and many
others. People drawn from all walks of life - royalties, nobles, leaders of
the various sections of the society, and the humblest of common folks
sought refuge in the Buddha. By embracing his Teachings they
brought about a change in the society that was unheard of before.
The Khandhakas also contain some of Buddha's most famous and
important discourses, such as, the Dhammacakka Pavattana Sutta,
Anattalakkhaõa Sutta, âditta pariyàna Sutta and so on.
Again the Khandhakas contain most important texts, called the
kammavàcà. These are 'Official Acts' which govern the procedures of
all institutional functions, known as Saïghakammas. These acts relate
to admission into the Order, suspension or expulsion from or
rehabilitation into the Order, eccleciastical jurisprudence, Saïgha
properties, such as, monasteries and things needed in a monastery,
spending of the Rain's Retreat (vassàvàsa), confessions, punishments
to offenders and so on.
There are altogether 22 Khandhakas which deal with all matters
connected with the members of the Holy Order, including the
requisites of clothing, food, dwelling, medicaments, etc., The last two
Khandhakas give a lucid account of the first and second great councils.
The third part of the Vinaya, the Parivàra Pàli is a kind of manual.
Compiled in the form of questions and answers (catechism), it enables
one to make a thorough analytical study of the Vinya Piñaka. All the
rules, official acts, and other matters of the Vinaya, are subject to a
searching analysis and placed under separate themes.
21
 Besides, it contains various lists to assist one's memory. There are
21 chapters dealing with a particular list of the lineage of the teachers
(àcariyaparamparà) - 34 in number from the Buddha's time down to
several centuries i.e. till the Fourth Saïghàyana which committed to
writing the sacred Tipiñaka. Pàrivàra is called the Key since it makes
Vinaya explict.
Briefly, the rules of the Order fall into two categories; rules
governing the spiritual life of the bhikkhu or bhikkhuni, and rules
governing the affairs of the Order. The bhikkhu-rules are again
twofold - those that have a spiritual basis, i.e., which lead to his
spiritual edification and those that have a conventional basis, i.e., good
manners, behaviour and customs which help maintain a good human
relationship.
The rules of the Order are based on the highest of democratic
principles. Nothing is done or owned individually; it is the Saïgha
which owns properties and promulgates a given code of conduct. In the
matter of jurisprudence unless an offence is accepted by the accused
or is proved beyond doubt, the accused has absolute protection of the
Saïgha.
As a historical document Vinaya is a mine of varied informations
on contemporary social, political and economic systems, on
commerce, taxation, law, agriculture, medicine, educational
institutions, religious sects and so forth.
Decentralised Saïgha
The Buddhist monastic order, particularly the Theravàda Saïgha,
is a completely decentralized body, and a self-sufficient community,
so formed as to provide the right environment for spiritual
development. Its rules are so framed as to free the bhikkhu/bhikkhuni
of all encumbrances, both subjective and objective. The so-called sects
among Theravàda Buddhists are decidedly the product of this spirit of
decentralization, holding aloft the charter of individual liberty.
22
 After all, the very purpose of leading the bhikkhu life is to gain
Liberation which can be achieved only in an atmosphere of personal
responsibility and freedom. hence the Vinaya rules, instead of tying
the bhikkhu down to any rigid pattern, provides him with maximum
inner freedom, since these are entirely self-imposed. Since there is no
difference of view among the Theravàda sects as far as the basic
Teachings of the Buddha are concerned, these sects are, therefore,
wholly organizational set-ups and never doctrinal.
- o0o -

23
 CHAPTER SEVEN

SURVEY OF TIPIòAKA - II
Sutta Piñaka
The Sutta Piñaka is the mainspring of Buddhist thought, being the
repository of the original discourses of the Buddha. It is divided into
five main divisions called Nikàyas which are collated according to the
particular size, style, and arrangment of the suttas.
1. Dãgha Nikàya: The collection of lengthy discourses.
2. Majjhima Nikàya: The collection of medium-length discourses.
3. Saüyutta Nikàya: The collection of (subject-wise) Connected
discourses.
4. Anguttara Nikàya: The collection of numerically arranged
discourses.
5. Khuddaka Nikàya: The collection of Compact expositions in the
form of separate treatises. Here the entire Buddhist view of life has
been discussed in an objective and dignified way.
The famous orientalist Dr. Rhys Davids says: "The suttas are
distinguished in the depth of philosophy, in the method of Socratic
questioning, in the earnest and elevated tone of the whole, in the
evidence they afford of the most out-turned thought of the day." The
Sutta Piñaka also contains the discourses of the Master's principle
disciple's, such as, the Venerables Sàriputta, Mahà Moggallàna, Mahà
Kassapa, Mahà Kaccàna, and others.
A sutta literally means 'thread'. It is so-called since it leads one to a
larger content of meaning of not expressed in so many words. Thus
every sutta has two contents-the vohàra, conventional content and
paramattha, the ultimate content, which makes the suttas accessible to
24
people at all levels of development, i.e., from the ordinary folk to the
most learned scholars.
Another characteristic feature of the suttas is that they are liberally
sprinkled with simple, yet telling, illustrations and homely stories. To
drive home a profound truth, the Master uses familiar similes, such as,
the bullock cart, seed, agricultural operations, or the irrigation ditch
and so on for the edification of the simple, rural folks.
Likewise, to tame an arogant scholar, like the brahmin Bharadvàja,
he often used a telling analogy illustrated by personal example.
Bharadvàja, a learned scholar of the Vedas, scoffed at the idea of
Gotama, a Khattiya, becoming a religious teacher, which, according to
him, was the prerogative of the brahmin, however vile he may be. He
was further roused by some of Buddha's unorthodox teachings. And
his wrath broke all barriers when his wife became an ardent devotee of
the Master.
Once, when the Buddha was preaching, he tore through the large
crowd and, facing the Master, started hurling filthy abuses at him until
he was tired. In his unbounded compassion, the Buddha gently put to
him this question: "Suppose, brahmin, a friend or relative were to visit
your house and you were to offer him a plateful of sweets, and he were
to decline it. To whom would that plateful of sweets return?" "Of
course to me; it is mine, and it comes back to me", he replied rudely.
"Likewise, good brahmin, I decline to accept all that you said."
The moral went right into his heart and illumined his whole being,
like a f lash of lightning piercing and illuminating the dark sky. As the
insight dawned on him that his actions recoiled on him with greater
force, and having failed to affect one who refused to be offended, he
fell at the feet of the Lord and requested the Buddha to admit him into
the Holy Order. No learned philosophical disquisition could have
wrought in Bharadvàja so profound a change as this simple illustration
did.
Further, the Sutta Piñaka is also an excellent document on the

25
contemporary cultural history of India. One finds graphic accounts of
various condiditions - social, cultural, religious, political etc., of the
time. For instance, once the King Ajàtasattu bluntly asked the Buddha
as to what tangible benefits could one gain through the religious life, as
one would from one's occupation. Then he enumerated a great many of
the existing occupations. When the Buddha convinced him of the
benefits of true spiritual life, this blood-thirsty despot became an
ardent devotee of the Master.
As to the form, the sutta begins with a historical account of how,
where and under what conditions a discourse was given. Then follows
the main body of the sutta which ends with an expression of
appreciation from the audience.
Dãgha Nikàya
This work contains 34 lengthy suttas, some of which could fill a
book. This is particularly true of these three suttas: 1. The Mahà
Parinibbàna Sutta, which presents a moving narration of the Master's
last days together with many of his important teachings.
2. Mahà Satipaññhàna Sutta, which constitutes the quintessence of his
unique method of spiritual training by converting every experience
into a meditative experience of reality. 3. Sigalovàda Sutta, which is
also known as Householders Book of ethics, (Gihi Vinaya).
Majjhima Nikàya
This work contains one hundred fifty two middle-length suttas of
rare beauty, both in content and language. All the fundamental
teachings, such as, Dependent Origination, (Paticca Samuppàda), the
law of Kamma and Rebirth, the Four Noble Truths, (Ariya Saccàni)
and the Noble Eightfold path, (Ariya Aññhaïgika Magga), have been
lucidly expounded in this work. Of the fifteen chapters, one entitled
Opamma Vagga is devoted to exposition by way of illustration, and
another to the householders, Gahapati Vagga.
Saüyutta Nikàya
This work contains seven thousand seven hundred sixty two (7762)
26
suttas of varied length, generally short, arranged in a special order
according to subject-matter. Thus there are fifty six connected
subjects (saüyutta) arranged in five divisions, e.g., on Enlightenment
factors (Bojjhaïga Saüyutta), mental defilements (Kilesa saüyutta),
mental powers (Bala saüyutta), etc. Some samyuttas are named after
principal enlightened disciples, (Arahats), such as, the Venerables
Sàriputta, Kassapa, Anuruddha etc. Devatà Saüyutta, deals with gods
like Brahma, Sakka or Indra, who are ardent followers of the Buddha.
Aïguttara Nikàya
This work contains nine thousand five hundred fifty seven (9557)
short suttas which are numerically arranged into eleven sections
known as Nipàtas. For instance, the first Nipàta deals with subjects
having a single aspect or view-point; likewise, the subject-matter of
the second Nipàta has two view-points; the third has three view-points,
and so on, till the eleventh Nipàta, in which all such matters that can be
viewed in eleven different ways. Thus this work presents the Dhamma
arranged numerically. In the whole of the Sutta Piñaka, Aïguttara
Nikàya is considered to be an important source-book on Buddhist
psychology and ethics.
The Aïguttara contains an unique chapter entitled Etadagga vagga
wherein the Buddha enumerated the name of those enlightened
disciples (bhikkhu-bhikkhuni-upàsaka-upàsikà) who had achieved
pre-eminence in a certain field of spiritucal attainment. For example,
while the Venerable Sàriputta was pre-eminent in Intuitive Wisdom
(Pa¤¤à); the Venerable Moggallàna was pre-eminent in Supernormal
powers (Abhi¤¤à); the Venerable Uppalavaõõà was pre-eminent
among nuns in Pa¤¤à, and the Venerable Khemà in Abhi¤¤à; the
upàsaka Anàthapiõóika and the upàsikà Visàkhà were pre-eminent in
acts of generosity (Dàna), and so on.
Khuddaka Nikàya
Khuddaka Nikàya is a collection of 18 independent treatises of
great merit. These are :
27
 1. Khuddaka Pàñha
2. Dhammapada
3. Udàna
4. Itivuttaka
5. Sutta Nipàta
6. Vimànavatthu
7. Petavatthu
8. Theragàthà
9. Therigàthà
10. Jàtaka
11. Niddesa (Mahà & Cåla)
12. Pañisambhidà Magga
13. Apadàna
14. Buddhavaüsa
15. Cariyà Piñaka
16. Netti Pakarana
17. Peñakopadesa
18. Milinda Paõha.
1. Khuddaka Pàñha:
It is an anthology used as a manual for under-training monks. It
contains some very important texts, e.g. the catechetic section called
Kumàra Paõha.
The young novice, Kumàra Kassapa, already an Arahat at the age
of seven, was asked by the Budha ten questions of fundamental
spiritual importance. He answered all the questions with consummate
skill and clarity which only an enlightened disciple can do. He received
his higher ordination (upasampadà) at that tender age as a special case.
Normally nobody can be ordained a bhikkhu before the age of twenty.
The Questions were put in numerical order; e.g. what is the One? What
are the two... three etc., upto the tenth? The answers being 'Nutriment'
that sustains life of beings, ie., the one factor that sustains life is
Nutriment, both material and mental. Similarly, the two factors to
which all phenomena of existence could be reduced, are Mind and
28
Matter (Nàma-råpa, lit. Mentality and Materiality). Answer to the
tenth being 'The ten supermundane attainments of an Arahat - a
Perfected disciple of the Buddha, constitute the ultimate state of
spiritual perfection. That means, there is nothing higher than the
spiritual attainments of a Perfect One.
2. Dhammapada:
It is a famous world classic which epitomizes the entire teaching of
the Buddha in four hundred twenty three gàthàs (verses). Culled from
different works of Tipiñaka each verse is a rare gem sparkling with
practical wisdom. The Dhammapada has been translated and re-
translated into virtually all the import languages of the world.
The first gàthà of this inspiring anthology is about the Mind. It
underlines the importance of mind because one's samsàric bondage or
Nibbànic freedom i.e., one's misery or happiness now and one's destiny
in future, entirely depend on the working of one's mind. Buddhists do
not depend on any external power for spiritual liberation. On the
contrary, they rely entirely on the transforming power of their own
minds. The Buddha said:
Manopubbaïgamà dhammà,
manoseññhà manomayà;
manasà ce paduññhena
bhàsati và karoti và,
tato naü dukkhamanveti
cakkaü và vahato padaü.
Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all
mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, suffering
follows him like the cart-wheel that follows the foot of the ox.
Manopubbaïgamà dhammà,
manoseññhà manomayà;
manasà ce pasannena
bhàsati và karoti và,
tato naü sukkhamanveti
chàyà và anapàyinã.
29
 Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all
mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness
follows him like his never-departing shadow.
Dhp-1, 2
These first two gàthàs of the Dhammapada spell out what really
matters in life - it is the good or bad mind, and the good or bad action
arising therefrom. So, for a spiritual seeker, what matters is focusing
oneself to the purification and development of the mind. In the fifth
gàthà, the Lord Buddha similarly teaches another eternal law,
concerned with life, both at the individual and at the collective levels.
"By hatred one can never appease hatred." It will only persist and
prolong suffering. Contrarily, non-hatred, meaning good-will and
amity as well as the spirit of patience and forbearance, all combined, is
the panacea for the deadly aff liction created by hatred. This is a
verifiable reality throughout the world and through millennia.
Whenever human beings have engaged in mutual hatred, revenge and
hostility, civilization, itself, created by so much of noble human values
and actions, got wiped out. Both parties destroyed each other. Thus the
eternal law is - "Goodwill alone triumphs over ill-will". Buddhists are
therefore enjoined to practise good-will and universal love, under all
circumstances, in keeping with this eternal law, viz.,
Na hi verena veràni
sammantãdha kudàcanaü,
averena ca sammanti,
esa dhammo sanantano.
Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world. By non-hatred
alone is hatred appeased. This is a Law Eternal.- Dhp. 5
The Buddha succinctly summarized his teachings in the
Dhammapada gàthà No. 183.
"Avoid all evil, cultivate the good, and cleanse the mind - this is the
Teaching of the Buddhas."

30
 Spiritual life need not become loaded with all kinds of complicated
theological dogmas and philosophical theories. Unfortunately,
religions, as organized institutions, throughout the world, and at all
times, tended to be loaded with emotional or intellectual assertions
and doctrines, demanding from the adherents unquestioned
acceptance or blind faith.
Spiritual progress is possible only when the mind is exposed to the
sunshine of virtue, mental purity and wisdom. These three spiritual
excellences ultimately stand for spiritual development and freedom.
Virtue needs to be cultivated, deliberately, through rightly
understanding the nature of moral principles.
Likewise inner purity needs to be developed, consciously thorough
the practice of meditative concentration, leading to purification and
tranquility of mind.
Similarly, wisdom needs to be cultivated by assiduous practice of
insight meditation aimed at development of intuitive wisdom. For
wisdom alone is capable of penetrating into the realities of one's own
life, of the world in which one lives, and of the Beyond, namely,
spiritual freedom, Nibbàna.
Hence the Buddha's enunciation:
Sabbapàpassa akaranaü,
kusalassa upasampadà,
sacittapariyodapanaü,
etaü Buddhàna sàsanaü.
To avoid all evil, to cultivate the good, and to cleanse one's mind -
this is the teaching of the Buddhas.
- Dhp-183
3. Udàna:
This work contains the 'Ecstatic Utterances' of the Buddha. Udànas
are outpourings or inspired sayings of sheer bliss.
4. Itivuttaka:
Like the Udàna, it contains 120 verse passages of inspired sayings

31
of the Buddha. Since each passage is preceded by the phrase: "Iti
vuttaü Bhagavatà - It was said thus by the Lord", it is called itivuttaka.
5. Sutta Nipàta:
In an archaic style of mixed prose and verse, it is a work of great
philosophical and literary merit, and one of the most inspiring in the
whole of the Tipiñaka. The language of this work resembles that of the
Chandas.
6. Vimànavatthu:
This book contains vivid accounts of the lives of the devas in
various heavenly abodes (vimàna), and of the deeds that enabled them
to gain access into these wonderful domains.
According to Buddhism, gods (devas) are not immortal, nor are
they creators, or saviours of other beings. But they are spiritually more
evolved beings in various divine realms, who too are subject to the law
of Kamma and Rebirth and have to achieve the deathless state of
Nibbàna. And there are many gods who have already attained Nibbàna.
7. Petavatthu:
This book contains graphic accounts of the miserable states of the
spirit-world and of the evil deeds that lead one to these states.
8. Theragàthà:
This book contains some of the finest pieces of poetry embodying
the ecstatic sayings of the Arahat Theras, Enlightened Disciples of the
Buddha.
9. Therigàthà:
Analogous to Theragàthà, this work contains the inspired
utterances of Arahat Theris, Enlightened Nuns.
10. Jàtaka:
This is a book of 550 stories of Buddha's previous lives when he
was the Bodhisatta, engaged in training himself to become a Buddha.
11. Niddesa:
Divided into two books, Mahàniddesa and Cålaniddesa, this work
32
is a commentary by Venerable Sàriputta on some important suttas
from Suttanipàta.
12. Pañisambhidà Magga:
Entitled "The Path of Analysis", this is another work of Venerable
Sàriputta analytically dealing with the salient teachings of the Buddha
in the style of the Abhidhamma.
13. Apadàna:
Like the Jàtaka, it is a biographical work containing the life-stories
(past and present) of various Arahat Theras and Theris.
14. Buddhavaüsa:
This contains the biography, in verse of Gotma Buddha and of the
23 previous Buddhas prior to him.
15. Cariyàpiñaka:
This contains 35 Jàtakas illustrating the Buddha's fulfillment of the
ten Pàramãs (three times over), which determines the attainment of
Sambodhi, Supreme Enlightenment.
16. Nettippakarana :
It is a small exegetical work providing critical explanation of some
important texts of the Cannon.
17. Petakopadesa:
This little book methodizes important texts. It lays down orderly
procedures to explain the Dhamma.
18. Milinda Paõha:
Entitled "Questions of Milinda", it is a book of dialogues between
the Yonaka (Greeco-Bactrian) King Milinda who ruled over Sàgala
(W. Punjab) and the great Arahat Nàgasena who lived about five
hundred years after the Parinibbàna of the buddha. This work records
the King's tricky questions and the Venerable Nàgasena's methodical
answers with telling illustrations. This book has been famous for its
clear expositions of abstruse questions.

33
 Abhidhamma Piñaka
While the Sutta Piñaka treats the Dhamma in conventional (Vohàra
sacca) terms, the Abhidhamma Piñaka treats it entirely in terms of
ultimate reality (Paramattha sacca). It resolves all phenomena into
their ultimate contents (saråpa) analytically and then aims at synthesis
by finding the relations (paccaya) between the various concomitant
factors. The language of the Abhidhamma is purely objective and
impersonal, hence truly scientific. It contains no such words as 'I', 'We',
'He', 'She', 'Man', 'Tree', 'Cow', 'Mountain', 'God', etc, which are just
conventional names given to an object.
Here everything is expressed in terms of Khandha - five groups or
aggregates of existence, âyatana - five sensory organs and mind and
their respective objects, Dhàtu - eighteen elements, Indriya - twenty-
two faculties, Sacca - the four Noble truths. All relative concepts, such
as, man, tree, etc., are reduced to their ultimate contents, such as,
Khandha, âyatana etc., and viewed as an impersonal psycho-physical
process which is Anicca (impermanent, changeful), Dukkha
(unsatisfactory) and Anatta (without a permanent core, e.g., ego or
àtma, i.e., unsubstantial or non-self).
The purpose of this analytical approach is to get rid of
egocentricity or selfhood which hinders spiritual progress and is the
root-cause of bondage in samsàra. Abhidhamma can be called the
'Science of mind' in a real sense, i.e., more than modern psychology.
The most Venerable âcar iya Buddhaghosa descr ibes
Abhidhamma as Uccatara (higher) or Visesa (special) dhamma
(teachings) of the Buddha. That is to say, a system of appraisal purely
from the Buddhist psychological and philosophical stand-points. This
special higher teaching was first expounded by the Buddha at
Tàvatiüsa (Sakka, the divine ruler's, heavenly realm) to his mother
who was reborn as a god. This exposition was in the 7th year of his
ministry during the 3 months' Rain's - Retreat. After teaching the
devas, the Master repeated the teachings verbatim to Venerable

34
Sàriputta, who in turn taught five hundred Arahats, who memorized
the Abhidhamma and passed it on to others. It is therefore regarded as
the most priceless heritage of Buddhism.
The following seven books of Abhidhamma are so many portals of
analytical wisdom. They contain different methods of analysis and
synthesis.
1. Dhammasaïgani :
It provides a detailed enumeration of all phenomena, and is divided
into three divisions: 1. An analysis of consciousness (citta) and its
concomitant mental factors (cetasika), 2. An analysis of corporeality
(råpa), 3. Summary in which all phenomena of existence are brought
under 122 categories (màtikà), in groups of three (tika) and two (duka),
e.g., Kusala (wholesome) dhamma, akusala (unwholesome) dhamma,
abyàkata (indeterminate) dhamma. When analysed, these three
comprehend everything, mundane and supermundane. It is invaluable
as a source-book of psychology.
2. Vibhaïga:
It consists of 18 independent treatises (vibhaïgas), each of which is
divided into three parts:
i. Sutta explanation.
ii. Abhidhamma explanation.
iii. Summary in question-answer form. In this analytic procedure,
it is distinct from that of Dhammasaïgani.
3. Dhàtukathà:
This and the next book, Puggala Pa¤¤atti, are small-sized books,
written in the form of a catechism. Dhàtukathà consists of 14 chapters
in which all phenomena of existence are discussed with reference to
the three categories of Khandha, âyatana and Dhàtu.
4. Puggala Pa¤¤atti:
It resembles the style of the Aïguttara Nikàya and consists of 10
35
chapters in which various types of individuals (puggala) are discussed,
often with similes and comparisons.
5. Kathàvatthu:
As mentioned earlier, this work was compiled by the Venerable
Moggaliputta Tissa, the presiding Arahat of the Third Great Council,
in order to uproot all points of controversy regarding Buddhadhamma.
There are 23 dialogue-form chapters dealing with some 21
controversies in a purely logical style.
6. Yamaka:
This is a work of applied logic which deals with the delimitation as
to the range and content of all the doctrinal terms and concepts.
Yamaka clears up all ambiguities and distortions which may creep into
the manifold doctrines of Abhidhamma. For every discussion,
throughout the work there are two sets of questions in contrast, e.g., (a)
Are all wholesome phenomena (kusala dhamma), wholesome roots
(kusala måla)? Or (b) Are all wholesome roots, wholesome
phenomena?
7. Paññhàna:
This is a gigantic work which, together with Dhammasaïgani,
constitutes the quintessence of Buddhist Philosophy. The 4 divisions
of Paññhàna adopt four different ways - Positive, Anuloma; Negative,
Pañiloma; Positive-negative, Anuloma-pañiloma; Negative-positive,
Pañiloma-anuloma; - to elucidate the profound philosophy of
Relations (paccaya) otherwise known as the, Law of Conditionality.
This Law is based on 24 paccayas, conditions or relations, which, in
different combinations and permutations, keep the 'wheel of existence'
(samsàra) moving. These paccayas explain the law of universal inter-
dependence.

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36
 Extra-canonical Literature
The extra-canonical literature falls into three historical periods.
The first period is from the compilation of the canon to the 5th century
A.C.; the second from 5th century to 11th century, and the third from
12th century to modern times. The literature of the first period is
known as the Classical Works of which only a few now survive, the rest
being lost. The second period has been the most significant one in the
development of non-canonical Pàli literature; for the commentaries of
the Canon were written in this period. The third period has been even
more prolific; for, apart from sub-commentaries (tãka), many different
classes of literature have come to be produced in this period.
Classical Works :
There are four books in this class, viz., Nettipakarõa,
Petakopadesa, Milinda Pa¤ha and Sutta Saõgaho. The first two works,
Nettipakarana (The Book of Guidance), and Petakopadesa
(Instructions on the Tipiñaka), were composed by the Arahat
Mahàkaccàyana, a prominent, immediate disciple of the Buddha.
These are written in the style of the Abhidhamma and serve as
exegetical works of Buddha-dhamma. Milinda Paõha (Questions of
King Milinda), written in the style of the suttas, contains a dialogue
between the Graeco-Bactrian King Manender (in Pàli, Milinda) and
the Thera Nàgasena about most of the important points of Buddhism.
Sutta Saïgaho is an anthology of sutta composed, probably, for the use
of preachers.
A work on history entitled Dãpavaüsa-Island Chronicles,
composed in Sri Lanka, also belongs to this period. Contemporaneous
too are some old commentarial works, such as, Mahàññhakathà,
Mahàpaccari, Kurundi Aññhakathà, Cålapaccari, Andhakaññhakathà,
Pannàvàra and Saïkhepaññha kathà, which have been mentioned by
Buddhaghosa in his Commentary, and which are now lost.
Commentaries :
The most important compositions of this period are the works of
37
âcariya Buddhaghosa who wrote extensive commentaries on almost
all the books of the Tipiñaka except a few books of the Khuddaka
Nikàya. He wrote commentaries on the Pàtimokkha and on the entire
Vinaya Piñaka, Abhidhamma Piñaka, and, of the Sutta Piñaka, the first
four Nikàyas and a few suttas of the fifth Nikàya.
The chief contribution of âcariya, however, was his monumental
work, the Visuddhi Magga, the Path of Purification, which serves as an
encyclopedia on the entire Buddha-vacana, very lucidly written in the
style of the Abhidhamma. âcariya Buddhaghosa, an Indian Bhikkhu,
wrote all of the large number of works in 5th century A.C. in Sri Lanka,
where he had gone to study the Tipiñaka and the old Aññhakathàs.
Buddhaghosa is considered as the greatest Buddhist writer of all times.
Included in this class of literature are the contemporaneous works
of âcariya Buddhadatta, who wrote a commentary on Buddhavaüsa
and several other works of merit e.g., Vinaya Vinicchaya and uttara
Viniccha ya - compendiums of the Vina ya in verses,
Abhidhammàvatàra - hand-book of Buddhist psychology, Jinàlankara
- an epic on Buddha's Great Victory.
Another prolif ic wr iter, âcar iya Dhammapàla wrote
commentaries on the remaining works of Khuddaka Nikàya,
Therigàthà, and Cariyapiñaka, and also sub-commentaries on works,
such as, the first four Nikàyas - Dãgha, Majjhima, Saüyutta, and
Aïguttara, on Nettipakaraõa, Visuddhi Magga and several other
works.
All these âcariyas were Indian. There are several other
commentators, mostly Sinhalese, of this period, a few notable ones
being âcariya ânanda, author of Abhidhamma Målañika and several
ñãkas of Buddhaghosa's Commentaries of Abhidhamma; âcariya Cåla
Dhammapàla, author of Saccasaïkhepa, etc.; âcariya Upasena, author
of the commentaries of Niddesa; âcariya Anuruddha, author of the
famous manual of Abhidhamma called Abhidhammattha Saïgaha,
and several other works. âcariya Mahànàma, author of the sub-
commentary of Patisambhidà Magga; and the âcariyas Kassapa,
38
Vajirabuddhi, Khema, Dhammasiri and Mahàsàmi to mention a few
more, who wrote òãkas on various works.
There are also a few Chronicles and grammatical works belonging
to this period, such as mahàvaüsa, Bodhivaüsa, Anàgatavaüsa,
Kaccàyana Vyàkarana, Mahà Niruttigandha etc.
Sub-commentaries, etc.
In the time of the Sinhala King Paràkramabàhu (12 A.C), Pàli
literature received a great impetus in various fields. Under his
auspices, the Sinhala Thera Mahà Kassapa held a Council for the
purpose of composing òãkas for all aññhakathàs and other ancilliary
literature to the canon. With the collaboration of a number of great
scholar monks, like the Venerables Sàriputta, Saïgharakkhita,
Buddharakkhita, Sumaïgala and Saddhamma Jotipàla (of Myanmar),
Buddhanàga and others, he had more than fifty voluminous sub-
commentaries written.
A 15th century stone-inscription of Myanmar at Toungdwin
mentions the names of no less than 295 important works on various
subjects which show how prolific had been the growth of Pàli literature
in this period.
In subsequent centuries, right upto our time, in all the Buddhist
countries, e.g., Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos etc., there has
been a living tradition of such efforts of literary production.
Bibliography: Winternitz, A history of Indian Literature, Vol-II;
Geiger, Pàli Literature and Language; Bharat Singh Upadyaya, Pàli
Sahitya kà Itthias; B.C. Law, History of Pàli Literature in 2 Vols; M.
Bode, Pàli Literature of Myanmar; G.P. Malalasekara, Pàli Literature
of Ceylon; Ven. J. Kshyapa, Pàli Mahavyàkarana.

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39
 THE PâLI LANGUAGE

The word 'Pàli', strictly speaking means “Buddha Vacanaü”, the word of
the Buddha. therefore it consists of the texts of the Tipitaka, the sacred
Buddhist Canon containing the original teachings of the Buddha. That is
why we often come across the phrase, “Imaü tàva pàliyaü, aññhakathàyaü
pana” – These occur in the texts of the Tipitaka. In the commentaries
however ……”. In Pàli lexicon the definition of Pàli is given thus: “Pa-
pàleti, rakkhatã'ti pàli : since it preserves the 'Buddha vacana' in the form
of the sacred texts, it is called Pàli”
As to the origin of Pàli, Emperor Ashoka has left an evidence in his
Bhabhri edict, “Imàni bhante Dhammapaliyàyàni: These, Venerable Sir,
are the texts of the Dhamma.” In course of time, paliyàya became Pàli, an
elliptical form. The home of Pàli is Magadha. That is why it is also known
as Màgadhi. “Sammàsambuddhena vuttappakàra màgadhiko vohàro –
The Màgadhi medium used by the the Supremely Enlightened One.” The
Màgadhi language was the lingua franca of a region comprising Bihar,
parts of Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, an
area otherwise called Gangetic plain, washed and fertilized by the two
river system, Ganga and Yamunà.
The Buddha purposely did not speak in Chandas, the language of Vedas,
also called Vedic Sanskrit. He spoke in the language of the common
people. “Anujànàmi bhikkhave sakàyaniruttiyà Buddhavacanaü
pariyàpunituü - Monks, I instruct that the words of the Buddha are learnt
in the standard vernacular of the masses.”
It is quite obvious that had the Buddha given instruction in Vedic Sanskrit,
Buddhism would have become distorted and turned into Upanishads, and
beyond the grasp of common people, accessible only to the elite class.
This is one reason, why Pàli is subjected to a step-motherly treatment by
Sanskritists.
In the interest of Sanskrit, at least classical Sanskrit, which is widely
studied today, Pàli should be propagated as a sister discipline. This apart,
chronologically, Pàli is decidedly older than modern classical Sanskrit.
It is hoped that in the age of science and technology when language studies
are becoming more and more objective, Pàli should be studied widely as a
discipline inseparable from other classical languages of India.

40
 PâLI ALPHABET

Vowels : a, à, i, ã, u, å, e, o.
Consonants : ka, kha, ga, gha, ïa.
ca, cha, ja, jha, ¤a.
ña, ñha, óa, óha, ¤a.
ta, tha, da, dha, õa.
pa, pha, ba, bha, ma.
ya, ra, la, va.
sa, ha, ëa, aü.
Mode of Pronunciation:
a as u in cut óh as dh in dhow
à as a in mart õa as n in nut
i as i in king ta as t in tamàsha
ã as ee in eel tha as th in thunder
u as u in put da as th in that
å as u in rule dha as dh in dharma
e as e in ethics na as n in name
o as o in over pa as p in pub
ka as k in key pha as ph in phantom
kha as kh in khaki ba as b in ball
ga as g in good bha as bh in bhàrat
gha as gh in ghost ma as m in mother
ïa as n in ankle ya as y in yard
ca as ch in cheer ra as r in rat
cha as tch in kutch la as l in luck
ja as j in just va as v in victory
jha as jh in jhansi sa as s in sun
¤a as ñ in se¤or ha as h in hat
ña as t in cat ëa as l in lame
ñha as th in làñhi aü as ung in unguent
ó as d in day
41
 PâLI LESSON 1

The Pàli language consists of 41 letters of which 8 are vowels

(sara) and 33 are consonants (byañjana).
Vowels: a à i ã u å e o.
Of these a, i, u are short and à, ã, å are long; e, o may be either short or
long, according to the context.
Consonants: Gutterals (ka-vagga) : k, kh, g, gh, ï.
Palatals (ca-vagga) : c, ch, j, jh, ¤.
Cerebrals (ña-vagga) : ñ, ñh, ó, óh, ñ.
Dantals (ta-vagga) : t, th, d, dh, n.
Labials (pa-vagga) : p, ph, b, bh, m.
Aspirate : y, r, l, v.
Niggahita : s, h, ë, aü.
Parts of speech:
There are 4 parts of speech in Pàli:
1. Nàma = Noun.
2. Akkhàta = Verb.
3. Upasagga = Prefix.
4.Nipàta = indeclinable particles, such as,
Conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs etc.
Adjectives are treated as nouns because they are similarly
declined.
Genders:
There are 3 genders (liïga) in Pàli Language, viz.,
1. Pulliïga = Masculine gender.
2. Itthiliïga = Feminine gender.
3. Napuüsakaliïga = Neuter gender
Nouns which denote males are masculine and those which
denote females are feminine. But qualities and inanimate things are not
necessarily neuter. Therefore, gender in Pàli is only a grammatical
distinction existing in words.
42
Numbers:
In Pàli there are two numbers (vacana):
1. Ekavacana = Singular number.
2. Bahuvacana = Plural number.
Pàli does not have the dual, as found in Sanskrit. This makes
Pàli simpler.
Cases:
There are 8 cases in Pàli:
1. Pañhamà vibhatti = Nominative case = Subject
2. Dutiyà vibhatti = Accusative case = Object
3. Tatiyà vibhatti = Instrumental case (prepositions)
= by, with, through
4. Catutthã vibhatti = Dative case = to, for
5. Pa¤camã vibhatti = Ablative case = from
6. Chaññhã vibhatti = Genitive/possessive case = of
7. Sattamã vibhatti = Locative case = on, in, at,
among, amidst
8. âlapana vibhatti = Vocative case =Oh, etc.
Nouns are declined according to the genders, numbers and
cases.

43
 PâLI LESSON – 2
Declension of nouns (Nàma vibhatti)
Masculine gender (Noun ending in a)

Vibhatti Singular Plural

1. Pañhamà : o à
2. Dutiyà : aü e
3. Tatiyà : ena ebhi, ehi
4. Catutthã : assa, àya ànaü
5. Pañcamã : à, asmà, amhà, to ebhi, ehi
6. Chaññhã : assa ànaü
7. Sattamã : e, asmiü, amhi esu
8. âlapana : a à

For example: Buddha = The Enlightened One.

Vibhatti Singular Plural
1. Pañhamà Buddho Buddhà
2. Dutiyà Buddhaü Buddhe
3. Tatiyà Buddhena Buddhebhi, Buddhehi
4. Catutthã Buddhassa, Buddhànaü
Buddhàya
5.Pañcamã Buddhà, Buddhebhi, Buddhehi
Buddhasmà,
Buddhamhà,
Buddhato
6.Chaññhã Buddhassa Buddhànaü
7.Sattamã Buddhe, Buddhesu
Buddhasmiü,
Buddhamhi
8. âlapana Buddha! Buddhà!
Vocabulary: The following words are similarly declined:
Buddha =The Enlightened One Paõóita = Wise One
Dhamma = The Teaching of the Sàvaka = Disciple
Buddha, Truth
44
Lobha = Greed
Saïgha = Order of the Buddha's Vihàra = Monastery
Monastic disciples Dosa = Hatred
Samaõa =Monk Pàda = Foot
Bàla = Fool Moha = Delusion
Dàraka = Boy âcariya = Teacher
Gàma = Village Manussa = Man
Magga = Path Loka = World

Exercise – 1
Translate into English:
1) Dàrakà gàmassa magge. 2)Buddho lokassa àcariyo. 3) Saïghassa
Samaõà pa¤óità. 4) âcariyànaü vihàresu sàvakà. 5) Bàlassa dàrakà
paõóità. 6) Gàme sàvakànaü vihàrà. 7) Lobhassa, Dosassa, Mohassa
maggo bàlànaü. 8) Buddhassa sàvakà pàdena gàmesu. 9) Manussànaü
àcariyo samaõo. 10) Buddhassa maggo paõóitànaü.
Exercise – 2
Translate into Pàli:
1) The Teaching of the Buddha. 2) The monks of the Holy Order of the
Buddha Enlightened one . 3) The Buddha's disciples' monastery in the
village. 4) Fools among men. 5) Wise ones with teachers. 6) Boys from
the village. 7) Fools on the path of greed, hatred and delusion. 8) Path
through the monastery to the village of men. 9) By foot on the path of
the village. 10) The disciples of the Buddha among men in the villages.
Exercise – 3
Complete the sentences of exercise 1 & 2 with the following
vocabulary:-
Gacchati = goes Vasanti = live, stay
Gacchanti = go Hoti = is
âgacchati = comes Honti = are
âgacchanti = come Atthi = is, exists
Santi = are, exist

45
 PâLI LESSON – 3
Conjugation of Verbs (Kriyà vibhatti)

Verbs are conjugated according to persons, tenses and voices.

Persons: There are 3 persons (Purisa)
Pañhama Purisa = Third person
Majjhima Purisa = Second person
Uttama Purisa = First person
Pronouns (Sabbanàma):
So = He
Te = They
Tvaü = You (singular)
Tumhe = You (plural)
Ahaü = I
Mayaü = We
Tenses: There are 3 tenses (Kàla)
Vattamàna Kàla = Present Tense
Atãta Kàla = Past Tense
Anàgata Kàla = Future Tense
Voices: There are 2 voices:
Kattukàraka = Active voice
Kammakàraka = Passive voice
Conjugation: Active Voice: Present Tense:
Person Singular Plural
Pañhama Purisa ti anti
Majjhima Purisa si tha
Uttama Purisa mi ma
For example: ÖKar = to do
Person Singular Plural
Pañhama Kar + ti = Karoti Kar + anti = Karonti
Majjhima Kar + si =Karosi Kar + tha = Karotha
Uttama Kar + mi = Karomi Kar + ma = Karoma
46
I do = Ahaü karomi
We do = Mayaü karoma
You do = Tvaü karosi
You so = Tumhe karotha
He does = So karoti
They do = Te karonti
Vocabulary: Similarly conjugated are:
Ögam = to go so gacchati = he goes, etc.
Övas = to stay so vasati = he lives, dwells, resides
Ösi = to sleep so sayati = he sleeps
Ödis = to see so passati = he sees, understands
Öbhàs = to speak so bhàsati = he speaks
Öñhà = to stand so tiññhati = he stands
ni+Ösid = to sit so nisãdati = he sits
à+Ögam = to come so àgacchati = he comes, returns
Ödes = to teach, instruct so deseti = he teaches, instructs
Öcar = to travel, move so carati = he travels, moves
Öyàc = to beg so yàcati = he begs
Öbhuj = to eat so bhu¤jati = he eats
Ödà = to give so dadàti or deti = gives, offers
à+Ödà = to take so àdàti = he takes, appropriates
carati = to behave, to conduct
gaõhàti = to take, to hold
pànàtipàta = killing
Natthi = is not, be not, has not
àma or evaü = yes
saraõaü = refuge, protection
ca = and

47
 Exercise 1

Translate into English:

1) Buddho Dhammaü deseti. 2) Samaõo gàmaü gacchati. 3) Sàvakesu
bàlà natthi. 4) Dàrakànaü àcariyo na paõóito hoti. 5) Buddhassa
Sàvakà dhammaü desenti. 6) Buddho pàdena gàmaü gacchati. 7)
Samaõo vihàrato àgacchati. 8) Dàrakassa àcariyo gàme vasati. 9)
Buddhassa natthi lobho, natthi doso, natthi moho. 10) Samaõà vihàrato
gàme passanti. 11) Manussà maggena samaõanassa vihàraü
gacchanti. 12) Dàrakànaü àcariyà vihàre na vasanti. 13) Bàlà
Buddhassa dhammaü na passanti. 14) Manussà gàmehi vihàraü
àgacchanti. 15) Manussesu atthi bàlà atthi paõóità. 16) Dàrakassa
àcariyo natthi. 17) Gàme vihàro atthi. 18) Paõóitànaü moho natthi. 19)
âcariyo dàrakànaü Buddhassa dhammaü deseti. 20) Gàmehi dàrakà
pàdena maggato samaõehi àgacchanti. 21) Buddhassa Dhammassa
Saïghassa Nibbànàya sukhàya hitàya saraõaü gacchàmi.
Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1) The disciple of the Buddha travels in the villages. 2) Wise monks
preach the Truth. 3)There is no refuge for fools. 4) I speak from the
teaching of the Enlightened One. 5) Monks come to the monastery
from the village. 6) The path of greed is the way of the world. 7)
Disciples are giving, teachers are taking. 8) Yes, we go to the Buddha, to
the Teaching, to the Order for refuge. 9) You sit and eat, I stand and
speak. 10) Buddha stays in the village and teaches the Truth.

Exercise 3
Form five Pàli sentences and five English sentences using vocabulary
from Pàli Lesson 2 and 3, in your own words.

48
 PâLI LESSON 4

Declension of Neuter Gender (Nouns ending in a)

Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà aü à, àni
2. Dutiyà aü e, àni
3. Tatiyà ena ebhi, ehi
4. Catutthã assa, ayà ànaü
5. Pañcamã à, asmà, amhà, to ebhi, ehi
6. Chaññhã assa ànaü
7. Sattamã e, asmiü, amhi esu
8. âlapana a à, àni
For example: Phala = Fruit
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà Phalaü Phalà, Phalàni
2. Dutiyà Phalaü Phale, Phalàni
3. Tatiyà Phalena Phalebhi, Phalehi
4. Catutthã Phalassa, Phalayà Phalànaü
5. Pañcamã Phalà, Phalasmà, Phalebhi, Phalehi
Phalamhà, Phalato
6. Chaññhã Phalassa Phalànaü
7. Sattamã Phale, Phalasmiü, Phalesu
Phalamhi
8. âlapana Phala Phalà, Phalàni
Vocabulary:
The following words are similarly declined:
Dàna = gift, offering Udaka = water
Saüyojana = fetter Råpa = form, matter
Dhana = wealth Puppha = f lower
Susàna = cemetery Citta = mind
Pãñha = chair Sãla = moral precept, virtue
49
Khãra = milk Nagara = city
Cetiya = shrine Pu¤¤a = good, merit
Ara¤¤a = forest Hadaya = heart
Tiõa = grass Bala = power, force, strength
Chatta = umbrella Sukha = happiness
Pàpa = evil, demerit Sacca = truth
Bhaya = fear Vattha = cloth
Paduma = lotus Dukkha = suffering, pain, misery
Paõõa = leaf ¥àõa = knowledge, wisdom
Ratana = gem Mukha = face
Cattàri = four òhapemi = I place
Tãni = three Eka = one
Mana = mind Bãja = seed
Vàcà = speech Dasa = ten
Kàya = body Amata = deathless
Kamma = action, deed Pa¤ca = five
Mama = my Sabbadà = always
Amhàkaü = our, to us Lokavidå = Knower of the worlds
Madhu = honey Kathaü = how
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Paõóità dànàni denti, sãla¤ca rakkhanti.
2. Samaõà dhammena saccaü passanti.
3. Buddhassa cittasmiü bhayàni na santi.
4. Gàmasmiü sàvako gacchati, udakaõca yàcati.
5. Mama hadaye dhammo vasati.
6. Tumhe balena tiññhatha.
7. So ara¤¤aü gacchati, Tiõàü àdàti, gàmaü ca àgacchati.
8. Te cetiyàni passanti, pu¤¤àni kammàni ca karonti.
9. Tumhe phalàni bhu¤jatha, manussànaü ca phalàni detha.
10. Saüyojanàni dukkhaü àharanti.
50
 Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. Men go and come, the world stands.
2. They eat, sleep, walk and sit.
3. You give and take.
4. The monk sits on the chair and teaches the Truth.
5. Men take milk from the city.
6. They take the umbrella.
7. There is happiness in the face of a wise man.
8. There is fear in the heart of fools.
9. He gives gift of cloth and milk and wealth.
10. I place lotus f lowers at the feet of the Buddha.
Exercise 3
Form five Pàli and five English sentences, using vocabulary from all
previous Pàli lessons in your own words.

51
 PâLI LESSON 5

Conjugation of Future Tense

Purisa Ekavacana Bahuvacana
Pañhama Purisa issati issanti
Majjhima Purisa issasi issatha
Uttama Purisa issàmi issàma
For example:Öpåja = to worship, offer devotion or gift.
Purisa Ekavacana Bahuvacana
Pañhama Purisa Påjessati Påjessanti
Majjhima Purisa Påjessasi Påjessatha
Uttama Purisa Påjessàmi Påjessàma
Ahaü påjessàmi = I will worship
Mayaü påjessàma = We will worship
Tvaü påjessasi = You will worship
Tumhe påjessatha = You will worship
So påjessati = He will worship
Te påjessanti = They will worship
Similarly conjugated are:
Öbhuj = bhu¤jissati, bhu¤jissanti = he/they will eat
Ökhàd=khàdissati, khàdissanti =he/they will eat, chew
Ölabh = labhissati = he will receive, get, gain, acquire etc.
Ösikh= sikhissati = he will learn, train oneself
Öhas = hasissati = he will laugh
Ölikh = likhissati = he will write
Övap = vapessati = he will sow
Örakh = rakkhissati = he will protect, keep guard
Öhan = hanissati = he will kill
Öhar = harissati = he will carry away
àÖhar = àharissati = he will bring
àÖruh = àruhissati = he will ascend
52
Öbhå = bhavissati = he will develop, be, become
Öjà = jàyissati = he will be born
udÖpad = uppajjissati = he will arise, be born
niÖrudh = nirujjhissati = he will pass away, vanish
Öis = icchissati = he will wish
Öaya = e = essati = will come (eti, ayati = comes)
Öbha=bhàyissati= he will fear, afraid
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Samaõo dàrakànaü phalàni dàdissati.
2. Dàrakà àcariyassa phalàni desanti.
3. Dàrako sama¤ànaü udakaü deti.
4. Manussà samaõànaü dànaü dessanti.
5. Samaõà manussehi dànaü labhissanti.
6. Buddhassa saüyojanàni natthi.
7. Dàrako samaõassa phalàni àharissati.
8. Samaõà àcariyamhà ¤ànaü labhissanti.
9. Samaõà gàmato ara¤¤àni gacchissanti.
10. Dosena sukhaü na labhati, adosena sukhaü labhati.
11. Samaõà sãlesu sikkhanti, ¤àõaü ca labhanti, evàÿ saccaü
passissanti.
12. Bàlà sãlàni na rakkhanti, adhammena ca caranti.
13. ¥àõena saccaü passissasi, sukhena ca viharissasi.
14. Mohena bàlo saccaü na passati, sukhaü ca na labhati.
15. Ara¤¤e samaõà vasanti, ¤ànaü bhàventi ca.
16. Paõóità sãlàni rakkhissanti, pu¤¤àni ca labhissanti.
17. Buddhassa sàvakassa bhayaü natthi.
18. Manussà ara¤¤e na vasanti, te bhàyanti.
19. Bàlà cetiyàni na påjenti, te pu¤¤aü na vapenti, evaü amataü
na labhissanti.
20. Ara¤¤ato samaõà gàmaü àgacchanti.
53
 Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. I shall not fear the fetters.
2. I shall go for refuge to the Buddha, to the Dhamma, to the Saïgha.
3. Buddha's Teachings will give power to mind.
4. The wise disciples of the Buddha will protect the Truth by moral
conduct.
5. He will offer umbrellas to monks and will gain merit.
6. We will train ourselves in the Teachings of the Buddha.
7. We will not do evil and will sow merit and will bring wealth.
8. Men will gain knowledge by the development of the mind.
9. Yes, the wise do not beg wealth, they will get wealth through the
protection of the Teachings of the Buddha.
10. The fools bring suffering through killing, the wise bring
happiness through the Path of the Buddha's Teachings.

Exercise 3
Compare:
1. Declension – ending between masculine and neuter gender.

2. Conjugation – ending between present and future tenses.

54
 PâLI LESSON 6
Declension of Feminine Gender words ending in à
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà à à, àyo
2. Dutiyà aü à, àyo
3. Tatiyà àya àbhi, àhi
4. Catutthã àya ànaü
5. Pa¤camã àya àbhi, àhi
6. Chaññhã àya ànaü
7. Sattamã àya, àyaü àsu
8. âlapana e à, àyo
For example: Vàcà = Speech
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà Vàcà Vàcà, Vàcàyo
2. Dutiyà Vàcaü Vàcà, Vàcàyo
3. Tatiyà Vàcàya Vàcàbhi, Vàcàhi
4. Catutthã Vàcàya Vàcànaü
5. Pa¤camã Vàcàya Vàcàbhi, Vàcàhi
6. Chaññhã Vàcàya Vàcànaü
7. Sattamã Vàcàya, Vàcàyaü Vàcàsu
8. âlapana Vàce Vàcà, Vàcàyo
Words similarly declined are:
Avijjà = ignorance
Taõhà = craving
Icchà = wish
Vipassanà= insight
Sikkhà = training
Mettà = universal love
Karuõà= compassion
Mudità = altruistic joy
55
Upekkha = equanimity
Saddhà= faith, confidence
Bhàvanà = meditation, development
Sàlà = hall
Dhammasàlà = preaching hall
Guhà = cave
Nàvà = boat
Pajà = mankind, people
Vocabulary:
Masculine
Soka = sorrow
Parideva = lamentation
Samudaya = origin, arising
Nirodha = extinction, cessation
Anta = end
Dãpa = island
Pànàtipàtà = from killing
Micchàcàrà = from sexual misconduct
Musàvàdà = from falsehood, lying
Meraya = fermented drink
Pamàdaññhànà = from that which confuses the mind Sikkhàpadaü =
precept
Kuto = from where, whence
Samàdiyàmi = saü+à+Ödà = I voluntarily undertake
Neuter
Viriya = energy, effort
Måla = root
Domanassa= sadness, depression
Somanassa = joy
Nibbàna = cessation(of suffering), Ultimate Bliss
Adinnàdàna = stealing
56
Kàma = passion, lust, sensuality
Sårà = wine, liquor
Majja = intoxicating drink
Veramaõã = abstinence or refraining
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Saddhàya ca viriyena ca Nibbànaü labhissati.
2. Taõhàya nirodhena dukkhaü nirujjhissati.
3. Taõhàya jàyati soko taõhàya jàyati bhayaü.
4. Taõhàya nirodhena natthi soko, kuto bhayaü.
5. Pa¤¤àya pajà dukkhassantaü karissanti.
6. Lobho doso moho ca dukkhassa målàni, alobho adoso amoho ca
sukkhassa målàni iti paõóita ¤ànena passanti.
7. Dhammasàlàsu samaõà manussànaü Buddha-dhammaü desenti.
8. Paõóità vedanànaü samudaya¤ca nirodha¤ca passanti.
9. Samaõà mettà-karuõà-mudità-upekkhà bhàvanàyo bhàventi.
10. Buddhassa sàvakà pa¤¤àsikkhàya sikkhanti.
11. Dàrakànaü àcariyo mettàbhàvanaü bhàvessati.
12. Samaõo guhàyaü upekkhàbhàvanaü bhàvessati.
13. Manussà nàvàya dãpaü àgacchissanti.
14. Bàle bhayaü uppajjissati na paõóitasmiü.
15. Ahaü pànàtipàtamhà veramaõã sikkhàpadaü samàdiyàmi.
16. Mayaü musàvàdà veramaõã sikkhàpadaü samàdiyàma.
Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. I shall voluntarily undertake the precept to abstain from killing,
from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from lying and from wine,
fermented and intoxicating drinks which confuse the mind.
2. From ignorance arises craving and craving brings misery.
3. He will develop the meditation on universal love.
4. Our teacher will teach the meditation on compassion and altruistic
joy.
57
5. Through insight one will destroy delusion and will ascend on the
path to spiritual liberation.
6. One gains wisdom through faith and through meditation on
equanimity.
7. Monks train themselves in wisdom and compassion.
8. Wise ones go to the cave in the forest and develop meditation.
9. There is no sadness in the cessation of evil.
10. There is happiness in the arising of good.
Exercise 3
Compare: Declension ending between masculine, neuter and
feminine.

58
 PâLI LESSON 7
Conjugation of
Past Tense
Purisa Ekavacana Bahuvacana
Pañhama i, ã iüsu, uü
Majjhima i, o ittha
Uttama iü imha, imhà
For example: Öpac = to cook
Purisa Ekavacana Bahuvacana
Pañhama paci, pacã paciüsu, pacuü
Majjhima paci, paco pacittha
Uttama paciü pacimha, pacimhà
Also by augmenting 'a' before the root, e.g.,
Pañhama apaci, apacã apaciüsu, apacuü
Majjhima apaci, apaco apacittha
Uttama apaciü apacimha, apacimhà
For example:
Gacchi = went Hari = carried
Vikkiõi = sold âhari = brought
Kini = bought Dadi = gave
Uppajji = arose Jàyi = was born
Bhavi = was, became, developed âruhi = ascended
Hani = killed Rakkhi = protected,
Soci = lamented guarded
Ahosi = was Rodi = cried
Akàsi = made, performed Palàyi = ran away
Mu¤ci = freed, released Vadi = said
Öbhàs = to speak bhàsi = spoke
Öpucch = to ask pucchi = asked
Ölikh = to write likhi = wrote
Ökhan= to dig khani = dug
59
Öchind = to cut chindi = he cut
Ösuj = to pain suji = it pained
pariÖesa = to seek pariyesi = he sought
Övand = to bow down vandi = he bowed down,
or worship worshipped, saluted
âÖsev = âsevati = practises âsevi = practised
Vocabulary:
Kasmà = why Pi = also, and, even
Nanu = is it not Satthà = teacher
Gàravena = with reverence Bhatta = food
Amhe = to us Kathaü = how
Iti = thus, as, so Santike = near
Upàsikà = lay female devotee Bhariyà = wife
Upàsaka = lay male devotee Idàni = now
âha = said Mayhaü = my
Yo = whoever, he who Sanghàyana=Buddhist
Mà = don't Council, synod
Bhadanta = Venerable Tattha, Tattra = there
Ekadà = once Ime = these
Bhagavà = Lord Ariya = holy saint
Idaü, Imaü = this Hita = welfare
Pañhama = first Deva = divine being,
Bhikkhu = monk god
Itthã = woman Mahà = great
Sabbattha = all over, Kalyàna = welfare,
everywhere well-being
Bahu = many
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Kasmà devà pi Buddhassa pàdesu vandiüsu?
2. Karuõàya nanu Buddho devànaü satthà abhavi?
60
3. âma, Buddho devamanussànaü satthà ahosi.
4. Tumhe gàravena bhattaü apacittha, amhe ca dànaü àdadittha.
5. Kathaü tumhe cittaü abhàvittha iti upàsako bhikkhuü apucchi.
6. Bhikkhu àha: Yo bhàvanaü àsevati so cittaü bhàveti.
7. Upàsako bhikkhussa santike gacchi, eva¤ca vadi.
8. Bhante, ahaü ca mayhaü bhariyà ca sãlesu sikkhimha.
9. Mayaü bhàvanàya cittaü bhàvimha sukha¤ca labhimha.
10. Subhaddo evaÿ bhàsi, “Mà socatha, mà rodatha, Mahà Samaõo
natthi. Idàni mayhaü mu¤cimha sikkhàya'iti.”
11. Bhadanta Mahàkassapo Sangàyanaü akàsi, Dhamma¤ca àrakkhi,
Subhaddo palàyi.
Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. Thus I have heard.
2. Once Lord Buddha was staying at Vàranasi.
3. There he preached the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta to the five
monks.
4. This Sutta was the first Teaching.
5. The five monks became holy saints.
6. Lord Buddha said: “Monks you go and preach the Teachings.”
7. The Teachings will be for the happiness and for the welfare of
gods and men.
8. The monks went all over India and preached the Truth.
9. Many men and women became saints through these sermons.
10. There were happiness and well-being in the world.
11. People voluntarily undertook the precepts and cultivated the mind
through meditation and became wise.
Exercise 3
Compare: Conjugation endings between present, future and past
tenses.

61
 PâLI LESSON 8

Declension of Masculine words ending in 'I’

Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà I ã, ayo
2. Dutiyà iü ã, ayo
3. Tatiyà inà ãbhi, ãhi
4. Catutthã issa, ino ãnaü
5. Pañcamã inà, ismà, imhà ibhi, ihi
6. Chaññhã issa, ino ãnaü
7. Sattamã ismiü, imhi isu, ãsu
8. âlapana i, ã ã, ayo
Note: i becomes ã before hi, naü and su
For example: Muni = Sage
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà Muni Munã, Munayo
2. Dutiyà Muni Munã, Munayo
3. Tatiyà Muninà Munãbhi, Munãhi
4. Catutthã Munissa, Munino Munãnaü
5. Pañcamã Muninà, Munismà, Munibhi, Munihi
Munimhà
6. Chaññhã Munissa, Munino Munãnaü
7. Sattamã Munismiü, Munimhi Munisu, Munãsu
8. âlapana Muni, Munã Munã, Munayo
Similarly declined are:
Sàkyamuni= The sage of the Sakyas Atithi = Guest
Aggi = Fire Isi = Seer
Adhipati = Lord Pati = Husband
Bodhi = Enlightenment Nidhi = Hidden treasure
Pàõi = Hand Ravi = Sun
Dãpi = Leopard Byàdhi = Sickness
62
Gahapati = Householder Maõi = Gem
Vãhi = Paddy Ari = Enemy
Udadhi = Ocean Giri = Mountain
Kucchi = Stomach Kavi = Poet
Bhåpati = King Ràsi = Heap
Adjectives are declined according to nouns they qualify.
Pàpa = Evil
Pu¤¤a = Merit
Pu¤¤avanta = Good one, Pious one
Kusala = Wholesome, Good, Moral, Skilful
Gambhãra = Deep, Profound
Uõha = Hot
Anicca = Impermanent
Dãgha = Long
Nicca = Permanent
Khuddaka = Small
Sãta = Cold
Akusala = Unwholesome, Immoral, Unskilful
Vocabulary:

Masculine :
Khandha = group, aggregate, heap
Kàya = body
Samudda = sea
Kàla = time
Saüsàra = world
Pabbata = mountain
Vipàka = effect, result
Puggala = people
Saïkhàra = mental formations, kamma formations, thing
Mula = root, foot, bottom
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Bodhirukkha = the Tree of Wisdom/Enlightenment
Feminine:
Vedanà = feeling, sensation
Sa¤¤à = perception
Chàyà = shadow

Neuter:
âyudha = weapon
Ghara = home,house
Vi¤¤à¤a = consciousness
Marana = death
Anattà = impersonality, egolessness, unsubstantiality
Khetta = field
Vana = forest
Potthaka = book
Atta = ego, self
Sãsa = head
Aõda = egg
Verbs: Hoti = bhavati (Öbhu = is, be)
Present tense Past tense
Hoti – Honti Ahosi – Ahesuü
Hosi – Hotha Ahoso – Ahettha
Homi – Homa Ahosiü - Ahosimha
Future tense
Hessati – Hessanti
Hessasi – Hessatha
Hessàmi – Hessàma
Nisãdati = sits (niÖsid)
Supati = sleeps, lies (Ösup)
Jànàti = knows (Ö¤à = to know)
ca = and; evaü = thus.
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 Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Manussà kusalàni ca akusalàni ca kammàni karonti.
2. Munayo pu¤¤àni karonti, evaü pu¤¤avantà honti.
3. Pàpa-puggalà pàpa-kammàni karissanti.
4. Evaü dãghakàlaü dukkhaü labhissanti.
5. Ekasmiü gahapatimhi pàpa-icchàyo uppajjiüsu.
6. So maõãnaü ràsiyo karissàmi iti abhàsi.
7. Kàyo anicco, vedanà aniccà, sa¤¤à aniccà, saükhàrà aniccà,
vi¤¤à¤aü aniccaü iti Bodhi Rukkhassa måle sàkyamunino ¤àõaü
upapajji.
8. Dhammassa Adhipatino, Karuõàya Udadhissa, saddhà-cittena
devamanussà atãte vandiüsu, idàni vandanti, ànàgate vandissanti.
9. Paõdità sabbe saükhàrà aniccà, dukkhà, anattà iti passanti,
evaü saüyojanàni hanenti akusala-byàdhãhi attànaü mocenti,
kusalaü karonti ceva pa¤¤aü bhàventi.
10. Bàlà gambhãraü Buddha-dhammaü na jànanti, evaü
Dhamma-nidhiü na labhanti, dãghakàlaü dukkhena viharanti.

Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. Good actions bring happiness for long, bad actions
unhappiness.
2. Wise men perform merit, and refrain from demerit.
3. Bhadra saw long boats at sea from the mountain.
4. The world is permanent, the world gives happiness, there is a
soul – thus the fools understand and acquire heaps of demerit.
5. The stomach of the poet was hot.
6. The leopards dwell in mountains and in forests.
7. All things are impermanent, so the wise ones see and thus
become pious ones.
8. Matter, feelings, perceptions, mental for mations,
consciousness are shadows and unsubstantial.
65
9. Many kings, seers, householders attained final bliss from the
Enlightened One in the past, they attain now, and they will attain in
future.
10. He destroyed the fire of evil with the cool water of good deeds
and meditation; thus you also do all good deeds and gain happiness.
11. The Enlightened One is the Sun of Wisdom and Ocean of
Compassion.
12. You bring paddy with your hand, we carry treasures on the
head, and fools carry sickness in their hearts.
Exercise 3
Compare the Declension between Masculine 'a' ending and Masculine
'I' ending.

PâLI LESSON 9
Infinitive:
The Infinitive is a form of verb. It expresses the verbal
notion without referring to a tense or a particular subject. In Pàli, it
is formed by adding TUü to verb. For example, dàtuü = to give
(Ödà+tuü=dàtuü)
Similarly formed are:
Öpà+tuü = pàtuü, pivituü = to drink
Öpac = pacituü = to cook
Öis =icchituü = to wish
Öbhàs = bhàsituü = to speak
à+Ömant =âmantetuü = to address
Öpucch = pucchituü = to ask
Ökhaõ = kha¤ituü = to dig
Ösuj = sujituü = to cause pain
Övand = vandituü = to bow down, to worship
paÖõam = panàmituü = to worship
Öcur = coretuü = to steal, plunder
Öjay = jayituü = to conquer
66
Öyuj = yu¤jituü = to yoke
Ödam = dametuü = to tame
Ögam-gantuü-gamituü = to go
Öbhuj = bhu¤jituü = to eat
Ölikh = likhituü = to write
Övad-vadituü = to say
Ökath = kathetuü = to say, to speak
niÖmant-nimantetuü = to invite
Öchind = chindituü = to cut

pariÖesa = pariyesituü = to seek

Öbhaj=bhajituü= to associate
ParàÖji = paràjayituü = to defeat
Öjãv = jãvituü = to live, to survive
Vocabulary:
Bodhisatta =Would-be-Buddha
Bodhirukkha = Tree of Wisdom
Lokuttara = Supermundane, Transcendental
Yu¤jatha = Put forth, Plunge yourself, Yoke yourself
Cakkavattã = World Monarch, Emperor
Seññha = Noblest

Bhagavà = Blessed One

Tibhuvana = Three realms of Existence
âha = Said
Màra =The Evil One
Pacchà =Afterwards, Later
Yogi = Meditator, Mystic
Jeññha = Pre-eminent
Jina = Victor
67
Lokanàyaka =Leader of the world
Nàtha = Saviour
Bhikkhavo = Monks
Anukampà = Compassion, Mercy
Hita = Welfare
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Munayo ara¤¤esu sukhena bhàvanàyo bhàvituü viharanti.
2. Siddhattho Bodhisatto Màraü paràjayituü Bodhirukkhassa
måle nisidi; pacchà lokuttara-¤àõàni bhàvesi ceva Bodhiü
alabhi, màraü ca damesi.
3. Isãsu uttamo bhavituü yogãnaü cakkavattã ca hotuü lokasmiü
jeññho seññho bhavituü Buddho Jino ahosi, Bhagavà ahosi,
Lokanàyako ahosi, tibhuvanassa Nàtho ahosi.
4. Sabbesu nidhãsu Dhamma-nidhi uttamo iti vadituü samaõà
gàmesu caranti.
5. Sàvakànaü Jino Buddho evaü àha: “Bhikkhave jana-hitàya
lokànukampàya Dhammaü desituü caratha”.
6. Bodhiü labhituü, kusalàni kammàni kàtuü yu¤jatha.
7. Girimhi dãpayo vasanti jãvituü, arayo ca vasanti coretuü,
munayo ca vasanti ¤ànaü labhituü.
8. Mayaü nàvàyo passituü udadhiü gacchàma.
9. Kusalaü karotha nibbànaü pariyesituü
10. Buddhassa Dhammaü desituü samaõà gàmato gàmaü
carãüsu, caranti, carissanti.

Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. Strive to conquer the evil and to gain happiness.
2. The meditator seeks to conquer the mind.
3. He will tame the mind, not the body.
4. I will go to the monastery to worship the Noblest of Seers.
68
5. I went to Ràjagaha to worship the Blessed One, and to
associate with monks.
6. In the three realms of existence Buddha is the Pre-eminent. He
is the Saviour of all beings.
7. Afterwards the boys went to the monastery to train themselves
in the Teachings of the Buddha.
8. The king saluted at the feet of the Lord of Compassion.
9. I wish to ask about meditation to gain the Truth.
10. Men and women go to the monastery to seek the Three
Refuges.
Exercise 3
Form Pàli and English sentences, five each, using infinitive in your
own words.

PâLI LESSON 10
Declension Masculine words ending in 'ã’
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà ã ã, ino
2. Dutiyà iü, inaü ã, ino
3. Tatiyà inà ãbhi, ãhi
4. Catitthã issa, ino ãnaü
5. Pañcami inà, imhà, ismà ãbhi, ãhi
6. Chaññhã issa, ino ãnaü
7. Sattamã imhi, ismiü, ini ãsu, isu
8. âlapana i, ã ã, ino
For Example: Sàrathã = Charioteer, guide.
Vibhatti Ekavacana Bahuvacana
1. Pañhamà Sàrathã Sàrathã, Sàrathino
2. Dutiyà Sàrathiü, Sàrathinaü Sàrathã, Sàrathino
3. Tatiyà Sàrathinà Sàrathãbhi,
Sàrathãhi
4. Catitthã Sàrathissa, Sàrathino Sàrathãnaü
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5. Pañcami Sàrathimhà, Sàrathãbhi,
Sàrathismà Sàrathãhi
Sàrathinà
6. Chaññhã Sàrathissa, Sàrathino Sàrathãnaü
7. Sattamã Sàrathimhi, Sàrathãsu,
Sàrathismiü Sàrathisu
Sàrathini
8. âlapana Sàrathi, Sàrathã Sàrathã, Sàrathino
Consonantal:
This declension contains two forms, one a vowel, the other a
consonantal. The vowel declension, that is, words ending in a, à, i, ã,
u, å have, with the exception of u, å been already dealt with.
The consonantal declension is formed by certain special
endings, such as, à, o, i, in singular, and aü in plural as follows:
Cases Singular Plural
Instrumental à aü
Ablative ” ”
Dative o aü
Genitive ” ”
Locative I aü
Note: Nominative, accusative and vocative do not have consonantal
endings. They are declined according to vowel declension. As shown
above, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative
consonantal forms, are in the singular, such as: sàràthinà, sàrathino,
sàrathini.
Similarly declined are the following:
Sukhã = happy one
Pàpakàrã = evil one
Khemã = safe or secured one Pu¤¤akàrã = doer of good
Bhàgã = sharer Yathàvàdã = as he says
Balã = powerful one Tathàkàrã = so he does
Sàmã = Lord Issukã = envious one
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Bhogã = serpent, the enjoyer Maccharã = mean one
Kuññhã = leper Seññhi = millionaire,
Sippã = artisan treasurer, banker
Hatthã = elephant Kàmã = one who desires
Karã = elephant Upanàhã = grudging one,
Dàñhã = tusker spiteful
Mantã = minister, counsellor Dhammacàri = pious one
Chattã = one with umbrella Kàyã = one with body
Càrã = one who follows Gàmã = goer
Kàri = doer Sasã = moon
Dhammakàrã = righteous one Anusàrã = one who acts
Kàlakaõõã = inauspicious one in accordance with
(lit. black-eared one)
Anuyàyã = follower
Anupassã = contemplator Sa¤¤ã = perceiver
Anurakkhã = guard, preserver Gaõã = leader
Khaõóakàri = demolisher Lobhacàri = greedy
Chiddagavesi = fault finder
Note: Most of these words, declined like Sàrathã, are adjectives.
Nouns:
Kibbisa = wrong, fault etc. Guõa = quality
Khaõóa = broken piece Inda = Lord, king
Chidda = a hole, fault Masi = ink
Dukkaña = wrong Idha = here
Dvaya = two Pecca = hereafter
Pubba = before Sattà = beings
Sasa = hare, rabbit Jana = the people
Sakka = Chief of gods, called Inda
Luddha, lolupa = greedy one
Nàsaka, viddhaüsaka = demolisher
Paccakkha = personal experience
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Sakkacca = carefully, well etc.
Sampajतa = clear comprehension
Anuttaro = incomparable, peerless
Tathàgata = Bearer of Truth
Verbs: Ömud = to rejoice, be happy
PaÖñà = paññàpeti = to make known
Ösoc = to repent, suffer
Bhavantu (Öbhå) = may they be
Vuccati = is called, (passive form of Övad = to say, call)
Ödis = 'dis' is changed into 'das' = dasseti = to show, to exhibit.
Exercise 1
Translate into English:
1. Buddho dhammacàrãnaü saccasa¤¤ãnaü devàna¤ca
manussàna¤ca Anuttaro Sàrathã.
2. Sabbe sattà sukhino bhavantu khemino hontu,
dhammànurakkhino hontu iti Buddhassa Bhagavàto anuyàyino
mettà-bhàvanaü bhàventi.
3. Sàriputta-Moggallànà samaõànaü balino gaõino ahesuü, te
Dhammasàmino Bhagavantassa Buddhassa dhammànuyàyã
ahesuü.
4. Kàlakaõõãnaü manussànaü pu¤¤akàrã kàtuü Buddhasàvakà
yeva sakkaccakàrino mantino honti.
5. Idha socati, pecca socati, pàpakàrã ubhayattha socati; idha
modati; pecca modati, pu¤¤akàri sabbattha modati.

Exercise 2
Translate into Pàli:
1. What he says, that He does; therefore, the Enlightened One is
called the Truth-finder.
2. What they say, only according to that, the wise ones will do in
accordance with truth; whatever they do only according to that
they will say; thus they will seek truth.
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3. Fault-finding men are envious, mean and spiteful; therefore, do
not find fault.
4. The greedy ones are sharers of the unwholesome; and hereafter
they will become serpents.
5. The evil-doers are demolishers of happiness; therefore, may all
beings be doers of good.
Exercise 3
a) Compare Declension-endings: between Masculine 'i' and
Masculine 'ã'.
b) How is consonantal declension formed? Decline: Sukhã, Balã,
Khemã, Dàñhã,

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