Francis Bacon-Inductive Method

Book: Novum Organum-1620 (New instrument)

 In this book he describes his Inductive method and about Idols

 According to him concepts can be either true or false.
 False concepts are idols and flawed methods.

Flawed methods according to Bacon are:

1. Aristotle’s Syllogism, and

2. Classical Inductive Method

1.Aristotle’s Syllogism:

 Aristole syllogism consists of 3 things, 2 premises and 1 conclusion.

 Bacon says we must check the every proposition through induction.
 If induction is performed poorly, we cannot get true knowledge e.g

Premise 1: All birds can fly (false)

Premise 2: Kiwi is a bird (true)

Conclusion: Kiwi can fly (false

2.Classical Inductive Method:

According to Francis Beacon it has 2-flaws:

o Hasty Generalizations e.g You observe 10 black crows in a park and conclude that all crows are black
In order to avoid hasty generalization Bacon urges a technique of “gradual ascent,” that is, the
patient accumulation of well-founded generalizations of steadily increasing degrees of
generality.
o Conclusion remains probable-always there is uncertainty→Lack of true knowledge e.g After observing
that the sun rises every day, you conclude that the sun will rise every day in the future.

Idols:
Francis Bacon introduced the concept of Idols in his work "Novum Organum," which represent common fallacies
or biases that distort human thinking and prevent people from acquiring true knowledge. These are four:

1. Idols of the Tribe:

These are errors common to the human race due to the limitations of our nature (senses, emotions,
biases).
Example: People tend to see patterns where none exist, like thinking clouds resemble animals.

2. Idols of the Cave:

These arise from individual experiences, education, and personal biases.

Example: Someone raised in a rural area may believe farming is the most important industry, ignoring
others. Another example is:

A person raised in a family that believes in superstitions may see certain events, like a black cat
crossing their path, as omens. This personal experience creates a biased worldview that influences
their beliefs about luck and fate, regardless of evidence.

3. Idols of the Marketplace:

These come from misuse of language and communication, leading to misunderstandings.

Example: Using vague or ambiguous terms in scientific discussions, like the word "heavy" having
different meanings in physics versus daily life. Another example is:

In the context of economics, the phrase “free market” can be interpreted differently. Some may view it as
completely unregulated markets, while others see it as a market with minimal regulations. This difference in
understanding can lead to conflicting opinions on economic policies.

4. Idols of the Theatre:

These are false beliefs arising from philosophical dogmas and traditional systems of thought that
people accept without question.

Example: Accepting Aristotle’s idea that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones without testing it.

These "idols" hinder clear and rational thinking, so Bacon advocated for eliminating them to achieve
true scientific understanding.

Three Tables:
Francis Beacon scientific/Inductive Method is more complex and efficient than classical inductive method.

Bacon presents

1. Tables of presence
2. Tables of absence, and
3. Tables of degree.
1.Tables of presence:
 It contain a collection of cases in which one specified property is found.
 They are then compared to each other to see what other properties are always present.
 Any property not present in just one case in such a collection cannot be a necessary condition
of the property being investigated.

Example: Suppose you're investigating what causes fire. In the table of presence, you list examples
where fire is always present:

 Wood burning.
 Paper burning.
 Gasoline burning.

Observation: In all these cases, you see that heat and oxygen are present. Therefore, heat and oxygen
might be necessary for fire to exist.

2.Tables of absence:
 It list cases that are as alike as possible to the cases in the tables of presence except for the
property under investigation.
 Any property that is found in the second case cannot be a sufficient condition of the original
property.

Example: In the table of absence, you look at situations where fire does not occur:

 Wood is present but it's wet (no fire).

 Paper is present but there's no heat (no fire).
 Gasoline is present but there's no oxygen (no fire).

Observation: The absence of heat or oxygen means no fire occurs, so heat and oxygen together seem
to be crucial for fire, and water might stop fire from happening.

3.Tables of degree
Finally, in tables of degree proportionate variations of two properties are compared to see if the
proportion is maintained.

Example: In the table of degree, you observe how the intensity of heat affects the size of the fire:

o Small heat → small fire.

o Moderate heat → moderate fire.
o Large heat → large fire.
 Observation: As the amount of heat increases, the size of the fire also increases proportionally.
This suggests that heat and the intensity of the fire are directly related.

3-Main steps of Beacon’s Induction:

Francis Beacon scientific/Inductive Method is more complex and efficient than classical inductive method.

1. Description of Facts:

 Observation: Plants seem to grow better in sunlight compared to shade. You want to find out if
sunlight is the cause of better growth.

2. Tabulation:

 i. Instances of Presence:
o Case 1: A plant placed in direct sunlight grows faster and healthier.
o Case 2: Another plant also placed in direct sunlight grows well.
 ii. Instances of Absence:
o Case 1: A plant kept in complete darkness shows weak growth.
o Case 2: Another plant in low light grows poorly.
 iii. Instances of Presence in varying degrees:
o Case 1: A plant kept in partial sunlight shows moderate growth.
o Case 2: A plant exposed to sunlight for 6 hours a day grows well, but not as fast as one
in full sunlight all day.

3. Careful Examination of Results:

 i. Rejection of not connected points:

o Factors like temperature and soil type are considered but are found to be constant in all
cases, so they are rejected as causes.
 ii. Identification of possible cause:
o Sunlight is identified as the possible cause of better plant growth because it is
consistently present when plants grow well and absent when they don't.

Another example to understand these steps:

1.Description:

Determining overall performance of Army Platoon

50% above= Best performance

Below 50%= Poor performance

Cause of best performance ?

2.Tabulation of facts:

Year Platoon Commander Efficiency

2001 1000 soldiers Afra 90% B.P
2002 1000 soldiers Afra 92% B.P
2003 1000 soldiers Zia 46% P.P
2004 1000 soldiers Subhan 48% P.P
2005 Rescue operation Afra 88% B.P
2006 Operation in hills Afra 89% B.P
2007 Dense forest Afra 87% B.P

2001, 2002 → instances of presence

2003, 2004 → instances of absence

2005, 2006, 2007 → instances of varying degree

3. Careful Examination of results:

2003, 2004 → Rejection of not connected points

Identification of possible cause→ Platoon under the command of commander Afra has best performance all the
time. Even when he was commanding 1000 soldiers in years 2001 and 2002 and when the commander Afra was
assigned operations in difficult terrains like operation in the hilly area and dense forest.

So, in this way with proper observation of facts a conclusion is derived instead of hasty generalizations as was
being done in classic inductive method.

The Key Difference:

 The three main points of Bacon's inductive method outline the general process of reasoning in
inductive logic.
 The three tables are specific analytical tools used to refine the investigation within that
inductive process.

The End