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WEEK 1:

“Lexi-“ from Greek lexis, “word”. “-logy” – from Greek logos, “learning, science, discipline”

 Lexicology is the study of LEXIS – the stock of words in a given language.

Lexis is also known as LEXICON or VOCABULARY

Words are central in the study of lexicology. Lexicology deals not only with SIMPLE WORDS in all their
aspects, but also with COMPLEX WORDS and COMPOUND WORDS, the meaningful units of language

Lexicology relies heavily on information deprived from other linguistic branches, mainly:

 Phonology (the study of how sounds are organized in a language)

 Morphology (the study of the forms of words & their components)
 Semantics (the study od meaning)
 Etymology (the study of word history)

THE MORPHEME (hình vị):

e.g. walk, walks, walked, walking

 Walk – ∅
 Walk – s
 Walk – ed
 Walk – ing

Each of the components that makes up a word id called a MORPHEME.

 Walk, -s, -ed, -ing, - ∅ are all morphemes

* O is called a null morpheme (or zero morpheme)

Morpheme: the smallest unit that has meaning (e.g.: re-“again”) or serves a grammatical function (e.g.: -ed,
“past”) in a language.

The study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words is called MORPHOLOGY

Morpheme ≠ words

Words are made up of one/ more morpheme(s)

e.g. ice (1 morpheme); musician (2 morphemes), dehydration (3 morphemes)

Morphemes fall into two broad categories: free & bound morpheme

Free morphemes are morphemes that can occur alone as individual words.

Bound morphemes are those that con only occur with another morpheme, indicated by the hyphen (-)

Intercontinental: continent is a free morpheme, inter-, -al are bound morphemes

ALLOMORPHS (biến thể hình vị)

The different variants (realizations) of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs.

Allomorphs may vary in sound or spelling without changing the meaning.

Allomorphs are said to be in complementary distribution – in an environment where the one allomorph
occurs, its counterpart cannot and vice versa.

e.g. the English indefinite articles: a, an

WHAT IS A WORD?

Words can be an idicator of a language’s expressiveness. In everyday language, word is a central unit of
language.

Several definitions of words have been proposed, but there exist some disagreements among them.

Words is an uniterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically
occurs in the structure of phrases.

In linguistics, words may refer to:

1. WORD-FORM
2. LEXEME (lexical item)

LEXEME & WORD-FORMS

I holler. He hollers. You hollered. She is hollering.

 They are just different variants (forms) of the same word holler.
 -s, -ed,-ing are INFLECTIONAL ENDINGS that help create different grammatical forms of the word
holler.

LEXEME is a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or
the number od words it may contain.

Lexeme is the lexical vocabulary item in the dictionary.

A lexeme includes all the word-forms of a word.

Word-forms are the physical (concrete) forms which realize or represent a word in speech or writing.

Word-forms are different ways a word can exist in the context of a language.

Examples:

Cut (v): cut, cuts, cutting, cut, cut

 Rabbit (n): rabbit, rabbits, rabbit’s, rabbits’

Full (adj): full, fuller, fullest

Soon (adv): soon, sooner, soonest

SAME OR DIFFERENT LEXEM?

(1): You should keep a written recrd just in case

(2): They were asked to record everything they dis in a day.

Are the words record in (1) and (2) the same?

 No, record (1) is a noun, record (2) is a verb. Each of them has a different paradigm.
RECORD (n): record, records, record’s, records’
RECORD (v): record, records, recoreded, recording

WORDS AND THEIR ASSOCIATIONS

This approach posits every word is involved in a network of associations which connect it with other terms
in the language.

PARADIGMATIC & SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS /ˌpærədɪɡˈmætɪk/ /ˌsɪntæɡˈmætɪk/

Any word chosen from a given context will suggest other words to us, because they either resemble or
differ from rach other in form, meaning, or both.

e.g. (1) This is a _______________ question.

difficult, stupid, funny,…

In (1), difficult, stupid, funny are said to have PARADIGMATIC RELATION with each other, since they are
substitutable for each other in the utterance. /ˈʌtərəns/: phát ngôn

The relation between the words in this utterance (This and is, is and a, a and difficult, difficult and situation)
is a SYNTAGMATIC one.

Syntagmatically, the sematic structure of the word is analyzed in its linear relationships with the
neighboring words in speech.

Paradigmatically, the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is a Germanic language, related to modern Dutch and German, and less closely to Danish,
Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic.

ETYMOLOGY

Etymology: the study of the history of words, their origns, and how their form and meaning have changed
over time

Based on their similarities, language have been traditionally grouped into language families.

Within a family, languages can be “parents” of other languages, “siblings” of one another, and so forth.

English belongs to the Indo-Europe language family.

COGNATES

Cognates are words in related languages that developed form the same ancestral root.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

WEEK 2: WORD FORMATION

WORD FORMATION

This unit deals with the study of morphonology: the study of the internal structure of words and their
meaningful parts.

The process of creating new words from the resources of a particular language is called word formation
process (or morphonigical process)

Word formation processes fulfill two basic purposes:

(1) To create new words in a language

(2) To modify existing words

There are numerous ways in which new words can emerge in a language

Word formation processes can be:

  Internal (coinage, derivation /ˌderɪˈveɪʃn/: nguồn gốc, compounding, back-information,
abbriviation,etc.)
 External (borrowing)
 Mixed

MORPHEMES

The “meaningful parts” of words

Words are made up of morphemes, the smallest unit of language that have semantic meaning.

Simple words consist of a single morpheme, e.g.:

Complex words consist of more than one morpheme, e.g.

Morphemes are divided into free and bound morphemes.

Lexical morphemes: the morphemes that carry the content (meaning) of the message, forming an open
class of words.

Functional morphemes: the morphemes that simply modify the meaning of a word, forming a closed class
of words.

Why is it said that lexical morphemes form an open class?

Inflectional morpheme (hình thái biến tố) Derivational morpheme /ˌderɪˈveɪʃn/ (phái
sinh)
If added, it changes the word forms to fit into If added, it creates new words (new meanings)
 grammatical contexts but does NOT create new The part of speech may also change
words.
E.g. (all are suffix)/ affix Decorate (verb) + ive = decorative (adjective)
He bakes... they're baking... I baked." Regardless of
the tense, the word bake retains its meaning. Flour (noun) + less = flourless (adjective)

*Basically, inflectional morphemes produce the Derivational morphemes create new word which
word-forms of a word. get it owns entry in the dictionary

AFFIX & PARADIGM

Affix: bound morpheme added to the beginning (prefix) or after (suffix) a root or stem.

e.g. unclean, freedom, misinterpretation

Paradigm /ˈpærədaɪm/: the system of grammatical forms (word forms) of a word.

e.g. The paradigm of lexeme TALK includes talk, talks, talking and talked

What is the paradigm of lexeme EARLY? Early/Earlier/ earliest/

ROOT, STEM AND BASE

Base: a word-part that an affix (either inflectional and derivational) can be attached to

Consider:

DEVELOPMENTAL

develop, -ment, -al

To form the word, we need to go through 2 stages:

(1): develop + -ment  development

(2): development + -al  developmental

Develop in (1) and development in (2) are called bases.

A base that consist of only one morpheme is called a ROOT

 Root: the basic part of word left when all affixes are removed. A root can’t be analyzed any further.

In the words development or developmental, the root is develop

Consider development in (2):

Development + -al  developmental

And compare it with development in:

(3) development + -s  developments
In (3), the base development is attached with a plural morpheme (-s), which is also an inflectional
morpheme.

 Development in (3) is called a stem

Stem: the part of the word to which inflectional morphemes (affixes) are added

A base is called a stem only when it is added with an inflectional affix (morpheme).

Stem can be:

 A root (e.g.: chair, bag)

 Multiple roots (e.g.: wheelchair, dustbag)
 A root + derivational morpheme(s) (e.g.: music-ian, teach-er-s)

All roots and stems are bases, but NOT the other way around. In some cases, the base is a root and a
stem at the same time.

Cookies Cheesecakes

Conveniently waterborne

Identify the root, stem and base of the following words:

Childcare: child -care

 Root: child
 Stem: childcare
 Base: childcare

Disrespectful: dis- respect -ful

 Root: respect
 Stem: disrespect, respectful
 Base: disrespect, respectful

TYPES OF WORDS

 Root words: words that have only root morpheme, e.g.: chair, glass, table
 Derived words: words that have a root and one or more derivational affixes
 Compound words: words that have two or more stems
 Contracted words: words that are formed by contrasting certain elements of an existing words or
word group

WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

BORROWING

The adoption of elements from another language or dialect is called borrowing.

The borrowed elements are usuallt lexical items, known as loanwords, but morphological and syntactic
partterns can also be borrowed.

Completely assimilated borrowings: are fully integrated in the system of English orthographically,
phonetically and morphologically (to be called Anglicized or nativized). It may be difficult to distinguish
them from native English words.

e.g. animal, color, aunt, sugar (Arabic), bankrupt (Italian),…

Partially assimilated borrowings: are not totally foreign, although they are not fully Anglicized either.

e.g. al fresco, kindergarten, theatre (theater), deja vi, café

DERIVATION
Derivation derives (creates) new lexemes from existing ones. Derivation is a kind of shorthand system that
allows us to economize – by packing more information into shorter utterances.

E.g. Instead of having to say “ a large piece of equipment for cooking food”  cooker

Notable types of derivation: Affixation & Conversion

AFFIXATION

An affix is a grammatical morpheme which (by definition) must be bound to a root or to another affix.

Affixation is the information of new words by additng affixes to other words or morphemes.

Affixation is a highly productive word formation process: Adj n; adj  v; n  adj;…

e.g. Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis

Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia

Affixation can be classified into 4 different categories based on: etynological, productive, semantic, &
functional criteria

Productive vs Non-productive affixes

Some derivational affixes are very productive, they can apply almost without exception to a certain kind of
base.

E.g.: -able freelt attaches to transitive verbs to form adjective with the meaning “able to be V-ed” (as in
washable, breathable. Readable); - er (used to form nouns indicating persons from the object of their
accupation or place of orgin, as in lecturer, painter, designer)

On the other hand, some derivational affixes aren’t so productive, they only occur in a small number of
words.

E.g.: -dom )kingdom, wisdom, boredom) and -th (warmth, truth, width) an affix’s productivity can change
over time.

CONVERSION

Also known as ZERO-DERIVATION or ZERO AFFIXATION

In English ( and other languages), it is possible to form new lexemes by shifting part of speech of an already
existing lexem without adding an affix.

Conversion greatly expands the vocabulary of English.

Can be applied to almost of all types of part of speech ( highly productive), e.g:
Grammatically, when a word is formed by conversion, it has a new paradigm specifically belonged to its
new part of speech.

E.g.:

- gift (n)  gift, gifts, gift’s, gifts’

- gift (v)  gift, gifts, gifting, gifted

Semantically, when a word is formed by conversion, its new meaning may alter slightly from the original
one. However, some semantic or logical associations between the two are still sustained.

e.g. hand (n)  hand (v) as in Can you hand me the paper?

EXERCISE

Identify the converted words:

1.The President decided to axe the Minister of Finance amid the

country’s worsening economy.

2.We’ll definitely have a test on Monday, no buts about it.

3.Rihanna, Zendaya and Emma Watson are among the most

prolific multihyphenates of our generation.

4.Jimmy is a regular at the bar I tend.

COMPOUNDING

The formation of new words by combining two or more existing roots or stems is called compounding.

The product of compounding is a compound.

Each compound has a HEAD – element that serves to determine both the part of speech and the semantic
kind denoted by the compound as a whole.

In English, coompounds are said to be right-headed.

e.g. sky blue is a adjective (as blue is)

dog food is a noun (as food is)

Compounding is a RECRUSIVE process, which means a derived compound can serve as the base for further
compounding.

e.g.

milk chocolate

milk chocolate bar

milk chocolate bar factory

milk chocolate lar factor worker

milk chocolate bar factory worker insurance

milk chocolate bar factory worker insurance company

Compounds can eb classified based on structural & semantic criteria.

 A. STRUCTURAL CRITERION
1. Neutral compounds (formed by combining 2 stems without using any linking elements):
 Simple neutral compounds (components are roots words): armchair, boathouse…
 Derivational compounds (1 or more components are derived words): bartender, absent-
minded, newcomer, bus driver,…
 Contracted compounds (1 componenr is a contracted word): T-shirt, X-sport, ebook,…
2. Morphological compounds: formed by combining 2 stems with the help of a linking vowel or
consonant, i.e. an INTERFIX
e.g. sportswear, handicraft, acidophile
3. Syntactic compounds: word groups which have coalesced into a single entity.
Syntatic compounds are formed by regular rules of grammar, like sentences, and they are not listed
in a dictionary.
Some of these compounds are sequences of noun-prepsitional phrase (e.g. lily-of0the-valley,
mother-in-law), noun-conjunction-noun (e.g. bread-and-butter), adj-n (e.g. third wheel) or noun-
preosition (e.g. meet up)
Other examples: pick me up, et-together, fresh-from-the-farm, check-in, happy-go-lucky
B. SEMANTIC CRITERION
1. Endocentric compounds (Non-idiomatic compounds): whose meanings can be regarded as the
sum of the meanings of their components.
E.g. late-comer, toy car, windmill, brick red, caveman
2. Exocentric compounds (Idiomatic compounds): whose meanings do not correspond to the
meanings of their components, partially or completely.
e.g. tallboy, soap opera, brainchild, lady fingers, pink-collar, turncoat.

COMPOUND vs WORD COMBINATION

Compound Word combination

Phonetic criterion Usually stressed on their first or
left-hand base
Semantic criterion
Synmantic criterion
Syntactic criterion-most reliable!
Graphic criterion