INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

UNIT I – HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

The word “history” defined- a systematic written account of events, particularly those affecting a
nation, institution, science, or art, and usually connected with a philosophical explanation of their causes;
distinguished from annals and chronicles, which simply relate facts and events in strict chronological order.
History the study of past events. These include not just written documents, but also through objects
such as buildings, artifacts and painting. The usually chronological record of events, as of the life or
development of a people or institution, often including an explanation of or commentary on those events.
Architecture the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings. The style in which a building
is designed and constructed, especially with regard to a specific period. The style in which a building is
designed and constructed, especially with regard to a specific period, place or culture. The is the art which
seeks to harmonize in a building the requirements of utility and beauty. It is both utilitarian and aesthetics;
both useful and beautiful. The origin of architecture, although lost in the mist of antiquity, must have been
connected intimately with the endeavours of men to provide his physical wants.

At the end of this unit:

1. Identify and describe major architectural styles and movements throughout
history;
2. Compare the use of specific architectural elements (e.g., columns, arches,
materials) across different historical periods

Pre-Test

True or False
Direction: Answer the following question. Write T if the statement is TRUE and write F is
the statement is FALSE. Write your answer on the space provided.

___________ 1 History is the study of past events.

___________ 2. History these include not just written documents, but also through objects such
as buildings, artifacts and painting.
___________ 3. Architecture the art or practice of designing and constructing houses.

___________ 4. The guide in which a building is designed and constructed, especially with
regard to a specific period.

___________ 5. History of architecture is the study of past of events of a building in a specific

period and culture.
 INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Content

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT?

The setting or condition in which a particular activity is carried on.

Two types of Environment
1. Natural Environment – refers to the integration of natural elements and
ecological considerations into the design and construction of buildings. This
approach seeks to harmonize structures with their surrounding landscapes,
climate, and ecosystems, creating sustainable, energy-efficient, and
environmentally friendly buildings.
2. Man made Environment - refers to anything that is created, manufactured,
or modified by humans, as opposed to being naturally occurring in the
environment. Man-made objects, structures, or phenomena result from
human activity, technology, or intervention.
Traces the changes:

Traces the changes:

 Design of various buildings types and
functions
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 Structure

 Construction methods

 Other architectural elements (Doors,

Windows, Materials, etc)

“Thus, we need to study about our past and to know how change has happened
through time”
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Structural Principles
 Post and lintel- principle of post and lintel is that of resistance to transverse
strain and appears in all construction in which across piece of beam rest on two
vertical supports.
 Arch and Vault- make use of several pieces to span opening between two
supports
 Corbel arch- a block projecting from a wall supporting a weight. The cantilever is
based upon the same principle.
 Cohesive construction- employs materials that are shape while plastic are
allowed to happen into homogenous material.
 Truss framework- compose of several pieces of wood or metal that each shall
exist a particular strain, whether strain or compression.
Influences Affecting the Development of Architectural Style

 Geographical-considers the location which affects the development of

commerce, industry immigration and development.
 Geological-deals with rocks and soil formation of a locality which dictates the
availability of building materials.
 Climatic-show how climate determines characters and thickness of walls,
types of roof, size of windows, etc.
 Religious-the result of the emotional and spiritual concept and devotion of
people.
 Historical-shows how styles are affected by wars, historical upheavals,
invasion and conquest.

Other primitive structures:

1. Lake dwellings – wooden hut built over water

2. Tepee – conical tent with poles for framework
3. Igloo – Eskimo house
4. Wigwam – American-Indian dwelling, round or oval in plan
5. Hogan – Indian primitive structure of joined logs
6. Trullo – dry walled, rough stone shelter
7. Pueblo – Indians of southwest USA’s communal dwelling made of stone

EARLY BEGINNINGS
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

In Paleolithic people where Nomadic – people moved from one place to another
They sheltered in caves for protection from bad weather and dangers.

 Caves are the earliest forms of known winter shelters.

 The need to survive the harsh summer climates may have lead to the earliest
form of tents made from large tree leaves, stones and tree branches.

 Later periods are marked by the evolution of such temporary structures into
relatively permanent and more reliable forms like formations of small stones
attached with mud mortar.
EARLY BEGINNINGS (EVOLUTION - THE FIRST SETTLEMENT)
Jericho ( Jordan ) is quoted to be the earliest known town. A small settlement here
evolves in about 8000 BC into a town covering 10 +acres. And the builders of Jericho have a
new technology - bricks, shaped from mud and baked hard in the sun.
Some Successive settlements of Jericho are Mehrgarh, Catal huyuk, and Harappa. All
dated 8000-4000 BC.

MESOPOTAMIA (5000BC)
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Ancient Mesopotamia saw the rise of the first civilization in world history. Here, the
earliest cities in world history appeared along the banks of Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The materials used to build were the same as those used today: sun-baked brick made
of mud mixed with straw, mud plaster and wooden doors.
The era characterizes monumental architecture like huge palaces and temples called
ziggurats.

The ziggurats were brick-built temple-mounds, taking the form of a layered platform.
They resembled step pyramids with a flat roof, on which a shrine would be built. Access to this
shrine was by a broad staircase or ramp.

These would form the focal point of a town around which the rest of the town was built.
Constructing these great buildings demanded high level design and engineering skills.

EGYPT (3500BC)
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

This civilization thrived at the banks of river Nile. The architecture of ancient Egypt
includes some of the most famous structures in the world, including tombs and temples. It too is
characterized by large stone monumental structures while the domestic dwellings were made up
of mud bricks and wood.
The pyramids are astounding creations but they bear little relation to anything in
subsequent human history. By contrast the temples of ancient Egypt, almost as impressive in
their scale, stand at the start of a lasting tradition in architecture.
Early pyramids (Mastabas) were built of brick while later were built of stone.
Post and lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone
columnar buildings.

ARCHITECTURAL SIMILARITIES MESOPOTAMIA & EGYPT

 Both are characterized by monumental constructions.
 Sun-dried mud brick is the building block of man's first monumental buildings – the
ziggurats (or temples) of Mesopotamia and the Mastabas (or early tombs) of Egypt.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

ANCIENT GREECE (5th – 7th Century)

After generations of
experimentations with buildings
of limited variety the Greeks
gave to the simple post and lintel
system the purest, most perfect
expression it was to attain.
Slimming the fat pillars of
Egyptian architecture,
formalizing the decoration,
introducing better balance and
proportion. The pillar, with a
decorated top or 'capital',
supporting a horizontal cross
beam was taken from Egypt.
ORDERS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE
1. Doric Order - the simplest and oldest Greek order, basically consists of a crepis
(3 exterior steps of Greek buildings), a sturdy column with no base, a simple
capital, an entablature and a triangular pediment. Doric columns have entasis.
This means that the middle part of the column body is wider than the upper part
and it narrows upwards.
2. Ionic Order - is more ornate than Doric. It features columns with a base, a
capital with volutes, an entablature, a crepis and a pediment. The Ionic columns,
which are thinner and more elegant than the Doric columns, are believed to
reflect the beauty of a woman.
3. Corinthian Order - was frequently used in the Hellenistic age, one of the late
Greek periods that developed an aesthetic sense of beauty. The order takes its
name from the city where the order was first seen. Carrying the elegance of the
Ionic order one step further, Corinth features acanthus leaves with volutes on
column capitals. These leaves nicely surround the column capital in a more
natural form and increase the level of its details.
4. Tuscan Order - The Tuscan order is a simplified version of the Doric order, with
ungrooved bodies. There are no triglyphs or reliefs adorn the frieze. Thus,
Roman Tuscan columns give the impression of an idealized simple structure. It
has a column base, echinus and abacus, a simple entablature. Just like the Doric
columns, they have the feature of entasis. Moreover, the height of the pillar base
is half of the width of the Tuscan column.
5. Composite Order - The Composite order architecture had developed as a
mixture of the 2 Greek temple orders, the Ionic and Corinthian styles. Therefore,
when we look at the column capitals and other ornaments, we can see that it has
the most ornate and complex motifs among the five orders of classical
architecture. Composite column capitals are similar to Corinthian capitals since
volutes and acanthus leaves are used together. However, composite capitals
have generally two rows of acanthus leaves and so detailed ornate.
EXAMPLES UNDER ANCIENT GREECE ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

 PARTHENON-THE TEMPLE (447-438 BC)

Parthenon is a temple of pre

dominantly Doric order with elements of ionic
order being used in the centre of the building.
A temple built for the Goddess Athena the
Parthenon was part of the acropolis complex.
It comprised of huge limestone foundations
with marble stone columns used for the first
time in history. Parthenon was conceived as
theatrical event with the movements of the
viewer in mind as they move around and
through.

 THE GREEK THEATRE

An exclusively Greek contribution to
architectural history is the raked auditorium for
watching theatrical performances. It comprised of
a circular stage with tiers of seats separated by
aisles, all built initially in stone.
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ANCIENT ROME (200BC)

It combined the Greek and Asian elements like columns and arches. Invented concrete,
hence the construction of arch, vaults and large domes like the pantheon.
A vault is a deep arch, while dome is a collection of arches all sharing the same centre.
It has far greater capabilities than the lintel, for it can combine many smaller units (of stone or
brick) to make a greater whole. A Roman brick arch can span 50 yards as compared to a Greek
lintel which could span only 7 yards.
FIVE TYPES OF ARCHES

ELEMENTS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

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EXAMPLES OF ROMAN STRUCTURES

STRUCTURES DEFINITION PICTURE

Forum central open space corresponding to the
Greek agora; used as meeting place,
market or rendezvous for political
demonstrations.
Roman Temple amalgation of Tuscan & Greek types but
differ to Greek temples in several ways

Circular and introduced by the Etruscans; similar

polygonal plans of the Greek temples; converted
temples into baptisteries
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Basilicas halls of justice and commercial

exchanges.

Thermae palatial public bath; elevated on

platforms and underneath are the
furnaces or hypocaust

Theaters

Amphitheaters se for gladiatorial combats, mortal

combats, also used for naval
exhibitions

Circus place for horse and chariot racing;

typical plan consists of a long circular
ended arena with a dividing wall called
spina running down the middle of the
arena in a slightly oblique direction at
one end of the arena where the stalls of
horses and chariots are and on both
sides where the seats for the spectators
are.
Tombs roman practice of cremation, burial amd
interment, sarcophagus and urns are
found in the same chamber.
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Triumphal arches erected for the victories of generals and

emperors from campaigns outside Italy.

Town gateways & minor arches built around Italy.

arches

Pillars of victory memorial columns erected to record

triumph of victorious generals.

Rostral columns erected to commemorate naval victories.

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Palaces served a prototype for renaissance

palaces.

Roman houses 1. Domus – private house

2. Villa – country house

3. Insulae-multi-storey brick and

concrete structure, modern
tenement or apartment house

Aqueducts used to carry water supply to all parts of

roman towns and cities

Fountains often designed with columns and

statues.
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Bridges simple, solid and practical in

construction, and designed to offer a
well-calculated resistance to the rush of
water.

THE CHRISTIAN ERA-EVOLUTION OF STYLES

ROMANESQUES (11th – 13th Century)
Inspired by Roman architecture, having rounded arches and columns.
Romanesque buildings were monumental, supported by massive walls, and
had very small windows. Wooden roofs were replaced by ceilings which were
constructed with barrel and cross vaulting.

Examples are Rotunda and Basilica and French monastery in Cluny.

GOTHIC (12th – 15th Century)

Gothic architecture began mainly in France,
where architects were inspired by Romanesque
architecture and the pointed arches of Spanish Moorish
architecture. It's easy to recognize Gothic buildings
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because of their arches, ribbed vaulting, flying buttresses, elaborate sculptures (like gargoyles)
and stained-glass windows.
They marked it as “Gothic” to suggest it was the crude work of German barbarians
(Goths) as it was out of fashion.

KEY GOTHIC FEATURES

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE (15th – 17th Century)

Age of awakening. The symmetrical and well-balanced buildings of Greece and Rome
were copied. The buildings lost the Gothic vertical dimension but gained range. Other features
were columns, arches and domes as well as harmonious arrangements of doors and windows.
St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican and the Louvre Museum in Paris are examples of
Renaissance architecture.

BAROQUE (17th – 19th Century)

Used Renaissance terms in more artistic fashion. Complicated decorations, paintings
and contrasts between light and shadow. Baroque looks different in different countries. Irregular
shapes, huge domes, and extravagant ornamentations inside out. Trevi Fountain in Rome and
St. Paul's Cathedral in London are examples of baroque architecture.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

19th CENTURY ECLECTICISM

A mix-up of various styles. Encompass a bewildering
range of other historical styles - Egyptian, Byzantine,
Romanesque, Venetian Gothic and Muslim Indian. Only one
feature of 19th-century architecture is entirely new in the west -
the use of cast iron which formed the basis for the modular steel
frame tradition of the later 20th century construction.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE
A world reshaped by science, industry and speed.
Characterized by simplicity of form and absence of applied
decoration. The norm of “Form follows function –
Modernistic ethic” was given Truth to materials, meaning
that the natural appearance of a material should not be
concealed.
Use of industry made materials.

NEW WORLD-POST MODERNISM THE LATER 2OTH CENTURY

It was a movement started in
response to the simplicity of modernist
architecture. More richness of the past
combined with modern functionalism.
Complexity and contradiction of form.
 INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Unexpected touches to the building that go against convention but look appealing.

UNIT II – BASIC TECHNICAL DRAWING MATERIALS &

EQUIPMENTS

Drawings must be prepared in such a way that they are clear, concise, and accurate. In order to
produce such drawings equipment (i.e. materials and instruments) are used. Because time is an important
factor in any of work, a clear understanding of all drawing equipment and their uses is important to speed up
the process of drawing preparation. In this chapter, the different types of drawing instruments and materials and
their uses will be discussed.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

At the end of this unit:

1. Identify the different tools and equipment use in drafting and its proper
care;
2. Prepare drawing materials and instruments properly on making drawing of
objects in activities;

Pre-Test

Direction: Give at least 10 drawing materials that you know. Write your answer on the
space provided.

1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.

4. 9.

5. 10.

Content

SELECTION OF DRAWING MATERIALS

The basic drawing materials which are necessary to prepare a technical drawing are:
 Drawing paper
 Drawing pencil
 Drafting or masking tape
 Eraser and erasing shield
 Rapidograph

DRAWING PAPERS
Drawing papers are the materials on which the drawings are made. Depending on its
application different types of drawing papers are available. These are: white plain paper, profile
paper, plan/profile paper, cross-section paper and tracing paper.
1. White plain papers: are general purpose for office uses and drawings. They are
manufactured according to ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standard
paper sizes. Standard drawing sheet sizes are in three series, designated An, Bn, and
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Cn. Paper frames and drawing frames are standardized for each size of papers. Table
below shows frames of the A-series and their particular application.

2. Profile, Plane/ Profile and Cross-section papers: are referred to as gridded papers.
The first two are used for road design and the later one is used for drawing road cross
sections, rough design, sketching, preparing schedules, plotting graphs, etc.

3. Tracing paper: is a high-grade white transparent paper, upon

which copies or “tracings” are made for the purpose of
reproducing by blueprinting or by other similar processes.
Tracing may be made in ink, usually it takes ink well, and from
which pencil lines can easily be erased. Reproductions
(printing) can be made directly from pencil drawings on tracing
paper; however, for better results in production, a pencil
drawing on tracing paper is usually inked over. This paper
must not be folded.

Paper and frame sizes for A-series

DRAWING PENCILS
One of the most important drawing materials is the drawing pencil. The two types of
pencils used in drawing are mechanical and wooden pencils.
Drawing pencils with different grades of hardness are available. The grade of a pencil is
designated by a number and a letter. The grades are 9B (very soft), 8B, 7B, 6B, 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B,
B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, to 9H (very hard). Generally speaking, the soft (B)
grades are used for freehand sketching and the hard (H) grades are used for instrumental
drawings.
For mechanical pencils a wide variety of lead grades are available in different sizes,
such as 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 diameters. Here, no sharpening of leads is necessary.
Wood should be removed and the lead should be sharpened. To get good quality of line
the pencil should be sharpened properly which means the lead should not be too sharp as it
may pierce the paper and if it is too dull the line will be thick and accuracy will go down.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Pencil Grades

DRAFTING OR MASKING TAPE

Before starting drawing, it is a common practice to attach the
drawing paper to the drawing board in order to avoid unnecessary
errors due to misalignment. Drafting tape is used for attaching the
paper to the drawing board. Thumbtacks can also be used for fixing
the paper to the drawing board. However, their use is not
recommended because they have the tendency to affect the
smoothness of the drawing board

ERASER AND ERASING SHIELD

In the process of making a drawing, corrections and changes may
be required. To do so, erasers are used to clean unnecessary line works.
An erasing shield restricts the erasing area so that the correctly drawn
lines will not be disturbed during the erasing procedure. It is made from a
thin flat piece of metal with variously sized cutouts. The shield is used by
placing it over the line to be erased and erasing through the cutout.

RAPIDOGRAPH
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Rapidograph is a type of drawing pen by which lines are drawn on tracing papers. It
produces light resistant, waterproof, precise and consistent ink lines for any application. Since
most rapidograph pens require different pen sizes (line widths) for various projects, they are
manufactured in different sizes.

SELECTION OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

The list of main drawing instruments is shown below:
1. Drawing board 7. Protractor
2. Dusting brush 8. French curve
3. Templates 9. French curve
4. Pencil sharpener 10. T-Square
5. Scale 11. Divider
6. Set square 12. Compass

DRAWING BOARD
Drawing boards are usually made of white pine, but are sometimes made of other soft
woods. The drawing surface may be the table top itself or a separate board. In both cases, the
working surface (the drawing surface) should be flat, smooth and firm. For this reason, the
working surfaces of drawing boards or table tops are made of soft white pine or basswood. The
working edge of a drawing board must be straight and should be tested with a steel straight
edge. To prevent wear of the working edge some boards and table tops are furnished with a
hardwood edge or steel insert on the working edge.
Drawing boards are made in various sizes. Those usually used in school measure 23 ×
30 cm, 40 × 53 cm or 46 × 60 cm. The smallest size is mostly used for field work or sketching.
The most common type of drawing board. Depending on their design, drawing tables may be
fixed in height or can be adjusted to any desired working height. Portable drawing boards are
very handy for professionals as well as students. You can use these small drawing boards as
tabletop drawing boards, handy reference boards, and drawing holders.
The tracing table is another accessory that facilitates the draftsman work. A tracing table
allows us to trace another work too blurred or dirty on a new paper. It provides the advantage of
rectifying errors, such as stains or mistaken lines of ink, or other mistakes non correctable in
some other surfaces. Sometimes it simply helps us to improve the presentation of the drawings.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

DUSTING BRUSH
During erasing, particles coming from the eraser will remain on the
drawing paper. These particles are removed or cleaned using a dusting
brush. It is poor practice to use fingers or palm of the hand for cleaning
the drawing paper.

DRAWING TEMPLATES
A template is a thin and flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes. It is designed to
increase the speed and accuracy of the drafter. Templates are available for drawing geometric
shapes, plumbing fixtures, bolts, nuts, screw threads, electronic symbols, springs, gears and
much more. A template should be used whenever possible to increase the accuracy and the
speed.

PENCIL SHARPENERS
Pencil sharpeners are drawing
instruments used for sharpening pencils and
they may be operated manually or by an
electric motor and therefore a mechanical
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pencil sharpener is hand-powered. A common, portable variety is usually small and in the shape
of a rectangular prism, with a conical hole on the small end. A sharp blade is mounted in a
recess on the largest side such that its sharp edge just enters the cone. The body of the
sharpener is often contoured, ridged or grooved to make it easier to grip firmly. It has no moving
parts - the tip of the pencil is inserted into the hole of the sharpener and twisted, while the
sharpener is held motionless. The blade inside the sharpener shaves the wood of the pencil,
thus sharpening the tip, while the shavings emerge through a slot along the blade edge. An
important feature is a larger clearance hole at the end of the cone allowing sections of the pencil
lead which break away to be removed with only minor inconvenience.

SCALES
A scale is an item of drawing instrument that has been carefully graduated (marked) and
calibrated (labeled) in convenient increments for the user. Scales enable a user to make size
reductions or enlargements rapidly and accurately. Scales are graduated in such a way that
they can be used to draw objects to scale by direct measurement without any calculation.
Depending on its size, the drawing of an
object may be the same size as the object,
larger or smaller than the object. When one
unit on the object equals one unit on the
drawing, we say the object is drawn to full
size scale; written as 1:1. When one unit on
the object is equal to two units on the
drawing, we say the object is drawn to a
magnification scale of 2:1. Whereas when
two units on the object is equal to one unit on
the drawing, we say the object is drawn to a
reduction scale of 1:2. Similarly, a scale of
1:10 means one unit on the drawing is
equivalent to ten units on the object and so
on.

Scales are available in either flat or triangular shapes.

The advantage of a triangular scale is that more number
of measuring faces
are found in one
stick.
TRIANGLES (SET-
SQUARES)
Triangles are
sometimes called
setsquares. The
capability of rapidly
producing straight
lines on instrument
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drawings is provided by the 30-600 and 450 triangles. Whereas adjustable triangles have a
movable leg that is held in place with a thumbscrew and a scale for measuring angles. These
instruments are useful for drawing such inclined lines as the slope of a stair or the pitch of a
roof.
Using the triangles as a pair, you can generate parallel and perpendicular lines and
produce angles of a multiple of 150. Parallel lines are produced by establishing one side of a
triangle along the given line or line direction. The supporting triangle is then fixed against one of
the other sides of the first triangle.
The first triangle is slipped along the supporting triangle to any desired position, and the
parallel line is drawn (Fig. 2.15). Perpendicular lines may be produced by either the sliding
triangle method or the revolved triangle method. The sliding triangle method is shown in Fig.
2.16. One leg of a triangle is placed along the given line. The supporting triangle is then fixed
against the hypotenuse of the first triangle then the opposite leg of the first triangle is positioned
by sliding, and the desired perpendicular line is drawn. The revolved triangle method which is
illustrated in Fig.2.17 requires fixing the two triangles together so that the given line is along the
hypotenuse of the first triangle and the supporting
triangle is fixed against one leg of the first triangle.
Simply revolve the first triangle until the opposite
leg rests against the supporting triangle, and the
perpendicular line can be drawn.

PROTRACTOR
For measuring or
setting off angles
other than those
obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is used. You have
most likely used this instrument in a geometry or trigonometry
course.

FRENCH CURVE
When it is required to draw mechanical curves other than circles
or circular arcs, a French curve is generally employed. Many
different forms and sizes of French curves are manufactured, as
suggested by the more common forms. The curves are
composed largely of successive segments of the geometric
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curves, as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, involutes, etc. The best curves are made of highly
transparent celluloid.

T-SQUARE
Another important drawing instrument is the T-square. The
upper edge of a T- square and the inner edge of its head are called
the working edges of the T-square. The working edges of a good T-
square should be straight and right angle with each other. Basically,
the T-square is used to draw horizontal lines and to support or guide
the set squares. However, (b) and (d) can also be used to draw
inclined lines because their heads are adjustable. It is seldom used,
perhaps because of the unusual design of the blade, but it has an
advantage of rigidity.
DIVIDER
A divider is a drawing instrument used
for dividing distances into equal parts or for
laying off a series of equal spaces. Dividers are
designed to be operated with one hand and are
used for making distances or transferring
measurements. Specified measurements can
be obtained from scales or another drawing and
transferred to the drawing being prepared. T he
dividers may be used to create a double sized
drawing simply by transferring measurements,
thus avoiding the necessity of measuring each
length and doubling the measurement.

COMPASS
Compasses are used to draw circles and arcs. Depending on their
application we can divide them into two, bow compass and beam
compass. The beam compass type is used for drawing circles and
circular arcs larger than those made by the bow compass and for
transferring diameters those are too great for the regular dividers.
 INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

UNIT II – LETTERING

Drawings must be prepared in such a way that they are clear, concise, and accurate. In order to
produce such drawings equipment (i.e. materials and instruments) are used. Because time is an important
factor in any of work, a clear understanding of all drawing equipment and their uses is important to speed up
the process of drawing preparation. In this chapter, the different types of drawing instruments and materials and
their uses will be discussed.

At the end of this unit:

1. Identify between various alphabet of line using simple figures;
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

2. Apply the appropriate alphabet of lines to represent architectural

elements in architecture drawing.

Pre-Test

Direction: Enumerate the following. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Give at least 6 professionals who used letters on their job.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2. Give at least 4 basic styles of letters.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Content

IMPORTANCE OF LETTERING
Wherever we look around us, we can see and filled with sights and sounds that our
senses fill fully. We are also living on different environment that shows what kinds of visuals
information being printed.
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

In urban areas we are possibly seeing printed words like billboards, neon signs on
glamorous establishments, traffic signs, building adds, etc. offices are using computers, smart
televisions, magazines and other forms of printed adds information and other mass
communication.
In rural areas also are not spared to see and feel the existence of words and letters
specially in our local municipalities now a days are capturing also the new types of printing ad‟s.
But then, still in common letterings we can see like sari-sari store, Mila‟s Eatery, Mang Edgar
Barber Shops and etc. Even in high way road traffic signs like slow down and school zone and
lot for sales.
Printed words or commonly known to us Letterings play important characters in our day-
to-day existence. They are very vital for justifiable reasons: for informational and aesthetic
considerations like weather information, printed newspapers and magazines carrying the ad of
commerce and politics, sports. These are some reasons why printed words are in demand
openly because there are those willing to pay for publicity.
Calligraphy is called the lettering that involves the development of letters in terms of
looks (aesthetics) or presentation made by the drafter who made the lettering because letters
are not only used and printed for information but it can be used for ads that is why, the beauty of
letters need to be visually attractive by means of careful creation and proper application of fonts,
size, distance and styles.
On trade aspects, lettering is also important for another primary or secondary reason
that it gives work to many people. Mostly professional works and skilled individuals like drafters,
architects, designers and engineers ensure letterings comprehensively in making plans and
these plans show up the detail’s similar houses, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges, malls and
other infrastructures.
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Commercial artists also make letterings and designs like ads operations for promoting
some sale products that the best caricature use in comics and magazines illustrate their good
lettering skilled to gain clienteles and readers or captured the interest of some other artists to
accept and use different lettering styles followed easily.
Some works like signboards used by convenience stores, sari-sari stores and public
utility vehicles are made by sign artist. They are the persons or artists who accept jobs from
clients to make lettering attractive for their ads like billboards, professional banners, streamers,
and even in shingles for offices or even in door head office signboards and the likes. Other sign
arts practitioners are relatively in demand and inclined to their skilled as T-shirt printing, sash as
long as it provides income in returned.
Nowadays by the aid of the computer in millennial period, graphics works by graphics
designers most in demand considering that the graphics effects are most suitable and
compatible for the new technology arises and users. Computers have a wide help, easy and
fastest performing gadget in printing letters. Graphic designers, drafters, engineers, architects
are now openly accepting the fact that the competitions of jobs offered are done by means of
the aid of computers. Drawing annotations, plan making, tarpaulins, T-shirt heat printing,
personalized items and the likes are some of trades markets anywhere.
LETTERING INSTRUMENTS
Lettering instruments are tools that will be used for writing the letters or lettering.
Traditionally, there are common lettering instruments that help to modify letters that could be
used as its purpose. These are called monoline and flat-edged instruments.
Monoline instruments are those instruments that the lettering implements and produce
strokes of singular thickness.
a. B-speedball Pen
b. Fine felt-point Pen
c. Technical Pens
d. Sign Pens
e. Round Brush

Flat-Edged instruments are those instruments that can produce either thin or thick
strokes depending on the angle of the pen and the style of the letter to be drawn.
a. C-speedball Pen
b. Calligraphy Pen
c. Disposable Calligraphy Pen
d. Broad-tip Felt Pen
e. Flat Brush
f. Script Pen
Speedball is a lettering instrument that has different style, and every styles has a
different nib like:
A – pen with square nibs used for the square ended letters like Block
Arial font;
B – pen with round nib used for round-ended letters like Round Arial
font;
C – pen with flat nibs used for texts like Times New Roman font; and
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D – pen with oval nibs used for round letters and the like fonts.

SPEEDBALL
Speedball pen Featuring precisely-machined nibs designed with a rounded tip, a
lightweight, ergonomic construction, and a quality, free-flowing ink and filled by India ink,
Higgins ink (those inks name is brand name) or the like prescribed speedball ink as shown in
figure 4. Sadly, at this time, few artists are using this kind of instruments because of most
certificates nowadays are done by the aid of computer.

Kinds of speedball pens, speedball pen holder and kinds of speedball inks

FELT
Point pens are the lettering instruments that commonly known
as Pentel Pen (Pentel is a kind of a product brand name) that is always
available in our local market and having two kinds of pen style as fine-
point and broad-tipped. These kinds of instruments are either refillable
or disposable. Another advantage of this tool is that both fine and
broad have various colors and refilled inks as shown in figure 5 and
figure 6 for ink.

CALLIGRAPHY
Pens are wedge-shaped pens that are suitable to use and
create a beautiful script letter. Originally, calligraphs are very
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expensive, and it comes to different size and are made of tungsten. That is why, prominent
artists or people can only use this kind of instrument because they can afford it to buy. And for
those disposable calligraphy pens which are cheaper or say economically affordable but double
care for the maintenance for a longer used or else, you need to buy again. Figure 8 shown the
example of calligraphy pen.

LETTERING BRUSHES
Brush instruments used in making signboards, streamers,
and etc. these lettering brushes might be made of sable or
artificial hair. The availability of sizes are from 5mm to 25mm on
oval, round and flat shapes. Attainable in using Latex and
Enamel paints.

TECHNICAL PENS
Lettering instruments that drafters, architects, engineers
and even arts practitioners are mainly using with the prescribed
ink. These kinds of pens are also expensive that is why beginners
are advised to use disposable pens or all are known as sign pen as
figure 10 shown the staedtler set (staedtler is a brand name)
technical pen.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LETTERING INSTRUMENTS

In maintaining the instruments conditions, we simply remember the rule of thumb. We
precisely won‟t forget some cleaning tips. Owning of this set of lettering instruments are being
an artist or art practitioner is adding joy to the extent of expensive priced each tool. For being a
student and dependent to our parents even just to buy a single piece of any instrument needed
for lettering, it is hard to have just to keep for our own. To make sure that there is a guarantee
for the return of investment for buying and keeping those tools, it needs to learn how to take
good care and maintain the good condition of each tool.
Some tips to maintain the durability of the tools you keep:
a. Clean your instruments or tool carefully and sensibly after using.
b. Store your instruments in a dry place and out of reach of children.
c. Instruments like pens which have nibs and points should be hoard in horizontal
position in holder or place in separate holder for their own.
d. Instruments like brush or say lettering brush or drawing brush should be stored
in an upright or vertical position upon drying the hair to protect decomposing or
deformation.
e. For Felt pens or knows to us as Pentel pen, return each cap after using and it
should not be dried to avoid pen hardiness. For those refillable felt pens, refill
immediately without running to dry to evade pen tip damages.

Cleaning of Technical pens and Speedball pens

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a. Dismantle the parts of your technical pens.

a. Hold the pen vertical, with the pen nib up. Tap the base of the pen on a hard
surface, such as a table top. b. Dip the nib of the pen into a bit of pen-cleaning
solution. c. Wipe the nib of the pen with a clean dry cloth.
b. Soak parts with hairline points and cartridge in lukewarm water with mild soap
overnight.
c. Wash each part thoroughly by allowing tap water to run over it then rinse part
by stirring it in a container of clear water.
d. Towel-dry the parts; take extra care not to bend delicate instruments like the
needle and pointed pen.
e. Reassemble and store properly with caps tightly turned.
f. It is a best practice to follow this process any time you finish a drawing, before
you recap the pen. Getting into this simple habit can keep your technical pens
clog-free for months or even years as shown in figure 11.
g. If the technical pen is used every day, do the routine at least twice a month or
when the need arises.
h. Do not forget to get empty the technical pen refilling tank if you wish not to use
it for a long time.

Cleaning of Lettering Brushes

For Latex, acrylic, water colors or all water base pigments:

a. Soak brushes in warm water if you have planned to use it again shortly.
b. Press the hairbrush between thumb and forefinger to remove excess paint. Do
this in outward motion while rinsing water.
c. Rinse with soap and water, press hairbrush once again to dry.

For enamel and other related paints:

a. Soak brushes with thinner if you have planned to use it again shortly.
b. Press the hairbrush between thumb and
forefinger to remove excess paint. Do this in
outward motion while rinsing with thinner.
c. Rinse with clean thinner, press hairbrush
once again to dry.
d. Both are wrapped with the hair of the
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brush in used newspaper to retain the shapes of the ends. Secure with a rubber
bond or any string to tie.
e. Allow to dry and store in upright position or hung it downward.

LETTERS

Before there were alphabets there were pictographs, small pictures representing objects
and concepts. The first consonantal alphabet found emerged around 1800 BCE to represent the
language of the Phoenicians, Semitic workers in Egypt and was derived from the alphabetic
principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Our present Roman system derives from this Phoenician
alphabet, which had 22 letters. Nineteen of our present letters evolved from the early
Phoenician forms; letter shapes and order of appearance correspond closely.

A letter is a segmental symbol of a phonemic writing system. The inventory of all letters
forms the alphabet. Letters broadly correspond to phonemes in the spoken form of the
language, although there is rarely a consistent, exact correspondence between letters and
phonemes.

The word letter, borrowed from Old French letre, entered Middle English around 1200
CE, eventually displacing the native English term bōcstaf (bookstaff). Letter is descended from
the Latin littera, which may have descended from the Greek (writing tablet), via Etruscan. A
letter is a type of grapheme, which is a contrastive unit in a writing system. The contemporary
English-language alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, each of which corresponds to one or
more sounds. Letters are combined to form words.

A letter is classified as either a consonant or a vowel, depending on how its sound is

produced (vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y and w— with y and w only sometimes classed as vowels.
The basic Roman alphabet is used by hundreds of languages around the world.

Letters may also have a numerical or quantitative value. This applies to Roman
numerals and the letters of other writing systems. In English, Arabic numerals are typically used
instead of letters. Greek and Roman letters are used as mathematical symbols in equations and
expressions.

However, computerization is one reason nowadays why lettering is a dying art at

presents text, dimensions and notes that are hand written in a standard form. Lettering is
typically all upper case without slant or formatting but the creator of a drawing will often put their
own personality into the lettering. All caps on an engineering drawing is not "yelling" but is good
practice and facilitates clear communication. Slanted lettering may be used for emphasis of a
particular point or idea.
LETTERING

Letters are all block letters generally of equal width and 1/8 inch tall. The use of a
mechanical guide or construction lines to control height is recommended for consistency.
Unless an inked drawing is lettered using a Leroy scriber (now obsolete) lettering is done
freehand. All letters are upper case only unless in a long paragraph of more than 2 sentences.
Letters of a word will be close to each other without touching. Space between words is about
the same as the letter H or W. Numbers are the same size as letters. Fraction numbers are
slightly smaller than 1/8 inch, stacked and symmetrical to the line it is in. Multiple lines of text
should leave space between each line of about half the height of a normal letter.

Each letter is generally created from top to bottom and left to right. At the end of each
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straight leg or line of a letter, the pen or pencil is picked up and relocated for the next line. For
example the letter 'A' consists of a stroke down and to the left, down and to the right and a final
stroke left to right half way up the height connecting the two legs together. Rounded letters such
as 'O' start at the top and go down and around to the left to the bottom, pencil up, then another
stroke from the top then down and to the right closing the O at the bottom. Shortcuts are often
taken making these letters with one stroke.

Special letters and numbers have each on characteristics:

 The letters „W‟ has both outside legs slanted outward and are not vertical.
 The letters „M‟ outside legs are vertical and not slanted. 'M' is not an upside
down 'W' and vice versa.
 The number '0' (zero) and '7' do not have a slash.
 The number '4' comes to a point and is not open.
 The number '8' is made of two small circles of two to four strokes and not a single
figure eight stroke.
 The number '9' is similar to the number '6' being made of curved strokes and no
straight lines.

BASIC STYLE OF LETTERS

The information that a drawing must present cannot be revealed by graphic shapes and
lines alone. To make a drawing informative and complete, you must include lettering in the form
of dimensions, notes, legends, and titles. Lettering can either enhance your drawing by making
it simple to interpret and pleasant to look at, or it can ruin your drawing by making it difficult to
read and unsightly in appearance. Therefore, it is essential that you master the techniques and
skills required for neat, readable lettering.

There are four basic styles or forms of a letter used in the art of lettering and each
approximate for some particular purpose. This letters are commonly used in most arts
practitioners as follows:

 Gothic Letters

Gothic letters is a kind of letters having uniform steam of thickness. German Text is the
only form of medieval Gothic in commercial use today. Commercial Gothic is a relatively modern
development that originated from the earlier Gothic forms. Also called sans-serif Gothic, this
letter is the only one of interest to engineers. It is the plainest and most legible style and is the
one from which our single-stroke engineering letters are derived. While admittedly not as
beautiful as many other styles, sanserif letters are very legible and comparatively easy to make.
They may also be drawn in outline and filled in as shown in figure 13 for the upper case and
figure 14 for the lower-case letters.
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 Roman Letters

The Roman letters refer to any letter that

has wide downward strokes and thin connecting
strokes, as would result from the use of a wide
pen, and the ends of the strokes are terminated
with spurs called serifs or simply say that a letters
or alphabet with the combination of thick and thin
lines. Roman letters include the Old Roman and
Modern or known to us on a computer font Times
New Roman.

 Text Letters or Old English Text

Text Letters or known to us as Old English refers to the alphabet having the most
decorative text and this kind of letters are used to diplomas or certificates. The Text letters
shown in Figure 16 are often loosely referred to as “Old English”, are little used where legibility
is important. These letters may be easily and rapidly made with a broad-nib pen.

 Script Letters or Italic

Script or Italic letters are inclined

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letters or an alphabet are slant in form regardless of the letter style; those shown in Figure 17
are inclined Modern Roman, Gothic or Text letters. Historically, Script typefaces are based upon
the varied and often fluid stroke created by handwriting. They are generally used for display or
trade printing, rather than for extended body text in the Latin alphabet have been a closer
simulation of handwriting.

Majority of formal scripts are based upon the letterforms of seventeenth and eighteenth
century writing-masters. Script typefaces place particular demands on printing technology if the
letters are intended to join up and vary like handwriting.

PROPORTION OF LETTERS

Any normal person can learn to letter if a persistent and intelligent effort is made.
Although it is true that practice makes perfect, it must be understood that practice alone is not
enough, it must be accompanied by continuous effort to improve. Basic freehand stroke in
making or drawing a letter.

Lettering is freehand drawing and not writing. Therefore, the six fundamental strokes and
their direction for freehand drawing are basic to lettering as Figure 18 showed. The horizontal
strokes are drawn to the right, and all vertical, inclined, and curved strokes are drawn
downward. Good lettering is always accomplished by conscious effort and is never done well
otherwise, though good muscular coordination is of great assistance. Ability to letter has little
relationship to writing ability; excellent letterers are often poor writers

There are three necessary aspects of learning to letter.

a. Knowledge of the proportions and forms of the letters and the order of the
strokes. No one can make a good letter that does not have a clear mental image
of the correct form of the letter.
b. Knowledge of composition the spacing of letters and words. Rules governing
composition should be thoroughly mastered.
c. Persistent practice, with continuous effort to improve.
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Today, we use the following in most of our daily correspondence. Proportion refers to the
size of the letters to be used in relation to the space that they will occupy.

There are three considerations in lettering proportion:

 Compressed - refers to the type of proportion that is used when the space is
narrow. The height of letters is greater than normal and width is lesser.

 Extended - proportion refers to the type that is applied when the space is too
wide. The height of the letters is less than but the width is greater.

 Normal - proportion refers to the type of proportion that follows the six – by – six
grid proportion for letters. The height and width are normal.

SPACING AND GUIDELINES

Space refers to the blank area allotted for lettering. There should be a proper spacing of
letters and words in a layout for them to appear balanced and not overcrowded on the paper.
Figure 23 is an example of basic types of spacing and figure 24 shown the distances of letter on
a word and the space of words to another word.

Mechanical spacing refers to every letter space as measured without considering the
shape of the adjacent letter.
Optical spacing refers to the producing a better lay – out, is done in accordance with the shape
of the letter next to another.

Basic Types of Spacing

a. Straight refers to sided letters and should be placed closely if they are arranged one
after the other.
b. If a straight sided letter and a curved letter is placed next after each other, they should
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be spaced closer.
c. A space carrier letter (A, V, L or T) should be placed to overlap the space allotted for
another space-carrier and/or after it to compensate for the blank space.
d. Space between words should be enough for an imaginary “()” to fit in.
e. Spaces between two sentences should be equal to the space for two imaginary “()”

GUIDELINE

A guideline refers to a parallel set of lines which define the upper and lower limits of
architectural lettering, lightest lines on a drawing or close to be invisible. Accordingly, to the
professionals, a good artist will not attempt to letter without executing guidelines and no one
gets a uniform lettering result by depriving guidelines. For a beginner’s, it needs to make a habit
that before to try to letter, execute the guidelines first and layouts.

There are basic types of guidelines to be considered:

A. Upper Case Guideline used to draw upper case letters.
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B. Lower Case Guideline used to draw lower case letters.

Determine the range of lettering sizes by judging the distance from which the audience
will view the presentation. Keep in mind the audience may read different portions of a
presentation.

Layout is a plan on how you are going to arrange the letters in a given space. On a
paper for example, you will consider the position of the paper, letter style or font style, size of
the word and the alignment to apply in the layout.

Calligraphy Style or known as Freedom Style

It is a kind of lettering style that characterized by lines that alternately thin and thicken.
The style is similar to the stroke of Gothic, Roman or other type of letters but with smoother
edges and fewer points.

Calligraphy lettering often takes on a ribbon – like effect and is used primarily for
headlines.

Block lettering is a plain, straight forward lettering style that is characterized by letters
that are typically very large and written in all capitals. This is a headline style lettering that
features straight lines and blocky appearance.
Graffiti style lettering is characterized by fat, rounded characters or by sharp – edged
characters. Graffiti is often done with three – dimensional shading as well. It can take on
elements of Gothic or calligraphic lettering.

Sub-style refers to a style within each of the lettering that can be applied to the main
lettering types. Round hand and cursive, for example, mimic classical penmanship where letters
flow from one into the next. Italic puts a right-leaning slant on letters, while bold makes the
strokes thicker. Old English is more decadent in its flourishes and design, while contemporary
takes a simple, minimalist approach.

Being able to hand letter well becomes very important when correcting drawings
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Errors often occur in drawings and are not discovered until the document has been
printed multiple times.

If a construction document has been created using an architectural font, it is much easier
to change the drawing by erasing (or whiteout) and hand lettering the correction.