TYPE Review

PUBLISHED 21 June 2023

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122200

Dealing with information

OPEN ACCESS overload: a comprehensive review
EDITED BY
Ovidiu Constantin Baltatu,
Anhembi Morumbi University, Brazil
Miriam Arnold 1*†, Mascha Goldschmitt 1† and Thomas Rigotti 1,2†
REVIEWED BY
1
Leibniz Institute for Resilience Research, Mainz, Germany, 2 Work, Organizational and Business
Alejandro Vega-Muñoz, Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
Universidad Central de Chile, Chile
Roman Soucek,
Medical School Hamburg, Germany Information overload is a problem that is being exacerbated by the ongoing
*CORRESPONDENCE digitalization of the world of work and the growing use of information and
Miriam Arnold communication technologies. Therefore, the aim of this systematic literature
miriam.arnold@lir-mainz.de
review is to provide an insight into existing measures for prevention and
These authors have contributed equally to this
†
intervention related to information overload. The methodological approach of the
work and share first authorship
systematic review is based on the PRISMA standards. A keyword search in three
RECEIVED 06 January 2023 interdisciplinary scientific databases and other more practice-oriented databases
ACCEPTED 26 April 2023
PUBLISHED 21 June 2023
resulted in the identification of 87 studies, field reports, and conceptual papers
that were included in the review. The results show that a considerable number of
CITATION
Arnold M, Goldschmitt M and Rigotti T (2023) papers have been published on interventions on the behavioral prevention level.
Dealing with information overload: a At the level of structural prevention, there are also many proposals on how to
comprehensive review.
design work to reduce information overload. A further distinction can be made
Front. Psychol. 14:1122200.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122200 between work design approaches at the level of information and communication
COPYRIGHT
technology and at the level of teamwork and organizational regulations. Although
© 2023 Arnold, Goldschmitt and Rigotti. This is the identified studies cover a wide range of possible interventions and design
an open-access article distributed under the approaches to address information overload, the strength of the evidence from
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (CC BY). The use, distribution or
these studies is mixed.
reproduction in other forums is permitted,
provided the original author(s) and the KEYWORDS
copyright owner(s) are credited and that the
original publication in this journal is cited, in information overload, information flood, intervention, job design, review—systematic
accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is
permitted which does not comply with these
terms.

1. Introduction
With the digitalization of both work and private life, information is available in large
quantities in digital form; we live in an “information society” (Karvalics, 2007). It is possible to
conveniently and actively access diverse information, and we also passively receive large amounts
of information and messages. Despite the different channels of information, information is
mostly consumed through screen displays. Bawden and Robinson (2009) refer to this
phenomenon as “homogenized diversity.” Currently, the amount of information that is created
every two days is roughly equivalent to the amount of information that was created between the
beginning of human civilization and the year 2003 (Jackson and Farzaneh, 2012). The amount
of information available has thus become excessive, but it is difficult to assess its quality. As a
result, information overload has become a widespread problem. Indeed, information overload
was cited as one of the most frequent stressors by 22.5% of respondents in a representative
German sample (Meyer et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic can be seen as a catalyst for these
developments, and it seems likely that the resulting increased use of mobile working patterns,
virtual meetings, and collaborative digital software will be permanent (Rigotti et al., 2021).
Empirical evidence shows that information overload is positively related to strain, burnout
(Girard and Allison, 2008; Day et al., 2012; Antoni and Ellwart, 2017), and various health
complaints (Junghanns and Kersten, 2020), and negatively related to job satisfaction (Hunter
and Goebel, 2008). Furthermore, information overload is associated with serious performance

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losses, especially in connection with disruptions and interruptions receiving it (Graf and Antoni, 2020). Cognitive load theory identifies
(Baethge and Rigotti, 2010; Rigotti, 2016). Finally, studies show that three different categories of cognitive load: extraneous, intrinsic, and
the quality of individuals’ decisions is affected by information overload germane cognitive load. Extraneous cognitive load is influenced by the
(Phillips-Wren and Adya, 2020). design of the information (Sweller, 2005). Intrinsic cognitive load
Given the relevance of information overload for the health and results from the content of the information, such as its complexity.
well-being of employees, as well as their performance outcomes, Finally, germane cognitive load is the favorable, learning-enhancing
we provide a systematic review of preventive measures for information cognitive load that results from focused engagement with the
overload. Previous reviews on the topic of information overload aimed information. Ideally, this final form of cognitive load leads to the
to identify the factors that influence information overload (e.g., Eppler construction of schemata and mental models (Sweller, 2005).
and Mengis, 2004; Antoni and Ellwart, 2017) or to present the Media richness theory also provides a theoretical framework for
consequences of information overload (e.g., Antoni and Ellwart, studying information overload. One of the goals of using information
2017). Furthermore, a meta-analysis by Graf and Antoni (2020) and communication technology (ICT) is to reduce the ambiguity of
focused on information characteristics as antecedents of information information (Daft and Lengel, 1986). Therefore, information richness,
overload. Although some review articles have examined the design or which refers to the extent to which information can change
intervention options to counteract information overload, these are understanding in a given time interval (Daft and Lengel, 1986), should
usually specific to one professional group (mainly medicine, e.g., be considered in relation to information overload. In addition to the
Khairat et al., 2018). information itself, the various possible communication channels may
Firstly, the aim of this review is to systematically describe the tools also differ in their richness. Face-to-face conversations are thought to
and interventions that can be used to manage information overload. be the richest form of communication, while letters or e-mails are less
The various recommendations and interventions are clustered rich (Daft and Lengel, 1986; Kauffeld et al., 2016). Cognitive load
according to the levels of the causes (Eppler and Mengis, 2004) or theory provides a precise definition of information overload, while the
sources (Graf and Antoni, 2020) of information overload. This media richness theory better supports the development of design
clustering makes it possible to determine whether the interventions. Against the background of these relevant theories, the
recommendations address the amount of incoming information or, terms used in this study can be defined.
conversely, the handling of the incoming information. In addition, this Information overload is a topic that is relevant to many disciplines,
study assesses the extent to which preventive measures are proposed including medicine, social sciences, marketing, computer science,
in terms of behavioral versus design solutions. education, and psychology (Edmunds and Morris, 2000). This means
Secondly, we aim to assess the current state of knowledge on that there is no single, universally accepted definition. In everyday
design recommendations for information overload. We will also language, information overload is often equated with receiving too
examine whether the guidelines and recommendations are concrete much information (Eppler and Mengis, 2004). According to
or still relatively vague and, thus identify the areas in which knowledge Klausegger et al. (2007), a consistent feature of the various scientific
deficits remain. definitions of information overload is that the amount of information
is initially related to better performance or better decisions but that,
above a certain amount of information, the effect changes, and the
2. Theoretical classification and amount of information leads to worse outcomes (an inverted
definitions U-shaped relationship; Eppler and Mengis, 2004; Klausegger et al.,
2007). More specifically, Klapp (1986) defined information overload
Several papers have already addressed the theoretical grouping of as an excessive amount of information that the receiver can no longer
the factors that contribute to information overload and the process efficiently without distraction, stress, increased errors, or
consequences of information overload (Eppler and Mengis, 2004; Graf other costs that reduce the efficient use of the information. Similarly,
and Antoni, 2020). These models thus provide a theoretical framework Eppler and Mengis (2004) argued that information overload occurs
for the present review. In addition, the cognitive load theory (Atkinson when the amount of information exceeds the processing capacity of
and Shiffrin, 1968) and the media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, the recipient.
1986) are often referred to in the literature on information overload. As mentioned above, information overload is closely related to the
Therefore, we will briefly describe these theories. use of ICT and, therefore, also to the concept of technostress.
In their framework model of the concept of information overload, Technostress can be defined as the “stress experienced by individuals
Eppler and Mengis (2004) suggest that there are several interrelated due to the use of ICTs” (Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008, p. 418). Information
causes of information overload: the characteristics of the person overload and constant availability are the two main stressors caused
receiving the information, the characteristics of the information, tasks by the use of ICTs (La Torre et al., 2019). Therefore, information
and processes, organizational processes, and information technology. overload can be seen as a feature of technostress. Although this review
The resulting consequences of information overload require the use focuses on information overload, it also includes primary studies that
of countermeasures, which, in turn, affect the causes of information refer to both technostress and information overload. Five techno-
overload. This process is circular, and all the aspects are interdependent stressors are commonly discussed in the technostress literature. These
(Eppler and Mengis, 2004). are techno-overload (leading employees to work longer and faster),
Cognitive load theory suggests that the human working memory techno-invasion (constant availability, including in leisure time),
is limited to approximately seven ± two units of information (Atkinson techno-complexity (complexity of the digital tools leading to feelings
and Shiffrin, 1968). Accordingly, information overload occurs when of inadequacy of computer skills), techno-insecurity (threat to the
the amount of information exceeds the working memory of the person security of one’s job), and techno-uncertainty (constant upgrades of

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hardware and software) (La Torre et al., 2019). Factors with the and publications of the Verwaltungs-Berufsgenossenschaft (VBG). As
potential to buffer the detrimental effects of techno-stressors on most of these platforms do not allow searches using Boolean operators,
employee well-being are discussed under the label of techno-inhibitors all the synonyms for information overload were used individually
(Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008; Estrada-Muñoz et al., 2022). Examples of as keywords.
techno-inhibitors are literacy, participation, or innovation support In the subsequent review process, we followed the PRISMA
(Jena, 2015; Estrada-Muñoz et al., 2022). standards (Moher et al., 2009) and, accordingly, recorded how many
results were obtained from the literature searches conducted in this
way (identification, see Figure 1). Following the literature search, all
3. Methods duplicates were removed, and two independent raters classified the
search results as relevant or irrelevant to the research question on the
3.1. Search strategy basis of titles and abstracts (screening). The screening process itself
was blinded. If the two raters disagreed about certain identified
Following the recommendation by Methley et al. (2014) we used documents, we made a joint decision about inclusion or exclusion.
the PICO tool in order to define our keywords in both English and We then read the full texts of the documents that were deemed
German (see Table 1). As the discussion on information overload relevant which led to further exclusions if they did not fit with the
comes from several fields, many synonyms for information overload research question (suitability).
are used. To cover these, we included a large number of synonyms as In the final step, we coded and categorized the content of the
outcomes in our search string, linked with an OR operator. As we are eligible documents. We recorded the level of the intervention (person,
interested in methods and interventions to reduce information information, tasks and processes, organizational processes,
overload, a further part of the search string refers to aspects that could information technology), a precise description of the intervention, the
be used as countermeasures against information overload. In order to type of article, the research question, the design of the study, the
also cover a wide range of potential countermeasures, we included sample, the results of the study, and the implications in terms of
‘software’ as a keyword beneath the more psychological aspects of recommendations for action and the person who should implement
intervention/training/workshop or work/task design. In addition, to them. Excerpts of the included sources are provided in Tables 2–6).
address individual strategies, we included the keyword ‘coping
strategies’. As described, the focus of this review is on information
overload in the workplace, so a third set of keywords defining the 3.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
population was added to ensure the relevance of the search results to
the workplace. In order not to narrow down the results further than Due to the rapid development of ICT, the time frame of the search
necessary, keywords in the comparison category were omitted. was limited to the period from 2000 to 2021. We included the
In the second step, we defined the databases to be searched. following: (1) evaluation studies on concrete interventions; (2)
We searched the scientific databases Web of Science, Ebscohost, scientific studies that allow conclusions to be drawn about design
Medline, PsycInfo, and PsycArticles using complete search strings options for dealing with information overload; (3) studies on
with Boolean operators. With the aim of including the applied information quality; (4) studies on the design of work-relevant
literature, we also searched other practical databases, including information to make it easier to process; (5) studies on the topic of
PSYNDEX Interventions, Rehadat, Arbeitssicherheit.de, the BAuA knowledge management that might prevent information overload; (6)
(Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) publications, studies that give advice on the possible content of workshops at the

TABLE 1 Search string used in scientific and applied databases based on the PICO concept.

Search string used for English language Search string used for German language databases
databases
Population (work OR occupation OR job OR employment) (Arbeit OR Beruf OR Job OR Beschäftigung OR Anstellung OR
Erwerbstätigkeit OR Tätigkeit OR Zusammenarbeit)

AND AND

Intervention (intervention OR training OR workshop OR software OR (Intervention OR Interventionsmöglichkeiten OR Training OR Workshop

countermeasure OR remedy OR solution OR “work design” OR “work OR Software OR Gegenmaßnahme OR Lösung OR Abhilfe OR
redesign” OR “task design” OR “task redesign” OR “organization Arbeitsdesign OR Arbeitsgestaltung OR Arbeitsumgestaltung OR
design” OR “job design” OR “coping strategies”) Aufgabendesign OR Aufgabengestaltung OR Aufgabenumgestaltung OR
Organisationsgestaltung OR Strategien OR Mechanismen)

AND AND

Comparison n/a n/a

Outcome (“information overload” OR “flood of information” OR “information (Informationsüberlastung OR Informationsflut OR Informationsüberladung

surplus” OR “information avalanche” OR “data trash” OR “data smog” OR Informationsüberflutung OR Datenexplosion OR Datenmüll OR
OR “information input overload” OR “information burden” OR “data Technikstress)
explosion” OR “technostress”)

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FIGURE 1
PRISMA flowchart.

individual level; and (7) studies that present examples of specific difficult to change through occupational health management. At the
software for managing large amounts of information. organizational and interpersonal level, information overload can
We excluded the following types of papers: (1) papers referring be caused by five different aspects (Eppler and Mengis, 2004): (1)
exclusively to multitasking and not simultaneously to information information, (2) person, (3) tasks and processes, (4) organizational
overload, (2) papers referring to the use of ICT outside of working processes, and (5) ICT.
hours or information overload when using social media, (3) technical Information characteristics relevant to information overload
papers on the possibilities of storing large amounts of data as well as include the quantity, frequency, intensity, and quality of the
purely technical-methodological presentations of ICT solutions; (4) information. In addition, other general characteristics of the
papers on the area of consumer research and communication with information may play a role (Eppler and Mengis, 2004). Indeed, Graf
customers, especially those on recommendation systems, and (5) and Antoni (2020) report that the complexity of the information, its
papers giving design recommendations for specific occupational degree of ambiguity, the novelty of the information, and its structure
groups and application areas, such as librarians, molecular biologists, are relevant to information overload.
autonomous driving, studying and teaching, and medical knowledge At the person level, the person receiving, processing, or
from the perspective of patients (health literacy). communicating the information is a relevant factor for information
A total of 1,054 papers were extracted from the scientific overload. Specifically, the person’s attitude, qualifications, or
databases, of which 72 were identified as suitable after screening. A experience, including their competencies, skills, and motivation, can
total of 259 papers were extracted from the practice-oriented influence whether a given amount of information leads to information
databases, of which 15 were identified as suitable and included in overload (Eppler and Mengis, 2004).
the review. At the level of tasks and processes, information overload can arise
from the work tasks themselves or from cooperation with other
people. In particular, more routine procedures reduce the processing
3.3. Intervention and design approaches capacity required of the people involved, while more complex and new
procedures are more likely to cause information overload (Eppler and
The causes of information overload can be found on the societal Mengis, 2004).
level as well as on the organizational and interpersonal levels. At the Organizational processes refer to all formal and informal work
societal level, aspects such as the accelerated production of structures at the organizational level (Eppler and Mengis, 2004).
information and the rapid dissemination of information via the Changes and redesigns in organizational processes and team
internet are causes of information overload. These societal aspects are structures can increase the amount of information presented to the

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TABLE 2 Results of the literature search at the information level.

Citation Method Context Design & Recommendation for action Initiation

Sample
Quality and presentation of information
Beasley et al. (2011) Concept Medicine - Describes the problem of information chaos in the medical field -

Khairat et al. (2018) Review Medicine N = 17 individual The use of dashboards to visualize patient data is recommended. They O
studies reduce data collection time, data collection difficulties, cognitive load, task
completion time, and the number of errors. At the same time, they
improve situational awareness, safety compliance, usability, and navigation.

Waller et al. (2019) Review Medicine N = 22 individual Four different types of information displays are being investigated in the O
(intensive studies field of intensive care medicine:
care)   (1) Integrated displays
  (2) Dashboards integrating several patients’ information
  (3) Monitoring of physiological and laboratory values
  (4) Expert systems with decision support
The review concludes that only 12 of the 22 studies measured a significant
improvement in one of the primary outcomes. Therefore, no clear
recommendation for use can be made.

Patapovas et al. Quant & Medicine, N = 9 doctors and Bundled presentation of clinical information in a decision support system O
(2013) Qual Germany use of the tool for with four aspects:
752 patients   (1) Presentation of the current medication
  (2) Info button for drugs and their most common problems
  (3) Medicheck = contraindications, interactions with other drugs
  (4) More in-depth information on pharmaceuticals available with one click
  (5) Most test users used the tool daily and rated it positively (usefulness,
importance, ease of use).

Ahmed et al. (2011) Quant Medicine N = 20 intensive Use of electronic patient records. The results of the study show that O
care physicians reducing, filtering, and better categorizing of patient data can improve
processing eight performance and reduce information overload.
patient data each Time pressure was considered an outcome variable in the study.

Tan et al. (2013) Quant Medicine, N = 196 nurses in A dashboard of relevant patient information bundles urgent orders, O
Singapore five wards abnormal lab or radiology results, and infection alerts. Additional
functionality is provided for the discharge process and preparation for
radiological exams. The testers were very satisfied with the tool and
particularly appreciate the time savings and efficiency and the increased
patient safety provided by the tool.

Wu et al. (2016) Quant Production, N = 38 operators of The presentation of information at the human-machine interface should O/EX
China an LED be of low complexity. This reduces the cognitive load on the user.
manufacturer

Ries and Deml (2019) Hand Control − The work shows how information in the form of video recordings can O
rooms, be optimally presented to reduce the strain of control room staff.
Germany

Wnuk et al. (2016) Qual Software N = 11 testers The FSC+ software enables the visualization of process steps in larger O/EX
development, projects, thus facilitating the analysis of project progress and can thus
Sweden contribute to decision-making. The survey of sample users showed that its
use is recommended for people who need to keep track of many project
steps.

Roy et al. (2017) Review Management design science Solutions at the knowledge level: summaries, expert comments, use of EM/L/EX
bodies in research (DSR) indicators, prioritization, distribution of information over time,
companies visualization of information.
Solutions based on the use of digital media: search engines, blogs,
dashboards, news, and updates, taking notes and using virtual bookmarks,
using alerts.

(Continued)

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TABLE 2 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Recommendation for action Initiation

Sample
Dzokoto et al. (2013) Concept - Proposal based on “SMART Push System”: actively suggests relevant documents/content to EX
a literature review decision-makers, taking into account all available information/contextual
knowledge, without them having to actively request the information.

Riener and Ferscha Qual - N = 10 persons Wearing a vibrotactile belt, that can provide additional tactile information, EX
(2008) here applied to distance perception. However, no findings are reported on
how this contributes to reducing information overload.

Quantity of information
Shah et al. (2019) Quant Medicine, N = 8,411 Introduction of a new organizational policy for sending information and O
USA employees from messages, combined with training of employees on the setting options.
148 facilities of the This reduces the number of messages received.
Department of
Veterans Affairs

Pickering et al. (2013) Quant and Medicine N = 925 The study shows that out of a total of 51 concepts, an average of 11 are O/L
Qual (intensive questionnaires used for each patient. Four concepts are used particularly often. From this
care unit), answered by ICU observation it can be concluded that certain information should
USA staff on new be presented in a prioritized way. Access to other information should not
admissions be prevented, but the most frequently used categories of information
should be presented in a clear and concise manner.

Arditi et al. (2017) Review Medicine N = 34 individual Use of computer-generated reminders in paper form. L/O
studies
Quant, quantitative study; Qual, qualitative study; review, review paper (systematic or unsystematic); Meta, meta-analysis; Concept, concept paper or opinion; Hand, handout, rule or
information; EM, employees; L, leaders; T, teams; O, organization; EX, external support (e.g., IT staff or employees of a consultancy).

individuals, whereas standardized procedures or regulations can positive correlation between the quantity of information and
reduce the risk of information overload. information overload, but at the same time some studies have reported
With regard to the level of information and communication a negative correlation between these two variables (see Graf and
technology, both which technologies are used and how they are used Antoni, 2020). It can therefore be assumed that the subjective
can be relevant to information overload (Eppler and Mengis, 2004). assessment of the quantity of information may be influenced by the
The emergence of new technologies and their use play an important available resources and the individual’s ability to manage the incoming
role in causing information overload, as exemplified by widespread information. The quality of information includes the various aspects
use of e-mail. It is important to take advantage of the opportunities that contribute to the fit of the information to the needs of the person
offered by certain technologies, while at the same time minimizing the receiving it. These aspects include, for example, the complexity or
risks they pose. relevance of the information.
These five levels of causes can serve as starting points for design With regard to the quantity of information, it should be noted that
options and interventions to address information overload. a large number of papers have described the use of various information
Accordingly, the results of this literature review are structured along technologies to reduce the quantity of information. Therefore, papers
these five levels. In this context, the design recommendations at the that mainly describe and evaluate these technologies and thus address
level of the person are classified as behavioral prevention measures, the problem of high information quantity are included in the section
while the recommendations related to the other four levels can on information technology.
be regarded as structural prevention measures.
4.1.1. Quality and presentation of information
Much of the literature on the presentation of information relates
4. Results to the medical field. Indeed, the condition of critically ill patients can
be affected if an important piece of information is overlooked, and
4.1. Level of information time pressure is often high in medicine. Beasley et al. (2011) showed
that problems of complex “information chaos” are particularly
According to Graf and Antoni (2020), a distinction can be made relevant in the medical field. Information overload is often cited as one
between the quantity and the quality of information, and both aspects aspect, along with information deficits, information conflicts, and
of information are related to information overload (Graf and Antoni, scattered or incorrect information. The following papers each address
2020). Quantity is mainly understood as the amount of information one or more of these aspects.
(objective). However, if the subjective perception of the amount of Based on 17 primary studies, Khairat et al. (2018) reported in
information is also taken into account, contradictory results can their review that visualization dashboards reduce the time spent
be obtained. For example, empirical studies suggest that there is a collecting data, the difficulty of the data collection process, the

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cognitive load, the time to task completion, and the error rate. These management. The tool makes it possible to visualize the scope of a
visualization dashboards also improve situational awareness, project and to show the dwell time of individual project steps in the
adherence to evidence-based safety guidelines, ease of use, and project, thus facilitating project decision making. A test of the tool
navigation through the program. Therefore, the presentation of with 20 sample users showed that the interviewees were positive
selected critical patient data in a clear manner can be recommended about the tool. However, the learning curve for using the tool was
in clinical settings. Another review paper with the same target group longer than expected. The study showed that the tool is more useful
was presented by Waller et al. (2019), and their results indicated that for people who need to work with large amounts of data and
more than half of the included peer-reviewed primary studies (12 out information, while the tool is less useful for people who only need
of 22) on the implementation of dashboards showed positive effects an overview of a limited number of project steps. The study provides
on outcomes such as patient health, process outcomes, efficiency, and weak evidence that the FSC+ tool can be used in project management
costs. However, the authors themselves reported that the empirical and project leadership to reduce information overload. Roy et al.
evidence on the effectiveness of dashboards implementation in clinical (2017) addressed the question of how to increase management’s
settings is limited by the low to moderate quality of the primary knowledge of processes within the organization without leading to
studies. It should also be noted that these studies rarely considered information overload. Based on an unsystematic review, the authors
information overload as an outcome. proposed the following solutions at the knowledge level: the use of
Three other original studies also address the clinical application summaries, comments by experts, indicators, and priority setting,
context. Patapovas et al. (2013) tested a clinical decision support the distribution of information over time, and the visualization of
system, but since the study did not implement a pre-and post- information. Solutions based on the use of digital media were as
survey and did not include a controlled-randomized design, the follows: the use of search engines, blogs, dashboards, news and
results only permit the conclusion that the test users used the updates, notes and virtual bookmarks, and alerts. In addition, with
electronic patient record regularly. Ahmed et al. (2011) compared the aim of providing relevant information to decision makers in
a new format for representing information with an established companies, Dzokoto et al. (2013) proposed a “SMART Push System”
format. With the new format of representation (reduction, filtering, based on a literature review. This system actively suggests the
and better categorization of patient data), the test subjects showed relevant documents or content to decision-makers, taking into
better performance, faster processing times, and most importantly account all the available information and contextual knowledge,
also a lower task and information load. The study suggests that the without them having to actively request the information. However,
reduction, filtering, and better categorization of patient data have this article was only a conceptual work.
a positive effect on reducing the effort required to process the Riener and Ferscha (2008) took a different approach, initially
information. Another dashboard for the clinical context was independent of the work context. They proposed the use of tactile
developed and tested by Tan et al. (2013) based on Toyota’s Andon stimuli to relieve the visual and auditory sensory channels. Their study
Board. The dashboard extracts data from electronic patient records focused exclusively on spatial orientation and tested the use of a
every minute and notifies clinicians of urgent orders (e.g., vibrotactile belt to inform subjects about the spatial distance to a
laboratory tests, medications, etc.), abnormal laboratory and target object. Based on the results of the study, we cautiously conclude
radiology results, and infection alerts. Overall, the dashboard that it may be useful to use tactile stimuli to convey information.
seems recommendable; in the study, it ensured efficient and safe However, the participants only showed a learning effect when they
work and was well accepted by the users. However, this empirical were informed about the accuracy of their distance estimations,
evidence is limited due to the lack of a control group. whereas their estimation performance deteriorated when no feedback
In a different work context (an LED factory) but still with a similar was provided.
approach, Wu et al. (2016) used eye tracking to investigate three
different levels of complexity in the presentation of technical 4.1.2. Quantity of information
information at the human-machine interface. The results showed that Shah et al. (2019) examined the quantity of information sent to
the time it took the subjects to fixate on the target object differed primary care providers through the Department of Veterans Affairs in
significantly depending on the complexity of the presented the US. They also looked at new regulations to filter the information
information. Specifically, fixation was fastest in the low complexity sent, as well as staff training on how to individually enable and disable
condition. Another finding was that the search patterns of novices certain types of messages. The study showed that the number of daily
were significantly more complex than those of experts. Furthermore, messages could be reduced with these policies, but no concrete impact
experts reported lower cognitive load than novices. Overall, these or evaluation of the staff training was reported. It should also be noted
findings suggest that user interfaces should be designed to be as simple that there was no control group and that the implementation of the
and clear as possible while still providing the necessary level of intervention varied between regions.
functionality. Furthermore, the same amount of information may have Another study in the clinical work context by Pickering et al.
different effects depending on the professional experience of the (2013) examined the information used by intensive care unit (ICU)
individual. Indeed, Ries and Deml (2019) reported a similar staff when a new patient is admitted. The aim of the study was to
conclusion in relation to the work of control room staff; they also identify the type of information that needs to be prioritized in the
proposed specific recommendations on how to optimize the ICU. To answer this question, observations and interviews were
presentation of information in the form of video recordings. conducted over 1.5 years in three different ICUs. Out of a total of 51
Wnuk et al. (2016) proposed a way to visualize the content and different clinical information concepts, an average of 11 concepts were
progress of a project. This tool, called FSC+ (Feature Survival Chart), used when a single patient was admitted. The four most commonly
is specifically aimed at the fields of business management or project used concepts were heart rate, oxygen saturation, respiration, and

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blood pressure, and each was used in more than half of the admissions. and Drury (2002) and an editorial by Kluge et al. (2020) suggest that
The study suggests that when a patient is transferred to the ICU, filtering information is seen as a helpful measure against information
certain information should be presented in a prioritized manner. overload. This filtering can be achieved, for example, by suppressing,
Access to other information should not be prevented, but the most deleting, or selecting irrelevant information (Kluge et al., 2020). In the
commonly used categories of information should be presented in a process of filtering or screening, according to Farhoomand and Drury
clear and concise manner. (2002), delegating work is also an option, and this delegation should
Another approach to reducing the amount of information or be directed not only to colleagues but also, if possible, to digital agents
helping individuals remember the most important information was (Kluge et al., 2020). Finally, prioritizing information can also be a
examined in a Cochrane systematic review by Arditi et al. (2017). helpful action to manage information overload (Farhoomand and
They focused on computer-generated reminders provided in paper to Drury, 2002).
healthcare professionals. The data from 34 individual studies showed Mindfulness also plays a role in managing information overload,
that this form of intervention significantly improved the quality of and according to an unsystematic review by Stich et al. (2018),
care. There was also weak evidence that patient outcomes could mindfulness skills should be developed in order to manage e-mail-
be positively influenced by these reminders. However, the extent to related information overload. Mindfulness can be assessed and
which this intervention could reduce information overload for health improved through questionnaires that measure and provide feedback
professionals was not investigated. on the level of strain experienced by information overload or attitudes
toward ICT.
4.1.3. Summary: level of information
Empirical evidence on the quantity and quality of information to 4.2.2. Training
reduce information overload focuses mainly on the digital At the individual level, previous studies have recommended
representation of information. When designing software, it is attending training to reduce and prevent information overload (e.g.,
important to ensure that the amount of information presented is Drössler et al., 2018; Stadin et al., 2020), with companies in particular
manageable and customizable. At the same time, in the software, it being encouraged to invest in such training for their employees.
should be possible to intuitively access background information that However, Pfaffinger et al. (2020) also suggest that individuals should
is not visible at first glance. Design principles and design laws should proactively demand further training opportunities.
also be considered. Although the studies to date are of relatively A review by Antoni and Ellwart (2017) made it clear that
moderate quality (e.g., few have used a randomized control group individuals are able to process a large amount of complex information
design) and mainly relate to the medical field, the findings are also if they have the competencies to use modern ICT. These skills should
applicable to other professional groups for whom it is essential to have be trained through further education, for example, on the
important information presented as clearly as possible (e.g., employees functionalities of these technologies. Furthermore, according to
in control rooms or managers). Based on the literature presented here, Nagarajah (2016), the introduction of new technologies should
the use of dashboards appears to be recommended. be accompanied by adequate training in order to prevent technostress.
Specifically, in addition to the training in digital skills (Drössler
et al., 2018; Lehman and Miller, 2020), the literature recommends
4.2. Person level improving media and information literacy (Bundesanstalt für
Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2006; Benselin and
At the individual level, the literature included in this review offers Ragsdell, 2016; Drössler et al., 2018). With regard to the use of
some advice on how to manage information and information overload software, this literacy includes, for example, learning helpful but often
in general. Specifically, information overload can be addressed at the unknown functions of the software (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz
personal level through education. Furthermore, we present und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2006).
recommendations on how to deal with e-mail and the Internet in Based on a case study, Cheuk (2008) also suggested that
general. The following section also includes suggestions on how to information literacy is a human resource development issue in four
actively manage the boundaries between work and leisure time and dimensions: first, the skillful use of information at a strategic level;
the workplace itself. second, the organization and control of information; third, the
knowledge of access and tools; and fourth, the linking of finding and
4.2.1. Dealing with information overload using information.
Information overload should be recognized as early as possible In addition, individuals should be taught appropriate work
(Mustapar et al., 2016) and proactively addressed at the individual strategies to deal with information overload, such as how to manage
level (Landale, 2007). Landale (2007) presented a three-step approach large amounts of information (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
that can be applied by individuals in combination with memory Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2006). These strategies could include
training: (1) receive and evaluate the document and decide whether improving self-and time management, as these are effective measures
to read it, delegate it, or ignore it, (2) gain an initial understanding of against information overload (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
the document and decide whether to read it in detail and, if so, how Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2006; Drössler et al., 2018).
quickly and how deeply, (3) adapt the new knowledge. According to a quantitative study by Yener et al. (2020), in
Similarly, Warbington (2000) recommended that when receiving addition to training in time management, technological self-efficacy
information, one should first clarify the goal one is trying to achieve, training could also counteract the negative effects of technostress on
from which the importance of different pieces of information can burnout and performance. Mahapatra and Pati (2018) highlighted that
be assessed. Accordingly, a survey of 124 managers by Farhoomand techno-invasion and techno-insecurity are also positively related to

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TABLE 3 Results of the literature search on the level of the person.

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Dealing with information overload
Mustapar et al. Review - Thematic analysis Information overload should be identified as early as possible in EM/L/O/EX
(2016) following Miles and order to take preventive action.
Huberman (data
collection, reduction,
presentation and
drawing)

Landale (2007) Concept - - Information overload should be addressed proactively at the EM

individual level. A 3-step approach is presented:
- Step 1: Receiving the document, assessment needed
- Step 2: Initial understanding of the document
- Step 3: New knowledge is adapted

Warbington Concept - - It is necessary to clarify the goal one is pursuing. Based on this, the EM
(2000) importance of different information should be assessed.

Farhoomand Qual Australia, Hong Questionnaire with five Filtering information (suppressing, deleting, and selecting irrelevant EM
and Drury Kong, UK, USA questions (N = 124 information) helps to reduce information overload. In addition,
(2002) managers) work can be delegated, especially for screening or filtering tasks. It is
also recommended to prioritize information.

Kluge et al. Concept Germany - At the individual level, it is recommended to filter information and EM
(2020) to delegate tasks from humans to digital agents.

Stich et al. Review - - At the individual level, interventions such as e-mail training, virtual EM/L
(2018) courtesy, respect, and engagement workshops are recommended. In
addition, individuals should develop mindfulness toward themselves
(e.g., measuring and reporting levels of technostress or attitudes
toward ICT through surveys) and toward colleagues. Managers have
a special responsibility here, but employees should ask their
colleagues which communication channels they prefer.

Training
Drössler et al. Review - 34 studies (thereof 18 Extraction of design recommendations at various levels, including EM/L/O
(2018) Qual) company-specific information policy, training for efficient use of
e-mail programs, active information search vs. push messages,
training for media and information literacy, avoidance of multiple
channels, and disruption-free times.

Stadin et al. Qual Sweden, health Interview with Critical Promoting a good e-mail culture, training individual strategies and EM/L/O
(2020) sector Incident Technique competencies for using e-mail and software in general.
(N = 20)

Pfaffinger et al. Qual International; Semi-structured It is recommended to participate and proactively request training, to EM/L
(2020) German, interviews (N = 26 trust in the adaptation process, to consciously set limits, and to
English, Spanish employees) organize the working day efficiently.

Antoni and Review - Review along the model Training measures for competencies in modern information and EM/L
Ellwart (2017) of Eppler and Mengis communication technologies are recommended. People should
(2004) be made aware of the adverse effects of e-mail interruptions and
be taught concrete techniques for dealing with e-mails efficiently.
For example, it may be helpful to establish fixed times for dealing
with e-mail.

Nagarajah Quant - Questionnaire (N = 212) Accompany the introduction of new technologies with appropriate L/O
(2016) training offers and support.

Lehman and Review - “framed humanist Depending on the type of information search, the appropriate digital EM/L
Miller (2020) review” competencies should be trained, and recommendations for action
should be followed.

(Continued)

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TABLE 3 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Bundesanstalt Hand Germany - Practice information culture in the company (e.g., improve quality of EM/L/O
für e-mails, reduce quantity/scope, internal rules); provide specific
Arbeitsschutz training for employees (e.g., media competence, time management,
und e-mail etiquette); existing training from the initiative “New Quality
Arbeitsmedizin of Work.”
(BAuA) (2006)

Benselin and Quant & - Interviews (N = 5), Information literacy training is recommended. EM/L
Ragsdell (2016) Qual Diaries (N = 4),
questionnaire (N = 46)

Cheuk (2008) Qual Consulting firm a consulting firm Information literacy is a human resource development issue; 4 O
dimensions are proposed: skillful use of information at a strategic
level, organization and control of information, knowledge of access
and tools, linking search and use of information.

Yener et al. Quant Public service Cross-section (N = 138) Promoting technology self-efficacy and time management can EM/L
(2020) counteract the adverse effects of technostress on burnout and
performance.

Mahapatra and Quant India Questionnaire (N = 163) Reduce techno-uncertainty and techno-complexity, e.g., through EM/L
Pati (2018) regular training or seminars.

Le Roux and Quant South Africa, Cross-section (N = 106 Support in the reduction of techno-complexity for older employees, L
Botha (2021) Economy managers) e.g., through training courses.

Zhao et al. Quant - N = 513 Starting points for interventions: cognitive assessment of EM/L
(2020) technostress and problem-focused coping or emotion-focused
coping (venting).

Becker et al. Quant Germany Cross-section, Coping strategies reduce the negative correlation between EM/L
(2021) questionnaire, N = 3,363 technostress and performance, so different coping strategies should
knowledge workers be trained. Active-functional strategies are to be preferred. The
negative effects of dysfunctional coping strategies should
be explained.

Yin et al. (2018) Quant Internet industry Cross-section, N = 178 Information processing timeliness (=degree of perceived support in -
timely information processing by mobile information and
communication technologies) is not recommended as a coping
option.

Moser et al. Qual & mainly in the Pre-study (N = 12 (1) “ Resources for dealing with information overload”: adequate EM/L/O
(2002) Quant service sector interviews) technical equipment, information culture in the company, social
Main study (N = 159 support, media competence, and work methodology.
one-time (2) F
 rom the qualitative study, several lived measures and strategies
questionnaires), study emerge, including acceptance and optimization, rejection and
on e-mail programs avoidance, selection strategies.
(review), study on the (3) Th
 e authors develop a training concept based on the results of
use of communication the study. The training includes the aspects of know-how,
aids (N = 488, one-time efficient handling of information overload, time management
questionnaire), study on methods, training on e-mail programs, addressing the 11 factors
organizational strategies of information overload as a stressor, and workplace-related
(N = 24 interviews) individual coaching.

Soucek and Quant – Intervention study Training (knowledge, use of e-mail features, media use problems, EM/L
Moser (2010) without control group work disruptions, and e-mail stress) to improve e-mail
with pre-test and double communication has been shown to be effective and is therefore
post-test design, N = 90 recommended.
employees

(Continued)

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TABLE 3 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Moser and Concept – – A needs analysis is required before training can be offered within a L/O
Soucek (2005) company. The importance of practicing what has been learned is
emphasized. It is also recommended that people who work together
in the company attend the e-mail communication training together
so that an e-mail culture can develop.

De Bruin et al. Quant Netherlands, Wait-control group; Positive effects of mindfulness training on stress (measured by the EM/L
(2020) Economy pre-post-follow-up Perceived Stress Scale, PSS; Cohen et al. 1983), work engagement,
design (N = 150) and “Checklist Individual Strength”; but not directly related to
information overload.

Camargo (2008) Qual High- Interviews (N = 17 “High Creative solutions for the further training of employees are EM/L/O
Technology Technology” Workers) recommended, such as instructional videos on how to use e-mail
efficiently. In addition, several steps to reduce e-mail stress are
presented: Setting realistic goals regarding the number of tasks,
developing rules and filters for e-mail use, using alternative
communication channels, and separating work and private life.

Dealing with E-mails and the Internet

Ramsay and Qual Different Semi-structured (1) Communicate the expectation of responding quickly. EM
Renaud (2012) Industries interviews in individual (2) N
 o expectation to read e-mails outside of work hours and accept
setting (N = 18); focus different handling of the frequency of reading e-mails (against
group with 3 experts to compulsive checking).
develop interview guide (3) “Ignore and delete”.
(4) Only forward of CC someone when necessary.
(5) A
 void “buck-passing”: do not pass the task to someone else by
forwarding an e-mail.
(6) A
 void “broadcasting”: send to a large distribution list only when
necessary; otherwise, send individual requests.
(7) B
 CC (“blind copying”) should remain allowed, as there are
usually good reasons for doing so.
(8) S end one well-thought-out e-mail, not multiple or periodic
follow-ups.

Soucek (2009) Review - Literature review (1) Structure and manage incoming mail EM
(2) Timing of e-mail communication
(3) Media-appropriate use of e-mail correspondence
(4) Rules for e-mail communication

Bundesanstalt Hand Germany - (1) C

 reate pauses and downtime (e.g., turn off your e-mail inbox to EM
für avoid interruptions).
Arbeitsschutz (2) C
 oncrete tips to avoid information overload concerning e-mails,
und including precise formulation of concerns based on the subject
Arbeitsmedizin line, communicating the further need for action, standard
(BAuA) (2011) templates, avoiding CC and forwarding, and keeping the amount
of information as small as possible.
(3) C
 oncrete tips against information overload regarding the
Internet, including precise keywords, checking for up-to-
dateness, filing system, and direct communication to
be considered

Rack et al. Quant Pharmacy, Interviews (N = 40) Optimization options against e-mail information overload: EM
(2011) Software (1) On the recipient’s side: automatic filtering of incoming mail,
individual strategies, e.g., cross-reading
(2) On the sender’s side: question the necessity of the e-mail, send
only to relevant recipients, and choose precise wording.

(Continued)

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TABLE 3 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Active design of the workplace
Gaudioso et al. Quant USA Cross-section, Maladaptive coping strategies should be eliminated, and adaptive EM/L
(2017) questionnaire, N = 242 ones subsequently built upon. Raise awareness and remove barriers
employees (use of IT at (e.g., through training, job design, reward systems, peer pressure,
work) and technical support). Technostress can be reduced, for example, by
not working on e-mails outside working hours.
Sources in italics were mentioned in multiple of the running text’s sub-chapters at the individual level. However, these are only listed once in the tabular overview. Quant, quantitative study;
Qual, qualitative study; review, review paper (systematic or unsystematic); Meta, meta-analysis; Concept, concept paper or opinion; Hand, handout, rule or information; EM, employees; L,
leaders; T, teams; O, organization; EX, external support (e.g., IT staff or employees of a consultancy).

burnout, while the latter mediates the relationship between techno- to e-mail use should also include “netiquette,” (i.e., topics such as
complexity and burnout. Therefore, techno-insecurity and perceived virtual politeness, respect, and commitment). With regard to training
techno-complexity should also be addressed in training measures. The on e-mail use, Antoni and Ellwart (2017) further noted that
study by Le Roux and Botha (2021) provides a complementary individuals should be made aware of the negative effects of e-mail
reference to these findings, as their work showed that perceived interruptions and should be presented with concrete techniques for
techno-complexity and techno-uncertainty increase with age. managing e-mails efficiently. For example, setting fixed times for
Consequently, training in this area should be provided to older processing e-mails can be helpful.
employees in particular. A concrete example of an intervention that has already been
Zhao et al. (2020) suggested further avenues for interventions developed and evaluated is the training program of the initiative “New
to address information overload. First, problem-focused coping Quality of Work,” which includes modules on the organizing of
(e.g., performing a cognitive assessment of technostress and seeking incoming mail, processing and managing e-mails, and designing
instrumental support) is helpful in alleviating information overload. correspondence (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin
Second, training in emotion-focused coping or venting is also (BAuA), 2006). According to Moser and Soucek (2005), a needs
recommended. Based on this, Becker et al. (2021) found in a analysis is required before a training intervention should be offered in
quantitative study with 3,363 knowledge workers from Germany a company. Ultimately, a shared e-mail culture can be developed
that coping strategies reduced the negative indirect relationship through joint participation in the program.
between technostress and performance mediated by exhaustion. De Bruin et al. (2020) showed a positive effect of mindfulness
Therefore, the authors recommend that different coping strategies training with regard to stress (measured by the Perceived Stress Scale).
should be trained. Although both dysfunctional (avoidance of the However, a positive effect of mindfulness training specifically on
problem) and active-functional (including problem-focused and information overload cannot be inferred from these findings.
emotion-focused coping) coping strategies reduce the strain caused According to an interview study by Camargo (2008), other creative
by techno-stressors, the negative long-term consequences of solutions, such as learning videos or presentations, can also contribute
dysfunctional coping should be explained to individuals, and in to the further training of employees in relation to managing
particular, active-functional strategies should be part of further information overload.
training measures.
A cross-sectional study by Yin et al. (2018) focused on the 4.2.3. Dealing with E-mails
timeliness of information processing, which refers to the perceived According to Drössler et al. (2018), managing e-mails poses a
support for timely information provided by mobile ICT. Their study challenge for employees in terms of information overload. Indeed,
found that the timeliness of information processing reinforces the both individuals and organizations should take responsibility for
negative relationship between information overload and job implementing measures to address this issue, which can be done by
satisfaction and is therefore not recommended as a coping mechanism. creating a detailed information culture in the company and clear
Based on their qualitative and quantitative study results, Moser internal company regulations, such as communication and e-mail
et al. (2002) developed an exemplary training concept to be applied at guidelines (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin
the personal level, including the following aspects: know-how, efficient (BAuA), 2006; Ramsay and Renaud, 2012; Drössler et al., 2018; Stich
handling of information overload, time management methods, and et al., 2018; Stadin et al., 2020). Soucek (2009) also recommended
training on e-mail program. The training was highly accepted by the structuring and managing the inbox, scheduling e-mail
participants, led to an increase in knowledge, and reduced the communication, and using e-mail correspondence in a manner
participants’ feeling of information overload. appropriate to the medium.
In a quantitative intervention study, Soucek and Moser (2010) Clear articulation of concerns related to task objectives is
examined a training intervention to explain the use of modern ICT, considered important in e-mail communication. Furthermore, in
and their results showed that e-mail communication could order to avoid unnecessary communication, it should be made clear
be improved by training in media literacy, individual work processes, whether further action is required as a result of the e-mail sent and, if
and knowledge of the principles of e-mail communication. According so, what form this action is expected to take (e.g., how quickly a
to Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA) response is expected; Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
(2006) and Stich et al. (2018), training-based interventions in relation Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2011; Ramsay and Renaud, 2012). In

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addition, the necessity of the information should be questioned before own information overload (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
sending an e-mail communication, and e-mails should only be sent to Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2011). Finally, a systematic review by
relevant recipients (Rack et al., 2011). Standard templates can be used Drössler et al. (2018) suggested that active information searches
to reduce the effort required to formulate e-mails (Bundesanstalt für should be used instead of push notifications.
Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2011). Furthermore, the
group of people to whom the information is disseminated to should 4.2.5. Active design of the workplace
be limited by avoiding the use of carbon copies (CC) and forwarding Pfaffinger et al. (2020) report that active workplace design and
e-mails (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), boundary management can be helpful against information overload.
2011; Ramsay and Renaud, 2012; Drössler et al., 2018), the amount of In fact, an interview study by Camargo (2008) with 17 employees in
information disseminated by the e-mail should be kept as small as the “high technology” sector also found that separating work and
possible, and large attachments should be avoided (Bundesanstalt für private life can reduce the stress caused by e-mails.
Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2011). So-called “buck- Soucek and Moser (2010) recommended self-management
passing,” (i.e., passing on a task to another person by forwarding an techniques, such as prioritizing and sequencing tasks according to
e-mail, should be avoided (Ramsay and Renaud, 2012), but blind one’s needs, to improve the individual workflows. For example,
copying (BCC) should be retained if deemed appropriate, as there are managing e-mails should be integrated into an individual’s daily
usually good reasons for using this functionality. However, duplicate schedule at a time that makes sense for them.
communication through multiple channels should be avoided Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA),
according to Drössler et al. (2018). Individuals should refrain from (2011) recommends actively creating time for breaks and reducing
regular follow-up e-mails (Ramsay and Renaud, 2012) and instead interruptions during these times, which can be achieved, for example,
consider other methods of communication, such as face-to-face by switching off the incoming notifications for e-mails (cf. Drössler
contact instead of e-mail (Camargo, 2008; Bundesanstalt für et al., 2018). Finally, to reduce technostress, no e-mails should
Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2011; Drössler et al., be processed or sent outside of working hours (Gaudioso et al., 2017).
2018). In addition to individual strategies, such as skimming (reading
quickly to get a general overview), automated filters in the inbox can 4.2.6. Summary: person level
also be helpful for recipients of large amounts of e-mail information At the individual level, several studies have recommended that
(Rack et al., 2011). Indeed, developing rules and filters and integrating individuals participate in training interventions that, in addition to
them into one’s e-mail use can help separate important e-mails from supporting the development of general competencies such as self and
irrelevant information, such as spam (Camargo, 2008). Ramsay and time management, should improve their competencies in managing
Renaud (2012) recommend ignoring or deleting potentially risky ICT and the software used in the company. However, there is a lack of
e-mails as a measure against information overload. This approach is methodologically sound empirical studies that test the effectiveness of
particularly useful when virus-laden content is suspected. the proposed intervention approaches. In fact, we identified only two
To counteract the accumulation of information, subscriptions to evaluated interventions that reduced subjective information overload
automated services such as newsletters or newsfeeds should be made among participants, but these studies did not include any objective
selectively (Drössler et al., 2018). Similarly, individuals should also measures. In terms of avoiding information overload, e-mail
inform their colleagues directly if they do not need information sent management seems to be particularly challenging. In addition to
via their e-mail distribution lists (Camargo, 2008). participating in training, studies have suggested concrete actions that
To protect individuals from compulsive e-mail checking, Ramsay individuals can take to counteract information overload. An example
and Renaud (2012) recommended two strategies. First, colleagues is to organize one’s workplace in a way that supports the setting and
should accept that individuals have different ways of managing e-mails maintaining of boundaries between work and private life and creates
in terms of how often they read them. Second, individuals should free free spaces and breaks. It should be noted that while the advice for
themselves from the expectation that e-mails should be answered individuals is presented at the individual level, the support of the
outside of work hours, thus allowing them to make a clear distinction company in the implementation of these strategies is elementary. For
between work and private life (cf. Camargo, 2008). example, the company’s regulations, the corporate culture, or human
resource development policies may be important in helping employees
4.2.4. Dealing with the internet manage information overload. Figure 2 provides an overview of the
A report by the Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und suggested content for training.
Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA) (2011) provides concrete recommendations
on how to manage the Internet in general. In particular, the use of
meaningful and concise search terms is recommended to significantly 4.3. Level of tasks and processes
reduce the number of search results. In addition, the topics of
documents and materials from the internet should be checked At the task and process level, it may be useful to standardize
immediately to eliminate information that is not relevant. The basic certain procedures to address information overload (Eppler and
principle of these recommendations is to identify only as many Mengis, 2004). Piecha and Hacker (2020) and Piecha (2021) presented
documents on a topic as can be processed in a reasonable amount of a detailed report on a multi-year multi-method research project on
time. According to the authors, a clear filing system can help navigate information overload. The aim of the report was to identify approaches
through the information. Furthermore, when working with the to managing a large amount of information transmitted through ICT
Internet, direct communication with colleagues about the perceived at work in a non-overwhelming way. From their systematic field
importance and relevance of various documents can also reduce one’s studies, the authors derived several recommendations. These include

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FIGURE 2
Results of the systematic review on content of training.

the needs-based design of the media landscape, the regulation of employees (including insurance and financial service providers) were
organizational information flows, the adequate measurement of time qualitatively evaluated. The following aspects were identified in the
when working with digital media, the reduction of parallelism and discussions: the establishment of common rules (etiquette), quiet
diversity of tasks, the development of employees and managers, and times, training in the use of tools, and prioritization.
the individual planning of work. In addition, Stadin et al. (2020) In their editorial, Kluge et al. (2020) discussed the filtering of
interviewed 20 health care managers in Sweden using the critical information as a measure to address information overload. They also
incident method. The negative aspects of digital communication emphasized that tasks can be delegated from humans to digital agents
mentioned were high workload, the invasion of privacy, and negative and that management information systems and interactive assistance
feelings (e.g., fear of missing something in the e-mail inbox). systems can be used to reduce information overload. Effective
Promoting digital literacy, designing ICT according to needs, and measures also include “organizational unlearning,” which refers to
redistributing work and ICT systems were mentioned as possible forgetting information that is no longer relevant.
solutions to the negative aspects of digital communication. Okolo et al. (2018) conducted a cross-sectional study with 319
Furthermore, e-mail culture, support from colleagues, individual bank employees in Nigeria to examine the indirect relationship
resources (individual strategies, such as routines and structures), between job-related resources according to the Job Characteristics
individual competencies (e.g., learning by doing or preparation), and Model (i.e., task feedback, task autonomy, task significance, task
organizational resources (e.g., IT support) were mentioned as identity, and skill variety) and work engagement mediated by the
important aspects in dealing with information overload. experience of technostress. Technostressors (overload, complexity,
Stich et al. (2018) highlighted the negative consequences of and invasion) could be categorized as challenging demands, defined
excessive use of digital information technology and ICT: technology as a demand that shows motivational effects in addition to being
overload, interruptions, multitasking, work-home interference, and straining. Activity resources showed a positive indirect relationship
cyber deviance. The following process recommendations were made with work engagement mediated by technostress. Concrete
to address these issues: (1) establish clear policies on ICT use (e.g., recommendations for action cannot be derived from this study, but
blocking e-mail traffic outside working hours, switching from e-mail the indication that experienced technostress may have the potential to
to an internal social network, establishing policies against act as a challenge suggests that motivational gains may be derived
cyberbullying or regarding ICT use in general); (2) implement from technostress under certain conditions.
individual interventions; (3) create individual mindfulness (e.g., Oldroyd and Morris (2012) focused on a specific group of
measure and provide feedback on the level of technostress or attitude employees, the so-called high performers or stars, whose productivity
toward ICT through surveys); (4) create mindfulness toward can be up to 10 times higher than the average in an occupational field.
colleagues (particular responsibility of managers, but colleagues Such stars tend to be very well connected socially, which means that
should also be asked which communication channels they prefer). the amount of communication and, thus, the information load they
Bordi et al. (2017) introduced the term information ergonomics, experience is very high. To maintain the productivity of such stars, the
focusing on the workload induced by information-intensive tasks. In authors suggest, among other things, (1) training in the ability to
their study, discussions in several focus groups with a total of 36 distinguish between useful and superfluous information, (2) the

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TABLE 4 Results of the literature search on the level of tasks and processes.

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Piecha and Qual & Germany Multimethod interviews The comprehensive recommendations for action derived from these EM/L/O
Hacker Quant (N = 73), cross-sectional studies are presented in Figure 3.
(2020)/Piecha survey (N = 320), diary study Time pressure is identified and examined as an influencing factor for
(2021) (N = 93); 19 design workshops information overload.

Stadin et al. Qual Sweden, Critical Incidents, N = 20 Promote a good e-mail culture, train individual strategies and O
(2020) healthcare healthcare managers competencies for dealing with e-mails and software in general and
managers provide good IT support.

Stich et al. Review - - (1) Establish clear policies on ICT use (e.g., block e-mail traffic O
(2018) outside working hours; switch from e-mail to an internal social
network, establish policies against cyberbullying or on ICT usage
in general).
(2) Individual interventions (e.g., e-mail training, workshops on
virtual courtesy, respect, and engagement).
(3) Creating mindfulness towards oneself (e.g., measuring and
providing feedback on levels of technostress or attitudes towards
ICTs through questionnaires).
(4) Create mindfulness towards colleagues (special responsibility of
managers, but also ask colleagues which communication channels
they prefer).

Bordi et al. Qual Finland, office Group discussions (N = 36) Improve information ergonomics: establish standard rules EM/T/O
(2017) work (etiquette), trouble-free times, training in the use of tools,
prioritization.

Kluge et al. Concept Germany - (1) Individual/team level: (a) filter information, (b) delegate tasks T/O
(2020) from people to “digital agents”.
(2) Organizational level: (a) use of management information systems,
(b) use of interactive support systems, (c) “organizational
unlearning” = forgetting information that is no longer up to date;
be prepared for the consequences of these measures (emerging
challenges, e.g., acceptance of technology).

Okolo et al. Quant Nigeria, Cross-sectional, questionnaire; Technostress (overload, complexity, and invasion) emerged as a -
(2018) Banks N = 319 front desk staff in the challenge demand. Activity resources showed a positive indirect
Nigerian banking sector relationship with work engagement mediated by technostress.
Time and performance pressure are described as part of the problem
of technostress.

Oldroyd and Concept USA, “Star – To reduce information overload for “star employees” with an L/O
Morris (2012) employees” extensive social networks, the following recommendations are
(High offered, among others:
performers) (1) Person: Training in the ability to distinguish between useful and
superfluous information; creating schemas to support long-term
memory; motivational support; scope for action.
(2) Tasks & processes: support employees for star employees
(gatekeepers); reduce the width of the star network; increase the
density of the star network; distribute standardized information to
the entire network instead of individualized information.
(3) Organizational processes: Clarity about where to find
information, cost of sharing information; using information
systems to contextualize information and make it more useful to
employees; creating dedicated knowledge-sharing positions for
star employees; encouraging relationships with other star
employees.

(Continued)

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TABLE 4 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Coorporation in teams
Ellwart et al. Quant Germany, Experimental design, STROTA (structured online team adaptation): An online T
(2015); see also office work measurement Team Mental intervention for structured team reflection related to information
Happ et al. Model, information overload, overload. The intervention consists of three steps:
(2015). and number of e-mails (1) individual attentiveness to the situation,
N = 363 students (2) attentiveness to the situation in the team and
(3) plan formulation.

Norri- Qual & Finland, Interviews with N = 10 The importance of situational awareness is emphasized. L
Sederholm Quant Emergency emergency physicians with
et al. (2015) Medicine management responsibility

Paul and Quant USA Experimental The advantages of the schematic summary of information seem to T/EX
Nazareth N = 225 Bachelor students who emerge only with moderate amounts of information (complexity).
(2010) solved decision-making tasks
in 45 groups of 5

Wang et al. Quant Germany N = 5 testers in a working The study provides only weak evidence that automatic adjustment of EX/O
(2007) group of developers notification rules can be helpful in virtual collaboration.

Bergström Qual Sweden, Simulation of an escalating Central to effective team action in escalating hazardous situations T
et al. (2010) Shipping emergency situation on a appears to be a reduction in the amount of information available for
passenger ship, 15 lay and decision-making.
expert teams (maritime and
aviation)

Ferreira et al. Quant Portugal Experimental – synchronous Selective or delayed information about the task status of team T
(2011) brainstorming task in a group, members (during individual activity) increased team performance.
N = 55, mainly students

Drössler et al. Review - 34 studies (thereof 18 Qual) Extraction of design recommendations on various levels, e.g., EM/L/O
(2018) internal company regulations on media use (e.g., turning off
notification signals during meetings), avoidance of duplicate
communication through multiple channels.

Leadership
Becker (2009) Qual USA, health Interviews with N = 12 Leaders’ recommendations: L
sector managers
- Limit organizational priorities,
- clarify on project responsibilities and decision-making,
- fewer and better-structured meetings,
- “skill set match,” and
- technology policies.

Spagnoli et al. Quant Italy, Cross-sectional questionnaire, Avoid authoritarian leadership, especially where there is a high L
(2020) administrative N = 339 employees of a proportion of home-based work, as this increases feelings of
staff university administration technostress.

Mill (2010) Concept UK Own experience (advising Effective communication, employee development training, coaching, L
companies and managers on mentoring, and good leadership/inspiration have a positive impact
dealing with work-related on work culture and can lead to improved health and well-being.
stressors in general)
Sources in italics were mentioned in multiple of the running text’s sub-chapters at the task and process level. However, these are only listed once in the tabular overview. Quant, quantitative
study, Qual, qualitative study; review, review paper (systematic or unsystematic); Meta, meta-analysis; Concept, concept paper or opinion; Hand, handout, rule or information; EM, employees;
L, leaders; T, teams; O, organization; EX, external support (e.g., IT staff or employees of a consultancy).

formation of schemas to support long-term memory, (3) decision information can be found, (2) increase the cost of sharing information,
latitude, (4) supportive colleagues, (5) reducing the breadth of the (3) use information systems to contextualize information and make it
social network while increasing the density, and (6) distributing more useful to employees; (4) create special knowledge-sharing
standardized information to the entire network instead of positions for star employees, and (5) encourage relationships with
individualized information. The authors also made other other star employees. Some of these recommendations do not appear
recommendations at the organizational level: (1) clarify where to be limited to star employees.

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4.3.1. Cooperation in teams rules for the use of digital media, such as turning off notification
Ellwart et al., 2015 evaluated an online intervention for structuring signals during meetings (Drössler et al., 2018).
teamwork (STROTA), which was shown to reduce information
overload. In the STROTA intervention, team members are first 4.3.2. Leadership
encouraged to analyze the current situation with regard to the triggers Only a few papers have reported suggestions for leaders to reduce
and conditions of experienced information overload in a structured information overload. For example, Becker (2009) conducted
way. Then, a facilitated team discussion creates a shared mental model interviews with 12 managers in the health care sector, and based on
and situational awareness (team situation awareness), and the team the results, the author suggested limiting organizational priorities,
develops concrete goals and plans (team adaptation). creating clarity about project responsibilities and decision-making,
Based on interviews with 10 emergency responders with organizing fewer and better-structured meetings, and establishing
leadership roles, Norri-Sederholm et al. (2015) also emphasized the guidelines for the use of technology.
importance of situational awareness, which depends on having Spagnoli et al. (2020) reported that workaholism and authoritarian
relevant information available. Paul and Nazareth (2010) used a group leadership were positively correlated with experienced technostress.
support system to regulate the flow of information within a team, Specifically, for employees who worked exclusively from home,
helping them to process information effectively despite high authoritarian leadership strengthened the relationship between
complexity. As an intervention, the groups were given access to workaholism and technostress.
aggregated information from the work of previous groups engaged in Based on her own experience as a trainer and coach, Mill (2010)
a similar decision situation. In terms of the results, the provision of a presented ideas and strategies for managers to introduce training and
decision scheme cannot be unconditionally recommended, as the other measures to reduce work stressors related to information
expected effect (a higher threshold for the occurrence of information overload and ICT use and to promote a positive work culture. In her
overload) did not occur. Instead, the relationship between information view, these strategies should include effective communication, training
complexity, time pressure, and time to decision changed fundamentally for employee development, coaching, mentoring, and good leadership
to a U-shaped relationship in the treatment group. Specifically, at high and inspiration, which can all positively influence the work culture
levels of information complexity, the decision time was longer when and, thus, lead to improved health, and well-being.
the decision scheme was available to the group. Therefore, the
advantages of having a schematic summary of information are only 4.3.3. Summary: level of tasks and processes
relevant for information of medium complexity. In general, measures for stress-optimized work design have been
Wang et al. (2007) investigated how an adaptive awareness system proposed for the area of tasks and processes. Information overload is
for shared virtual workspaces can be technically implemented and often associated with other quantitative and qualitative stressors, such
how its comprehensibility and usefulness can be evaluated by testers. as time pressure, high workload, interruptions, or role ambiguity.
The goal of this study was to present a system to reduce the Although the causal direction of these relationships is not clear, a
information load of digital collaboration. However, this study provides reduction in the accompanying stressors seems to contribute to a
only weak evidence that the automatic adjustment of notification rules reduction in perceived information overload or technostress. Similar
can be useful in virtual collaboration, because information load and to the personal level, many proposals at the task and process level
information overload were not considered as outcomes. include approaches to increase the competence of individuals in
The results of a study by Bergström et al. (2010) suggest that dealing with digital information technologies. Additional support
applying the theoretical basis of the coordination of joint activities is services (IT support, supervision) are also seen as helpful. The
a promising way to develop a contrasting perspective of the factors establishment of common rules (etiquette in dealing with ICT) has
that allow teams to maintain control in escalating situations. In a been mentioned several times in the literature as a worthwhile
simulation in this study, both lay and expert teams were confronted approach to reduce information overload. At the team level, the
with an escalating emergency situation on a ship. A key finding of the establishment of situational awareness (attentiveness to the situation)
work was that in such highly complex situations information must and shared mental models have been suggested. In addition, assistance
be prioritized and filtered to avoid information overload. systems for filtering and prioritizing information have been mentioned
Ferreira et al. (2011) also aimed to ‘address the problem of as starting points for dealing with information overload.
information overload in synchronous group work’ (p. 643). The Recommendations regarding leadership remain relatively superficial;
authors experimentally examined team performance in a a supportive and constructive leadership style is considered favorable,
brainstorming task under the conditions “without attention whereas an authoritarian or destructive leadership style tends to
management” (one team member’s ideas were sent directly to all the be unfavorable with respect to technostress and information overload.
group members) and “with attention management” (team information
was sent only when the team member was not currently working
individually). The use of attention management resulted in better team 4.4. Level of the design of organizational
performance in terms of the number of ideas generated, although the processes
generalizability to other types of team tasks is unclear.
Stich et al. (2018) found that creating mindfulness toward At the level of organizational process design, behavioral and
colleagues can be helpful in reducing information overload, for action guidelines can be introduced to address information overload
example, inquiring about which communication channels colleagues (Manwani et al., 2001). The strategic use of internal communication
prefer. The authors suggested that leaders should take responsibility can reduce the risk of information overload (Remund and Aikat,
for this collegial mindfulness. In meetings, it can be helpful to establish 2012). However, corporate culture is also a relevant factor (Sumecki

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TABLE 5 Results of the literature search on the level of design of organizational processes.

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Manwani et al. Review - - Introduction of behavioral and action guidelines can O/EX
(2001) counteract information overload.

Remund and Aikat Review - - Strategic use of intra-corporate communication can reduce the O/EX
(2012) risk of information overload.

Sumecki et al. (2011) Quant England Cross-sectional, Establish clear company-internal policies on e-mail use to O/EX
questionnaire, N = 710 avoid differences among employees in the assessment of
employees of a company in e-mails as “business-critical” and to prevent e-mail information
the technology sector overload.

Kluge and Gronau Review - - Intentional forgetting should be used in change processes to O/EX
(2018) counteract information overload, e.g., by removing various
sensory, contextual, or process-related cues.

Day et al. (2012) Quant - N = 258 employees from Providing up-to-date software and timely software updates, as O/EX
various companies and well as personal support from IT staff, can mitigate the negative
sectors effects of information overload from ICT use.

Farhoomand and Qual & Australia, Hong N = 124 managers Recognize the dimensions of information overload (extent, L/O
Drury (2002) Quant Kong, UK, USA irrelevant information, time constraints, variety of information
channels) to provide targeted support to affected employees;
provide better tools and techniques to better process
information from internal and external sources; organizational
structure: flatter hierarchies combined with smart IT.

Florkowski (2019) Quant USA N = 169 North American Manage expectations about the use of technology in HRT; L/O
companies represented by adapt the departmental climate (flexibility, risk-taking,
HR executives evidence-based experimentation, support for innovation).

Gaudioso et al. Quant USA Cross-sectional, (1) Coping strategies: eliminate maladaptive coping strategies L/O
(2017) questionnaire, N = 242 and then build adaptive ones, increase awareness & reduce
employees (use of IT at barriers (e.g., through training, job design, reward systems,
work) peer pressure, and technical support).
(2) Reduce technostress (e.g., no e-mail outside work hours,
improve organizational culture).

Pfaffinger et al. Qual International; Semi-structured interviews Recommendations at the level of organizational processes: L/O
(2020) German, English, with N = 26 employees invest in IT security, communicate, structure, and support the
Spanish introduction of new technologies well, develop new work
concepts, clarify expectations regarding flexibility of time and
place, ensure compliance with work rules, provide ergonomics
also in the home office, provide the latest technologies and the
corresponding technical support, provide helpdesk and
management training, provide training for individual
employees.
Recommendations at the level of society: Ensure participation,
public training, or helpdesks, ensure high-speed Internet for
mobile phones, prohibit or regulate surveillance, protect data
rights, punish violations, offer social services/security in case of
job loss, ensure humanity of new forms of work, a legal
framework for separation of work and private life, offer
functioning infrastructure for companies.

Soucek (2017) Quant Germany N = 264 employees Agreements on e-mail communication are considered valuable, L/O
especially when made at the departmental level.

Stich et al. (2018) Review - - Establish clear policies on ICT use (e.g., block e-mail traffic O
outside working hours; switch from e-mail to an internal social
network, establish policies against cyberbullying or on ICT use
in general).
Quant, quantitative study; Qual, qualitative study; review, review paper (systematic or unsystematic); Meta, meta-analysis; Concept, concept paper or opinion; Hand, handout, rule or
information; EM, employees; L, leaders; T, teams; O, organization; EX, external support (e.g., IT staff or employees of a consultancy).

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et al., 2011). Kluge and Gronau (2018) investigated the process of outweigh the number of intra-departmental agreements, with the
intentional forgetting to reduce information overload in change intra-departmental agreements proving to be particularly helpful”
processes. Furthermore, Day et al. (2012) showed that the provision (Soucek, 2017, p. 20). Stich et al. (2018) also recommended setting
of up-to-date software and personal support from IT staff can mitigate clear guidelines for the use of ICT. For example, they suggested that
the negative effects of information overload. e-mail traffic should be blocked outside working hours, that switching
Farhoomand and Drury (2002) interviewed 124 managers in from e-mail programs to an internal company social network may
different countries about their experiences and approaches to be helpful, and that policies against cyberbullying or more generally
information overload. Among other things, the managers mentioned about the use of ICT should be established.
the following: 1) identifying the dimensions of information overload
(extent, irrelevant information, time constraints, variety of 4.4.1. Summary: level of design of organizational
information channels) to provide targeted support to affected processes
employees; 2) in order to provide better tools and techniques to better Recommendations at the level of organizational processes cannot
process information from internal and external sources; and 3) always be clearly distinguished from those at the level of tasks and
ensuring flatter hierarchies in combination with intelligent IT within processes. Indeed, the (participatory) development of policies and the
the organizational structure. establishment of a corporate culture regarding the use of ICT are also
In a cross-sectional questionnaire study, Florkowski (2019) addressed in the studies at this level. In addition, there are references
examined the associations between organizational policies and at this level to technical assistance systems and to the promotion of
technology-related stress experiences, uncertainty, and job satisfaction competence in the use of digital technologies in the context of human
in a sample of managers from 169 human resources (HR) departments resources development measures.
in the US. The managers highlighted the importance of expectation
management in the use of technology in human resources (HR) and
recommended the continuous adaptation of the organizational climate 4.5. Information technology level
in terms of flexibility, risk-taking, evidence-based experimentation,
and support for innovation. Media richness theory suggests that the choice of an appropriate
Gaudioso et al. (2017) tested a serial mediation model and showed technology is relevant for the transmission of information (Graf and
the indirect effects of techno-invasion via work–family conflict and of Antoni, 2020). At the level of information technology, the
techno-overload via distress and coping (adaptive vs. maladaptive) on implementation of filters appears in several papers. Other technology-
exhaustion. However, the cross-sectional design is a major limitation related approaches can be grouped under the categories of algorithms
of this study. From the reported findings, the authors derived their that summarize or extract information and the automation of
recommendations to eliminate maladaptive coping strategies and monitoring tasks. Monitoring tasks can be considered as a specific
subsequently develop adaptive coping strategies. In addition, they form of work task, which is usually characterized by a large amount of
reported that awareness of technology use should be increased and information. However, this section first presents some of the results
barriers to technology use should be removed (e.g., through training, that relate more generally to the use of ICT.
work design, reward systems, peer pressure, or technical support). To
reduce technostress, the authors recommended, among other things, 4.5.1. Use of information and communication
not sending and processing e-mails outside working hours and technology
improving the organizational culture. Based on a cross-sectional study by Ayyagari et al. (2011), it can
Based on interviews with 26 employees from different countries, be concluded that caution is required when introducing new ICT or
Pfaffinger et al. (2020) suggested the following to reduce information changing existing ICT. Dynamic changes in ICT should be considered
overload: invest in IT security, communicate, structure, and a source of stress. Drössler et al. (2018) warned that the introduction
accompany the introduction of new technologies effectively, develop of a new technology should be thoroughly considered and, based on
new work concepts, clarify expectations regarding flexibility of time this, special care should be taken when choosing a form of ICT for the
and place, ensure compliance with work regulations, implement corresponding information transfer. Similarly, in line with media
ergonomics in the home office, provide the latest technologies and richness theory, Kauffeld et al. (2016) argued that the richness of the
corresponding technical support, provide a helpdesk, and training for chosen medium should match the type of information to
managers, and provide training for individual employees. In addition, be transferred. For example, when establishing a relationship with a
the study also addressed the societal level with the following new colleague, face-to-face communication would be preferred,
recommendations: ensure participation, public training, or help desks, because it is the richest form of communication, whereas the
ensure high speed Internet for mobile phones, prohibit or regulate coordination of an appointment could be clarified with the least rich
surveillance, protect data rights, enact penalties for violations, offer form of information—an e-mail. Regarding the appropriate choice of
social services and security in case of job loss, ensure the humanity of ICT, Oehme et al. (2019) showed that the use of ICT in control rooms
new forms of work, create a legal framework for the separation of and in the work of field staff has a high potential to facilitate team
work and private life, and provide a functioning infrastructure processes and reduce errors. In addition, previous literature has
for companies. recommended the use of filtering capabilities. Warren (2014) made
Soucek (2017) examined the extent to which e-mail other recommendations, such as the use of unified file systems,
communication agreements are perceived as useful in organizations. tagging, context management, and the use of semantic technology to
As a conclusion, Soucek (2017) explained that “such agreements on combat information overload, facilitate context switching, and help
e-mail communication are mainly adopted company-wide and employees integrate information.

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TABLE 6 Results of the literature search at the level of information technology.

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Graf and Antoni Meta - Quantitative analysis The type of technology may influence the relationship between O/EX
(2020) with N = 24 studies information characteristics and information overload. Instead of
quantity of information, more attention should be paid to quality in
order to reduce information overload; the choice of the appropriate
technology may already be relevant for the transmission of information
(Media Richness Theory).

Use of information and communication technology

Ayyagari et al. Quant USA, Cross-sectional survey, The study shows that dynamic changes in ICT are particularly L/O
(2011) working N = 661 employees via associated with employee stress via work stressors. Accordingly,
people in all online panel dynamic changes in ICT should be considered as a stress factor.
sectors

Drössler et al. Review – 34 studies (thereof 18 Extract design recommendations at various levels, including thoughtful L/O
(2018) Qual) consideration of the introduction of new ICT and care in the selection
of ICT for appropriate information provision.

Kauffeld et al. Concept – – According to the Media Richness Theory, it can be recommended that EM/L
(2016) depending on the content of the information, the appropriate rich form
of communication should be chosen. For example, when getting to
know new colleagues, face-to-face communication may be preferred as
the richest form, whereas an appointment can also be confirmed by
e-mail. The information content of the communication medium and the
content of the information should therefore match as closely as possible.

Oehme et al. Qual & Work in The use of ICT in this occupational field allows the digitization of L/O
(2019) Quant control processes and increases the freedom of movement. The exchange of
rooms, information via ICT seems to be more effective and efficient than before
Germany the use of ICT. The exchange of information via ICT goes beyond
communication via telephone/radio and seems to make work easier.
Participants did not report information overload through the use of
ICT.
Time pressure is considered as an outcome.

Warren (2014) Review – – (1) A unified file system for all personal and shared information. L/O
(not (2) Use of tagging in addition to traditional hierarchical folder
systematic) structures.
(3) Control of a user’s contextual information to support information
retrieval and reduce overload when switching between contexts.
(4) Use semantic technology (e.g., machine learning or NLP to facilitate
information retrieval and sharing between applications).

Jackson and Smith Qual & Software Focus group discussion, The study shows that the traditional hierarchical system leads to more O/T
(2012) Quant development N =5 irrelevant or no information when retrieving information, which is
company, UK reduced when tagging is used. Companies should therefore check
whether the operating system and software allow the use of tags and
make greater use of them.

Demirsoy and Qual Development Interviews with N = 8 Implementation of a semantic knowledge management system O/T
Petersen (2018) department persons consisting of four components:
of a (1) Text processing
company, (2) Ontology and knowledge base
Sweden (3) Semantic annotation and ontology filling
(4) Semantic search.
The system was positively evaluated by those who tested it.

(Continued)

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TABLE 6 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Celi et al. (2014) Review Medicine - The authors derive ten suggestions for the design of data systems in EX
(not medicine from their literature review:
systematic) (1) Automatic integration of data
(2) Collection and integration of the newly available and historical data
(3) Step by step display of diagnostics, therapeutic, prognostic, and
other documentation suggestions are displayed step by step based on
the combination of various data.
(4) Machine learning
(5) Individual customization
(6) Data aggregation for research
(7) Reports with “best practice” recommendations
(8) The system should be changeable
(9) Scalable to integrate new data
(10) Test a prototype

Martignene et al. Concept Medicine Evaluation of a Development and evaluation of the “Heimdall” prototype for the O/EX
(2020) prototype by two experts development of simple visualization methods for medical data in the
based on 24 clinical context of care and research. The evaluation showed that complex and
cases heterogeneous data can be displayed clearly, filters facilitate the work,
and user settings are possible. The program is open source and can
be used via R.

Fellmann et al. Quant Employees Questionnaire, one Implementation of stress-sensitive IT systems makes sense; consider O/EX
(2019) survey time point, user needs, such as:
N = 103 - Acceptance of measurement methods (questionnaire self-assessment
most popular, use of calendar/document/communication data
accepted, neurophysiological measurements least accepted)
- Accepted purposes of data collection (individual use and
improvement of work organization)
- Feedback (depends on the work environment, privacy concerns, the
system should recognize current work environment, communicate
stress status directly with countermeasures, if necessary, only
moderate interest in predicting future stress status)
Preferred mode of interaction (semi-automated systems that inform
users about workload and stress and offer countermeasures only after
prompting)

Filter and decision support systems

Ulfert et al. (2022) Quant Students and 2 Vignette studies The application of a decision support system to e-mail inboxes is EX
employees comparing different recommended, especially more experienced employees may benefit
autonomous decision from such a system; no positive effects could be shown for the
support systems application to customer service, including telephone service; the
Study 1 with N = 244 participation of potential users in the introduction of such a system is
persons, Study 2 with recommended to minimize the possible adverse effects, parallel training
N = 500 persons of technological and work-related skills may increase positive effects to
reduce uncertainties in the use of intelligent systems

Garnsworthy et al. Qual Control Testing of a prototype The system can monitor, predict, and suggest improvements. The use of EX
(2004) room in the for a decision support the system appears to reduce information overload and increase the
metro system effectiveness in the control room. This technique is applicable to several
surveillance other control rooms.

Mack et al. (2009) Review Medicine Included are English- Decision support systems can improve clinical work in pediatric O/EX
(Paediatric language studies that intensive care units. However, potential adverse effects of implementing
Intensive address decision support new technologies in complex healthcare settings must be considered.
Care Unit) systems

(Continued)

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TABLE 6 (Continued)

Citation Method Context Design & Sample Recommendation for action Initiation
Algorithms for summarizing or extracting information
Sappelli et al. Concept Office work Testing of an automated The proposed algorithm can categorize the content of an e-mail O/EX
(2016) system of categorization according to the sender’s intent of the sender, the response expectation,
of e-mail content based the sender’s authority and the number of tasks included. No test usage.
on two sample datasets
of e-mail traffic

Zhang and Xiao Concept Working Testing of an algorithm, The newly proposed algorithm cosnistently delivers the best results O/EX
(2018) with texts which summarizes compared to other algorithms. No test usage.
sections of a text in a key
sentence each, based on
five sample data sets

Automating monitoring tasks

Tung et al. (2011) Concept Surveillance Testing of an algorithm Automate the analysis of video images to reduce the burden on staff O/EX
through based on three sample who must monitor multiple camera angles simultaneously. The goal is to
cameras in data sets automatically point out people whose movement patterns in public
public spaces spaces deviate from predictable movement patterns. Although the
algorithm delivers good results, the false positive rate is relatively high
(1.8–22%). No test use.

Hassan et al. Quant IT security Testing with sample data A program (NoDoze) that ranks incoming security warnings from an O/EX
(2019) set and application with “intrusion detection system” according to urgency and successfully
N = 191 test beneficiaries ranks potential false positives very low. It reduces the analysis time for a
over five days (simulated) attack.

Baumgartner et al. Concept Control - Description of the BeAware software for increasing situational O/EX
(2014) room in the awareness at traffic monitoring control centers. No testing of the
Traffic software.
monitoring

McFarlane et al. Quant Medicine, N = 16 nurses (divided Use of smartwatches (with the HAIL-CAT program) to send messages O/EX
(2017) USA into four teams) to caregivers via smartwatch. This reduces the response time to clinically
relevant alarms by a factor of three. No adverse effects on other tasks
were reported. Trial users report positive assessments for usefulness,
ease of use, requirements, and convenience.

Connell et al. Qual Medicine Interviews with N = 19 Mobile result displays and automatic alarms show positive effects on O/EX
(2019) people from medical patient care.
professions
Quant, quantitative study; Qual, qualitative study; review, review paper (systematic or unsystematic); Meta, meta-analysis; Concept, concept paper or opinion; Hand, handout, rule or
information; EM, employees; L, leaders; T, teams; O, organization; EX, external support (e.g., IT staff or employees of a consultancy).

Tagging (tags are used to add information to content; tagging is system was positively evaluated by the users in this study, information
primarily used to make information easier to find or link) was overload was not considered as an outcome.
recommended by Jackson and Smith (2012). In their qualitative case A nonsystematic review by Celi et al. (2014) provides a variety of
study, the authors showed that traditional hierarchical file systems recommendations for the design of data systems in medical practice to
can lead to the retrieval of irrelevant or no information, even though prevent information overload. The authors provided ten suggestions
the relevant information is present. The study provides an initial for the design and implementation of a medical data system: 1)
indication that tagging could provide an effective solution to this automatic integration of the data, 2) collection and integration of newly
problem and reduce the retrieval of duplicate or irrelevant information. available and historical data, 3) automatic suggestion of diagnostic,
Demirsoy and Petersen (2018) proposed an example of semantic therapeutic, prognostic, and other documentation suggestions, 4) the
technology and evaluated this using an interview study. The proposed use of machine learning, 5) offering individual customization options,
semantic knowledge management system enables automated text 6) ensuring aggregation of the data for research, 7) considering reports
processing. Specifically, a basic ontology has to be created, which is with “best practice” recommendations, 8) ensuring changeability of the
then filled by automated semantic annotation in the next step. In a system, 9) changeability also regarding to the integration of new data,
final step, the users are provided with a convenient and efficient and 10) prototype testing.
keyword search (Demirsoy and Petersen, 2018) to prevent information Martignene et al. (2020) proposed an R-based tool that extracts
overload caused by a large amount of information. Although the the relevant information from patient data and presents it visually. The

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program is called Heimdall and was initially evaluated only in terms context could be a starting point for reducing the amount of information
of its functionality. The field application of this tool is still pending. presented to clinical staff. With a similar aim, Connell et al. (2019) also
According to Fellmann et al. (2019), the implementation of stress- tested the use of automated alarms in medical care and showed that
sensitive IT systems would be useful in principle, but urgent attention patient care improved due to the alarms. However, effects on information
must be paid to the needs of the users. For example, in their study, the overload were not reported. For the implementation of automated
users clearly preferred a two-step process, in which, initially, they were alarms, the authors recommended that users should be trained to ensure
first informed about their workload and stress, while recommendations that the workload and the handling of the information received is well
for countermeasures were presented only upon request. organized. Furthermore, such systems should be continuously optimized
to reduce false alarms (Connell et al., 2019).
4.5.2. Filter and decision support systems
In a vignette study, Ulfert et al. (2022) examined decision support 4.5.5. Summary: use of information and
systems with varying degrees of autonomy. The effects of the communication technology
experimental conditions on participants’ information overload and A wide variety of technological options have been proposed in the
their intention to use the system were considered as outcomes. The literature to reduce the risk of information overload. Overall, user
study found that increasing the degree of autonomy of the decision needs must be considered when introducing new technologies to
support system (under certain conditions) led to a reduction in minimize the likelihood of increasing technostress. Specific
information load. However, respondents still reported high levels of suggestions for reducing information overload when using ICT
technostress, and increasing automation had a negative effect on their include the use of tagging to complement traditional folder structures,
intention to use the system. filters and decision support systems, and algorithms for automatically
A similar decision support system was proposed by Garnsworthy summarizing text to reduce the amount of information presented. In
et al. (2004) as a prototype for the work of metro surveillance staff. In evaluating these recommendations, it is important to keep in mind
addition, according to Mack et al. (2009), decision support systems that many of the technological options have not been systematically
can improve clinical work in pediatric ICUs. However, the choice of evaluated in human use. However, studies that have evaluated these
system should be made with careful consideration of the potential interventions suggest that care must be taken to ensure that the
negative effects of introducing a new technological system. technology does not unduly restrict the user’s autonomy.

4.5.3. Algorithms for summarizing or extracting

information 5. Discussion
Sappelli et al. (2016) proposed an algorithm that goes beyond the
filtering and categorization of traditional e-mail program systems. In fact, Most empirical research in the area of information overload has
this algorithm can extract the action performed by the sender (e.g., reply, focused on examining predictors and consequences or providing
deliver, greet, etc.), the required response (e.g., no reply required, descriptive data on the prevalence of information overload. Some of this
immediate reply, etc.), the sender’s implicit reason for the e-mail (e.g., research can be used indirectly to derive recommendations for workplace
internal collaboration, travel planning, etc.), and the number of tasks interventions. However, the focus of this report is on concrete measures
contained in the e-mail. In addition, Zhang and Xiao (2018) proposed for managing large amounts of information in the work context. The
another technology developed to increase the speed of text comprehension. following sections summarize the collected recommendations, and
Figure 3 provides an overview of the key findings.
4.5.4. Automating monitoring tasks
One area where employees are exposed to too much information
at once is camera surveillance. Therefore, Tung et al. (2011) developed 5.1. Summary of the results across the five
an algorithm that detects unusual movement patterns from levels
surveillance camera images and alerts employees of conspicuous or
suspicious cases. In their study the new algorithm was tested only on At the level of information design, several studies were found,
sample data, without measuring any attitudinal or behavioral data. which can be roughly divided into those focusing on the quality of
The NoDoze program (Hassan et al., 2019) can be applied to IT information and those focusing on the quantity of information.
security. The algorithm ranks incoming security alerts according to Regarding the quality of information presentation, most studies have
their urgency, with potential false alerts being ranked very low. This focused on the medical field. Specifically, visualization dashboards have
algorithm is intended to counteract “threat alert fatigue” among IT been recommended to reduce information overload (cf. Khairat et al.,
staff. Another algorithm based on traffic monitoring has been 2018). A dashboard (or cockpit) presents essential information for a
proposed with BeAware (Baumgartner et al., 2014). As these three defined subject area in an intuitive and understandable way. Dashboards
studies only focused on the functionality and accuracy of the should be designed so that users can get an overview of the information
algorithms, no conclusion can be drawn as to whether these and can derive clear recommendations from this. Empirical evidence
algorithms reduce the information overload of (IT) security staff. suggests that dashboards in a medical context have a positive impact on
McFarlane et al. (2017) tested the transfer of a military surveillance situational awareness and cognitive load. However, there is a lack of
system (HAIL) to a clinical setting. Using the system, nurses responded evidence that dashboards reduce information overload. In addition,
three times faster to clinically relevant alarms, with no negative impact other studies highlight the benefits of well-designed electronic patient
on their other tasks. On a subjective level, the test users indicated that records (e.g., Ahmed et al., 2011; Tan et al., 2013).
they found the system useful and comfortable. Therefore, the study When implementing such systems in the medical field (as well as
provides initial evidence that the use of the HAIL system in a clinical in other application areas), attention should be paid to differences in

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Arnold et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122200

FIGURE 3
Summary of the key results of the systematic review.

information processing according to work experience (Wu et al., 2016; boundary between work and leisure time and the improvement of
Ries and Deml, 2019) as well as to the information needs of different time-and self-management.
task areas (Wnuk et al., 2016). Overall, there are few studies on At the task and process level, Piecha and Hacker (2020) developed
interventions to prevent information overload at the level of numerous recommendations based on a multi-method research
information design. The overarching recommendations for project. In the area of task and process design, however, the empirical
information design can be found in guidelines for display design or effectiveness of the recommendations for action presented has not
more generally in the field of software ergonomics. been comprehensively evaluated. An exception to this is the evaluation
A relatively large number of measures to reduce information of an online intervention for structuring teamwork (STROTA; Ellwart
overload relate to the personal level. These measures include et al., 2015), which reported a reduction in information overload in
recommendations on how to manage e-mails or the Internet, specific the intervention group compared to the control group. In general,
training as a personnel development measure, and coping strategies to promoting situational awareness seems to be a recommendable
mitigate the negative effects of experienced information overload. mechanism for managing complex information. Especially in complex
Training approaches may include the use of software solutions and the decision-making situations, filtering and prioritizing information may
development of more general competencies, such as digital literacy, be relevant (Bergström et al., 2010). Constructive and supportive
information literacy, media and information competence, and self and leadership behavior is generally discussed as a resource for coping
time management (Drössler et al., 2018). In general, the with work-related stress. However, we could not identify concrete
recommendations at the individual level overlap with literacy as a intervention approaches and training programs for managers.
technostress inhibitor (Jena, 2015). Descriptions of concrete training Approaches at the organizational level are probably the least
concepts can be found in Moser et al. (2002) and in a program of the separable from the other levels of intervention, since the
“New Quality of Work” initiative (Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und introduction of new software solutions, the development of
Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA), 2006). However, there is a lack of human resources, and the design of tasks and processes should
methodologically sound empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of also be embedded in the overall strategy of an organization.
such training approaches. Recommendations are largely derived from Therefore, some of the recommendations collected at this level
qualitative interview studies, and evaluation studies to date have not refer to training approaches (e.g., Moser et al., 2002). In addition,
assessed actual reductions in information overload. Regarding the use of the provision of adequate technical solutions, company
e-mail and the Internet, recommendations include negotiating and agreements for the management of digital communication, IT
formulating clear organizational rules. In addition, there are several security, and technical support are also addressed in the
recommendations for the individual handling of e-mails. Other literature. Together with the techno-inhibitors of participation
approaches at the personal level include the development of an active and support for innovation (Jena, 2015), these factors provide

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some guidance on how to reduce the potentially harmful effects technologies, as the applicability of older studies to current work
of information overload and technostress. processes would be limited. Despite a systematic literature search
On the level of information technology, general recommendations following the recommendations of the PRISMA standards (Moher
can be found for the selection of suitable communication media et al., 2009), it cannot be ruled out that relevant publications were not
depending on the task (e.g., Kauffeld et al., 2016). Furthermore, identified. In particular, general design knowledge, for example, from
algorithm-based approaches for filtering as well as extracting and the field of software ergonomics, is not a comprehensive part of the
summarizing information are presented in the literature. A unique present report due to the search strategy applied. Similarly, it may
intervention method is the automation of monitoring tasks. Overall, be possible to derive further design recommendations from a
many studies in this area present basic recommendations as well as systematic review of studies that examined cause-effect relationships
algorithmic concepts. At this level, field studies that quantify the (predictors, consequences, mediators, and moderators) for the
effects of interventions on information overload using an experimental phenomenon of information overload. The findings summarized in
control group design are still largely lacking. this report should be understood as a systematic presentation of the
The implementation of structural preventive measures represents a applied combination and linkage of key terms. By using five of the
process of change within a company, and this implementation requires most important databases for scientific publications (Web of Science,
good planning and, if possible, participatory design and implementation Ebscohost, Medline, PsycInfo, and PsycArticles), good coverage of the
(Rigotti et al., 2014). Ideally, according to Eppler and Mengis (2004), all relevant literature can be assumed. We supplemented the search in the
levels of interventions mentioned in this review should be considered scientific databases by searches in PSYNDEX Interventions, Rehadat,
together when planning measures. Indeed, the redesign of the and Arbeitssicherheit.de and a review of the publications of the BAuA
organizational information flow, possibly accompanied by technical (Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) and the VBG.
assistance systems (e.g., software solutions), also requires the development All identified publications were assessed in a blinded manner by
of personal competencies. In our view, the recommendations for action two independent raters against the defined inclusion and exclusion
presented here to reduce perceived information overload, which have criteria. Conflicting assessments of specific studies were discussed by
been separated according to intervention levels, should not be considered the project team. Due to the large heterogeneity of the publications
in isolation but should be considered together and coordinated when and study formats, a formal assessment of the quality of the evidence
planning and implementing appropriate measures. base was not performed. However, references to the validity and
Particularly in the area of information design and the development generalizability of individual findings and recommendations for
of information technology approaches, it is evident that the interventions action were included in the text. Restricting this review to randomized
to prevent information overload must be adapted to the concrete work controlled rials in the field of intervention evaluation, as suggested for
requirements of the respective sector or occupational field. Therefore, no the COCHRANE reviews, would not have been feasible. Overall, after
solution is equally suitable for all areas of application without adaptation, reviewing and synthesizing the available studies, there is still a
and the development of measures should be preceded by an analysis of considerable lack of robust empirical evidence on the effectiveness of
the current focal points of stress in that area. specific interventions to address information overload. Many studies
The contribution of this literature review is threefold. First, are based on intuitive experience, do not allow for causal inference, or
previous general review articles on information overload focused on have other methodological limitations.
psychological factors that influence the perception of information As a structuring framework, this review used the classification
overload (Eppler and Mengis, 2004; Antoni and Ellwart, 2017). according to Eppler and Mengis (2004), which distinguishes between
However, Antoni and Ellwart (2017) did not include technical aspects of information, the person, tasks and processes, organizational
measures to reduce information overload at all, while the article by processes, and information and communication technology. However,
Eppler and Mengis (2004) includes these aspects but is almost two it was not always possible to assign interventions clearly to one of
decades old, highlighting the importance of an update. Second, a more these levels. Here, we have decided to make an assignment in each
recent meta-analysis shows the current state of research but is very intervention case, but in the sense of a socio-technical approach, an
narrow in its scope (Graf and Antoni, 2020). It focuses on the integration of measures from the different levels is
characteristics of information. We go beyond this meta-analysis by considered necessary.
covering the five levels of causes of information overload. As our
review shows, the information itself cannot be considered in isolation,
since it is received and processed in the social context of tasks, team 5.3. Conclusion
processes, and the organizational rules. Third, other review articles
come from specific occupational fields and therefore only present The studies included in this review cover a wide range of possible
countermeasures against information overload that are specific to the approaches to preventing or improving information overload. In terms of
tasks of this occupation (e.g., Khairat et al., 2018). Although these concrete information is concerned, it is important to clarify what
countermeasures are partially generalizable to other occupations, information is actually relevant and to present this information in a clear
these reviews omit important findings from other fields. and adaptive manner. The studies in this review present a variety of
methods for managing large amounts of information for individual
employees, some of which have been translated into concrete
5.2. Strengths and limitations interventions. Clarifying and structuring team collaboration can also
prevent information overload, and managers have a special role to play in
The temporal limitation of this review to studies from the years this context. Decision-makers at the organizational level are responsible
2000 to 2021 is justified by the rapid changes in digital information for selecting appropriate software, as well as for transparency and internal

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company rules that clarify information management. Technological Funding

support can help to reduce the amount of information present by using
filtering systems or tools to extract the relevant information. This review is an edited and shortened version of an unpublished
It is striking that the intervention studies in the literature report delivered to the Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
evaluating specific tools or training programs have rarely used a true Arbeitsmedizin [Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health],
control group design. Furthermore, it should be noted that which provided funding.
information overload has rarely been considered as an outcome. This
is particular true at the level of information and information
technology. In many studies, the performance or the subjective Acknowledgments
satisfaction with a tool was often measured instead. A relatively high
number of studies used qualitative methods to investigate the need for The authors would like to thank Gisa Junghanns and Anika
intervention or existing strategies to deal with information overload. Schulz-Dadaczynski from the Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und
Regarding the use of interviews with employees and asking questions Arbeitsmedizin [Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]
about the strategies they use, it should be noted that this methodology for their support and feedback.
helps to identify what individuals are already doing; therefore, it is
often unclear how successful these strategies are and whether they are
appropriate starting points for interventions. Conflict of interest
Although the individual level has been the most studied in terms
of the number of studies, the number of findings related to systemic The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
prevention of information overload has been significantly higher than absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
for behavioral prevention approaches. Thus, the literature of the past be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
20 years on information overload has already considered the effects of
external factors on information overload, such as task characteristics,
processes, and technical support, in addition to training and coping Publisher’s note
measures at the individual level (Meyer et al., 2021).
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
Author contributions organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
contribution to the work and approved it for publication. endorsed by the publisher.

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