Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility in the built environment: A

study of architectural design practice
Matteo Zallio *, P. John Clarkson
University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering, Engineering Design Centre, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Accessibility is generally recognised as an important element of architectural design practice. However, studies
Built environment quality suggest that the adoption of Inclusive Design by the architectural design community is still quite limited. In­
Inclusive design clusive Design embraces the principles of accessibility and its extended definition considers key sociological and
Universal design
behavioural aspects such as physical, sensory and cognitive needs.
User behaviour
Accessibility
This paper presents the results of an ethnographic study, conducted amongst 26 professionals from the
Qualitative research building industry, on the adoption of Inclusive Design.
This research aims to explore the challenges and limitations that professionals experience in their daily
working practice and to identify strategies to expand the use of Inclusive Design and its extended definition.
The findings emphasise how education and awareness are essential factors to encourage an inclusive mindset
amongst architectural design professionals and other stakeholders. In particular, holistically mapping the user
journey during the design phase and collecting and evaluating post-occupancy user feedback are complementary
strategies that can foster a design process based on inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility principles for the
built environment.

1. Introduction on design to address physical accessibility challenges (e.g. wheelchair-

accessible entrances, walker-accessible elevators, easy-to-use door
Designing for the whole population with a variety of different needs handles, etc) [6,7].
is challenging and stimulating. Design gives form to people’s desires ID lags behind physical accessibility, however, research reported
following fit, function, safety, budget, sustainability, regulatory re­ that full adoption of ID in architectural design practice has been limited
quirements, physio-psychological and social needs as fundamental var­ in the last two decades and that ID is generally misunderstood by
iables of the architectural design process [1,2]. architectural design professionals [8–10]. Due to this fact, it is often still
In a continuous effort to connect all potential user needs and design possible to witness inequalities, exclusion and discrimination at
requirements in a project, sustainability and accessibility, two qualities different levels and in different spaces. As a result these challenges can
amongst many, have become more relevant in recent years. Accessibility potentially affect people’s behaviour and perception of society [11].
in the built environment is often defined within a variety of design ap­ Recent social movements, such as the Black Lives Matter movement
proaches such as Universal Design (UD) [3], Inclusive Design (ID) [4], [12], or the Ni Una Menos [13], clearly demonstrate that the concept of
and Design for All (DfA) [5]. inclusion is concerned with social, cultural and behavioural aspects and
We can see that a shift towards more physically accessible environ­ the environment in which people live constantly influences these.
ments has occurred over the past decades and there is an overall higher That is to say, inclusion is not merely a matter of making a design
level of attention on accessibility. that works well for people with disabilities, but its extended definition
Notwithstanding the spread of user-centred design approaches, also includes understanding how people behave, how they socialise,
research suggests that overall, rather than designing buildings consid­ how they live and how they access the space. Inclusion is informed by,
ering the large variety of user needs, such as those of neurodivergent and helps to create the structures that include large-scale social move­
individuals or underrepresented minorities, there is still a strong focus ments and as a result, is more at the forefront of the minds of designers.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mz461@cam.ac.uk (M. Zallio), pjc10@cam.ac.uk (P.J. Clarkson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108352
Received 10 May 2021; Received in revised form 8 September 2021; Accepted 12 September 2021
Available online 16 September 2021
0360-1323/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

ID, a design process in which a mainstream product, service or Given that legislative challenges are a relevant problem for the
environment is designed to be useable by as many people as reasonably profession, in certain cases the limited application of ID is also due to the
possible [14], is gradually evolving to find a natural extension of its lack of economic incentives or funding [23].
scope to incorporate the principles of social equity and diversity. Whilst compulsory regulations generally push the boundary towards
Furthermore, it appears that the recent notion of building inclusively physical accessibility standards, the challenge is to facilitate and
is aiming to go beyond the concept of purely addressing physical encourage architectural design professionals to go beyond the minimum
accessibility, by embracing further key sociological and behavioural requirements, targeting a more holistic concept of ID [24].
aspects of human beings, such as physical, sensory and cognitive needs Notwithstanding past and current research on ID endorsement,
[15]. limitations and application, there is a strong argument for further
With this research, we aim to investigate the broad thinking, chal­ investigating the causes of the lack of a widespread adoption of ID and
lenges and opportunities that ID can bring to the building industry, and its extended definition amongst building industry professionals.
the perceptions that architectural design professionals have about ID in This paper is presented as an effort to understand why there is a low
their current work practice. An extended definition of the term ID was uptake of ID within the architectural design profession, compared to the
given by emphasising fundamental aspects that go above and beyond product design world [25], and to explore what might be done to
physical accessibility. These include sensory and cognitive inclusion for overcome this challenge.
neurodivergent individuals and an understanding of people’s diversity It is imperative to investigate how current societal challenges can
and equality guaranteed by spaces that offer the same opportunities to trigger opportunities to support architectural design professionals to
all individuals. Embracing these aspects in the extended definition led to learn more about the extended concept of ID. The same opportunities
a summary of the relevant keywords with the acronym of IDEA in the can be used to promote a culture of diversity and inclusion within teams
built environment, suggesting four fundamental characteristics: Inclu­ and amongst stakeholders, and to consciously design future-proof
sion, Diversity, Equity and Accessibility, which should constitute a buildings that guarantee inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility
fundamental part of the current and future agenda of architectural to all their occupants.
design professionals.
Qualitative research was carried out and semi-structured interviews 3. Materials and methods
were conducted amongst architectural design professionals, including
architects, access consultants and academic experts across several This qualitative ethnographic study explores the context of ID and its
countries. This study reports findings on the current situation and extended definition of IDEA in the built environment through in-depth,
highlights opportunities for the development of strategies to improve semi-structured interviews with professionals from the building in­
the design and development of future-proof inclusive buildings for all. dustry. Interviews were developed based on existing knowledge on
perceptions, barriers, and motivations for the uptake of ID in architec­
2. Inclusive design in architectural design practice tural design practice [10] the use of experiential user data in the
architectural design process [26], and the complex reality of architec­
ID is an established approach in engineering and product design, in tural practice [27].
which designers look at functional interactions and strive to optimise the The key goals of the interviews were to identify challenges in the
design and development of solutions for individuals with specific needs, architectural design process and the perception of inclusion, diversity
also recognised as ‘extreme users’ [4,16]. and equity, going beyond physical accessibility, by targeting theoretical
ID has only started to be considered in architectural design practice saturation of participants’ responses. Theoretical saturation occurs after
in recent years [8]. With the evolution of design for disability into several variations are identified as a pattern from the emerging theory
accessible design and the rise of awareness of ID amongst architects and [28]. To recognise when saturation happens, synthesis sessions were
design professionals, policymakers have recently started to implement conducted after each interview highlighting the diversity of the sample,
standards and regulations to nurture the design of more inclusive en­ mapping content and insights and creating codes to account for user
vironments [11]. sentiments. After insights emerged, a collective sense of the lesson
However, research highlights that full adoption of ID with an learned and meaningful findings were plotted to inform theoretical
extended concept of inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility in saturation. The procedure and the alignment with other research [29,
architectural design is limited so far. This appears to be triggered by 30], indicates that diversity and appropriate knowledge of participants
several challenges such as a wrong perception of ID, due to the mindset constitutes a strong starting point from which to conduct thorough
of professionals and unconscious bias, unverified legislative limitations analysis. To present the extended concept of ID to individuals from
and time-cost-efficiency concerns during the building development different countries, an informative webpage was created and shared
process. amongst potential participants. Prospective participants had experience
In particular, studies suggest that architectural design professionals in the disciplines of ID, UD, and DfA, architectural design and a broader
mainly focus on how they experience a situation and insufficiently interest in equity and diversity. Once they had reviewed the webpage
empathise with future users [17], leading to a lower understanding of information, they were asked to submit their interest to participate in
the value of ID as an approach to design for all users. Similarly, the the study. After review of an information sheet and completion of a
expertise of users is not commonly acknowledged as a valuable resource consent form, participants were involved in a 45-min interview session
for architects [9] and they may feel uncertain as to what exactly ID that started with a further verbal introduction to the IDEA concept,
entails, giving precedence to the legislative interpretation [9,18]. For all followed by a series of open-ended questions. The questions were framed
these reasons many professionals do not give ID high priority in the according to previous literature review findings [11]. Questions were
architectural design agenda. The scope of this challenge can be inferred clustered in five areas and focused on understanding the broad thinking
from the limited number of ID categories for building design awards and knowledge of IDEA in the practice of planning, designing and
[19]. assessing buildings tailored for a diverse audience. Questions from
Legislative standardisation is perceived as important, although cluster (1) focused on working practice attitudes. Cluster (2) focused on
amongst architects scepticism about the growing volume of rules is knowledge and awareness of accessibility, ID, equity of opportunities
widespread [20]. As a result, legislative measurements are insufficient and guaranteeing diversity of users. Cluster (3) was focused on the
to ensure ID uptake [21] and professionals still tend to associate ID with relationship between professionals and their stakeholders and aware­
the top-down framework of accessibility legislation, therefore ness of IDEA. Cluster (4) focused on challenges when designing inclu­
perceiving it as a form of restriction for their creativity [22]. sively. Cluster (5) focused on what strategies could improve a design in

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

the direction of inclusion, equity, diversity and accessibility of buildings shown in Table 1, the first group of participants was composed of design
for all. professionals who were working in the building design and development
process, such as architects, architectural technologists and designers.
3.1. Participant recruitment and procedure A second group was composed of design managers and architectural
directors who were involved in management and customer
Participant recruitment was carried out after ethical approval by the relationships.
ethics committee from the University of Cambridge. Participants were A third group consisted of access consultants with experience of
selected amongst building industry professionals, made up of architects working with architectural firms, private or public clients.
and designers, access consultants, design managers and academic ex­ A fourth group was represented by academic experts involved in
perts who had been exposed to the field of accessibility, ID, UD, DfA and research, as well as in standards and guidelines development.
with an interest in social equity and diversity according to the IDEA The sample had a prevalence of female individuals (n = 21) and the
concept. Initially, the recruitment started by contacting members of majority of participants were from the United Kingdom (n = 19), with
relevant British professional associations (e.g. Royal Institute of British rather a smaller number from North America (n = 5) and Europe (n = 2).
Architects, National Register of Access Consultants, Access Association). Interviews were scheduled between November 2020 and January
Consequentially a snowball sampling approach was used to recruit more 2021 and carried out in English, according to the ethical procedure.
participants with similar characteristics in both British and European Data from interviews were analysed through an evidence-based
contexts. Finally, with the support of the business partner IWBI (Inter­ procedure, using the software NVivo, by coding interview notes and
national WELL Building Institute) further participants were recruited in recordings. A series of thematic nodes related to the five clusters of
the North American area. The overall interest rate was satisfactory and questions were created to gather related material and look for emerging
amongst 130 connections, a total of 26 experienced participants were patterns and ideas in the research. Macro-thematic node (1) referred to
recruited and accepted to take part in the study. Before starting the the working practice and design process. Macro-thematic node (2)
interview, an email was sent with a further description of the study focused on the knowledge and awareness amongst professionals and
procedure and an informed consent form was collected. The in­ stakeholders. Macro-thematic node (3) focused on challenges and future
terviewers ran a series of individual 45-min online interviews. In the first opportunities.
part of the interview, the interviewers further explained the meaning of
the concept of IDEA and familiarised themselves with the interviewee’s 4. Results
background and work process. The interview proper then began. As
The geographical location of participants was an important aspect to
consider. Both the European and British settings slightly differ from the
Table 1
Participants’ information and demographic data. North American setting in the use of terminology for the design
approach (DfA and ID in Europe and United Kingdom, and UD in North
Sex Job title Region Age Expertise
America), in the regulations and standards in place, and in the compo­
group
sition of the society that lead to historical facts that influenced the ed­
1 M Designer/ UK 70+ Accessibility auditing, design
ucation and behaviour of professionals. Relevant patterns were found in
Architect practice
2 M Designer/ North 60–69 Accessibility auditing, design the answers as it emerged that ID, UD, and DfA were used as synonyms
Architect America practice, research/ to define projects aiming to satisfy users with different age, abilities,
3 F UK regulations development gender, language and culture.
4 F UK Most of the participants belonged to the age group 40–49 (n = 10),
5 M EU
less between 50 and 59 (n = 7), and 30–39 (n = 1), two declined to
6 F Designer/ UK 50–59 Accessibility auditing, design
Architect practice, research/ provide information on age, and a few others were above 60 years old (n
regulations development = 6). The age group spread leads to the assertion that most of the in­
7 M Designer/ North 40–49 Design practice, design terviewees had a level of seniority, and had gone through several years
8 F Architect America management
of experience in the field. This allows us to gain insights from subjects
UK
9 F Designer/ North N/A Accessibility auditing, design
who had extensive experience in the topic of investigation.
Architect America practice, research/ Some potential limitations of this study are to be found in the
regulations development prevalence of British professionals with a high number of female sub­
10 F Design UK 50–59 Design management, clients’ jects and with a limited age profile, including only six participants aged
11 F manager UK relationships
60 years old and above.
12 F Design UK 40–49 Design management, clients’
13 M manager North relationships, accessibility
America auditing 4.1. Working practice and design process
14 F Design UK 30–39 Design management,
manager accessibility auditing
The vast majority of participants reported that they usually work on
15 F Access UK 60–69 Accessibility auditing,
consultant research/regulations a wide variety of projects, covering areas such as health, education,
development business, sport and leisure facilities. Customers that commissioned ID
16 F Access UK 50–59 Design practice, accessibility projects were large private clients, public authorities, or not-for-profit
17 F consultant UK auditing, research/ organisations, in other words, large entities. Small private clients
18 F UK regulations development
19 F UK
more often asked for accessibility audits, which appeared to be a
20 F Access UK 40–49 Accessibility auditing, mandatory requirement to guarantee minimum physical accessibility
21 F consultant UK research/regulations standards, or to benefit from certain public funding.
22 F UK development, clients’ Several interviewees from the British setting reported that most of
23 F UK relationships
the successful projects that heavily encompassed accessibility features
24 F Access UK N/A Accessibility auditing,
consultant research/regulations were developed in cooperation with public authorities or funded
development through the so-called ‘National Lottery Schemes’. This funding is
25 F Academic North 40–49 Research/regulations available for developing adaptations or designs as a support scheme for
expert America development investors or clients who would not normally be keen to invest in such
26 F EU
projects. Public funding was reported to work well in general for large-

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

size public projects such as the London Olympic Park, or for smaller-size observation, interviews, contextual analysis and brainstorming sessions.
projects such as cultural centres, churches or museum renovations. Some professionals, due to their background and expertise, prefer to
There is additional evidence that a shift is slowly occurring in the include an evidence-based approach in the design stream [35]. This
attention paid to ID in architectural design practice [31]. Interviews approach is founded on cumulative knowledge, where resources such as
confirmed that in North America and more recently in the European literature reviews, research findings and technical standards are used to
setting, large private organisations have a growing interest in providing inform a persuasive dialogue with clients.
accessible and inclusive workplaces for their community and workforce. 13: “The most important thing is understanding who’s going to be
4: “We are at a different time now than we were even two or three using these spaces. What challenges are they facing in the spaces, what
years ago. Now many of our clients, both institutional and govern­ conditions people have for these spaces and how the spaces themselves
mental, are really looking in and saying, okay, we do need to be much can be future-proofed to better meet the needs of somebody with their
more inclusive in our process.” condition changes over time.”
In both public and private contexts, cost is an impactful consider­ There was a strong emphasis amongst the interviewees on under­
ation in the design process, particularly when talking about IDEA. While standing a client’s needs, no matter whether they were a public body, a
there is a growing availability of public funding, it appears that the value private company or a developer. However, clients were often not
of building inclusively is better understood by large private organisa­ representative of the final user or occupant of the building. Some of the
tions, as shown by their general willingness to invest in it. However, the replies noted that it was not always possible to interact with end-users
value of ID is still not fully perceived by other stakeholders such as fully, particularly because of time constraints, lack of user research at
developers, construction companies and small private clients. The main the start of the project or simply the client willingness to “tick a box and
reasons appear to be that it might add extra costs to the design process say, ‘we’ve met the mandatory regulations’”.
and that people believe designing inclusively is mostly about physical In the product design world there is a strong emphasis on the process
accessibility (e.g. wheelchair access). of design rather than the output [36]. Several responses from in­
15: “Particularly for the development community. If it costs money, terviewees highlighted the importance of focusing on the process of
they don’t want to do it. Money is often cited, but I actually think that’s designing with users, investing time to talk to, observe and study tar­
not always the case. It’s more attitude than money.” geted user groups. The main reason cited was that the experience and
People who are more aware of the value of ID and understand needs of users constitute the foundation upon which the output (e.g. a
broadly about IDEA are generally individuals who have experienced building) could be designed. In several interviews it emerged that a tool
some form of exclusion or have a close friend or family member who has to support a more inclusive design process can help to gain a better
experienced it in their life. The understanding gained from several in­ understanding of the user journey and needs with attention to the IDEA
terviews was that many clients still think about ID as an approach to precepts. As visualised in Fig. 2, the use of different design procedures
achieve building compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act (UK, allows design professionals to look at the process not only through the
1995) or the Americans with Disabilities Act (US, 1990), rather than a lens of functionality and time-cost-efficiency but also through the lens of
wider concept of inclusion, diversity and equity. Understanding about inclusion.
inclusion and developing empathy for clients seems to be fundamental
to initiate a conversation that goes beyond physical accessibility. In
4.2. Knowledge, awareness and inspiration: designers and stakeholders
several cases, empathy looks more like a design ideology rather than a
principle that is applicable under different circumstances [32]. Fig. 1
Prerequisites for designing inclusively include not only understand­
represents a summarised understanding of the attitudes that different
ing user needs but also education about ID, discovering inspiring design
stakeholders have regarding IDEA in the built environment.
solutions and learning about inclusive terminology. Participants re­
To improve the design process and embrace a more inclusive
ported they could increase their knowledge of ID through a variety of
approach, architects use a variety of different design procedures which
sources, spending anything from a couple of minutes up to hours per day
are tailored according to personal experience, team composition and
looking for new information.
client needs. Most of the participants highlighted the importance of
Many professionals rely strongly on connecting with other people
using established design procedures [33] such as the RIBA (Royal
and networking. A popular way to network is by affiliating with pro­
Institute of British Architects) plan of work, the Integrated Design Pro­
fessional associations or organisations such as the RIBA (Royal Institute
cess (IDP) or the Building Delivery Process (BDP). The majority of par­
of British Architects), NRAC (National Register of Access Consultants)
ticipants noted that in parallel to established design procedures, they
and IWBI (International WELL Building Institute), to name a few.
prefer to use additional approaches or tailored procedures.
Such an affiliation allows a professional to participate in conferences,
A relevant approach that is often integrated into established pro­
events, webinars and CPD (Continuing Professional Development) pro­
cedures is grounded in ethnographic research. Partially defined as
grammes to keep them up to date on new topics and technical docu­
‘infiltrating a user’s life’ [34], ethnographic research entails a
mentation. Classes and events allow professionals to access other
person-first approach that targets constant engagement through
sources of information, grounded in technical documentation, scientific

Fig. 1. Overall considerations: stakeholder engagement, design requirements and overall practice.

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

Fig. 2. A conceptual highlight of design procedures and methods used by interview participants.

research and grey literature. Standardisation.

Membership of these associations allows practitioners to be included An activity that appeared extremely popular in the search for more
in mailing lists, newsletters, WhatsApp, Facebook and LinkedIn groups. knowledge and awareness was the exploration on the Internet of mag­
These opt-in groups offer ways to develop knowledge by interacting azines, newspapers, podcasts and blogs about stories on inclusion, di­
with other professionals, asking for advice and sharing mutual interests. versity, equity and accessibility in the built environment. Fig. 3
Along with professional organisations, another method that was represents an overview of the source of inspiration divided into two
mentioned as allowing experts to keep up to date with standards and categories, one involving human connections that can happen through
regulations is an involvement with international working groups in meetings, professional associations, policymaker associations and links
policy creation and sitting on standards development committees. These with other stakeholders, and one involving technical information shared
include the British Standards Institute, the International Organization through online media and literature-based information.
for Standardization, the European Disability Forum and the European Knowledge is fundamental to ID. The interview findings confirmed
Association for the Co-ordination of Consumer Representation in that an uninformed audience was likely to associate ID with regulations

Fig. 3. Representation of the sources of inspiration: human connections and technical information.

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

on physical accessibility [7]. The perception strongly depends on where well-informed group.
the project is located and the cultural background of the clients.
9: “Most clients don’t understand it. They think it’s all to do with 4.3. Challenges and opportunities
building ramps and washrooms, but it is a lot more nuanced and
complicated than that.” According to the geographical and socio-cultural context, indoor
Previous research [9] as well as interviews with certain project spaces, buildings, cities and the transportation infrastructure do not
managers and architects within this cohort demonstrate that they always provide an inclusive experience to all users. In large cities such as
sometimes experience difficulties when they have to design in compli­ London, recent buildings and newly developed outdoor spaces offer a
ance with accessibility standards. Additionally, there is little knowledge quite high level of inclusion, particularly for those who have physical
about a variety of other aspects of ID, such as cognitive and sensory disabilities. However, moving towards rural areas and smaller towns the
accessibility, inclusion, equity and diversity amongst many pro­ number of challenges increase whilst the level of ID practice diminishes.
fessionals as well as clients. A possible reason is the large number of heritage and listed buildings
14: “You can get project teams and architects and project managers which bring more challenges than in the case of newer buildings, but this
that never had an inclusive design consultant working with them. All is not the only factor. The composition of society, with its socio-cultural
they’ve done previously is making sure they meet building regulations. background and education, brings further challenges. Education and
On the other hand, there are project teams, architects and project awareness are broadly speaking part of the social context: an underlying
management companies that will always work with an inclusive design asset that allows people to understand differences, empathise with
consultant off the national register.” exclusion and accept diversity. Several responses emphasised that edu­
Different types of relationships are established between design pro­ cation about inclusion should start from pre-school and should then
fessionals and clients [37] and vary according to geographical location. evolve during the educational curriculum, up to college level in all
As mentioned before, large organisations and public authorities are disciplines. Little space is given to ID, UD or DfA education in STEM
becoming more aware of ID and in high-income countries there is disciplines and the lack of formal and informal education brings mis­
greater sensitivity to the topic. This is due to an elevated baseline of conceptions of what accessibility, ID, equity and diversity mean.
knowledge, particularly in larger cities, where there are more chances to The use of appropriate terminology is a fundamental aspect of an
engage with spaces designed according to ID principles. While in inclusive educational process that leads professionals to an inclusive
lower-income countries there is an acute and immediate need; the na­ style of working practice. Examples of terms used to indicate a master
tional standards are not enough to guarantee certain levels of accessi­ bedroom, instead of principal bedroom, or a male/female toilet, instead
bility and inclusion. Some interviewees reported that ID and of all gender toilet, can lead to exclusion or inequalities.
accessibility are poorly applied in some underdeveloped or rural areas 8: “In a residential setting, the main bedroom has always been called
and there is a need to further develop programmes to raise awareness the master bedroom. The term master bedroom was derived from when
about inclusive environments. This finding is also supported by previous slavery was in action in the USA. Now, it is more recommended to call it
research [38]. Overall, many respondents reported that in the last few suite or principal bedroom to being the principal space of where you
years awareness of ID has grown significantly and that more recently sleep.”
people are more aware of racial injustice and social exclusion. Lack of education and appropriate terminology has led to an overall
11: “They are starting to understand more. Particularly around the deficiency in awareness that is now a structural component of modern
diversity and inclusion agenda. We’re seeing many more inquiries for society. Public discussion about disability and discrimination has only
the business based on diversity and inclusion, being more of a priority of taken place in the last few decades thanks to acts such as the Disability
full businesses.” Discrimination Act or the Americans with Disabilities Act. Unfortunately
Interviewees highlighted that a good inclusive project is not just several people still associate ID with the concept of disability. With this
about code compliancy, but about what can be done beyond simply misconception clients and certain professionals believe that ID could
accessibility. It is important to first create awareness, advocate about ID cost more if implemented in the design process [39]. Additionally, there
and explain the benefits. Once clients become more familiar with ID and is a belief that by imposing accessibility regulations the aesthetics of a
they perceive its long-term benefits, it is easier to embed the concept of building may suffer or creativity will be eradicated from its design [22].
inclusion in the project from the start. Fig. 4 shows some of the influ­ To overcome these misconceptions, neurodiversity is a fundamental
encing factors about the perception of ID amongst stakeholders, where thematic area of ID, demonstrating that an inclusive building should be
the majority constitutes a poorly-informed audience and a minority a designed also according to sensory and cognitive needs, going beyond

Fig. 4. Awareness amongst stakeholders about IDEA: perception and influencing factors.

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the concept of physical accessibility. During the post-design phase, customer satisfaction is a function of
Some respondents reported that since the Equality Act was released staffing and management within the context of the facility, as well as the
in the United Kingdom, there has been a shift towards considering dis­ fabric of the facility itself. Current regulations and best practices focus
abilities under the same umbrella term of inequalities. As the Equality mostly on recommendations for the design and development phases,
Act involves nine different protected characteristic groups, and with little or no consideration given to management and maintenance.
disability is just one of those, a few participants reported that this pro­ Often spaces that were conceived as inclusive and accessible become
cess brought a ‘cooling off’ of the attention to people with disabilities in inaccessible or lose their features because of inappropriate facility
favour of a more generalised concept of equality. maintenance or management procedures.
22: “What happened in recent times is that disability became 17: “Quite often it’s about policies and management of the building.
absorbed into the general notion of equality. And that meant it had to [Where] you have an accessible toilet, you’ll find the cleaners equip­
share space with diversity in terms of race, age, sex and various other ment, all sorts of baby highchairs, garbage bins or even bikes. Reception
vulnerable groups as they’re called in the Equality Act. I’m afraid by desks or bar counters should have a lower section that’s permanently
absorbing it into the equalities ‘generally disability’ has in a sense gone accessible to wheelchair users, but people often fill it up with things,
off the agenda.” pamphlets or flowers. So, it’s about valuing the inclusion you have and
Lack of education and awareness about ID and misuse of terminology improving it.”
were both considered by respondents as relevant factors impacting the Ultimately, awareness and understanding of diversity and inclusion
implementation and enforcement of standards, laws and local policies strongly impact the composition of the design teams and consequen­
for accessibility and inclusion. Often standards or best practices for ID tially the outcome of the project. Aiming for diversity in a team, not only
are not fully mandatory and they target minimum accessibility re­ in terms of gender but also nationality, skills, knowledge, age and cul­
quirements. Additionally, as most standard design procedures used by ture, helps to gain a broader understanding of the challenges. This
professionals do not embed ID from the start, a lack of interest tends to supports ID during all the stages of project implementation.
appear within the design and construction process. 12: “If you always take engineers, you’ll only come up with an en­
As a result, the lack of willingness to aim for a high standard is also a gineering solution, but if you take health professionals, social pro­
matter of assessing the building [11] and measuring the right metrics fessionals and digital professionals, they will be able to give customers
during and at the end of the design process. Several participants pointed more comprehensive insights.”
out that particularly in the post-design phase there is a lack of uniform Fig. 5 summarises the three major challenges and connects all the
procedures to measure customer satisfaction and criteria such as inclu­ related sub-challenges and causes within several domains.
sion, accessibility and equitable use of the space.
20: “Tracking people’s satisfaction, it’s something that I don’t think 5. Discussion: exploring IDEA prospects
as an industry, we do have enough actually, but it’s so important. When
it comes to product design, it’s just an integral part of what they do, A previous literature review from the authors [11] highlighted how
which is part of the process. And I think it needs to be the same for the legislation and best practices in ID are not adequately understood by
building industry.” architectural design professionals, leading them to perceive ID as a

Fig. 5. Challenges identified amongst respondents: perceptions, links and influencing factors.

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

limitation for the creative design process [22]. The results from the in­ guidance to professionals, particularly at the very early stages of the
terviews allow better understanding of the challenges to be addressed in design process, with a tool that helps to map and analyse the experiential
all design phases, with the goal of guaranteeing future-proof IDEA user journey of potential building occupants.
buildings. This tool, shaped as a strategic design template [47], has the po­
tential to develop a more inclusive design process, by helping pro­
5.1. Create and raise awareness fessionals to discover people’s capabilities and better understand the
needs and desires of a diversified audience of users. This tool is outlined
Legislation and standards help to increase awareness of ID amongst in Fig. 6 and is envisioned as an Inclusive Design Canvas, offering a
design professionals. There is a constant need to update and understand summary of complementary aspects to consider during the discovery
the legislation and acquire new knowledge about ID [40], and its phase of the design requirements for more inclusive and accessible
broader concepts, to allow and encourage professionals to apply specific buildings.
legislation according to the design context. Several responses high­
lighted how important it is to educate professionals on new technical 5.2.1. Physical journey
information and design tools to emphasise user needs. Examples here The first impression of a building is extremely important, whether it
include the use of online media and social network tools to share is online or in person. People have to understand clearly where the
knowledge, the creation of Continuous Professional Development clas­ building is and how to access it easily. Level access, signage and way­
ses and material and through the use of facilitators such as graphical finding, entrances and doors, entrance hall and all the materials and
visualisations [41]. There is a need to educate professionals to think objects that compose those approaching spaces should be intuitive and
inclusively and implement ID from stage zero of the design process by welcoming [48].
allowing collaborative teams composed of diverse groups of people to Once the user has the ability to move horizontally and vertically
aim for inclusion, diversity and equity, as also indicated by previous following the signage, and moving through connecting spaces, the
research [42]. In raising awareness it is important to understand the use perception of space, the feelings and the experience of the occupants are
of inclusive terminology across professional and non-professional strongly influenced. In considering how people will access a building it
communities. is also important to take into account how they will exit the building in
What emerged from the interviews was the need to guarantee design case of emergency and means of escape, fire egress and exit routes are
inclusivity in both design and post-design phases, throughout the entire not necessarily accessible for all. Therefore ramps, deaf alerter systems,
life of a building. Research states that the development of facility wayfinding for blind individuals, refuge locations and evacuation chairs
management policies and practices is still in its infancy and the limited are just some of the elements that need to be considered when designing
knowledge generated so far relates only to specific purposes such as a building. The Inclusive Design Canvas can help to list and emphasise
strategy, performance, operation and innovation [43]. This means that physical journey aspects and support professionals during the design
developing facility maintenance policies about inclusion, diversity, eq­ stage with useful information about physical skills and needs.
uity and accessibility offers an opportunity to maintain buildings in an
inclusive fashion over their lifetime. 5.2.2. Sensory journey
Therefore, it is important not only to create awareness amongst the Sensory perception is a central part of the user journey within a
design team and the client, but also to develop policies and guidelines building. Visual features such as natural light, use of colours and visual
that allow building managers and maintenance staff to follow proced­ contrast, materials and the shapes of objects and spaces can influence
ures guaranteeing buildings remain IDEA-compliant during their the mood, feelings and relationship between space, people and objects.
lifetime. Auditory stimulus, such as the absence of echo in a meeting room or
acoustic transmission in a space, can influence wayfinding for deaf
5.2. Inform the design process through an Inclusive Design Canvas people with different sensory abilities.
The sense of smell also has a role to play. A fragrance diffuser in an
As was emphasised by the interviews, the design of an inclusive entrance hall or how the smell of a cafeteria or a kitchen flows across
building does not happen just by following a check-box exercise or being parts of the building can attract or repel people from reaching that area
time-cost-efficient. Rather, it should start from understanding who we at certain times of the day. This improves productivity or encourages a
are designing for through an experiential user journey. Numerous par­ user to take a break during the working day.
ticipants highlighted the importance of learning about the main users of Touch influences feelings as well as temporary attitudes towards
the building and any potential future users. This discovery process is space and other people within the vicinity. The use of metal for handrails
grounded in user research where ‘user experts’ [44] can offer their or handles, with its associated variation in temperature, may discourage
unique critical insight to highlight pains, problems, desires and people from touching such fittings and fixtures.
aspirations. Taste is often misconceived when designing inclusively, however it
Several interviewees pointed out that the user journey should start relates to smell and they often influence each other. For example, the use
before approaching the building, particularly from the inner private of paper dishes or cups in a cafeteria that could alter the taste of food and
space, and continue until the user reaches the destination. An experi­ drink may influence people’s perception of the space.
ential user journey, therefore, starts ahead in time and space and can The combination of the senses allows sensory integration to help the
highlight aspects including how a website informs a user to reach a brain to sense the space, elaborate feelings and inform decisions. This
building, the mode of transportation, how to navigate the building and includes proprioception, where muscles and joints tell the brain where
how to reach certain people within the building. Working from the in­ body parts are; vestibular perception, which allows the brain to plan for
side out, considering features that influence how brains and bodies movements and helps to maintain balance; and interoception, which
interact, in strict connection with the senses and cognitive perception, is allows the body to tell the brain what is happening, including when a
key to addressing all the challenges that a set of diverse users may have. person is hungry or feels full or the sensation of ‘butterflies in the
Based on previous work by the authors [15,45,46] it emerged that stomach’ [49].
considering user needs when designing inclusively is highly relevant. This complex set of sensory abilities varies widely between in­
Additionally, feedback from participants pointed out that it is also dividuals and strongly influences aspects of our lives such as emotional
beneficial to understand people’s capabilities, including physical, sen­ wellbeing, perception, cognition and behaviour. The Inclusive Design
sory and cognitive skills when mapping the user journey. Having Canvas would help to support bringing future design requirements to the
considered the results of the interviews, it appears important to offer fore by summarising which details in the sensory journey should be

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M. Zallio and P.J. Clarkson Building and Environment 206 (2021) 108352

Fig. 6. A diagram illustrating the Inclusive Design Canvas.

prioritised. use of the product. Furthermore, research suggests that tools such as the
exclusion calculator [52] can additionally help in this process. However,
5.2.3. Cognitive journey in the architectural context, participants reported that collecting user
The cognitive journey is strongly affected by sensory and physical feedback is rare. When it is undertaken it is often carried out without
journeys. The brain processes the stimuli received by all parts of the following a formal method and is often administered to the building
body and creates thoughts and beliefs that influence perception and occupants by the design company, with a high risk of unconscious bias.
behaviour [50]. Although there are a variety of post-occupancy surveys available [53]
It is important to understand the concept of neurodiversity [51] as they are not wholly targeted at addressing inclusion, diversity, equity
well as other cognitive skills including socio-emotional and learning and accessibility in the built environment and thus there is a need to
skills, and personality. The combination of these factors impacts the develop scientifically validated, evidence-based mixed methods tools,
perception of the surrounding environment and relationships amongst administered by third-party entities, to gain the feedback of occupants in
people within an environment. A space that is designed to recognise relation to IDEA.
neurodiversity, that allows people to be apart together, to retreat, or to Mixed methods can include ethnographic studies, objective evalua­
socialise is extremely important in guaranteeing inclusion and equity for tion or the use of smart technology to collect comprehensive information
a diverse audience. on people’s perception of the environment. Such methods should cap­
Interviewees emphasised how designing for cultural differences and ture how the environment affects daily routines and relationships with
people from different nationalities, by being sensitive to people’s beliefs, other individuals and be designed to guarantee equity and diversity.
cultural orientation, religion, ideology, ethnicity, gender and age is part With the acquired user feedback and unbiased metrics [11] it is possible
of recognising diversity. An accessible changing place, a gender-neutral to better inform architectural design professionals, building managers
toilet or an inclusive counter desk are examples of a design that is sen­ and occupants about current and future challenges present in selected
sitive to the needs of individuals. Interviewees indicated in their feed­ buildings and this knowledge would facilitate the implementation of
back that the Inclusive Design Canvas could facilitate identifying future design processes targeting IDEA.
strategic user needs, emphasising the importance of physical, sensory
and cognitive journeys for the design of more inclusive and accessible 6. Conclusions
buildings.
Whilst designed spaces can influence a person’s behaviour and atti­
tudes, their access and use can also strongly affect the cognitive and
5.3. The importance of collecting post-occupancy user feedback
emotional world of that individual.
This article delivers insights about challenges and opportunities for
With a focus on the post-design phase, acquiring feedback about the
the design of buildings that should guarantee inclusion, diversity, equity
experience of building occupants appears to be a valuable process that is
and accessibility for their occupants.
often not implemented by architectural design professionals.
Some of the major findings that can significantly enhance the design
Several respondents reported that in product design it is common to
of inclusive buildings are identified - education about ID, the use of
take customer feedback and have an idea of how inclusion impacts the

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