6 ICT applications

In this chapter you will learn about:

★ communication
★ modelling applications:
– financial, civil engineering – traffic management
– flood water management – weather forecasting
★ computer-controlled systems
★ school management systems
★ online booking systems
★ banking applications
★ computers in medicine
– information systems – 3D printing
★ expert systems
★ computers in the retail industry
★ recognition systems
– OMR – RFID
– QR codes – NFC
– OCR – biometric
★ satellite systems
★ GPS, GIS and media communication

This chapter will cover a number of different applications associated with

the use of ICT. Many of the applications bring together notes from earlier
and later chapters in this book. There are many more examples of the use
of ICT, and you may wish to investigate other uses within the framework of
syllabus requirements.
Exercises throughout the chapter, and exam-style questions at the end of
the chapter, will allow you to test your understanding of the various ICT
applications which have been covered.

6.1 Communication
There are several communication systems that make use of ICT technology.
For example:
» newsletters and posters
» websites
» multimedia presentations
» media streaming DTP: Desktop publishing software creates layouts of text and
media files for publishing in print or digital formats, such as
» e-publications. newspapers, magazines, brochures, ebooks, blogs, and online
publications.
6.1.1 Communication media
Newsletters and posters Software used: word processor, DTP (Desktop publishing)
Newsletters and posters can be produced very easily using, most commonly, a
word processor. Often, the newsletter or poster will have photos which have

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been taken specially or have been downloaded from the internet (with the
permission of the copyright holder). The following sequence is fairly typical of
how such a document would be produced on a computer system. The sequence is
not always necessarily in the order shown; it can vary depending on what already
exists or what needs to be created):
» First a word-processor application would be opened
» Photos could be obtained by:
– using a digital camera and taking photos
– searching for images/photos on the internet, or suitable photos could
already be stored on the hard drive or cloud
– using hard copy photos, which could be scanned in.
» If necessary, camera images would then be uploaded (either by connecting the
camera or camera memory card) to the computer via a USB port, or by using
Bluetooth connectivity).
» Photos from all selected sources would then be saved to a file on the HDD or SSD.
» When the user is finally ready to produce the document, the photos would be
imported from the file stored on the HDD/SSD.
» Once imported, photos would need to be cropped, edited and/or resized.
» Text would be typed in using a keyboard.
» Alternatively, any previously saved text would need to be imported.
» Photos need to be placed in their correct position and the text wrapped.
» Finally, the whole document would need to undergo proofreading for errors
and then saved, ready for printing.

Very often, other features, such as a spell checker, would be used to make sure
no mistakes had been made. Care needs to be taken when using a spell checker
for the following reasons:
» The language used in checking the spelling could be different; for example,
British English and American English often have different spellings of words.
» Names or proper nouns might be highlighted as an error by the spell checker,
but may be acceptable.
» Similar sounding words need to be checked; for example, where, were or wear
all sound the same but have very different meanings – these will not be Link
picked up by the spell checker (but might be picked up by a grammar checker).
» The (correct) highlighted word may not exist in the spell checker dictionary. Other word-
processing features
could be used
Exercise 6a when producing the
Find out what other word-processing features would need to be used when newsletter or poster;
producing a newsletter or poster. For each feature identified, write down how you refer to Chapter 17
would use it to produce a professional-looking document. for more information.

A newsletter is a very useful method for getting important information to

a target group. If, for example, you are doing a fundraising exercise, a well-
presented newsletter to accompany the fundraising would be invaluable. invaluable = useful
Newsletters can be either printed out or available online as an e-publication (see
later in this chapter); the method used depends on who the target audience is. use laser printer
With a printed document handed personally to somebody, you can be certain they (better colored)
have seen the newsletter – but in both cases it is nearly impossible to be certain
that they have read it!
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A few of the common guidelines to produce an attractive newsletter include:

» Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page.
» Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts (for example, Arial or Trebuchet MS) and use
a suitable font size (11-, 12- or 14-point font size).
» Decide on whether to use columns (a useful feature if there are diagrams and
photos).
» Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’!
» Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text.
» Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting.

Posters are a good way of publicising, for example, a sporting event or an publicising: give out information
advertisement for a forthcoming movie. A sporting event poster would need to about (a product, person, or
include at least the following information: company) for advertising or
promotional purposes.
» what the event is and where it will take place
» date, time and place of event
» admission fees (if any) information for sport event
» contact details
» other information (such as whether there will be a crèche or facilities for
people with disabilities).

The movie poster would need to include:

» an image taken from the movie to give some idea of the type of movie (that
is, comedy, horror, science fiction, and so on)
» the date of release
» a list of the main characters.

THE HODDER WELLY JACKSON ROSE TIGER DUDE Exercise 6b

THROWING CONTEST
Using a word
processor, produce
two posters for the
following:
a an upcoming
charity event
where there will
be stalls selling
food and gifts
Come and see us at the
b a music band
Wellington Cricket Ground advertising the
on August 22nd 2022 from release of their

TRUE CRIME
1 pm untill 4 pm.
new song.
No entry fee.
Refer to chapters in
Créche, reception tent, free
parking
the second half of
August 22nd 2022 this book wherever
necessary.

▲ Figure 6.1 Examples of posters

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Poster: may use plotters, use Glossy papers 6.1 Communication

As with newsletters, posters can be printed out using high-quality printers or ADV:
can be posted online. Printed posters can be any size. Large posters have the 1- not necessary need to have
advantage that they are eye-catching and usually very difficult to miss. They are computer or internet connection
used in many countries on the sides of roads so motorists see them on their way to 2- you have physical copy
work. By placing the posters in strategic positions, it is possible to target certain
people rather than the general public (for example, advertising expensive cars by
dis ADV
placing the posters on buildings or advertising hoardings in financial districts in 1- need to be distributed by hand
big cities). The drawback is the cost of display (the advertising areas can only be 2- printing cost
rented) and that they are subject to weather conditions, so only have a limited life. 3- restricted to small target
audience
Websites
Rather than producing newsletters and posters by printing them out, it is
possible to use websites for advertising. This method of advertising requires
a company to either develop their own website or pay another company to
advertise on their website.
Using the first option may require the company to either employ a team of web
designers or go to a specialist company with experience in website design. It
may also be necessary to buy hardware and software to develop and store the develop website needs
website. This method can therefore be expensive, but the cost does not stop
there. It will be necessary to use programmers to make sure that their website is
safe from hackers and from pharming attacks.
It has, however, become much easier and cheaper for individuals or small organisations small companies uses
to create and host their own website, using off-the-shelf content management systems off-the-shelf content manager
to organise content, and pay hosting fees to rent space on a web server. system (CMS)
CMS use human-friendly
The big advantage to websites is that they offer worldwide advertising capability interface rather than needing to
and there is no need to buy paper and other consumables, or pay people to work directly with code.
deliver newsletters or flyers. Before deciding which is the best way to advertise
their goods or services, companies have to weigh up the advantages and
disadvantages of both methods.
Websites tend to be used to advertise goods or services which require national
or international coverage. They can cover almost anything from car sales to
advertising a musician’s forthcoming album. The main reasons for using websites,
rather than newsletters or posters for advertising products and services, are
summarised in Table 6.1.
▼ Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication
V.I.
Advantages Disadvantages
» sound/video/animation can be added » websites can be hacked into and modified or viruses introduced
» links to other pages and websites can be » risk of potential pharming
added in hyperlinks and hot spots » it is necessary for the potential customers to have a computer and internet
» buttons to navigate/move around the connection
website, leading to more information » it is not as portable as a paper-based system (although with modern
» ‘hit counters’ allow the owner to see smartphones and phablets this is fast becoming untrue)
detailed information about how many » possible for customers to go to undesirable websites (either by accident or
people have visited the website as a result of a pharming attack) – this can lead to distrust from customers
» can be seen by a global audience » there is a need for the company to maintain the website once it is set up –
» cannot be defaced or thrown away this can be expensive
» it is much easier to update a website » because it is a global system, it is more difficult to target the correct
(and there is no need to do a reprint and audience using website advertising
then distribute the new version) » still need to find a way for people to find out about the website

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Multimedia presentations
Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much
more interesting than static presentations done on slides or paper. produced: software package
Presentations are produced using one of the many software packages on the example presentation software
market and then used with a multimedia projector so that the whole audience
is able to see the presentation. There are many advantages and disadvantages for use multimedia projector to
display it to audience
this type of presentation, with some examples listed below.
Advantages of multimedia presentations
» use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab
the attention of the audience, and can make the presentation easier to
understand
» possible to have interactive hyperlinks built into the presentation; this
means the presentation could access a company’s website or even key
files stored on the cloud (such as video footage, images, spreadsheets
and so on)
» use of transition effects allow a presentation to display facts in a key or
chronological order
» can be interactive
» more flexible; because of the links to websites and other external systems
(for example, the cloud), the presentation can be tailored to suit a particular
audience.

Disadvantages of multimedia presentations

» a need to have special equipment which can be expensive
» danger that equipment could fail while giving multimedia presentations
» there may need to be internet access
Link
» danger when using multimedia in presentations that the focus is on the
medium (that is, the multimedia presentation) rather than the message Refer to Chapter 19
or facts for more information
» very easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects and on producing
too much text or images. presentations.

Media streaming
Media streaming is when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on
devices connected to the internet. When using media streaming there is no need
to actually download and save the video or audio files.
Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote Streaming:
server where the files are stored. This means data is transmitted and played in watch online (real time)
real time. In contrast, when downloading it is necessary for the user to store
Downloading:
the entire file on the computer’s HDD or SSD before they can watch the video
- store file on device
or listen to the music. This uses up valuable storage space and download times - take up storage space
for a two-hour video can be up to one hour, depending on the internet speed - need download time
and the video quality. depending on Internet speed
With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is
interpreted by the web browser. Streaming only works well if the internet speed
is stable, and at least 25 Mbits/second (for an HD video).

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 6.1 Communication

data data data data data data

web server packet packet packet packet packet packet
storing 6 5 4 3 2 1
media files
file is sent as series of data packets
▲ Figure 6.2 Media streaming data packets

Because the playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate
at which data is received over the internet, data packets are buffered in the
computer. Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing.
While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the data from the
previous data packets to the playback device. In this way, there appears to be
no gaps in the received data. Obviously, having a large buffer will considerably
reduce the possibility of freezing the play back.
Buffer: preloading data packet into a
reserved section of memory
or
Data Data Data A region of a memory used to temporarily
packet packet packet Data packets being received
9 8 7
store data while it is being moved from one
place to another
BUFFER
Data packets sent to Playback
playback device device

▲ Figure 6.3 Buffering of media stream

e-publications
Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic
format. For example:
» e-books
» digital magazines
» digital newspapers
» digital libraries.

In all cases, the publication can be downloaded to a device connected to Adv:

the internet where it can be read. Moving between pages is usually done by 1- page can be expand in size
swiping a finger across the screen. E-publications also have the advantage 2- can include media
3- cheaper (no printing cost)
that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to include media, which
would be impossible with the more traditional paper-based publications.
Specific devices, such as the Kindle, have been developed to allow a library
of e-books to be stored on the device. These devices use a white background
with black text to fully replicate reading a normal book. Because no printing
costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper than their paper-based
counterparts.

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Exercise 6c
Write down as many advantages and disadvantages you can think of for offering
customers e-publications rather than paper-based publications. Write a
paragraph describing each advantage and disadvantage.

6.1.2 Mobile communication

Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked
together to cover large areas. The towers allow the transmission of data
throughout the mobile phone network.

Cell showing tower at

the centre. Each cell
overlaps giving mobile
phone coverage

▲ Figure 6.4 Each cell overlaps, giving mobile phone coverage.

Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a car and get to
the edge of a cell, the mobile phone signal starts to weaken. This is recognised
by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of the
adjacent cells. If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a
different country, then satellite technology is used to enable the communication
to take place.
Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it
to connect to the mobile phone cellular network, or they use wireless internet
connectivity. Together they allow all of the following features:
» SMS (short message service) messaging
» phone calls
» Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication
» video calling
» internet access.

SMS (text) messaging

SMS or text messaging allows a very quick way of communicating with another
person by typing on a keyboard (the keyboard is often virtual on a mobile phone
or tablet). Its advantage is that the other person does not need to be available,
and can pick up the message as and when they want. SMS/text messaging
between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-charge. Some of
the features of SMS/text messaging include:
» quicker and less expensive than making phone calls
» can be sent at any time of the day even if the recipient’s phone is switched off advantage: user does not need
» predictive texting, where the system completes a word from the first few to be available
letters keyed in; for example, key in ‘preci’ and the phone completes the word
as ‘precious’; predictive texting also allows the system to remember frequently
used words – together they increase typing speed.

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 6.1 Communication

Phone calls
Link
Probably the most obvious use of a mobile phone is its ability to make a phone
call on the move. Because mobile phones are so small and they have their own For more information
power source, they are an ideal way of keeping in touch anywhere, provided there on the features of
is a network signal. Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline mobile phones, refer
systems and for that reason alone, landline phones are still in common use. back to Chapter 1.

Using mobile phones to make phone calls has the following advantages:
» There is no need to look for an operational public telephone in an emergency.
» It is possible to conduct business or personal phone calls on the move. small
» It is easier to keep in contact with co-workers at the office no matter where have their own power supply
you are.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video calling

One of the most common forms of internet telephony (that is, having a telephone
conversation via the internet) is Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). - VoIP convert sound (use
Analog to digital convertor) to
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method used to talk to people using
discrete (digital) data packets
the internet. VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile device’s internal - Data packets are sent to
microphone, into discrete digital data packets that can be sent to their destination via Internet
destination via the internet. The internet can be accessed via a mobile phone
network or a broadband network and the voice calls are sent over the internet Security issues:
using VoIP technology. 1- identify theft
2- viruses
One of the big advantages is that phone calls themselves are free, no matter 3- malware
where in the world the caller and receiver are (there may be a cost to send lots of 4- spamming (unwanted emails)
data over the internet via a mobile phone network, however). 5- phishing
The main problems are usually sound quality (echo and ‘weird sounds’ are both
common faults). Security is also a main concern with VoIP, as it is with other Link
internet technologies. The most prominent security issues over VoIP are identity
theft, viruses and malware (malicious software), spamming (unwanted emails) For more on
security threats see
and phishing attacks (the act of sending an email to a user, falsely claiming to
Section 8.3.
be an established legitimate enterprise, in an attempt to scam the user into
surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft). Advantage of VoTP:
One of the big advantages of using VoIP is that the device’s built-in cameras can 1- phone calls are free
2- use device built-in camera and
also be used so that it becomes a type of video call. While this does not have microphone
the sophistication of a true video conference, it is much cheaper (no need for 3- become a type of video call
special software and additional hardware items – VoIP uses built-in microphones, 4- cheaper (no need for special
speakers and cameras). This relies on good broadband or mobile phone network software or additional hardware)
coverage. can be disadvantage
FaceTime:
Video calling uses software such as FaceTime or Zoom. Both these options require 1- use smartphone built is
the user to download an app. FaceTime makes use of the built-in smartphone camera, microphone and
cameras and microphone/speakers. A split screen allows you to see a number of speaker
people at the same time; although the small screen size limits the potential of 2- split screen allow to see
this feature. Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video number of people at the same
chatting on any device. It is also possible to record sessions to be played back time
at a later date. Cloud-based video calling prevents the need for users to invest in Zoom:
expensive infrastructure; users can simply dial into a virtual meeting room which 1- Cloud-based video calling
makes it much cheaper than conventional video conferencing. 2- allow live video chatting
3- possible to record live video
to be played back later
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Video calls permit: Both FaceTime and Zoom

» live video and audio chat
» screen-sharing during the call
» recording during sessions.

Internet access
Access to the internet from a mobile device is another valuable feature. Any
mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband ▲ Figure 6.5 Cloud video
connection or via the mobile phone network. Due to the use of smaller screens, calling
internet pages displayed on mobile phones are often different to those
on desktop or laptop computers. Software detects which type of device is
connecting to a website, which then sends out the web page optimised for that Link
device. Mobile devices also have a built-in feature which automatically selects
wireless broadband connectivity (if possible), instead of the mobile phone See Chapter 4 for
more on Wi-Fi
network, when connecting to the internet. This has the following advantages:
networks.
» less expensive (mobile phone company ‘data plans’ often have a cap on how
much data can be downloaded, and charge for exceeding this maximum)
how software shows web page
» lower power consumption (Wi-Fi routers are usually much closer than
the mobile phone towers; the longer the range, the greater the power
consumption) mobile device first choose
» quality of service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile wireless broadband connectivity
phone network giving the possibility of downloading more data more quickly). then
it chooses mobile phone network

6.2 Modelling applications Physical, computer model

6.2.1 Computeruse
modelling predict
A computer model: is the use of
computers to represent real life
computerized
A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the situations. These models are
behaviour of the system. The model is computer-generated and is based on usually financial, scientific or
mathematical representations. mathematical.
The whole idea is to try and find out how a system behaves, predict the
behaviour of the system in the future and see if it is possible to influence this
future behaviour.
computer modelling for
Advantages of using models 1- prediction (ex: weather, flood)
» Using computer models is less expensive than having to build the real thing 2- finance
(for example, a bridge!). 3- construction (ex: bridge,
building)
» On many occasions it is safer to use a computer model (some real situations
are hazardous, for example, chemical processes).
» Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in
advance.
» It is nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real life because of
the high risk involved or the remoteness (for example, in space, under the sea,
in nuclear reactors, when crash testing cars, etc.).
» It is often faster to use a computer model than do the real thing (some
applications would take years before a result was known, for example, climate-
change calculations, population growth, etc.).

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 6.2 Modelling applications

Disadvantages of using models

» A model is only as good as the programming or the data entered; the
simulation will depend heavily on these two factors.
» Although building the real thing can be expensive, sometimes computer
modelling is also a very costly option, and the two costs need to be compared
before deciding which to use.
» People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive; they may
not trust the results it produces (there will always be a difference between
the results from modelling and reality).
Examples where computer modelling is used include:
» personal finance Finance
» bridge and building design construction
» flood water management prediction
» traffic management prediction
» weather forecasting. prediction
Personal finance software used: spreadsheet
Figure 6.6 uses a spreadsheet to model the sales of a tuck shop in a school. spreadsheet features
1- use functions and formulas
A B C D E F G 2- change input, and this change
1 Item Price Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit all the calculations
2 each ($) price ($) per item shop cost sold per item ($) 3- replication of values (auto fill)
4- creating charts
3 ($)
5- creating graphs
4 chew 1.00 1.50 0.50 35 17.50 6- build summary reports
5 chox 2.00 2.50 0.50 45 22.50 7- build what if scenario
6 gum 3.00 3.50 0.50 30 15.00
7 crisps 1.00 1.50 0.50 45 22.50
8 cake 2.00 2.50 0.50 40 20.00
9
10 200.00 profit/Loss: $ -102.50

The formulae behind this spreadsheet are:

A B C D E F G
1 Item Price Selling Profit Weekly Number Total Profit
2 each ($) price ($) per item shop cost sold per item ($)
3 ($)
4 chew 1.00 1.50 = (C4-B4) 35 = (C4*F4)
5 chox 2.00 2.50 = (C5-B5) 45 = (C5*F5)
6 gum 3.00 3.50 = (C6-B6) 30 = (C6*F6)
7 crisps 1.00 1.50 = (C7-B7) 45 = (C7*F7)
8 cake 2.00 2.50 = (C8-B8) 40 = (C8*F8)
9
10 200.00 profit/Loss: $ =sum(G4:G8)-E10

▲ Figure 6.6 Personal finance modelling using a spreadsheet

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By varying the values in column C or in column F, it would be possible to model

the shop’s profit or loss. This example is a very simple model, but it shows the
principal of using spreadsheets to carry out any type of modelling that can be
represented in a mathematical form. Spreadsheets are often used in some form to
carry out financial modelling.
Bridge and building design software: CAD (Computer-aided Design)
When an engineer or architect designs a new building or bridge, it is necessary
to test the design long before any construction work is started. 3D computer
modelling is used to try out a number of scenarios to ensure the final design
meets critical criteria. Simulation of the final structure is often done as a
combination of computer modelling and wind-tunnel tests on scale models of the
final designs. For example, when building a bridge, the modeller has to consider
a number of scenarios:
» the amount of traffic that might be caught in a traffic jam on the bridge in
the event of an accident; this could lead to very heavy loading on the bridge
structure
» the effects of strong winds; can the bridge design withstand the worst-case
scenario?
» the effect of earthquakes; is the bridge earthquake-proof?
» the effect of tidal waves and ice floes during extreme weather conditions; can
the pillars supporting the bridge withstand these conditions?
» the effects of vibrations – there have been cases over the years where bridges
have collapsed due to, for example, wind causing the bridge to sway at its
‘natural frequency’.

All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design can then
be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused the bridge to
fail. After a number of modifications, a final design will be decided on. To ensure
▲ Figure 6.7 Wind-tunnel
the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the bridge would then tests on a new bridge
be constructed and subjected to wind-tunnel (and other) trials. scale model = physical model
design
Similar methods are used when designing new buildings, particularly skyscrapers.
Again, computer models are used, often in conjunction with wind-tunnel tests on - design computer model
a scale model. When testing the building using a computer model, a number of - check scenarios and modify
model
scenarios need to be considered: when design new building
- final model is decided
» what is the effect of natural phenomena, such as hurricane winds, flooding, - build scale (physical model)
earthquakes and any other potentially damaging phenomena (wind movement - test physical model for
is a key issue with tall buildings; a 100-storey building may sway one metre to other trials (ex: wind-tunnel)
the left and then one metre to the right, cycling every ten seconds, in strong
winds – can the building survive such movement, will such movement be
unpleasant or frightening to human occupants, and so on)
» the effect of a disaster, such as a fire – how does the structure stand up to
such scenarios?
» how is it possible to move people around the building efficiently (some large
structures have over 5000 people working in them and there is a need to
model elevator movements to move people efficiently)?

All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model. The design
can then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused

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the building to fail to meet any of its design criteria. After a number of
modifications, a final design will be decided on. To ensure the computer model
gives good results, a scale model of the building is then constructed and it is
subjected to wind-tunnel trials:

▲ Figure 6.8 Scale models are used to test buildings.

Computer modelling provides the following features:

» It is possible to zoom into images so that fine details can be seen.
» The design can be rotated in a number of different ways to allow different
views of the design to be made.
» Building a bridge or building is expensive and dangerous if the final design
had a serious flaw; modelling should allow any potential design flaws to be
detected before any construction starts.
» Various scenarios can be tried out to see the effect on the design (see earlier
list of scenarios).

Flood water management prediction

Flood water management uses computer modelling to perform a risk assessment
to identify sources of potential flooding, the extent of flooding and how any
mitigation or protection measures could work.
Computer models are used to predict water levels, water flows and potential
flood depths. Input to the system could include:
» cross-section of rivers and sea inlets (for example, bottlenecks)
» dimensions of any bridges, weirs or sluices in the flood area
» factors that can affect water flow rates (for example, tides are affected by the
time of year and by strong winds)
» boundary conditions (for example, upstream flows into rivers and downstream
water levels)
» the start and finishing date for the simulation
» calibration data (observation of actual flooding in the past). - Build model
- Plan against further flood
Once a model exists which simulates the area where there is potential flooding, a - data continuously added
plan can be put forward to guard against future flooding. Data is continuously added - flood defense or modify
to the model once the flood defences have been put into place. This could result in model
further flood defences being built, or modifications to the existing system.
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Figure 6.9 shows the management of the flood protection system in the city of
Venice as an example.
Flooding of the city over many years has led to the building of a number of
flood barriers. It is useful to use computer models to understand how these
flood barriers will react to a range of possible flooding scenarios. It is possible
to try out several different solutions, using the model, before actually building
▲ Figure 6.9 Flood
any flood defences. Following the computer modelling results, Venice decided management barriers
to develop a computer-based system rather than build a manual flood defence
system. The main advantages of doing this are:
» Sensors could be used out in the bay area to monitor sea height and wave -data is more accurate
height (and possibly other factors, such as wind speeds); using sensors would -data taken more frequently
give a much faster response to any deteriorating conditions in the bay.
» Using a computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions -prediction made from data is
could potentially put them at risk. easily
» Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements
(readings can also be taken more frequently). - people alerted faster
» Because of the faster response to changing conditions, city dwellers can be
warned well in advance of any flooding actually taking place.
» Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modelling the
flood area; this could lead to further improvements as more data is gathered,
which means the simulation becomes closer to reality.
Traffic management prediction
Computer modelling can be used in traffic management. We will consider two
different situations.
Closure of motorway lanes
Repairs need to be made to part of the central barriers on an eight-lane motorway.
The company given the task of carrying out these repairs needs to model the
impact of the roadworks on the traffic flow. They have decided there are two ways
of controlling traffic which need to be modelled. The two models shown in Figure
6.10 will appear on the computer screens, representing the motorway lanes.
The company will run model ‘A’ and model ‘B’ using different traffic densities at
different times of the day to see which one allows for the best traffic flow. The

Model 'A' Model 'B'

▲ Figure 6.10 Motorway closures model

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model will also try out the effect of different speed limits through the roadworks.
They will also simulate the effects of a breakdown to see how this would impact
on the traffic flow. By changing conditions in the simulation, it becomes possible
to find an optimum design which allows the traffic to flow freely, but also allows
the repairs to be done as quickly as possible. This is considerably safer, cheaper and
much quicker than trying out different traffic closures on a real motorway.
Traffic light simulation
Figure 6.11 shows a second use of computer modelling in traffic management – a
set of traffic lights are to be modelled at a Y-junction.

▲ Figure 6.11 Traffic light simulation

In this simulation it is necessary to consider:

1 how and what data needs to be collected
2 how the simulation is carried out
3 how the system would work in real life.
How and what data needs to be collected?
Because the success (or failure) of a model depends on how realistic it is,
data needs to be collected by watching traffic for a long period of time at the
Y-junction. This is best done by using induction loop sensors which count the data collected
number of vehicles at each junction. Manual data collection is possible, but - sensors
is prone to errors and is difficult to do over an 18-hour period per day (for - through Questionnaire
example). The following data is an indication of what would need to be collected: - through interview
- through observation
» the number of vehicles passing the junction in all directions
» the time of day needs to be recorded along with a vehicle count
» how many vehicles build up at the junction at different times of the day
» data should cover weekends, bank holidays, etc. as this can alter how the data
needs be interpreted
» how long it takes a vehicle to clear the junction
» other data needs to be considered (for example, pedestrian crossings nearby,
as shown in Figure 6.11)
» how long it takes the slowest vehicle to pass through the junction
» consider other factors (for example, left turns, right turns, filtering, etc.).
How is the simulation carried out?
Data from the above list is entered into the computer and the computer model is
run. Once the designers are satisfied that the model simulates the real situation
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accurately (that is, by comparing the model’s results with actual traffic flow dis adv for sensor
(ex: flood, traffic)
data) then different scenarios can be tried out. For example: - expensive
» varying the timing of the lights and observing how the traffic flow was affected - in setting is not accurate it
» changing the number of vehicles stopped at part of the junction and then may give false reading
changing the timing of the lights to see how the traffic flow is affected - prone to error if it gits dirt on
it
» increasing or decreasing traffic flow in all directions
» considering how emergency vehicles affect traffic flow at different times of the day.
How would the system work in real life? Link
» Sensors in the road gather data and count the number of vehicles at the junction.
Also refer to Section
» This data is sent to a control box or to a computer (it will need to be 6.10, which describes
converted first into a form understood by the computer). Analogue to digital the use of automated
» The gathered data is compared to data stored in the system (the stored data number plate
is based on model/simulation predictions which were used to optimise the recognition (ANPR)
traffic flow). systems – another
» The control box or computer ‘decides’ what action needs to be taken. way to carry out
» Signals are then sent out to the traffic lights to change their timing if necessary. traffic management.

Weather forecasting prediction

Weather stations are set up to automatically gather data from the environment.
They are usually automatic and use a variety of sensors to measure:
» rainfall Flood/ Traffic:
» temperature Sensor will gather data and save it sensor reads data, then an
to a database for future analysis
» wind speed action will be triggered
and perditions
» wind direction -- sensor just read data and no action
according to the read data
» barometric pressure (air pressure) need to be done (triggered)
» humidity.
The data needs to be gathered every hour of every day of the week. This data
can then be input into a model which simulates weather patterns. By running
the computer model, weather forecasters can predict the weather for the
next few days or even longer. The foundation for weather models are complex
mathematical equations that represent air movement and how heat and moisture
are exchanged in the atmosphere. In a model, the atmosphere is divided up into
a three-dimensional grid. The data from the weather stations is input into the
appropriate grid and the model is run forward in time to make predictions.
» Data is input into the model and a prediction of the weather for the next few
days is made.
» At the end of the weather forecast period, the model compares its weather
forecast with the actual weather that occurred.
» The model ‘learns’ from previous weather situations; improvements to how it
predicts weather are constantly made.
» The new data is then input into the model, and a weather forecast for the
next few days is made.
» A very powerful computer is needed to run this model, since it has to ‘number
crunch’ vast amounts of data. huge data, huge calculations
Weather modelling is often shown in animated format where cloud, rain, sun
and wind are projected on top of a map of the country and shown in real time
(Figure 6.12).
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 6.2 Modelling applications

Low
Low
2.3 inches rain
66mph gusts
am
e t Stre
J
High

▲ Figure 6.12 Animated weather forecast

Exercise 6d
Create a spreadsheet to do some personal financial modelling. Include the monthly income in one row and
then show all the monthly outgoings. For example:

A B C D E F G
Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Totals
Income ($):

Outgoings: food
cinema
clothes
other
savings

Extend the list as much as you want or change the outgoings to be more realistic if necessary. Insert some
values into the spreadsheet and then change a few values to see the effect on your finances. Add extra
columns or extra outgoings to extend the spreadsheet. Finally, try creating a graph of your income against
outgoings for each month and for a year (do a prediction for the year after four months, for example).

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Exercise 6e
Here is a list of five simulations/models and also a list of five reasons why models are carried out. Try and
match the five simulations to the BEST REASON why that simulation would be done.
Simulation Reason

PILOT TRAINING Cost of building the real thing is too expensive

ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING Some situations are too dangerous to humans

SIMULATING BRIDGE LOADING Take too long to get results back from real thing

NUCLEAR REACTOR MODEL It is almost impossible to do the tasks for real

SPACE EXPLORATION Easier/safer to make changes to a model

6.3 Computer controlled systems

6.3.1 Computer controlled systems
Robotics in manufacturing
Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heavy work right through
to delicate operations. Examples include: paint spraying of car bodies, welding
bodywork on cars, manufacturing of microchips, manufacturing electrical goods
and stock movement in automatic warehouses.
Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or
linked to a computer system. Programming of the robot to do a series of tasks is
generally done in two ways:
1 The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to
carry out the series of tasks (for example, spraying a car body with paint).
2 Alternatively, a human operator manually carries out the series of tasks; this
can be done in two ways:
i The robot arm is guided by a worker when spraying the object; each
movement of the arm is stored as an instruction in the computer.
OR
ii The worker straps sensors to his own arm and sprays the object; each
movement is stored as a set of instructions in a computer; the sensors send
back information such as position relative to the object, arm rotation, and so ▲ Figure 6.13 This robot
on – this information forms part of the instructions stored in the computer. arm is equipped with a
Whichever method is used, once the instructions have been saved, each series spray gun ‘end effector’.
Different end effectors
of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm automatically. Each instruction allow the robot arm to
will be carried out identically every time (for example, assembling parts in a carry out many different
television) giving a consistent product. tasks.
Robots are equipped with sensors so they can gather important information
about their surroundings and prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’; for
example, stopping a robot spraying a car if no car is present, or stop the spraying
operation if the supply of paint has run out, etc.

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Robots are very good at repetitive tasks. However, if there are many different
tasks to carry out (for example, making specialist glassware for some scientific
work), then it is often better to use human operators.
Advantages in using robots
» They can work in environments harmful to human operators.
» They can work non-stop (24/7).
» They are less expensive in the long term (although expensive to buy initially,
they do not need wages).
» They have higher productivity (do not need holidays, etc.).
» They provide greater consistency (for example, every car coming off a
production line is identical).
» They can do boring, repetitive tasks, leaving humans free to do other more
skilled work (for example, quality control or design work).
» They can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors
(attachments); for example, a spray gun, a welding gun, and so on.

Disadvantages in using robots

» Robots find it difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks (for example, one-off glassware
for a chemical company).
» They can cause higher unemployment (replacing skilled labour).
» Because robots do many of the tasks once done by humans, there is a real risk
of certain skills (such as welding) being lost.
» Because robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be moved
anywhere in the world (again causing unemployment).
» The initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive.

Production line control

Production line control using robots is used extensively in industry. For example:
» filling bottles with a liquid, capping the bottle and applying a label
» filling metal cans with baked beans, sealing the cans and applying labels.

The production line will be continuous, with various robots at each station given
a specific task. Using robots in this way leads to: Advantages
» faster operations (the number of cans of baked beans filled is 120 per minute)
» much greater productivity (the production can run 24 hours a day for every day)
» greater consistency (every can contains exactly the correct weight of baked beans)
» built-in quality control (automatic testing for foreign material, such as metal
filings, which would result in automatic rejection from the production line)
» reduced cost to the consumer (although initial robot arms are expensive, there
are far fewer staff in the factory who would need wages).

Let us take a closer view of how robots could be used in a bottling plant.
it uses sensors
» Sensor 1 (a pressure sensor, light sensor or camera) detects the presence of a
1- sensor to detect the object
bottle; this sensor is constantly sending signals back to the computer. (pressure, light, camera)
» When the signal from sensor 1 indicates a bottle is present, the computer sends a 2- sensor to check the filling
signal to an actuator which opens a valve allowing liquid to flow into the bottle. liquid level
» Sensor 2 (a level sensor) is used to detect the correct liquid height in the (level)
bottle; this sensor sends continuous signals back to the computer.
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6 ICT applications

actuator
operating valve
valve
computer sensor 2

sensor 1

step-wise moving conveyer belt

actuator operating motor

▲ Figure 6.14 Bottling plant

» When the signal from sensor 2 indicates the bottle is full, the computer sends
a signal to an actuator to close the valve.
» The computer then sends another signal to a second actuator which operates
a motor to move the conveyer belt to allow the next empty bottle to take its
correct position.
» The whole process is continuous until stopped for maintenance, errors
occurring or a change in the process.

Exercise 6f
Find out about five industrial processes that use production line control.
In each case, find out the functions of robots at each stage in the process.
In each case, find the advantages and disadvantages of using robots on the
production line

6.4 School management systems

6.4.1 School management systems
Schools have to manage a number of different tasks in their day-to-day running.
These tasks include:
» registration and attendance records of students
» student performance
» computer-aided learning.

Registration and attendance records of students Traditional way:

The traditional way to record the registration and attendance of a student was to 1- time consuming
complete daily registers. This was very time consuming because it required a ten- 2- prone to error (ex: missing
minute session at the beginning and end of each day. It was also prone to error if student name)
a student’s name was missed at some point during the registration process.
There are a number of possible ways of automating the registration process using
hardware and software, some of which are included below.

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 6.4 School management systems

Method 1 using ID card that has a magnetic stripe

Issue each student with an ID card. These contain a magnetic stripe (shown in FIRE-Academy

black) on the rear of the card. The student would have to sign the card and also
write their unique student ID on the back of the card. The magnetic stripe would
Paul Smith-012 234 555
contain the name of the school, the name of the student, the student’s data of
birth and their unique ID (registration) number.
▲ Figure 6.15 Student
Each morning the student would arrive at school and swipe their ID card through registration card
a magnetic card reader. The data read would identify the student and the time Morning: Student arrive
and date they entered the school’s premises. This data would now be stored on - swipe card
a database. On leaving the school (either at lunchtime or at the end of the day), - magnetic card reader reads
the ID card would again be swiped. This would now record the leaving time and card magnetic strip
date on the database. This would give a very comprehensive record of when the - student ID, time, date saved
on database
student attended the school and the number of hours they attended. It would
also be a more secure method in the event of, for example, a fire. Using the leaving
paper-based system, a student could register then just go home, but with an ID - swipe card
card system, the student’s attendance would be known at all times. The school - record leaving time and date
would now be able to account for every student on the school premises. At the on database
end of a semester (or school year), the database could be interrogated and it
would give an accurate attendance record for the student. This attendance record * This record when the students
could then be sent out to parents or checked by teachers on a regular basis. attend school and number of
hours they attend
There are further functions that could be used such as: also data can be analyzed
» the use of a PIN to stop another student swiping in with the wrong card
» the use of GPS tracking (see Section 6.11) so the exact whereabouts of a
student would be known; this would require the addition of a chip in the
ID card so that the tracking system could identify them (see Section 6.11
for information on RFID) – however, there are privacy concerns surrounding
location tracking.

Method 2 use Biometric (finger print)

A second method could make use of biometrics. Each student would have their - Student personal details &
fingerprint will be saved on a
fingerprints recorded. Their personal details (as in Method 1) plus fingerprints
database
would be stored on a database. When a student entered the school premises, - Student will put his finger on
they would be asked to put their hand on a scanner which would read their scanner that will read fingerprint
fingerprints. Because each student has unique fingerprints, this system would - Data (record) will be saved
be very secure. As with Method 1, the date and time of entering or leaving the accurately
school would be accurately recorded on the database.
Advantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards
» Fingerprints are unique, so it would be impossible for a student to sign in
pretending to be someone else (with magnetic cards, a student could give
their card to a friend and ask them to sign in for them) – this gives more
accurate data and improved security.
» ID cards could easily be lost – fingerprints are ‘part of you’ so cannot be lost.
» ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields (for example, by being placed
close to a mobile phone) which would stop them working properly.
» It is much easier to ‘clone’ (make copies of) ID cards than it would be to copy
fingerprints (not impossible but very difficult).

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Disadvantages of this method compared to use of magnetic ID cards

» It would take a long time to collect the fingerprints for every student in the
school.
» The equipment needed to take and read fingerprints is more expensive than
magnetic stripe reading equipment.
» If a student cuts a finger, the fingerprint may not be identified by the system
(which would prevent entry to the school).
» There are invasion-of-privacy issues and a number of students and parents
may object to having fingerprints stored on a database.

Student performance
Teachers could make considerable use of spreadsheets to monitor the
performance of their students. Essentially, spreadsheets could record the test - Save student data (grades,
results of each student over a term/year. This would allow a teacher to easily see behavior, reports)
- compare/analyze student
how they were performing against other students in the same subjects. It would
results
also be easy to import data into a report, for example, summarising a student’s - produce report to
performance over the academic year. management, parents
School management systems are used to record the performance of students. - produce end-of-year,
Performance can consist of both academic achievement and behaviour. To end-of-term reports
- Data can be available to other
produce an end-of-term or end-of-year report, the system would need to have users of the system
access to the following data:
» student’s exam and test results in all subjects studied over the term/year parents/ school:
» behavioural data (this would include attendance records and, for example, - can log on and check students
number of times the student was in detention) marks, reports
- receive immediate feedback
» CAT scores (these are standardisation test results to enable each student to be - less cost since no printed
measured against a standard). reports
After processing this data, the system could produce:
» the average grades for all students in a class
» class and year group reports showing academic and behavioural performance.

Computer-aided learning
Computer-aided learning (CAL) is the use of computer-based systems to assist in
the academic teaching of students. They are designed to enhance, and not replace,
traditional classroom teaching. Students would use computers as part of their
learning and complete online tests to monitor their performance. If a student
encounters a problem, CAL is not always able to help the student, however, and in
those cases, students would need to take steps to find additional help.
Advantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process
» Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace.
» It allows virtual reality (VR) learning to be used; with VR, the student is fully
immersed into the learning environment.
» The student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off.
» It is possible to re-take tests until the student reaches the required skills level.
» CAL can make learning more interactive.
» CAL makes use of various multimedia (for example, short video clips,
animation, music and interactive learning methods).

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 6.5 Booking systems

» The real goal of CAL is to stimulate student learning and not actually replace
teacher-based learning; CAL, if used properly, should be an integrated part of
the student’s learning process.
» CAL can make use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked
immediately by the computer system, giving instantaneous feedback to the
student; other assessment methods can be used, such as fill in the missing
words, crossword puzzles, linking correct terms to descriptions and gaming.
» It can deliver micro-learning; this is where a topic is broken down into small
modules which are easy to learn, and is when CAL is most effective.

Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process

» CAL cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment;
for example, experiments shown in CAL are virtual in nature.
» It is expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning
environment.
» Students can easily be distracted while online; for example, going on to social
media sites, visiting websites or even playing online games.
» It can lead to the isolation of a student because they are spending their time on
their own in front of a computer screen; this needs to be carefully managed.
» CAL cannot answer unusual questions, and the student will need to seek out
guidance from a teacher; in other words, CAL is not a self-contained learning
system.

6.5 Booking systems

Online booking systems use real time processing which allows
6.5.1 Online booking systems users to make and confirm bookings instantly
Online booking systems rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus
preventing double-booking, which could happen if the system response time was
slow. Online booking systems are used in:
» the travel industry
» for concerts (theatre and music events)
» for cinema tickets
» when booking sporting events.
Before we start looking at specific examples, it is worth considering some of the
advantages and disadvantages of using online booking systems.
Advantages
» They prevent double-booking.
» The customer gets immediate feedback on the availability of seats and
whether or not their booking has been successful.
» The customer can make bookings at any time of the day.
» The customer’s email allows the booking company to connect ‘special offers’ to
their email and inform them of such offers automatically.
» It is usually easier to browse the seating plans (particularly on flights) to
choose the best seats available at the price.
» It is possible to ‘reserve’ a seat for a period of time – this allows a customer
to ‘make up their mind’ before finalising the booking of the seat (this was
difficult to do with the older paper-based systems).
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6 ICT applications

» Very often there are no printed tickets, which saves postal costs and also
allows ‘impulse’ bookings only a few hours in advance.
» Online booking allows the use of modern smartphone and tablet Apps
technology; the customer is sent a QR code which contains all the booking
information necessary (this QR code is stored on the smartphone or tablet and
only needs to be scanned at, for example, the theatre or airport on arrival). ▲ Figure 6.16 Example
of a booking QR code
Disadvantages
» The setting up and maintenance of online booking systems is expensive.
» All customers using this service need access to a computer or mobile phone
and a reliable internet connection.
» It is often more difficult to cancel the booking and get your money back using
online systems.
» If the server is down for maintenance, or if the systems breaks down, it
becomes impossible to book seats by any method (temporary paper-based
systems cannot be used in case of the risk of double-booking occurring).
» If the websites are not well designed, it can be difficult to make exactly
the booking you want or can lead you to make mistakes; this is a particular
issue with flight bookings where correcting an error can cost the customer an
additional fee. ex: book flight
» Booking online does not allow you to build a personal relationship with a -------------------
travel agent who might offer free upgrades or special offers which may not be 1- make sure you have an internet
available to online bookings. connection
2- log on to the company website
The travel industry Transportation: flight, bus and train 3- open booking form
4- user fill needed field in the form
As an example, we will consider booking a flight online. A form similar to the 5- system automatically search
one shown in Figure 6.17 would appear on the screen. The user only needs to fill available flights, and give list of
in the appropriate fields and the system will automatically search for available them
flights, make bookings and transfer the funds from their bank account. Unless 6- user choose one of available
something goes wrong, there will be no need to talk to a human operator at any flights and confirm booking
stage of the booking process. 7- user enter payment details and
confirm
8- system transfer booking money
H&S to flight bank account
flight booking
Input: User will select the
?
Schedule requirements of the
Need help
Departing 13 JUN 2021 at Any time
If you need help using this part of the site, please
booking. E.g. date of flights,
Returning 20 JUN 2021 at Any time
review our information about Flight booking. Airports, Location etc.
Are you flexible by +/– 1 day?
My flight will be Return One way Multistop >
Route Don’t forget insurance
Process: checking if
From Include low-cost airlines For peace of mind, we provide comprehensive online
travel insurance
bookings are possible
To Direct flights only
(availability)
Traveller(s)
Adult(s) Child(ren) Infants i Be informed
How can I get the cheapest deal?
1 0 0
• Saturday night stay
Output: booking
(2-11 years) (1 infant per • Buy a return ticket confirmations /rejections
adult) • Book early
• Try different airports Payment

▲ Figure 6.17 Online flight booking example

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 6.5 Booking systems

Exercise 6g
Using the screenshot in Figure 6.17, describe the stages when a person logs on to
a flight booking website and makes a booking. Describe how the seats are booked,
how double-booking is prevented, how the customer’s tickets are produced and
how payment is made.
Also investigate the latest ways of creating e-tickets, such as using apps on
smartphones, and so on. Why are these new methods better than printing out a
confirmation email to act as the e-ticket?

Events such as concerts, theatres and cinemas Entertainment

We will now consider the online booking system when trying to book a concert,
theatre or cinema performance. Because all three examples involve booking seats
inside a building fitted with seats, we will use the same booking system for all three.
With the example chosen, we have assumed that the customer has already logged on
to the events booking website (and the event is a music concert at a seated venue).

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 6
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DRESS CIRCLE A
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venue is shown on the screen
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highlighting the actual seats

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A H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 H A
G W 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 G on the screen display and then
F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 17 18 19 20 21 W F clicks CONFIRM to go to the
E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 E
D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 D
next part of the process
C W W 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 C
B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 W W B
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 A

STALLS Please click here

to confirm your
STAGE seating choice

▲ Figure 6.18 Event booking screen display

- user log on to the booking website
» The customer clicks on the performance they wish to see.
» A date and time is typed in.
» The required number of seats is also entered. study and understand steps
» The seating display at the venue is shown on the screen.
» The user selects their seat(s) by highlighting the actual seats on the screen
display and then clicks CONFIRM to go to the next part of the process.
» The database is then searched to check the availability of the selected seats.
» If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers; this
shows on another screen on the web page.
» If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen.
» The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER
AVAILABLE – this stops anyone else from booking them.
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6 ICT applications

» The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a
returning customer (in which case the website being used will already have
their details).
» Payment method is then selected and payment made.
» The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name.
» The final details are again shown on the screen.
» An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which contains
all their booking details (this acts as their e-ticket); the QR code is then
scanned at the venue.
» The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats
are permanently confirmed as no longer available.

Booking sporting events

Booking a sporting event is very similar to the example above. Again, depending
on the event, the online booking system will show a seating plan.

NORTH

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SOUTH

▲ Figure 6.19 Sports venue booking system seating plan

The customer will need to select the event, the required day(s), number of
people and preferred seats. Because the seats are often sold in blocks, the Booking steps
database will be searched to see if there are any seats available on the chosen
date. Available seats will not show on the booking map, which is different to
the concert/cinema booking system. If there is availability, the customer will
be offered seats in the block. If the customer is happy with the option, they
simply confirm the booking and payment is made online. Confirmation will
be sent via email and/or possibly a QR code, which can be downloaded to the
customer’s smartphone; this QR code will act as their event ticket(s). Some
sporting events do not book seats (such as a golf tournament) in which case
the booking will simply be entry to the event.
The advantages and disadvantages of booking sports events online are the same
as for online booking of concert and cinema tickets.
One additional feature often offered with sporting events, is the ability to also
book flights and hotels if the event takes place overseas.

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 6.6 Banking systems

6.6 Banking systems

6.6.1 Banking applications
The use of computer technology has revolutionised how we all do our banking
transactions. In this section, we will consider:
» the use of automatic teller machines (ATMs)
» electronic funds transfer (EFT)
» credit/debit card transactions
» cheque clearing
» internet banking.

Automatic teller machines (ATMs)

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) allow the customer to:
» withdraw cash
» deposit cash
» deposit cheques
» check the balance of their account
» see a mini bank statement
» pay a bill
» do a money transfer.
▲ Figure 6.20 An automatic
teller machine (ATM)
Table 6.2 shows a typical ATM process; withdrawing cash.
▼ Table 6.2 Withdrawal of money from an ATM
take money (debit/ decrease account)
Sequence for withdrawing cash What goes on behind the scenes
Customer puts card into ATM Contact is made with bank’s computer understand process
PIN is entered using the keypad PIN is checked to see if it is correct; if not
input device correct, customer is asked to retype PIN
virtual on the screen The card is checked to see if the card
expiration date is exceeded or if the card has
been stolen
If card is stolen or if number of PIN attempts
exceeds three, card is retained and
transaction closed
A number of options are given:
» change PIN
» account balance
– on screen
– printed out choose one of the options
» pay in cheques
» get a mini statement
» pay a bill
» make a money transfer
» deposit cash
» withdraw cash
The customer selects to withdraw cash
A number of cash amounts are shown

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6 ICT applications

▼ Table 6.2 (Continued)

Sequence for withdrawing cash What goes on behind the scenes
The customer accepts one of the cash Customer’s account is checked to see if they
options or types in a different amount have sufficient funds enough money
A check is then made to see if the daily cash
limit has been exceeded
If limit not exceeded and all other checks are
OK, then the transaction is authorised
The cash is then counted out by the machine
The customer is asked if they want a receipt
The card is returned
Money is dispensed Customer’s account is updated

We will now look at a second example; depositing cheques at an ATM:

» The user is asked to insert their debit card and type in the PIN.
» A message will then appear asking the customer which service they require.
» The customer chooses to deposit a cheque.
» A drawer will then open and the customer inserts the cheque.
» The drawer will then close and an OCR device will read the cheque details
including the amount of money. Link
» The amount appears on the screen and the customer confirms the amount.
» The customer’s account is updated with the amount on the cheque (pending For more about OCR
cheque clearance within 24 to 48 hours). (optical character
» A printed receipt of the cheque is then given to the customer. recognition) see
Section 2.2.
» If they do not require another service, the card is returned to the customer.

Advantages of using ATMs

» It is possible to withdraw cash at any time of day.
» They offer many banking services without the need to go into the bank –
such as statements, account balance and bill paying – which helps people to
manage their money more easily.
» It is possible to access an account from anywhere in the world.
» It usually provides quicker service than waiting in a queue in a bank.

Disadvantages of using ATMs

» They are often in places where theft can take place at night.
» There is potential for shoulder-surfing and card-cloning scams. Link
» Some banks charge customers for using ATMs. See Chapter 8 for
» Cash withdrawal limits are often imposed on customers. more details on card
» If the debit card is faulty then no transaction can take place. cloning.
» There is a loss of the personal touch, which some customers will not like.

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) allows

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is a system that allows money transfer money to be transferred electronically
instructions to be sent directly to a bank’s computer system. No actual from one account to another
money is transferred; the whole system relies on electronic transfer of money
between accounts. When an EFT instruction is received, the computer system
automatically transfers the specified amount from one account to another.
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 6.6 Banking systems

example:
One common use of EFT is the payment of salaries to the staff of a company.
On the day when payments are made, the company informs the bank to transfer
money from their account into the bank accounts of their employees.

Bank’s computer system

1- company request amount of Company’s Employee’s 2- company account will decrease (debit)
account accounts according to salaries amount (ex: 10,000)
money to be paid to employees
+$5000
3- each employee account will be increased
COMPANY EFT instructions (credit) according to his/her salary
+$4000
(ex: emp1 = 5000, emp2 = 2000, emp3 = 3000)
–$50 000

+$3000

▲ Figure 6.21 EFT example Link

Another example of EFT in use is when a credit/debit card is used to pay for a See Section 6.9 for
purchase in a store, the payment is made using a system called electronic fund more details on
transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS). EFTPOS.

Advantages of EFT
» It is a very secure payment method.
» It is a very quick payment method.
» It is less expensive than, for example, using cheques.
» The customer has the right to dispute an EFT payment for up to 60 days.

Disadvantages of EFT
» Once an amount has been transferred the bank cannot reverse a transaction
(requires a full dispute investigation).
» The customer needs to have funds available immediately (unlike when using a
Hodder Bank
cheque).
» It cannot guarantee the recipient (someone with a fake ID could collect the
money).
VALID
FROM
VISA
Credit/debit card transactions Chip
Many credit/debit cards are equipped with a chip as well as a magnetic stripe – ▲ Figure 6.22 Example of
the chip contains key information such as the PIN. credit/debit smart card
This system is designed to enhance security because it is better than relying only
Debit = - / decrease
on a signature. Paying for items using a chip and PIN card is a form of electronic
Credit = + / increase
funds transfer (EFT). In this example, suppose a customer goes into a restaurant
to pay for a meal using a chip and PIN card:
» The PIN is entered using a keypad.
» The card is checked to see if it is valid (check on expiry date, whether stolen ex: pay for a meal in
card, etc.). a restaurant
» The PIN is read from the chip on the card and is compared to the one just
keyed in.
» If they are the same, then the transaction can proceed.
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6 ICT applications

» If different, the transaction is terminated.

» The restaurant’s bank contacts the customer’s bank.
» A check is made on whether they have enough funds.
» If the card is not valid or there are not enough funds available, then the continue:
transaction is terminated. customer pay meal in restaurant
» If everything checks out OK then the transaction is authorised.
» An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant.
» The price of the meal is then deducted from the customer’s account.
» The same amount of money is then debited to the restaurant’s bank account.
» A receipt is produced as proof of purchase.
The advantages and disadvantages of credit cards and debit cards are shown in
Table 6.3.
▼ Table 6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of credit cards and debit cards
important
Type of card Advantages Disadvantages
Credit » there is customer protection if a » can be charged high interest rate
company stops trading or goods » annual fees often apply
do not arrive » easy to end up with credit damage
» internationally accepted method as sums mount up
of payment » security risks when using credit
» interest-free loan if money paid card online (see Chapter 8)
back within agreed time period
» can buy items online
Debit » money comes from customer’s » less customer protection than
current account, therefore no credit card if goods do not arrive
interest charges or company goes out of business
» safer than carrying cash both » no credit allowed; customers
must have money to direct pay
» can buy items online must have the funds available
» security risks when using debit
card online (see Chapter 8)

Cheques
Cheques are one of the oldest ways of paying somebody for services or goods.
Because it is a relatively expensive, slow and less secure way of making
payments, cheques are slowly being phased out.
The advantages and disadvantages of using cheques are shown in Table 6.4.
▼ Table 6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of using cheques
Important
Advantages Disadvantages
» more convenient and safer than cash » cheques are not legal tender and can be
» it is possible to stop payments if refused
necessary » it is a slow method of payment
» a cheque can be drawn any time (up to six » easier for fraudsters than credit card or
months after it was dated and signed) debit card payment methods
» cheques can be post-dated » relatively expensive payment method
» cheques can be traced if they are 'lost'

Centralised clearing of cheques

This method was first introduced around 2017 and has now been adopted by
many banks worldwide. It is a much quicker system than the previous method
used to clear cheques.

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 6.6 Banking systems

Hodder Bank cheque bank issuer

DATE 1st Feb 2020
cheque date
H&S Ltd payee/ beneficiary

Account Payee Only

PAY
(MICR) Line data
Fifty dollars only $ 50.00 1- cheque serial no
cheque amount in words cheque amount 2- bank code
in numbers 3- account branch no
SIGNATURE
4- account number
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Line A.N. Other
cheque owner signature

▲ Figure 6.23 A typical cheque

In this method, cheques are cleared using an image-based system that speeds up
the cheque clearing process considerably.
When a cheque is paid in to a bank, an electronic image is made of the cheque using
OCR software. All of the bank details plus the sum of money to be paid are read.
Hodder bank
So, suppose someone uses a bank called Hodder Bank and they pay a cheque for
$50 to a company called H&S Ltd, who bank with the Smith Bank. How is the H&S
bank account credited with $50? Smith bank
» The first step is called out clearing. At this stage, when Smith Bank are
presented with the cheque, a camera takes an image of the cheque and OCR
software turns this image into an electronic data format.
» Smith Bank uses this electronic data to create a digital record of the money to
be paid, the sort code on the cheque and the account number on the cheque.
» The cheque image and digital record are added to a file of other cheque
images paid in that day. There are a number of files made. Each file contains
all the cheque images and digital records for a particular bank. Therefore,
there will be a file for Hodder Bank created by Smith Bank containing cheque
data referring to Hodder Bank only; other banks will have their own files
created containing cheque data referring to their bank only.
» Smith Bank now sends all the files to a central facility. One of the files
contains all cheques relating to Hodder Bank. The central facility processes
this file in the following way:
– It breaks the file down into individual payment messages.
– It does a payment validation.
– It creates and sends a ‘request to pay’ message to Hodder Bank. This
includes a copy of the cheque images as well as the encoded information
(sort code, account number and payment amount).
» Hodder Bank receives a stream of ‘request to pay’ images and carries out
the transactions. A ‘no pay’ decision will be made if the person paying has
insufficient funds, if their account is blocked, if the cheque has not been
signed or if there is suspected fraud.
» Once a ‘pay’ or ‘no pay’ message has been received, the central facility routes
the ‘pay/no pay’ response to Smith Bank.
» All of this happens usually in less than 24 hours; still slow compared to card
payments, but much faster than the older paper-based method.

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Internet banking
Because of the many similarities, internet banking is fully covered in Section 6.9
along with online shopping.

6.7 Computers in medicine

6.7.1 Information systems in medicine
Computers are used in many areas of medicine, such as:
» keeping patient records and pharmacy records
» use of 3D printers in many areas of surgery and customised medicines.

Patient and pharmacy records patient data is stored in a

Doctors and hospitals need to keep accurate records of all their patients. This is database (benefits)
essential to ensure correct diagnosis and treatment. An up-to-date medical history 1- to share data between doctors
and pharmacy
is part of the diagnosis process. Databases are kept by doctors and hospitals so that
2- insure no drug prescribed
data can be shared between medical practitioners and pharmacies (for example, to interact with each others
ensure no drugs are prescribed which interact with each other in an unsafe manner). 3- quick and easy search for
Databases also allow a quick and easy search for patient records – this could be patient record
very important in an emergency, when accessing the patient’s medical history 4- Accessing medical history
(important in emergency)
could mean the difference between life and death. It also means that medication
can be prescribed without issuing paper prescriptions – an email could be sent to 5- an email can be sent to
the pharmacy instead. pharmacy instead of using paper
The sort of data which would be required on a patient database is as follows:
» a unique identification number
» name and address
» date of birth
» gender (male or female)
» medical history (for example, recent medicine/treatment)
» blood group
» any known allergies
» doctor
» any current treatment
» any current diagnosis
» important additional information such as X-rays, CT scans, and so on.

Use of 3D printers
3D printers were first introduced in Chapter 3. Their use in a number of fields is rapidly
progressing. One of the most innovative uses is in the field of medicine. The following
is just a small insight into the many developments taking place across the world.
Surgical and diagnostic aids
It is possible to print out anatomical parts using 3D printers. These are used as
an aid towards diagnosis and surgical procedures. The patient is scanned using:
» CT (computed tomography) – which involves producing images of the internal
parts of the body in a series of thin slices less than 0.1 mm thick, or patient scanned using
» MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – this uses strong magnetic fields and
radio waves to produce a series of images of the internal organs in the body.

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 6.7 Computers in medicine

A 3D printer can then produce a three-dimensional representation of a patient’s

internal organs, blood vessels, major arteries, tumours and so on. The doctor
or surgeon can use this to show the patient exactly what is wrong and then using 3D printer in
show them what procedures are required. This allows for patient engagement diagnostic, pre-surgical aid
which would be missing from the more traditional consultation methods. It can
also help the surgeons when planning surgical procedures because they can
see exactly what is required well in advance of the operation. In this way, 3D
printing systems can be used for diagnostic, pre-surgical aids.
Some 3D printers produce hard nylon objects which are used in certain pre-
surgical planning. If a patient has suffered a bone break, for example, surgeons
can physically test and position screws and plates in the ‘3D bone nylon image’
prior to the surgery taking place. This reduces the chance of any errors when the
actual procedure is carried out. better vision/understanding of the patient problem
Prosthetics ▲ Figure 6.24 This is an
3D printers are now being used to print out prosthetics (false arms, hands and example of prosthetic
arm produced by
legs). While state-of-the-art myoelectric prosthetics cost tens of thousands of
3D printing. Such
dollars, the price for 3D-printing a prosthetic arm or hand can be as little as technology can be
$100. adv: cheaper than myoelectric prosthetics, technology can be life-changing life-changing to an
dis ADV: need more research amputee.
There is still much research needed in this field. However, the results to date
are very encouraging, with many more people now having a chance to replace
missing limbs at a fraction of the cost compared to existing methods.
Tissue engineering use bio-inks + human cells
Recent advances have allowed the 3D printing of bio-compatible materials,
cells and supporting structures. This has enabled the viability of producing dis ADV
artificial cells and tissues within a 3D printed object. 3D bio-printing (using
bio-inks) is a very complex process and requires input from biologists, medical
engineers, physicists and other engineers. It has already been used successfully advantages:
to produce multi-layered skin tissue, bone tissue, heart/artery grafts and 1- enable the validity of
producing artificial cells and
tracheal splints. 4- expensive tissues
There is still much research to do, but the goal of growing replacement organs, 2- produce multi-layered skin
using cells from the actual patient, is getting ever closer thanks to 3D printing tissues, bone tissues
technology.
Artificial blood vessels use bio-ink + 3D printer
One particular type of tissue engineering is the 3D printing of artificial blood
vessels using human cells. These bio-printed tissues work in much the same way
as natural blood vessels. Biomimetic blood vessels can be fabricated using 3D
printing and bio-inks.

Advice
‘Biomimetic’ refers to the imitation of elements that occur in nature (such as
human cells) to create solutions to human anatomy problems.
‘Bio-inks’ are biological inks developed to work with 3D inkjet printers. By using
3D layering, they produce artificial live tissue. These biological inks are made up of ▲ Figure 6.25 Artificial
human cells and other materials (usually biopolymer gels). blood vessels produced
using 3D printing
Figure 6.25 shows a photograph of artificial blood vessels created from a 3D technique
printer.

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6 ICT applications

Customised medicines
3D printing techniques now allow scientists to customise medicines to suit the
individual. This is known as patient-centric medicine. 3D printed medicines
are sometimes referred to as printlets (printed tablets). As newly developed
medicines are now very potent, and can have different effects on different people,
there is now a need to review the manufacturing methods used to produce them.
3D printing offers the possibility of creating personalised medicine which allows
automatically controlled release of the medicine into the patient. It even allows
multiple medicines, within a single printlet, to make fixed-dose combinations and
allows for the optimum release of each medicine into the body.
technology: vapour printing
3D printing achieves all this by adopting a new 3D inkjet technology, known as layering of multiple medicine
vapour printing. This is a new technique where layering of multiple medicines can can be done by spraying
be done by spraying them as a fine gas. The vapour printing process works by them as fine gas
evaporating a powdered medicine and then combining it with nitrogen gas. The
resultant gas is then sprayed onto a cooled surface where it crystallises to form a
thin film. The building up of several of these thin films (using 3D printing) forms
the desired tablet with a carefully controlled geometry. Traditional medicines, in
tablet form, are formed by compression of the powder; each compressed tablet has
the same shape. By exploring the connection between geometry of the tablet and
the release of the medicine, it is possible to create the most effective medicine
release profile for each patient. Some of the advantages of this technology include:
» tailor-made medicines to suit the individual
» better control of medicine release into the body
» saves money (many modern medicines are very expensive)
» better targeting of the medicine so its effects can be optimised
» less chance of an overdose of the medicine, thus reducing harmful side-effects
(for example, chemotherapy medicines can have very unwelcome side-effects;
by reducing the release of the medicine to suit the individual, it will not only
work better but also cause fewer harmful side-effects).

Link
▲ Figure 6.26 Examples of 3D generated medicines in tablet form
Refer to Figure 2.36
in Chapter 2 to see
In the future it should be possible to send medicines to local pharmacies in the
how 3D printing uses
form of a blueprint; each blueprint would be custom-made for a patient. By CAD or blueprint
supplying the necessary materials, it would then be possible to print out the designs.
customised medicines for each patient using the blueprint.
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 6.8 Expert systems

6.8 Expert systems

6.8.1 Expert systems
Expert systems have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of
an expert in a particular field. Examples include:
» prospecting for oil and minerals
» diagnostics (finding faults in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
» medical diagnosis
» strategy games (e.g. chess)
» tax and financial planning
» route scheduling for delivery vehicles
» identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds.

Before we describe how expert systems work, it is worth considering their

advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of expert systems
» They offer a high level of expertise.
» They offer high accuracy.
» The results are consistent.
» They have the ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts.
» They can make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics.
» It is possible for an expert system to have multiple types of expertise.
» They offer a very fast response time (much quicker than a human expert).
» They provide unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts.
» They indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct.

Disadvantages of expert systems

» Users of the expert system need considerable training in its use to ensure the
system is being used correctly.
» The set-up and maintenance costs are very high.
» They tend to give very ‘cold’ responses which may not be appropriate in
certain medical situations.
» They are only as good as the information/facts entered into the system.
» Users sometimes make the very dangerous assumption that they are infallible.
Figure 6.27 shows the typical make up of an expert system.

Explanation explain to the user the chain of

system reasoning used to arrive to a conclusion

User Inference Knowledge - Collection of facts

interface engine base - Database to allow storage and retrieval
allow non-expert user
to query (question)
expert system Rules - set of rules for making deduction of data
base
- made of series of inference rules (if-then rules)
▲ Figure 6.27 Expert system structure
- search engine
- apply inference rules for information that match 143
user query
6 ICT applications

User interface input data, show results (output)

» This is the method by which the expert system interacts with a user.
» It allows interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input
methods.
» The questions being asked usually only have yes/no answers and are based on
the responses to previous questions.

Explanation system
» This informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions
and recommended actions.
» For example, suppose the user was investigating a series of symptoms in a
patient and the expert system gave the diagnosis of mercury poisoning; the
explanation system would explain its reasoning with a statement such as
‘impaired vision, lack of coordination, weak muscles, slurred speech and the
patient used to work in a paint factory’. The user could then probe deeper
if necessary.
» The expert system will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to
take; the important thing is it will also give the percentage probability of
the accuracy of its conclusions (for example, the following statement could
be made: ‘Based on the information given to me, the probability of finding
oil bearing rocks in location 123AD21G is about 21%’).

Inference engine
» This is the main processing element of the expert system.
» The inference engine acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base
for information/data that matches the queries.
» It is responsible for gathering information from the user by asking a series of
questions and applying responses where necessary; each question being asked
is based on the previous responses.
» The inference engine is the problem-solving part of the expert system, which
makes use of inference rules in the rules base.
» Because the knowledge base is a collection of objects and attributes,
the inference engine attempts to use information gathered from the
user to find an object that matches (making use of the rules base to
find a match).

Knowledge base
» The knowledge base is a repository of facts.
» It stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a number
of expert resources.
» It is basically a collection of objects and their attributes (see the example in
Table 6.5).

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 6.8 Expert systems

▼ Table 6.5 Sample knowledge base showing objects and attributes

Object Attribute 1 Attribute 2 Attribute 3 Attribute 4 Attribute 5

Dog mammal lives on makes bark body is walks on
land sounds covered in fur four legs

Whale mammal lives in makes sonic body covered swims; no

water sound in skin legs

Duck bird lives in makes quack body covered swims; has

water sounds in feathers two legs

» So, if we had the following series of questions and answers:

– Is it a mammal? YES
– Does it live in water? YES
– Does it make sonic sounds? YES
– Is its body covered in skin? YES
– Does it have any legs? NO
the conclusion would be: it is a WHALE.
Rules base
» The rules base is a set of inference rules.
» Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions (the
methods used closely follow human reasoning).
» They follow logical thinking like the example above; usually involving a series
of ‘IF’ statements, for example:
IF continent = ‘South America’ AND language = ‘Portuguese’ THEN country = ‘Brazil’.
Now that we know how an expert system works, it is important to find out how
to set one up.
gather information
Setting up an expert system Important - human expert
- written source (textbooks,
» Information needs to be gathered from human experts or from written sources Internet, research paper)
such as textbooks, research papers or the internet.
» Information gathered is used to populate the knowledge base, which needs to create knowledge base
be first created.
» A rules base needs to be created; this is made up of a series of inference rules
so that the inference engine can draw conclusions. create rules base:
- series of inference rules
» The inference engine itself needs to be set up; it is a complex system since it
- inference engine can
is the main processing element, making reasoned conclusions from data in the draw conclusion
knowledge base.
» The user interface needs to be developed to allow the user and the expert create inference engine:
system to communicate. - complex and the main
» Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested; this is done by running processing element
the system with known outcomes so that results can be compared and any - make conclusion from data in
knowledge base according to
changes to the expert system made. the rule base
We will now consider three examples which make use of expert systems. create user interface:
allow communication between
user and expert system

Test system: running system with

known outcomes and comparing
results, to check if any changes
are needed 145
6 ICT applications

Example 1: medical diagnosis we need to understand examples

you may be asked to write about an example
Input screen

• First of all an interactive screen is

presented to the user Expert system
• The system asks a series of questions
about the patient’s illness • The inference engine compares the
• The user answers the questions asked symptoms entered with those in the
(either as multiple-choice or yes/no knowledge base looking for matches
questions) • The rules base is used in the matching
• A series of questions are asked process
based on the user’s responses • Once a match is found, the system
to previous questions suggests the probability of the
patient’s illness being identified
accurately
• The expert system also suggests
Output screen possible solutions and remedies to
• The diagnosis can be in the form of cure the patient or recommendations
text or it may show images of the on what to do next
human anatomy to indicate where • The explanation system will give
the problem may be reasons for its diagnosis so that the
• The user can request further user can determine the validity of the
information from the expert system diagnosis or suggested treatment
to narrow down the possible illness
and its treatment

▲ Figure 6.28 Medical diagnosis (example of use of an expert system)

Example 2: oil prospecting

» An interactive user screen appears (this is often made up of multiple-choice
questions or yes/no responses).
» Questions are asked about geological profiles.
» Answers to questions/geological profiles are typed in by the operator.
» The next questions asked are based on the previous response(s) input by the
operator.
» The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base.
» The system suggests the probability of
finding oil as an output.
» It also indicates the probable depth of
deposits (usually as a % probability).
» The explanation system will also explain 5
how the expert system arrived at its
2
conclusions.
» It makes predictions about geological
deposits above the soil. 6
1
» It produces contour maps showing
concentration of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.
3
Example 3: route scheduling for delivery
vehicles
4
An expert system could be employed to find
the most efficient route for a parcel delivery
van. The software will determine the fastest 7

and least expensive route, as well as suggest

the number of vehicles and drivers that
should be used. The example in Figure 6.29 ▲ Figure 6.29 Most efficient route map

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 6.8 Expert systems

dis advantage
is fairly simple, but some national and international routes can be very complex.
The inputs needed for the delivery system are: Exercise 6h
» the number of drop-off points and their location 1 Write down three
» the distance between the drop-off points advantages of
» the type of vehicle used using an expert
» delivery times expected at each drop-off point system in route
scheduling.
» layout of the road network.
2 Write down three
disadvantages of
using an expert
system in route
Exercise 6i scheduling.

56

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18

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A C J
8
8
5
10

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16

16 10
D 26
I

The map above shows the distances between ten towns, in kilometres.
A delivery company has to deliver a parcel from town ‘A’ to town ‘J’.
Work out the shortest possible route the delivery van can take.

Exercise 6j
1 Write a sequence of instructions to show how the following expert systems
would be set up:
a identification of a chemical found at, for example, a crime scene
b a strategy game, such as chess
c engine diagnostics for a racing car.
2 Write a sequence of instructions to show how the following expert systems
would be used to:
a diagnose circuit board faults in television sets
b identify an ‘unknown’ chemical compound
c identify a new species of flower
d produce the best route for a delivery vehicle.

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6 ICT applications

Exercise 6k
Which expert system terms are being described below?
1 A repository of facts made up of a collection of objects and their attributes.
2 It informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions
and recommended actions.
3 It is made up of a user interface, explanation system and inference engine.
4 It contains a set of inference rules.

6.9 Computers in the retail industry

6.9.1 Computers in the retail industry
Computers are used in the retail industry at point-of-sale (POS) terminals, where
they are also used in the automatic stock control systems.
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals
Barcodes now appear on most products sold in shops. They allow quick
Link
identification of product details once the barcode has been scanned by a Refer to Chapter 2 for
barcode reader. Supermarkets, in particular, use point-of-sale (POS) terminals more on barcodes.
which incorporate a barcode reader to scan the barcode and retrieve the price of
the article. It also relays information back to the computer system allowing it to
update its files (more of this later).
Barcodes are made up of alternating dark and light lines of varying thickness. A
number underneath the barcode usually consists of four parts: a country code,
manufacturer’s code, product code and a check digit. The check digit is a form
of validation which is used to make sure no errors occurred during the reading of
the barcode.

▲ Figure 6.30 Barcode sample

Barcodes are used in the automatic control of stock levels in a supermarket.

Stock file fields:
The following sequence shows how barcodes and POS terminals are used in the - barcode : primary key
automatic stock control system: important to know and understand steps - price : currency/ double
» Barcodes are attached to all items sold by the supermarket. - stock level : number
» Each barcode is associated with a stock file which contains details such as - product description: text
- minimum level: number
price, stock levels, product description – the barcode will act as the primary - order done(flag): yes/no
key in the file.
» A customer takes their trolley/basket to the POS terminal once they have
completed their shopping. Order file:
» The barcode on each item is scanned at the POS – if the barcode cannot be - barcode
read, then the EPOS operator has to key in the number manually. - Quantity
» The barcode is searched for on the stock file until a match is found. - order date
- arrived: yes/no
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 6.9 Computers in the retail industry

» Once the barcode has been found, the appropriate record is accessed.
» The price of the item is then found and sent back to the POS together with a
product description.
» The stock level for the item is found in the record and is reduced by one and
the new stock level is written back to the file. - stock <= minimum
- order item
– If the number in stock of the item is less than or equal to the
re-order/minimum number in stock, then the computer automatically orders
a batch of items from the suppliers (supplier information would be found
on another file called the order file or supplier file – the barcode would be
the link between the two files). relationship
– Once goods have been ordered, the item is flagged on the file to indicate when goods are ordered they
an order has been placed; this now prevents re-order action being triggered are flagged to prevent re-order
every time this item is scanned until the new stock arrives.
when goods arrive barcode on
– When new goods arrive, the barcodes on the cartons will be used to update cartoon will be used to
the stock files; also any flags associated with these goods will be removed 1- update stock file
so that the stock checks can start to be made again. 2- remove any flag
» The above procedure is repeated until all the items in the customer’s basket/
trolley have been scanned.
» When all the items have been scanned, the customer is given an itemised bill
showing a list (with prices) of everything they have bought.
» The computer also updates the files containing the daily takings. daily log file
» If the customer has a loyalty card, the system will also automatically update
their points total.
Most supermarkets now allow customers to scan their own items at special
checkouts; these basically work the same way as the normal POS terminals.
Electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS)
When payment is made by card or electronic device (such as a mobile phone) at the
POS terminal, it is known as electronic funds transfer at the point-of-sale (EFTPOS).
The process of checking credit and debit cards at a supermarket EFTPOS is
much the same as was described for paying a restaurant bill in Section 6.6. The
communication between the supermarket EFTPOS terminals and the bank take
place through a secure connection over the internet.
We will consider payment by the following methods:
» chip and PIN
» contactless cards
» near field communication (NFC) devices.
Chip and PIN
The use of chip and PIN was discussed in Section 6.6. In the case of payment at
a supermarket, this is usually done by inserting the card into a reader and then
the procedure is identical to that described in Section 6.6. The reader makes a
connection with the chip embedded in the card. By entering the PIN, a customer Link
is carrying out a security check. The PIN and encrypted data from the chip is now
sent to the customer’s bank. If all security checks are OK (for example, a check For more on chip and
whether the card has been stolen and a check whether the expiry date has been PIN and contactless
exceeded) and the customer has sufficient funds, then an authorisation code is cards see Sections 6.6
and 2.2.
sent back to the terminal and the funds are transferred to the supermarket’s bank.

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Advantages of chip and PIN cards

» They are more secure system than magnetic stripe cards (PIN typed in must
match up with PIN stored on chip).
» It is a quicker system than magnetic stripe cards and allows for contactless
payments to be made (with chip and PIN the card reader does not need to
be actually connected to the internet/phone line to start the transaction
process; with magnetic stripe cards, the card reader must first contact the
customer’s bank before any authorisation can take place).

Disadvantages of chip and PIN cards

» The risk of fraud when typing in the PIN – the customer needs to be careful to
ensure the PIN is not being read by somebody else while typing it in.
» Some countries do not accept chip and PIN cards.

Contactless cards
The use of contactless card payments was discussed in Section 2.2, together with
their advantages and disadvantages.
Near field communication (NFC) devices
Near field communication (NFC) technology is discussed in more detail in
Section 6.10. When using NFC payment at a POS terminal the sequence of events
taking place is:
» The electronic device (for example, mobile phone) is held close to the NFC
reader (the terminal); this only works up to a distance of 5 cm, so the devices
need to be very close together.
» When the NFC (contactless) payment is initiated, the NFC terminal and
electronic device (smartphone) pass encrypted data back and forth to each
other to enable the payment to be made.
» This is very secure because NFC communications are encrypted and are
dynamic (which means encrypted data being shared changes every time a
transaction takes place).
» Mobile phone manufacturers use tokenisation to improve security.
1- user take photo of credit card
Use of tokenisation with mobile phones using smartphone camera
Tokenisation is used when setting up a mobile wallet. The user takes a
photograph of their credit card using the smartphone’s camera. The details 2- details (card no, name of bank)
on the card (such as card number and name of bank) are securely sent by the are securely sent from smartphone
manufacturer/ mobile wallet to the
smartphone manufacturer/mobile wallet company to the bank that issued
bank that issued the card
the card. The bank replaces the details on the card with a series of randomly
generated numbers (called tokens), which they send back to the mobile 3- Bank replace details on the card
phone manufacturer, who then programs this random number into the user’s with a random number (token)
smartphone. This random number is then the one used for transactions.
This means that retailers or other third parties involved in mobile wallet 4- token sent back to mobile
transactions never have access to real credit card details – if their systems are manufacturer who program
hacked then the stored credit card details are not the real ones and therefore random number (token) into user
useless to the hackers. smartphone

Many smartphones are also protected by touch ID or face ID technology, which 5- random number (token) in used
means that even if the smartphone is stolen, the thief still cannot use the for transaction (not actual data/
smartphone to make payments. actual card number)

150
Tokenization: a process by which a piece of sensitive data, such as a credit card number, is replaced by a
surrogate/random value known as a token. Protect card data and increase security when paying
 6.9 Computers in the retail industry

6.9.2 Internet shopping

Internet banking and internet shopping example of internet banking:
Using internet banking requires good online security. It allows the management of 1- transfer money
a bank account online, including the transfer of sums of money between accounts, 2- payment of bill
payment of bills, ordering of statements, and so on. This is of particular benefit 3- order bank statement
to people who are unable to visit banks during their normal opening hours or if
travelling to the bank is difficult. There are many advantages of internet banking,
but there are disadvantages too. As the amount of online shopping and banking
increases, the positive and negative impacts on society become clearer.
Online shopping and banking means that more and more people are staying at
home to buy goods and services, manage their bank accounts and book holidays,
etc. This can all be done using a computer connected to the internet and some
form of electronic payment (usually a credit or debit card). The following notes
give a comprehensive list of the advantages and disadvantages of using the
internet to carry out these tasks.
Because there is considerable overlap between the advantages and disadvantages
of online banking and online shopping, these are both considered together here
(refer also to Section 6.10 for more information on the retail sector).
Advantages of online shopping and banking
» There is no longer a need to travel into town centres, thus reducing costs
(money for fuel, bus fares, etc.) and time; it also helps to reduce town centre
congestion and pollution.
» Users now have access to a worldwide market and can thus look for products
that are cheaper; this is obviously less expensive and less time consuming
than having to shop around for goods or services in person and they will also
have access to a much wider choice of goods.
» Being able to access any shop or bank without the need to leave home may be
of benefit to some people with disabilities and elderly people.
» Because it is online, shopping and banking can be done at any time on any day
of the week (i.e. 24/7) – this is particularly helpful to people who work during
the day as the shops and banks can often be closed when they finish work.
» People can spend more time doing other things, for example, going shopping to
the supermarket probably took up a lot of time; by doing this online (and being
able to set up repeat items) people are now free to do more leisure activities.
» Similarly, paying bills in person or by posting cheques was time consuming –
now this can be done simply and easily using online banking.
» Many people find it less embarrassing to ask for a bank loan using the internet
rather than enduring a face-to-face discussion with bank staff.
» There are often long queues at the banks so internet banking saves time.
» The shops and banks save money by not having as many staff working for
them (reduced wage bill) or needing as many high-street premises (reduction
in rental costs) – these savings may be passed on to the customer in the form
of lower interest rates, cheaper goods or higher rates of interest for savers.

Disadvantages of online shopping and banking

» There is the possibility of isolation and lack of socialisation if people stay at
home to do all their shopping and banking.
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» There are possible health risks associated with online shopping or banking
because of lack of exercise; if people physically go shopping then they are
getting some exercise.
» Security issues are a major concern (for example, hacking, stealing credit
card details, etc.) as are viruses and other malware (for example, phishing,
pharming, and so on).
» Accidentally using fraudulent bank or shopping websites is always a risk and
this is linked to security issues.
» It is necessary to have a computer and to pay for the internet to take part in
online shopping and banking.
» Unlike high-street shopping, it is only possible to see a picture of the goods,
(which might not portray the exact colour of an item of clothing, for example)
and nor can you try something on to see if it fits before buying them; you
also have to wait several days for the goods to arrive and returning goods may
be expensive and time consuming.
» Next-day delivery of individual items leads to more delivery traffic and pollution.
» High-street shops and banks are closing because of the increase in online
shopping and banking and this is leading to deserted high streets.
» Local independent retailers may lose out to huge multinational retail companies.
» It is easier to make errors with online banking and transfer money incorrectly
to different accounts.

Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking

Companies and other organisations have also been affected by the growth of ICT
and online shopping and banking. Some of the effects are listed below:
» Companies can save costs because fewer staff need to be paid and it is not More cost like:
necessary to have as many shops and banks in high streets to deal with 1- retrain staff
potential customers. 2- employ more staff in
» Because the internet is global, the potential customer base is increased. despatch department
» There will be some increased costs, however, because of the need to 3- setting up and
retrain staff and the need to employ more staff in despatch departments. maintenance of website
» There are also costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to
enable online shopping and banking. Less cost like:
» Because there is very little or no customer–employee interaction, this could 1- less staff/ employees
lead to a drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to loss of customers (this 2- no need to have many
could also be brought about by the lack of personal service associated with shops in high streets
online shopping and banking). 3- less security staff
» Robberies are less likely due to the decrease in the number of high-street banks.
» Banks also need to employ fewer security staff, which has a cost benefit.

Exercise 6l
1 Revisit the earlier sections of this chapter and other parts of the book.
Gather together your information and then write an article on the advantages
and disadvantages of shopping on the internet compared to shopping on
the high street.
Consider aspects such as convenience, costs and security.
2 Find out as many areas as you can in the retail industry that use barcodes
(including QR codes) and explain why barcodes are used. What other methods exist
which could replace barcodes? Why have these other methods not been adopted?

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 6.10 Recognition systems

6.10 Recognition systems used to directly enter data

into a computer system. Link
6.10.1 Recognition systems See Section 2.2 for
more on OMR, OCR,
Recognition systems include OMR, barcode readers, QR code readers, OCR, RFID QR codes and RFID.
and biometric recognition systems. Many of these were discussed in Chapter 2 Further discussion of
and earlier on in this chapter. biometric security is
made in Section 8.3.
This section will consider a number of applications which make use of these data
recognition systems.
- more accurate
Optical mark recognition (OMR) - quicker method of entering
data into a computer system
Use of OMR to read school registers
Other digital methods of registering students were mentioned earlier on in this
chapter (i.e. use of magnetic stripe cards and biometrics). However, paper-based
systems are still used in many schools. The paper-based registers are often
scanned in to a computer using OMR. The attendance records are then stored on a
central database.

FIRE Academy
Term 1 Week 4 (2022)
Tutor Group: 7AS

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

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▲ Figure 6.31 Sample register which can be read by OMR

The database can be searched or sorted to find data about the attendance of any
student. - Pencil or pen marks are
scanned in by the OMR (Optical
Use of OMR to read multiple-choice question (MCQ) papers
Mark Reader).
Completed multiple-choice forms can be scanned in using OMR. The forms have
timing marks down one side – these timing marks pass under the first column - scanner is used to scan papers
sensor of the scanner. These marks indicate the position of each question on the
paper. Using OMR software, a template is created to map out the X-Y coordinates - sensor is used to read the
marked answer (light sensor)
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- Form has timing marks ==> marks pass under scanner sensor ==> marks indicate position of each question paper
- using OMR software, template is created to map X-Y coordinates of each lozenge (filled or unfilled area)
- value is assigned to each lozenge
6 ICT applications

of each lozenge (area which is filled in by pencil/ink or left blank) – a value information on OMR sheet
is then assigned to each lozenge. As each question is scanned, a light passes (pre-printed form)
through the scanner which picks up the position of any lozenge which has been 1- lozenges
2- details of the test
filled in by pencil/ink. The position of the filled in lozenges is compared to 3- Student/ person name
the corresponding coordinates on the ‘answer sheet template’. If the position 4- Student/ person ID
matches to the X-Y coordinates, then the answer is recorded as being correct. The5- Questions numbers
scanned results are exported to a database or spreadsheet. 6- Center number
If more than one lozenge is filled in for each question, then the OMR software 7- Center name
8- Date of birth
simply discards that result. Marking MCQ sheets using OMR is much quicker
and more accurate than doing the task manually. Because the results are
Student information
automatically exported to a database or spreadsheet, it is much easier to analyse
the results.
Advantages of OMR devices
» It is a very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc. – the documents
are fed in automatically and there is no user input.
» Because there is no typing, they are more accurate than keying in the data.
» They are more accurate than OCR methods. - much easier to analyze results because data
is automatically exported to database or spreadsheet
Disadvantages of OMR devices
» The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks/shading are
correctly positioned to gather accurate information. Link
» There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly, and sometimes
have to be manually checked before being read – this is both time consuming A comparison
and expensive. between OCR and
OMR devices was
» They often only work with black pen or pencil.
covered in
» They are limited to the questions on the paper; it is not possible to get Section 2.2.4.
expansion to answers in a questionnaire, for example.
- not suitable for text input
Barcode readers - Have to use prepared forms which may be expensive
Please refer to Chapter 2 (Section 2.2.5) for information about barcode readers,
including their advantages and disadvantages.
QR code readers
Please refer to Chapter 2 (Section 2.2.6) for information about QR code readers,
including their advantages and disadvantages.
Optical character recognition (OCR) Scanned text is converted into a format which can be edited
The uses, advantages and disadvantages of optical character recognition
(OCR) were discussed in Chapter 2 (Section 2.2.4). One important use of OCR
was in the clearing of bank cheques, as discussed in Section 6.6. However,
there is one additional, important application of OCR that should be
mentioned here.
Automated number plate recognition (ANPR) systems 1 ABC 234

Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems are used to read the
number plates on cars in a number of applications.
▲ Figure 6.32 Sample
In the example that follows, we will describe how ANPR is used in a car vehicle with number
park to enable entry and exit to be automatically controlled by a computer plate
system.
Sensors are used to detect a car (if its gone over the line) and a signal will be send to a camera to take a
photo, the photo is sent to the microprocessor to extract the image of the number plate using OCR
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 6.10 Recognition systems
example: using ANPR in car park
Step 1
A sensor detects a vehicle and sends a signal to instruct a camera to capture
an image of the front of the vehicle (often an infrared camera is used to give a CCTV camera
clearer image and for use at night).
Camera

Car park - Sensor detect vehicle

barrier - Sensor send signal to camera
- camera capture image of the front of vehicle

▲ Figure 6.33 ANPR system

Step 2 locate plate =>change contrast => segmented => OCR => stored (DB)
i An algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number plate from the image
taken by the camera. This algorithm also takes into account the size of the
number plate and any damage or orientation. 1ABC234
ii The brightness and contrast of the number plate is first adjusted
(this ensures that the characters can be clearly read). 1ABC234
Each character on the number plate is then segmented.
iii Each character is then recognised using OCR software. The characters are 1ABC234
converted into a string of editable text by the software.
iv This text string is then stored on a database.
Step 3
Once all of this has happened, the car park barrier is raised and the motorist is
issued with a ticket. The ticket shows the date and time of entering the car park.
Step 4
When the motorist returns to the car park, they insert their ticket into a machine
which calculates the car park charges. The payment is registered on the database.
The motorist then drives to the exit barrier and the ANPR system again reads the
number plate and checks its database. If the number plate is recognised (and
payment made), the exit barrier is raised.
Advantages of ANPR
» It can be used to automatically monitor average speed of vehicles over a
stretch of road; this can be used in smart traffic management systems (see monitoring
also Section 6.2).
» There is no need to employ car park security guards, which saves money.
» It is a much faster system than having to check a ticket at the exit; car parks
can issue tickets on entry, but this ticket is simply used for payment purposes
by the motorist before leaving the car park and is not used at the exit since
payment will now be linked to the number plate on the car.
» It can be used to automatically control the entry and exit to a car park or
private roads.

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6 ICT applications

» It can be used as a security system; preventing illegal parking and preventing

unauthorised access to private car parks.
» It can be used to analyse driver behaviour (that is, route choice and
destinations) to help in transport planning.
» It can be used in inner-city congestion charging systems; it is possible to
automatically charge a motorist if they enter a congestion zone, but also
allows in permitted vehicles without charge (for example, emergency vehicles,
buses and electric zero-emission vehicles).

Disadvantages of ANPR
» There is a lack of manned security car park surveillance which could lead to could not prevent vandalism
vandalism (and other crimes) because nobody is checking on a regular basis; or crime (less security)
CCTV is often used, but this is often just used ‘after the event’.
» There could be invasion of privacy issues due to the recording of drivers’ - expensive: need to buy
number plates. cameras, sensors and programs
» Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be recognised by the system.
» Number plate cloning; the ANPR system only recognises the number plate and
not the car, so it is possible for a car to be fitted with a cloned number plate
thus by-passing car park security, for example.
care may have a fake number plate

Exercise 6m
Describe how automated number plate recognition (ANPR) systems can be used
in smart traffic management systems. Your description should include how ANPR
is used and how the data gathered by ANPR would be used in traffic management
control and monitoring.

Radio frequency identification devices (RFID)

Radio frequency identification devices (RFID) were covered in Chapter 2
(Section 2.2). This section will look specifically at four uses of RFIDs:
» tracking of stock Uses radio waves to capture and store
» passports information on a tag
» automobiles
» contactless payments.

First of all, we will consider the advantages and disadvantages of using RFID.
Advantages of RFID
» No line-of-sight contact is necessary; the tags can be read from a distance.
» It is a very robust and reliable technology.
» Tags are much more difficult to forge than barcodes; barcodes can be altered
or even damaged, but RFID tags are more robust and difficult to alter.
» RFID tags can reduce the number of staff needed in, for example, a warehouse
because tracking of items is automatic (thus reducing costs).
» It provides a very fast read rate (typically < 100 milliseconds to respond).
» It allows bi-directional data transfer (that is, it allows read and write
operations to take place).
» Bulk detection is possible (that is, detect several RFID tags at the same time).

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 6.10 Recognition systems

Disadvantages of RFID
» Tag collision – this is when the signals from two or more tags overlap,
interfering with each other.
» Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively easy to jam or interrupt.
» It is relatively easy to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag.
» Although there is a potential saving in staff wages, the initial cost of an RFID
system is more expensive than a comparable barcode system.

Tracking of stock
As mentioned in Chapter 2, RFID readers use radio waves to read and capture
information stored on a tag. Depending on the power of the radio waves used,
the tag can be read from several metres (for example, in livestock tracking) to
only a few millimetres (for example, in contactless card payments). The RFID tag
is made up of two components:
» a microchip that stores and processes information
» an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information.

The tags can be passive or active. Passive tags use the reader’s radio wave
energy to relay back the information, whereas active tags use a small embedded
battery to power the RFID. Passive tags are the most widely used because they
are smaller and cheaper to implement than active tags. Because active tags have
their own power supply, they can be read from up to 50 metres away.
RFID tag

reader
antenna
chip

computer

▲ Figure 6.34 RFID tag showing antenna and chip

Tracking of stock using RFID involves either tracking of livestock (on a farm) or
goods in a shop, supermarket or distribution centre.
» Livestock tracking is used to:
– keep track of the whereabouts of every animal on a farm using active tags
– allow farmers to identify who owns an animal; particularly important where
animals graze freely on farms where it is possible for animals to stray into
neighbouring fields
– keep data about the animals on the tag (for example, medical history, date
of birth, identification (passport) number, and so on).
» Retail make use of RFID tags in the following ways:
– similar to barcodes, but can contain much more information and do not
require any manual scanning; details, such as price, description, and so on,
can all be stored on the tag and then automatically read at a checkout –
a big advantage is that several tags can be read at the same time, thus
speeding up the checkout process

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– can be used in distribution centres; an item can easily be located because

the tag can store its exact location in the warehouse
– allow automatic tracking of an item from warehouse to customer; the
customer can be informed at all stages where the item is.
Passports use passive RFID tag
Tiny RFID chips and antenna (i.e. tags) are now embedded into passports. The
RFID tags in passports have no power supply, so they are examples of passive
tags. When the passport is presented to an RFID scanner, the scanning device
▲ Figure 6.35 RFID
provides enough energy so that the chip can broadcast its stored information.
tag and antenna in a
This information is then sent to a computer. The tiny chips can contain security passport
data, which makes it almost impossible for a person to falsify their identity. For
Reading passport data:
example, photographs and fingerprints can be encoded into these chips. The - Password presented
data sent to the computer is encrypted, increasing the security of the system. - Scanning device provide
The RFID in a passport can be read from six metres which, of course, does pose a energy, so chip broadcast
security risk; but this risk is mitigated against by encrypting the data. stored information
- Information sent to computer
Use of RFID in vehicles
(data is encrypted for security)
RFID tags can be used in vehicles. The main reasons for doing this include:
» The tags allow or deny access to parking in a secure, private car park.
» RFID tags in lorries and delivery vans can be used at weigh-stations to ensure
the vehicle is not carrying too much weight.
» Tags can be used on toll roads; the driver registers their vehicle and
attaches a tag to the windscreen; as the vehicle approaches the barrier, a
device near the barrier (a transponder) reads the tag and checks the stored
reference number, and if it is valid the barrier will open without them
having to stop.
» RFID tags can be used on a car production line to track its progress through
the assembly process.

Contactless credit/debit cards

Contactless credit/debit cards were discussed in Sections 6.6 and 2.1. This type
of card uses an embedded passive RFID tag:
» The chip in the RFID tag is passive and emits a low-powered radio wave when
it comes into contact with an RFID reader.
» An antenna is built into the card to allow a connection with the contactless
reader.
» The RFID reader picks up a signal from the chip and this initiates the payment
process (see Chapter 2 for more details).

Near field communication (NFC) - used by smartphone when

making payment
As mentioned in Section 6.9, near field communication (NFC) can be used
- subset of RFID technology,
by smartphones when making payments. NFC is a subset of RFID technology, operating at particular frequency
operating at a particular frequency, and is another standard for wireless data - another standard for wireless
transmissions. In contrast to general RFID, the frequency at which NFC operates data transmission
requires the sender and receiver to be in very close proximity, which makes
communication more secure. In addition, and again in contrast to general RFID,
NFC devices can act as a receiver (passive) or a reader (active). These features are
what separates NFC from general RFID technology. similarity with RFID

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How smartphones use NFC to make payments was discussed in Section 6.9; the
following notes give some further information about how NFC works. There are
three distinct modes of operation with NFC:
» Peer-to-peer mode (used by smartphones):
– This allows two NFC-enabled devices to exchange information with
each other (for example, two smartphones sharing links, contacts and
photographs with each other by tapping them together).
– Both devices switch between being active (when sending data) and being
passive (when receiving data).
» Read/write mode:
– This is a one-way transmission of data.
– The passive device (for example, a tablet) links up with another device and
reads data from it.
– This is used, for example, when an active tag is sending out advertising
data to other devices.
» Card emulation mode:
– In this mode, an NFC device can function as a smart or contactless card.
– This allows the card to make payments (already discussed in Chapter 2).
– It is often used as way of entering public transport systems, where the card
is placed on an NFC reader to allow access to, for example, a metro system.
NFC has a range up to 5 cm and has a transmission rate of about 420 kilobits Both use wireless connection
per second, which is much smaller than Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. However, NFC has
very fast connectivity since, unlike Bluetooth, there is no need to pair the two
devices connecting. Radio-frequency Identification (RFID) systems communicate
Biometric recognition systems between an antenna or a reader and a tag attached to an object,
while Bluetooth technology is used to communicate between two
Biometric recognitions systems include: Bluetooth-compatible devices.
» face recognition
» iris and retina recognition
» finger and thumb recognition
» hand recognition
» voice recognition.
Face recognition, and finger and thumb recognition systems are covered in depth
in Chapter 8. Hand recognition (gesture control) and voice recognition systems
are covered Chapter 1.
The advantages and disadvantages of different biometric recognition systems are
covered in Table 8.3. For completeness, we will consider two additional examples
here: retina recognition and iris recognition.
Retina recognition
» The retina is the light-sensitive area at the back of the eye that has a unique
pattern of blood vessels.
» The retina cannot be seen without specialised equipment – this means it is a
secure technology, but more expensive to implement. - ADV: cannot be copied
» The special equipment is used to take an infrared photograph of the retina.
» It is quite invasive – the subject has to sit very still and stare directly into
the light source.
- disadvantages: very intrusive
» It is slower to scan and verify.
» It is only used in very specialised high-security settings.
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Iris recognition
» The iris is the coloured part of the eye, surrounding the pupil.
» A digital camera is utilised which uses both visible and near infrared light to
take a sharp photograph of a person’s iris.
» The method produces a unique pattern of a person’s iris by locating and taking
an image of:
dis advantages:
– the centre of the pupil - expensive
– the edge of the pupil - very intrusive
– the edge of the iris - uses a lot of memory for the data Link
– the eyelids and eye lashes. to be stored
Advantages See Section 8.3 for
The system works with contact lenses and glasses, and for blind people. It is more on biometric
used as a method for uniquely identifying a person and, because of the speed of recognition systems,
verification (less than 5 seconds), is used a security system in the following areas: and Section 1.3 for
voice and gesture
» immigration control (in some countries)
recognition.
» some banks have introduced this in some branches as a security feature.

6.11 Satellite systems

6.11.1 Satellites
In this final section, we will be considering:
» global positioning systems and satellite navigation
» geographic information systems (GIS)
» media communication systems (satellite television and satellite phones).

Global positioning systems and satellite navigation

GPS: System to know your location

use 3 to 4 satellites, three to know location, fourth to get object height

Satellite navigation: system GPS + map

take position and display it on the map

▲ Figure 6.36 GPS and satellite navigation systems

Global positioning systems (GPS) are used to determine the exact location of
a number of modes of transport (for example, aeroplanes, cars, ships, etc.). Cars
usually refer to GPS as satellite navigation systems (i.e. ‘satnav’).

Advice
While the term GPS is often used generically, it actually refers to a specific global
navigation satellite system (GNSS) owned and run by the USA. There are other
GNSS that perform the same function, including the Russian GLONASS and the
EU’s Galileo.

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 6.11 Satellite systems

Satellite 1
- Satellites transmit signal to earth
- Computers receive signal
Exact location
of transport
- Data from satellite include position and time
- Computers calculate exact position according to signals
Satellite 2
from three satellites
Satellite 3
▲ Figure 6.37 Three satellite system

Satellites surrounding the Earth transmit signals to the surface. Computers

installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these signals. Each
satellite transmits data indicating its position and time. Satellites need very
accurate timing in order to know their position relative to the Earth. They
use atomic clocks, which are accurate to a billionth of a second per day. The
computer on board the mode of transport calculates its exact position based on
the information from at least three satellites.
In cars, the onboard satellite navigation system contains stored road maps.
When combined with satellite positioning data, the car’s exact location can
be shown on the map and the driver can also be given verbal instructions
such as: ‘After 100 metres, take the next left turn onto the A1234’. A screen
on the satnav device will also show the car’s position in relation to the road
network.

A1234

A1236
A1235
Exact location of the car

▲ Figure 6.38 Satellite navigation system

Advantages of GPS and satnav

» The driver does not have to consult paper maps, so it is far safer.
» It removes errors (can warn drivers about one-way streets, street closures,
etc.).
» The system can estimate the time of arrival.
» It is also possible to program in the fastest route, route to avoid towns, etc.
» The system can also give useful information such as location of petrol
stations.

Disadvantages of GPS and satnav

» If the maps are not kept up to date, they can give incorrect instructions.
» Unless the system is sophisticated, road closures due to accidents or
roadworks, can cause problems.
» Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
» If an incorrect start-point or end-point is keyed in the system will give
incorrect information.

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system that allows us to
map, model, query and analyse large amounts of data according to their location.
GIS allows users to create interactive queries, edit map data or analyse spatial
information. (Spatial information refers to how objects fit together in space.) The
technology combines maps with computer graphics and databases.
Essentially GIS enables the following:
combine
» amalgamation of information into easily understood maps
» performance of complex analytical calculations and then presentation of the
results in the form of maps, tables or graphics (or a combination of all three)
» geographers, scientists and engineers are able to see the data in several
different ways in order to see patterns and relationships
» anything that can be placed on a map is a candidate for GIS.

The following example shows how these layering techniques are used to produce
a visually effective answer to a query made in the GIS system:
State boundaries
+ National parks
and forests
+ Emission
monitoring
locations

▲ Figure 6.39 Layering of state boundaries using GIS

Carrying out queries on GIS systems (in a method similar to internet searches)
will find data that matches the query. The data will be displayed in the form of
a diagram, map or set of tables. By zooming into the map, it is possible to find
finer details about the layering data used.
Examples of the use of GIS
» Emergency services use GIS to send the closest emergency personnel to a
location.
» Biologists and environmentalists use GIS to protect animal life and plants in
certain vulnerable areas (which meet a certain criteria after carrying out a
search on the database).
» Teachers can use GIS in their geography, science or engineering lessons.

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 6.11 Satellite systems

» It can be used for crime mapping in a region or in a country.

» It can be used for route monitoring (used in conjunction with route
scheduling software).
» It can be used for management of agricultural crop data.
» It can address public health issues – it was used in 2020 and 2021 during
the Covid-19 pandemic to show how the virus spread in different parts of the
world and allowed data to be combined (such as, age groups, ethnic group,
population density, and so on) to create a unique insight into how it spread.
» It can map of wildfire risks (it was used in Australia in 2019 during the
wildfire outbreaks; it was possible to map out where and how the fire was
spreading).

Advantages of GIS
» It allows geographical and thematic data of any kind to be combined in a way
which shows how they are connected to each other.
» It allows the handling and exploration of huge amounts of data (massive
number crunching).
» It allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very different sources
(which appear at first to be totally unconnected).

Disadvantages of GIS
» The learning curve on GIS software can be very long.
» GIS software is very expensive.
» GIS requires enormous amounts of data to be input (thus increasing the
chances of errors).
» It is difficult to make GIS programs which are both fast and user-friendly; GIS
requires very complex command language interfaces to work properly.

Media communication systems

Communication media refers to a method of delivering and receiving data/
information using telecommunications.
There are many types of media used to send and receive information (for
example, fibre optics, copper cable and Wi-Fi); we will concentrate on the global
communication method which makes use of satellites.
Satellites contain antennas, transponders (to allow receiving and sending of
data), solar panels (for power from the Sun) and propulsion (to ensure the ▲ Figure 6.40 Satellite
satellite is in the correct orbit at all times). systems
Signals are converted to analogue (if necessary) and then beamed to the satellite
from a satellite dish on the Earth. The signals are delivered by carrier waves
which consist of radio waves. Each signal has its own frequency and bandwidth
(the larger the bandwidth the more data can be transmitted).
Once the data reaches the satellite, it is then re-sent to Earth. The satellite usually
‘boosts’ the signal before sending it back. Often the frequency of the signal is
changed to prevent the signal received being confused with the signal sent. Disadvantages for using cables in
long distance communication
Satellite systems are used to transmit data from one part of the planet to - too costly
another. Due to the great distances involved, cables would be too costly and - signal deterioration over long
there is also the problem of signal deterioration in cables over long distances. distance
damage
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Satellites systems are used to transmit television, telephone and internet data
around the world. used to transmit data from one part of the planet to another
Advantages of media communication systems
» They have good global coverage (covers the majority of the Earth’s surface).
» They are cheaper, faster and safer than laying cables in difficult or
treacherous terrain.
» They have a very high bandwidth.
» It is relatively easy to expand the network (there are numerous companies
now manufacturing satellites for various uses).
» Security in satellite transmission is very good due to the fact that data is
coded and the receiver requires decoding equipment to read the data.
» During emergency situations it is relatively easy to move stations on the
ground from one place to another; satellites can also change their orbits if
necessary, using built-in boosters.
» They are well-suited for broadcasting, that is, one satellite signal being picked
up by many different receivers on the ground.
» Satellite receivers on the ground can be portable, enabling mobile
communication in very remote locations.

Disadvantages of media communication systems

» There is a time delay in receipt of the signals (this can be a problem in voice - signal delay
communications, where even 0.5 seconds delay can be noticeable as the sound - delay sound / video
and video appear out of synchronisation) or there may appear to be an ‘echo’ - sound echo
on the sound (note that there would also be a time delay for long-distance
fibre-optic communications too).
» The signals received can be affected by bad weather (for example, heavy rain
or hailstones), obstructions (such as tree branches) and whether the satellite
dish has been correctly orientated.
» Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
» If they are not in a fixed position relative to the Earth then they need to
be monitored and controlled on a regular basis to ensure they remain in the
correct orbit.

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
1 The managers of a company are concerned about illegal parking in their car
park. Drivers are parking their cars in the private car park and then walking
to the local football match. There have been a few instances of damage
to employees’ cars. A decision has been made to install a number plate
recognition system and barrier so they can control cars entering and leaving
the car park. Anyone visiting the company will need to register their car’s
number plate with the receptionist prior to their visit.
a Explain how this system could check that a car approaching the barrier
had been registered with the receptionist beforehand. [4]
b After a visitor parks their car, they have to report to the receptionist.
They are then given a badge which contains an RFID tag. The chip in
this tag is read to allow the visitor access to certain floors in the building.
Prior to this electronic system, badges contained a barcode. Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of using RFID chips rather than barcodes
on visitor’s badges. [6]
c The company would like to offer visitors access to their facilities,
such as the restaurant, coffee shop and gift shop. Before arriving
at the company, visitors are sent a QR code which they can download
to their smartphone.
Describe how the visitor could use a QR code to find out more about
the company. [3]
d Payment at the restaurant is made using an NFC-enabled smartphone.
Explain:
i what is meant by NFC [2]
ii how the smartphone can be used to make payments. [3]
2 You have been asked by your teacher to use a word processor to create a
brochure for a new intake of pupils. The brochure will consist of:
» Images of the school taken from a digital camera.
» Printed archive photographs.
» Information about the school already stored in text files.
» Information to be typed directly into the brochure.
a Describe the steps which you will need to take to create the brochure. [6]
b When the brochure is being created, the word processing software
automatically checks the spelling of the text as it is typed in and may
suggest alternative words.
Explain why the suggestions may not always be appropriate. [3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q7 a & b,
October/November 2019

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3 Robots are being used in the oil industry to find new deposits under the
Earth’s surface.
a Give three advantages of using robots rather than humans when
searching for new oil deposits. [3]
b Give two disadvantages of using robots rather than humans. [2]
4 An automatic washing machine contains a device to read RFID chips sewn
into clothing. When an item of clothing is placed in the washing
machine it is scanned.
a Describe how the data is read from the RFID chip. [2]
b Explain the benefits of using RFID technology in a washing machine. [2]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q9,
May/June 2017

5 The city of Venice is in danger of being damaged due to rising sea levels.
A new computer controlled flood defence system is being planned. The
developers of the system are using a spreadsheet to model the plan.
a Give three reasons why computer models are used to simulate the flood
defence system. [3]
b The city uses a manual system for detecting flood waters.
This relies on people watching for the rising levels of water.
Explain why creating a computerised system is better than using the
manual system. [4]
c The developers have used the results from the model to choose a
computer controlled flood defence system. It will have a barrier which
can open or close.
Describe the role of the microprocessor in such a system. [5]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q10,
May/June 2017

6 A theatre manager holds a number of music concerts through the summer

months. She has decided to introduce an online booking system to replace
her current paper-based booking system.
Give four advantages of using an online booking system. [4]
7 The banking industry has rapidly changed over the last few years as modern
technology has developed.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using online banking rather
than other banking methods to the customer. [8]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q16,
October/November 2017

8 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using internet shopping

to both the customers and to the retail companies. [8]

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 Exam-style questions

9 Seven statements are shown on the left and seven computer terms are
shown on the right.
By drawing arrows, connect each description to the correct computer
term.[6]
Users watch movies or sound files on a Biomimetics
device connected to the internet; there is
no need to download the files first

Simulation of a real system in order Computer-aided learning

to study its behaviour; it is computer-
generated and is based on mathematical
calculations

Type of vehicle which is effectively a robot Media streaming

capable of driving on the roads without a
human driver

Temporary memory that compensates Buffering

for the different download speeds and
playback speeds of a device

Use of a computer-based system to assist Computer model

in the education of a student

Automated transfer of money from one

bank account to another; no physical money Electronic funds transfer
is actually transferred

Imitation of the elements of human nature

to solve human anatomical problems Autonomous

10 a Complete the diagram below, which shows the structure of an expert

system, using the terms below. [4]

Explanation system Inference engine Knowledge base

Rules base User interface

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b Explain the function of the following expert system components:  [10]

i explanation system
ii inference engine
iii knowledge base
iv rules base
v user interface.
c Describe how an expert system could be used to diagnose a fault in a
computer system. [5]
11 Each of the following ten statements are True or False.
Tick (✓) the appropriate box to indicate which statements are true and
which statements are false. [10]
Statement True (✓) False (✓)
NFC can work up to 50 metres away.
The RFID chip consists of a tag and an antenna.
GIS systems require complex command language
interfaces.
Satellite signals are unaffected by bad weather and
physical obstructions, such as tree branches.
Building a computer model is often much cheaper than
building the real thing.
One advantage of CAL is the ability of the student to stop
at any point and resume from where they left off at a later
date.
The first step in processing a cheque by taking an
electronic image is called ‘out clearing’.
Electronic funds transfer is a very insecure payment
method.
3D printing uses five different coloured bio-ink cartridges
(black, bio-grade black, cyan, yellow and magenta).
Strategic games, such as chess, can be run on an expert
system.

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