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Stress - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Stress at the Word Level
Rules of Word Stress
Sentence Stress

Introduction
Not all syllables in a word are given equal emphasis. By the same token, not all words in
a sentence are said with equal length.
The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or certain words in
a sentence is what we refer to as stress.
You say a syllable or a word is stressed when it is said louder or longer than the rest.
Stress is studied in two levels:
a. Word level; and
b. Sentence level.

Stress at the Word Level

A part of a certain word when said louder or longer then it is stressed.

Rules of Word Stress

1. For two-syllable nouns and adjectives, stress the first, for example
Cloudy carton table
2. For verbs with two syllables and prepositions, emphasize the second syllable,
for example Trans/fer—two syllables
3. Words with three syllables.
a. Those ending in – er, -ly, emphasis put on the first syllable, for example,
b. Stress the first, for those ending in consonants and in – y, for example,
c. Stress the last syllable if the word ends in – ee, -ese, -eer, -ique, -ette, for example,
d. Look at the ones with the suffixes below, where stress is placed on the second,
-ary: library
-cial: judicial, commercial
-cian: musician, clinician
-tal : capital, recital

— Stress is important in studying the heteronyms. A pair, or group of words is referred to as heteronym
when those words are spelled the same way but have different pronunciation and meaning. We have two
main categories of heteronyms:

a. Noun- verb pairs; and

b. Verb -and-adjective pairs.

— We stress the first syllable if noun and the second if verb.

Examples of noun-and-verb pairs are included in the table below:

Noun Verb Noun Verb

Abuse Graduate
Record Cement
Convert Wind

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Abuse Sin
Contest Produce
Duplicate Excuse
Polish Insult
Rebel Permit

— In sentences;

a. Many factories produce the produce we import.

b. Allan became a convert after deciding to convert to christianity.

Sentence Stress
Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
Most sentences have two basic word types:
a. Content words which are the key words carrying the sense or meaning- message.
b. Structure words which just make the sentence grammatically correct. They give
the sentence its structure.

Look at the sentence below:

Buy milk feeling tired.

— Though the sentence is incomplete, you will probably understand the message in it. The
four words are the content words. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, are content words.
— You can add words to the sentence to have something like:

Will you buy me milk since I am feeling tired?

— The words: will, you, me, since, I, are just meant to make the sentence correct
grammatically.
— They can also be stressed to bring the intended meaning.

Now let’s study the sentence below:

Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.

— Each word in the sentence can be stressed to bring the meaning as illustrated in the table.

Sentence Meaning
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. She doesn’t think that, but someone else does.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. It is not true that Joan thinks that.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan doesn’t think that, she knows that.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Not Akinyi, but someone else. Probably Njuguna or
Adhiambo.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi did something to the green skirt,
may be washed it.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi stole someone else’s green skirt,
but not mine.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. She thinks Akinyi stole my red skirt which is also
missing.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Joan thinks Akinyi stole my green shirt.
She mispronounced the word.

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Exercise 1

1. The words that follow can be nouns or verbs dependingon the stressed syllable. Use each as both
the verb and noun in a single sentence.
a. Cement
b. Address
c. Permit
d. Content
2. Underline the part of the word in boldface you will stress in each of the following sentences.
a. The boy has been asked to de.sert the de.sert.
b. My handsome es.cort will es.cort me to the dance.
c. After updating my re.sume, I will re.sume my job search.
d. They have to con.test in the annual Math con.test.
e. If you con.vict me, I will remain a con.vict for 5 years.

Exercise 2

Each word in the sentences below can be stressed to bring the meaning. What will be the meaning when
each word is stressed?

a. I love your sister’s handwriting.

b. You came late today.

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Intonation - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Falling Intonation
Rising Intonation

Introduction
It is the rise and fall of voice in speaking.
Intonation is crucial for communication.
In English there are basically two kinds of intonation: rising and falling.
We can use arrows to show the intonation – whether rising or falling. ↘ represents
falling intonation while ↗ represents the rising one.
Intonation can be used to manipulate statements; changing them into questions,
expressing certainty, politeness, doubts etc.
Her name is Mary. (falling) certain

Her name is Mary. (rising) doubting.

Have you had your lunch? (falling) polite

Have you had your lunch? (rising) indifferent

Falling Intonation
Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence.
This usually happens in:
a. Statements, for example,
I like↘ bananas.
It is nice working with ↘ you.
She travelled to↘ Eldoret.
b. W/H Questions (Questions that do not require a yes/no answer)
What is your ↘ name?
Where do you ↘ live?
How old are↘ you?
Who is this young↘ man?
c. Commands
Get out ↘ now.
Give me the ↘ money.
Close your ↘ books.
d. Exclamatory sentences e.g.
What a wonderful ↘ present!
How ↘ nice of you
e. Falling intonation is also used in a list to show that you have reached your final item. E.g.

↗ One, ↗ two,↗ three, ↗ four,↘ five.

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Rising Intonation
When we raise our voice.
Used in:
a. General Questions (mostly those that require a yes/no answer) e.g.
Do you visit them↗ often?
Have you seen ↗ her?
Are you ready to ↗ start?
Could you give me a↗ pen, please?
b. Alternative questions e.g.
Do you want ↗ coffee or ↘ tea?
Does he speak↗ Kiswahili or ↘ English?
c. Before tag questions e.g.
This is a beautiful ↘ place, ↗ isn’t it?
She knows↘ him,↗ doesn’t she?
d. Enumerating e.g.
↗ One, ↗ two,↗ three, ↗ four,↘ five.
She bought ↗ bread, ↗ cheese, ↗ oranges, and ↘ apples.
e. Rising intonation is also used when you call for the attention of someone. E.g.
Sheila? (rising) Hey (rising)

Exercise

Using an arrow, determine whether rising or falling intonation is used in the sentences.

a. This music sounds good.

b. I love watching horror movies.
c. My sister’s name is Amina.
d. Blue is my favourite colour.
e. Is that tv good?
f. Do you like that movie?
g. Are you hungry?
h. Get me my shoes.
i. Study your lessons now.
j. Are you insane?
k. How many more hours before you are done with your work?
l. Which novel is the best for you?
m. He is a little bit nervous, isn’t he?
n. You should listen to your parents’ advice.
o. Did you finish your homework?
p. Water is good for the body.
q. This is good!
r. What a crazy show.

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Debate - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Preparation Time
Points Delivery
Heckling

Introduction
A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of view.
There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the opposition.
These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a mixed
football team.’
The teams are given enough preparation time.
The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and
offer arguments rejecting the resolution.
Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the other
team.
Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer
constructive feedback.

Preparation Time
This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate.
During this time:
1. Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other
students, etc.
2. Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation.
3. Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror.
4. If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before
your presentation.
5. Dress decently.

Points Delivery
Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery:

1. Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way.

2. Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring.
3. Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not
win debates.
4. Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person.
5. Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members.
6. Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point.
7. Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your audience
and the judge more time to process your strong points.
8. Use gestures to elaborate on your points.
9. Pause to divide your major points.

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Heckling
Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted.
Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to the
judge of the debate.
They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately expressed by
the speaker.
There are two types of heckles:
Those that are non-verbal, such as,
- Rapping the knuckles on the desktop.
- Rapping the palm on the desk.
- Stamping the feet

They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by
the speaker.
Those that are verbal, such as,
- Objective
- Evidence
- Point of information

They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to
alert the judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument.

Exercise

After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have delivered
your points to earn their heckling?

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Interviews - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Tips for the Interviewees
Job Interview Preparations
During the Interview
Common Blunders you MUST Avoid
Tips for Interviewers
Before the Interview:
During the Interview:

Introduction
Have you ever attended the formal meetings where you are asked questions and are expected to
respond to them? More than once you will be invited to attend interviews. You can also
invite someone to interview. For this reason, you should some interview tips.
The two participants in an interview are the interviewer (at times a panel of interviewers), and the
interviewee.

Tips for the Interviewees

Job Interview Preparations

If you really want to be considered for a particular job following an interview, you have
to adequately prepare to succeed. The following are the preparations the interviewee would put
in place before the interview:
a. Contact your referees to alert them that you will be interviewed and they are likely
to receive a call.
b. Prepare your documents. Make sure they are neat and well arranged.
c. Know the location where you are having the interview. It will help you know how long it will
take you to reach there.
d. Do some research about the organization.
e. Prepare what to wear and how to groom.
f. Anticipate potential questions and prepare answers correctly.
g. Arrive early enough for the interview.
h. Prepare questions to ask the interviewer at the end. It will show how much you
are interested in working there.

During the Interview

a. Greet the interviewer.

b. Knock on the door and wait for response before you enter. Shut the door behind you quietly.
c. Wait until you are offered the seat before sitting.
d. Sit or stand upright and look alert throughout.
e. Make good eye contact with the interviewer to show you are honest.
f. Explain your answers whenever possible and avoid answering questions with yes/no as answers.
g. Answer questions honestly. Don’t ever lie!

Common Blunders you MUST Avoid

Avoid falling foul of the following:

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a. Turning up late for the interview.

b. Dressing and grooming inappropriately.
c. Giving simple yes/no as answers.
d. Speaking negatively about your previous employer.
e. Sitting before invited.
f. Discussing time-off or money.

Tips for Interviewers

Before the Interview:

a. Write down questions to ask.

b. Call the prospective employee’s referees.
c. Prepare the place for the interview.
d. Alert the interviewee about the interview. Mention the time and place.
e. Arrive early for the interview.

During the Interview:

a. Allow them enough time to respond to questions.

b. Encourage them to speak by, for example, nodding your head when they answer questions.
c. Speak and ask questions politely. Be friendly but formal as much as you can.
d. Make eye contact with the interviewee to show you are listening to them.

Exercise 1

you are the secretary of journalism Club at Maembe Dodo Mixed School. On Friday you would like to
interview your school Deputy Principal on the issue of Students’ Discipline.

a. Write down any three questions you would ask him/her.

b. Other than writing down questions to ask, how else would you prepare prepare for this day?
c. State four things you would do as you interview him.

Exercise 2

Read the conversation below and then answer questions after it.

Ms Naomi: Welcome to our Doctor’s office.

Mr. Josh: Nice to be here.
Ms Naomi: I see from your resume that you are a cardiologist with 1 0 years of practice.
Mr. Josh: That’s right.
Ms Naomi: This interview is just to get to know you a little and then there are follow up interviews. So
what do you do in your free time?
Mr. Josh: I like golfing and swimming. I also like to read newspapers.
Ms Naomi: Why did you want to be a doctor?
Mr. Josh: Actually I love helping people get well. I think cardiology has made great strides recently and I
would like to share my findings with others.
Ms Naomi: Have you written in any scientific journals so far?
Mr. Josh: Not yet. But hopefully soon.
Ms Naomi: OK, we’d like to learn more about you. Let’s go for lunch wwith our colleagues, if that’s OK.
Mr. Josh: That’s fine, I am free.

a. What two things qualify Ms Naomi as a good interviewer?

b. Identify two evidences of interview tips displayed by Mr. Josh.

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Speech - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Preparation for Speech Delivery
Grabbing and Keeping Audience Attention
Presentation of Speech
Stage Fright
Symptoms of Nervous Speakers
Causes of Fear
Dealing with Anxiety

Introduction
Have you ever stood in front of a big group of people to present your talk? Well here we shall learn
how to prepare your speech and deliver it effectively.

Preparation for Speech Delivery

There are steps any speaker should follow in preparation for presentation of speech. They include:

1. Doing some research on the topic to present. Get the facts about the topic. If you do enough
research, your confidence level will be boosted.
2. Practice in front of a group of friends or relatives. This can also be done in front of a mirror, or
videotaping your rehearsals. You will be able to correct your gestures, postures etc.
3. Write down the points about the topic on a note pad. You can refer to them when giving the
speech.
4. Plan on how to groom and dress decently. You should appear presentable to feel confident.

Grabbing and Keeping Audience Attention

Your opening determines how long your audience will listen to your presentation. Of they are bored from
the beginning; the chance that your message will effectively get across is very little.
The most commonly used methods are:

1. Asking a question. The question should make them think about the topic. For example, ‘How
many of you would like to be millionaires?’
2. Stating an impressive fact connected to the topic of your presentation. For example: ‘About 30%
of Kenyans are millionaires.’
3. Telling a story closely connected to the topic. It should neither be too long nor intended to try to
glorify the speaker. For example: “Dear audience, before I begin I would like to tell you a
short story about Maina Wa Kamau became a millionaire. Don’t worry, it’s not too long.
…..”

Other methods of beginning a speech are:

Using humour
Starting with a quote that ties with your topic.
Using sound effect.

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Presentation of Speech
There are various techniques of delivering speech. They are what will ensure understanding of your
message. Some of these techniques include:

1. Use gestures effectively to reinforce the words and ideas you are trying to communicate to your
audience. For example, when talking about love, you can use your hands to form a cup shape to
indicate how tiny something is.
2. Make eye contact with your audience members to study their reactions to you. If you sense
boredom, you need to improve and if you sense enthusiasm, it will help pump you up.
3. Use movements to establish contact with your audience. Getting closer to them physically
increases their attention and interest, as well as encouraging response if you are asking questions.
4. Your posture should be upright. The way you conduct yourself on the platform will indicate you are
relaxed and in control. Do not lean or slouch.
5. Wear appropriate facial expressions to show feelings and emotions. Smile to show happiness, for
example.
6. Speak loud enough to be heard by all your audience members.
7. Pronounce the words correctly and speak clearly for your message to be understood.
8. Pause at key points to let the message sink.

Stage Fright
Almost all speakers are nervous. Even the most experienced do. Fear of addressing a group is not
wrong, but how we deal with it is what is possibly not good enough. Those speakers who seem
relaxed and confident have learnt how to handle anxiety.

Symptoms of Nervous Speakers

An anxious speaker can be identified in case of:

Shaking hands
Sweating palms
Dry mouth
Rapid heartbeat
Squeaky voice
Knocking knees
Facial flushes
Watery eyes
Mental confusions
jitters

Causes of Fear

1. Past failures during presentation. Plan to succeed instead.

2. Poor or insufficient preparation. Nothing gives you more confidence than being ready.
3. Discomfort with your own body and movement.

Dealing with Anxiety

A speaker can try the suggestions below to deal with anxiety before and on the day of speech.
Before the day;
i. Know your topic by doing adequate and thorough research. You will be sure of presenting

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accurate information and be able to answer questions asked by audience members.

ii. Practice delivering your speech several times. This helps you be sure of your organization
of the main points.
On that day;
i. Do some physical exercises like press ups, push walls, etc. to reduce anxiety.
ii. Use simple relaxation techniques like taking deep breath, tightening and relaxing
your muscles, etc.
iii. Wear clothes that you feel confident in. when you feel good about of you feel,
your confidence level is boosted. You don’t need to adjust your clothes or hair during
your speech.
iv. Spot friendly faces in the crowd. These are people who give you positive feedback
(e.g. nodding, smiling). Such faces give you encouragement to speak.
v. Come up with ways to hide your anxiety. For example,
When mouth goes dry, drink some water
Incase of excessive sweating, wear clothes that will not allow your audience detect
If your hands shake, use gestures to mask the shaking.

Exercise 1

In the next three days, you are presenting a speech on the topic: Effects of HIV/AIDS.

a. Write down any three ways you would prepare for the speech delivery.
b. State the techniques you would employ to ensure your audience listens to you throughout and that
they understand the message during the presentation.

Exercise 2

Makufuli is presenting his speech. Your friend, Makwere claims that Makufuli is not confident.

a. What could have warranted this claim?

b. State four reasons that could be behind Makufuli’s state?

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Discussion - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Preparation for Group Discussion
Participating in a Group Discussion
The Common Discussion Mistakes

Introduction
Discussion is a process where exchange of ideas and opinions are debated upon in a group.
A group which comprises a small number of people is given a topic to discuss.

Preparation for Group Discussion

Do the following before you start the discussion:

1. Select/choose group leaders. Choose the secretary to write the points down and the chair to lead
the discussions.
2. Research round the topic to make sure you have the points. You can get the points from the
sources including:
Newspapers and magazines
Friends, relatives and teachers
Text books
Internet
Television
3. Arrive early for discussions. It is advisable you do so so that you start early and finish early.
4. Gather writing materials – pen and note book.
5. Prepare with questions to ask.

Participating in a Group Discussion

Remember the tips below for success during the discussion:

1. Learn to listen to each other and respond to what other people have to say.
2. Speak with moderation. What you say is usually more important than how much you say. Quality is
needed rather than the quantity.
3. Back up each point you put across. You can explain your points in a number of ways including:
Providing facts or statistics to support it;
Quoting expert opinion;
Explain why you said what you said; and
Referring to your own experience.
4. Stay calm and polite. Use polite words like ‘May I ….?, please …, etc.’
5. Take notes of important words and ideas.
6. Speak clearly.
7. Speak loud enough to be heard by all the group members.

The Common Discussion Mistakes

Having learnt what you should do during the discussion, let us now learn what under no circumstances y
do. You should never:

Dominate the discussion;

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Interrupt abruptly;
Be inaudible;
Carry out mini-meetings; or
Talk over each other.

Exercise

You and your group members have been assigned the topic: ‘Responsibilities of a Good Citizen’ by your
teacher of History and Government. You are supposed to discuss this before you give the presentation in
two days.

a. State three ways in which you would prepare before you start discussing the topic.
b. How would you ensure your group members and yourself benefit from this discussion?

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Oral Reports - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Preparation for Oral Reports
Reporting

Introduction
From the heading, an oral report is spoken, not written.
Being oral, it doesn’t mean writing is not involved. As part of preparation, you have to write notes
on the topic or at least an outline of points.
When asked to present an oral report you get the opportunity to practice your speaking skills.
A spoken report has various elements including an introduction, body and conclusion.

Preparation for Oral Reports

You can prepare by:

1. Researching on the topic. Get all the facts about what is known and unknown by your audience.
2. Take notes on the facts about the topic. Choose your words appropriately in the process.
3. Practice the report before presenting it. You may
Practice in front of a mirror.
Practice in front of friends or relatives.
Videotape your rehearsals.
More practice is required if it has to be memorized.
4. Plan on how to dress and groom.
5. Prepare the visual aids if you plan to use the them. Select the appropriate chart, picture, etc. that
will make abstract ideas concrete.

Reporting
1. Stand up straight. Your upper body should be held straight, but not stiff. Do not fidget.
2. Make eye contact in order to look surer of yourself and to ensure your audience listens better.
3. Vary your tone appropriately and speak clearly.
4. Use gestures to make your points well understood and to keep the audience interested.
5. Pause at key points to let the point sick.
6. Speak loud enough for everyone to hear you.
7. If you have visual aids use them appropriately.

Exercise

You have seen thieves robbing your neighbor’s house. During this time you have your phone that you
have used to capture one of the two robbers. The next day you are called at the police
station to report on what occurred.

a. State any three ways you would prepare to deliver this oral report.
b. What three details would you include in your report?

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Etiquette - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Use of Courteous Language
Telephone Etiquette
Preparation for Phone Call
Tips to Display When Making a Call
What to Avoid
Not at these Places
Telephone Conversations

Introduction
Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.

Use of Courteous Language

When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and polished to
show respect.
At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or even
thoughtless.
Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
To show politeness and respect:
Use the word please in request;
Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may, will, or would.
Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy.
Use question tags.
In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.
a. Please
We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can
you pass that cup, please?
also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me
ten shillings, please.
b. Thank you
Use it whenever someone does something for you.
Use it when someone commends you.
c. Sorry
Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
Also when someone asks you something you cannot do.
d. Excuse me
To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For
example: Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?
e. Pardon me
Almost as ‘excuse me’

Exercise 1

Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the next time she
comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have
failed to use?

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Exercise 2

Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness.

John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?
Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?
John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and receipt.
Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.
John: Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.
Jacinta: Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.

Telephone Etiquette
Telephone etiquette are the rules that demonstrate the proper and polite way to use
your phone/telephone.
It starts from how you prepare for phone calls to when you end the call.

Preparation for Phone Call

The following should be done before placing a call:

Ensure you have enough time. It will not auger well to suddenly end the conversation because of
insufficient airtime.
Go to a place where there is silence. Too much noise will distract your attention.
Think through exactly what you want to say. Write it down if possible so you don’t forget what to
say or ask and look as though you didn’t have anything to say.

Tips to Display When Making a Call

Whether at work, at home, or on your mobile phone, remember to display the tips below at all times:

1. Identify yourself at the beginning of the call.

2. Speak clearly and slowly especially when leaving the message.
3. Speak with a low tone of voice. Be sure to know how loud you may be.
4. Always end with a pleasantry, for example,’ Have a nice day.’
5. Let the caller hang up first.
6. Stay away from others while talking on the phone. They don’t need to hear your
private conversation.

What to Avoid

1. Avoid being distracted by other activities while speaking. Some of these activities include:
Rustling papers
Chewing
Driving
Speaking with someone
Shopping
Working on the computer
2. Avoid allowing interruptions to occur during the conversation.
3. Do not engage in an argument with the caller.
4. Talking too loudly.

Not at these Places

The following are places you should not make a call. You should even have your cell phone in a silent

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mode or switch it off altogether.

Bathrooms
Hospitals
Waiting rooms
Meetings
Museums
Places of worship
Lectures
Live performances
Funerals
Weddings

Telephone Conversations

Here we shall focus on majorly business telephone conversations. It should be noted that there are
patterns that are followed; but not all will follow this rigid pattern. The six patterns include:

1. The phone is answered by someone who asks if he/she can help.

2. The caller makes a request either to be connected to someone or for information.
3. The caller is connected, given information or told that that person is not present at the moment.
4. The caller is asked to leave a message if the person who is requested for is not in.
5. The caller leaves a message or asks other questions.
6. The phone call finishes.

Exercise 1

Read the telephone conversation below and then answer questions that follow.

Pauline: (a form two student, Wajanja School) ring ring… ring ring …
Secretary: Hello, Wajanja School, this is Ms Esther speaking. How may I be of help to you?
Pauline: Yes, this is Pauline Karanja a form two student calling. May I speak to the principal, please?
Secretary: I am afraid MsKaluma is not in the office at the moment. Would you like to leave a message?
Pauline: I would really want, thanks. When she comes back, tell her I wanted to ask for one
day permission. My brother is sick and I would like to request her that I report one day after the opening
day. It is I who will be left with my siblings as the brother goes to the hospital. That is all.
Secretary: Sorry for that, I wish him quick recovery. I would give her the message as soon.
Pauline: I would be grateful madam. Thanks again.
Pauline: Welcome Pauline. Just ensure you report as stated here.
Secretary: Ok have a nice day madam.
Pauline: You too have a perfect day. Goodbye

a. With examples, outline the patterns of telephone conversation in above.

b. Identify evidences of telephone etiquette tips displayed by Pauline in the conversation above.

Exercise 2

Your sibling is very sick. You are planning to make a doctor a phone call to come to your home to provide
medication.

a. State any three preparations you would put in place before making this important call.
b. Give four bad habits you would avoid when making this call.

Exercise 3

Joan has just called the parent to ask them to pay the school fee. Unfortunately, the parent is not happy

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with the way she has made the call. Identify any four telephone etiquette tips she could have failed to
display.

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Turn Taking - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Achieving Smooth Turn Taking
Turn Taking Cues
Violations in Turn-Taking
The List of Turn-Taking Phrases

Introduction
Being a cyclical process, turn taking starts with one person speaking, and continues as the speaker
gives control to the next individual. This is then offered to another person and then back to the
original speaker. Orderly conversation has to take place.
A turn is a crucial element within turn taking. Each person takes turn within the conversation
– either in person or on phone.

Achieving Smooth Turn Taking

It is achieved with:

1. Using specific polite phrases, for example, those for,

Interrupting
Accepting the turn when offered it
Keeping your turn
Getting other people speaking, etc.
2. Using gestures to indicate you have completed what you are saying or that you want to say
something. You drop your arm when you have completed and raise it when you want to say
something.
3. Varying the intonation to show you have or have not finished speaking.
4. Use noises like ‘uming’ and ‘ahing’ while thinking so as not to lose your turn.

Turn Taking Cues

There are various ways of signaling a finished turn. They might be indicated when the current speaker:

1. Asks a question, for example, ‘ Did you want to add anything?’

2. Trails off (his/her voice becomes weaker to the extent you may not hear his words)
3. Indicates they are done speaking with a closing statement, for example, ‘That’s all I wanted to
say.’or ’I think I have made my point.’
4. Uses marker words (those that allow the other a chance to speak), for example, ‘well…’ or ‘so…’
5. Drops the pitch or volume of their voice at the end of their utterance. This is the use of falling
intonation.
6. Uses gestures to signal that another can contribute.

Violations in Turn-Taking
There are five well known turn-taking violations in a conversation. They are:
interruptions, overlaps, grabbing the floor, hogging the floor, and silence. Do you know what they
really are? If you don’t, read the explanations for the violations in that order.
1. Inhibiting the speaker from finishing their sentences during their turn.
2. Talking at the same time as the current speaker. This is interruptive overlap.
However, cooperative overlap is encouraged as it shows you are interested in the message.

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3. Interrupting and then taking over the turn before being offered it.
4. Taking over the floor and ignoring other people’s attempt to take the floor.
5. Remaining without saying anything for quite some time.

The List of Turn-Taking Phrases

To interrupt;

Before I forget, …
I don’t like to interrupt, but ….
I wouldn’t usually interrupt, but …
I’m afraid I have to stop you there.
I will let you finish in a minute/second/moment ….
May I interrupt?

To accept the turn when offered it;

Thanks. I won’t take long.

What I wanted to say was …

To stop other people from interrupting you during your turn use;

I have just one more point to make

I have nearly finished
Before you have your say …
I haven’t quite finished my point yet
I know you’re dying to jump in, but….

To offer the turn to another use;

…., right?
But that’s enough from me.
Can you give me your thoughts on …?
Does anyone want to say anything before I move on?
How about you?

To take the turn back after being interrupted;

As I was saying (before I was interrupted)

To get back on topic…
Carrying on from where we left on…
Note: The list is endless, and you can come up with other appropriate phrases.

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Interrupting and Disagreeing Politely - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Steps to Interrupting
Phrases Used in Interruption
How to Disagree Politely
Disagreeing Politely Expressions

Introduction
English is a polite language. For this reason, it is advisable to indirectly contradict a person. It is
rude to do it directly.
Although conversation is a two way street, interrupting a speaker is usually regarded as
rude. However, at times you need to interrupt. When then can one interrupt?
You can only interrupt to:
Ask a question;
Make a correction;
Offer an opinion; and
Ask for clarification.
In this section, we shall learn how to interrupt and disagree politely.

Steps to Interrupting
It is important to take note of the following steps when interrupting a speaker during
a conversation or during a discussion:
1. Signal to the speaker that you have something to contribute by implementing the
body language such as:
a. Making eye contact;
b. Slightly raising your hand;
c. Sitting forward on your seat;
d. Quietly clearing your throat; or
e. Coughing quietly.
2. Wait patiently until the speaker pauses or incase of a lull in the conversation.
3. Speak clearly using polite phrases. These phrases will be learnt later.
4. Wait for the speaker to acknowledge your request to speak before you do so.
5. After you have spoken, thank the speaker and allow them continue.
6. Take a deep breath and calm yourself before interrupting when you feel angry or annoyed.
7. Take care to use low tone of voice.

Avoid:

1. Unnecessary interruptions.
2. Finishing speaker’s sentences.
3. Interrupting to correct the speaker unnecessarily.
4. Speaking harshly or using disparaging comments.

Phrases Used in Interruption

Below is the list of phrases which you can use to politely interrupt someone:

May I say something here?

I am sorry to interrupt, but …

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Excuse me, may I add to that…?

Do you mind if I jump in here?
Before we move on to the next point, may I add …?
Sorry, I didn’t catch that, is it possible to repeat the last point?
I don’t mean to intrude ….
Sorry to butt in, but …
Would this be a good time to ….?
I hate to interrupt, but …
I know it is rude to interrupt, but …

How to Disagree Politely

The tips that follow will help you handle disagreements without annoying the other person in a discussion
or discussion:

1. Actively listen to the other person’s point of view. This helps in showing respect and understanding
of the other person’s perspective.
2. Stay calm even if you feel angry.
3. Acknowledge the other person’s point of view before the buts.
4. Disagree only with the person’s idea but not he person.
5. Use polite phrases to respectfully disagree.
6. Speak in a low tone.
7. Give some credence to the other person’s point of view before challenging it. For example, say: It’s
partly true that I bought this phone at a cheap price, but …

Disagreeing Politely Expressions

I agree up to a point, but …

I see your point, but …
That’s partly true, but …
I’m not so sure about that.
That’s not entirely true
I am sorry to disagree with you, but …
I’m afraid I have to disagree
I must take issue with you on that
It’s unjustifiable to say that..

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Negotiation Skills - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Stages of Negotiation
Points Every Negotiator Should Consider

Introduction
This is the process of discussion between two or more disputants, aimed at finding the solution to
a common problem.
It is a method by which people settle their differences.
It is also the process by which a compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding arguiment.
There could be a difference between people with different aims or intentions, especially
in business or politics. When this happens, they have to reach an agreement.
Negotiation skills will be helpful when:
Haggling over the price of something;
Negotiating with your employer e.g. for higher salary;
Negotiating for peace/ solving conflict;
Negotiating for better services; etc.

Stages of Negotiation
1. Preparation comes first. During this time, ensure all the pertinent facts of the situation is known in
order to clarify your own position. It will help in avoiding wasting time unnecessarily.
2. Discussion then follows. This is the time to ask questions, listen and make things easier
to understand. At times, it is helpful to take notes to record all points put forward.
3. Negotiate towards a win-win outcome. Each party has to be satisfied at the end of the process.
4. Agreement comes after understanding both sides’ viewpoints and considering them.
5. Implement the course of action. If for example, paying the amount, it has to be paid.

Points Every Negotiator Should Consider

1. Ask questions, confirm and summarise. These three activities ensure that there is no confusion on
what each party wants.
2. Acknowledge each other’s point of view. Show that you have listened to and understood their
perspective. Show appreciation of the other person’s point of view.
3. Listen attentively to the other person.
4. Respond to negative comments and complaints. Avoid confrontational language.
5. Behave in a confident way, but don’t be rude. Make polite but firm requests.
6. Give options/alternatives. You can both win if you recognise that you share a common ground.

Exercise

You are planning to buy a new model car.

a. Write down three relevant facts you would want to know before going to buy the car.
b. State any three hints for the negotiators you would consider when haggling over the price of that
car.

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Listening Skills (Paying Attention) - English Oral Skills Notes

Introduction
Techniques of Paying Attention
Signs of Inactive Audience
Barriers to Effective Listening

Introduction
Listening is different from hearing. When you listen, you understand both the verbal and
non verbal information.
Why should you listen? You listen:
To obtain information
To understand the message
For enjoyment
To learn
In this section, we shall learn the techniques of active listening.

Techniques of Paying Attention

In order to benefit from a talk as the listener, you should take note of the following key tips:

1. keep an open mind. Listen without judging the speaker or mentally criticizing their message they
pass. You just have to hold your criticism and withhold judgment.
2. Familiarize yourself with the topic under discussion. Audience tend to listen more if they have idea
of the topic being discussed. How then can one familiarize himself/ herself with the subject? They
can do this by:
a. Reading from the books.
b. Reading from the internet.
c. Asking for ideas from those who know.
3. Use the speaker responses to encourage the speaker to continue speaking. You will also get the
information you need if you do so. Some of the speaker responses we use include:
a. Slightly nodding the head, but occasionally.
b. Smile occasionally.
c. Using small verbal comments like yes, uh huh, mmmh, I see, etc.
d. Reflecting back e.g. you said …
4. Take notes on the important points. This can in itself be a distractor. You should therefore know
when to and when not to take notes.
5. Listen for the main ideas. These are the most important points the speaker wants to get across
and are repeated several times.
6. Wait for the speaker to pause before asking a clarifying question. Just hold back.
7. Avoid distractions. Don’t let your mind wander or be distracted by other people’s activities. If the
room is too cold or too hot get the solution to that situation if possible.
8. Sit properly. Sit upright
9. Make eye contact with the speaker. when you do this you will be able to understand the non verbal
messages too.

Signs of Inactive Audience

You can easily tell whether your audience listens or not. The inattentive listeners tend to posses the
following characteristics:

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a. Fidgeting
b. Doodling
c. Playing with their hair
d. Looking at a clock or watch
e. Picking their fingernails
f. Passing small pieces of paper to one another
g. Shifting from seat to seat
h. Yawning

Barriers to Effective Listening

There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should avoid these bad habits so as to
become a more effective listener. These factors that inhibit active listening include;

1. Lack of interest in the topic being discussed.

2. Unfamiliarity with the topic under discussion.
3. Fear. One might fear being asked a question and in the process fail to look at the speaker.
4. Noise. In case of noise the listeners might not get what the speaker is saying.

Exercise 1

MwangiMwaniki, the author of one of the set text you study, is coming to your school to give a talk on the
themes in his novel.

a. How would you prepare for this big day?

b. State what you would do to ensure you benefit from the talk during the presentation.

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