Marble pieces in the Romanesque Portal of Glory of the

Santiago de Compostela Cathedral. New data through a

multi-analytical approach
Pilar Lapuente Mercadal, Marie-Claire Savin, Silvia González Soutelo, Anna
Gutiérrez Garcia-Moreno, Rémy Chapoulie, Ana Laborde Marqueze, Pedro
Pablo Pérez García

To cite this version:

Pilar Lapuente Mercadal, Marie-Claire Savin, Silvia González Soutelo, Anna Gutiérrez Garcia-Moreno,
Rémy Chapoulie, et al.. Marble pieces in the Romanesque Portal of Glory of the Santiago de Com-
postela Cathedral. New data through a multi-analytical approach. International Journal of Architec-
tural Heritage, 2020, 14 (8), pp.1-13. �10.1080/15583058.2019.1602683�. �hal-02530436�

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 Marble pieces in the Romanesque Portal of Glory of the
Santiago de Compostela Cathedral. New data through a
multi-analytical approach

Pilar Lapuente Mercadal*a,b, Marie-Claire Savinc, Silvia González Soutelod, Anna Gutiérrez
Garcia-M.b, Rémy Chapouliec, Ana Laborde Marquezee, Pedro Pablo Pérez Garcíae,f

aPetrology and Geochemistry, Earth Sciences Dept., Zaragoza University, C/ Pedro Cerbuna, 12,
50009 Zaragoza, Spain
bInstitut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica (ICAC), Plaça d’en Rovellat s/n, 43003 Tarragona, Spain
cInstitut de Recherche sur les ArchéoMATériaux (IRAMAT), Centre de Recherche en Physique

Appliquée à l’Archéologie (CRP2A), UMR 5060 CNRS, Université Bordeaux Montaigne, France
dGrupo de Estudos de Arqueoloxía, Antigüidade e Territorio (GEAAT), Universidade de Vigo and

Universidad Autónoma de Madrid/MIAS, Spain

eInstituto del Patrimonio Cultural de España, C/ Pintor el Greco, 4, 28040 Madrid, Spain
fDACITEC SL, Spain

* Corresponding author: plapuent@unizar.es ORCiD: 0000-0002-8321-2396

ABSTRACT

Probably the most important Romanesque artwork in Spain, the Portal of Glory of Santiago
de Compostela is essentially made in granite, the most abundant stone in the NW of Iberia,
with the only exception of five marble pieces. Different hypothesis on the origin of these
marbles have previously been proposed based on visual assessment or by directly assuming a
local source. To shed light on their quarry provenance, a multi-analytical study was
performed combining polarized-light optical microscopy, cathodoluminescence microscopy,
XRPD, SEM-EDS and stable C and O isotopes. The comparison of the results with the
available databases reveals the use of marbles from the Estremoz Anticline (Portugal) in the
three exquisitely carved columns strategically placed in the central arcade, whereas the other
two pieces are local marbles, illustrating a more complex consumption of this noble material
than that initially expected.

KEYWORDS: provenance; marble; Romanesque Galicia; Estremoz Anticline

1
1. Introduction

Recognized as one of the most valuable Romanesque jewels in Europe, the Portal of Glory is

the western narthex of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in Galicia, Spain (Figure 1). It

consists of a set of three semi-circular arches, the central being twice as large as the sides,

with a total of 168 sculptured figures (Figure 2). They are so expressive that they seem to be

an animated picture composing a theological message focused on the salvation of humanity, a

representation of the Celestial Jerusalem described by St. John. This sculptural set, of

approximate 17 m long by 9.5 m high, originally painted with the most vivid pigments and

luxurious materials, was mostly carved in local granite with the exception of five marble

pieces, which are the object of this study.

1.1 Brief architectural evolution of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral

During the reign of Alfonso II (791-842), the remains of St James the Greater were said to

have been discovered in the North-West of Spain. In order to protect and venerate the Apostle

relics, subsequent kings enhanced the construction of monumental churches in the place

known as Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña, Spain) which would become a multitudinous

pilgrimage destination in Western Europe. The first sanctuary was erected under Alfonso II

the Chaste and according to the Acta instaurationis ecclesie beati iacobi1, it consisted in as a

modest church made of “stones and clay” (ex petra et luto opera parvo) (Díaz Bustamante

and López Pereira 1988, 253-4). This structure was soon replaced by a new bigger building

ordered by the king Alfonso III (866-910). This second sanctuary was consecrated in 899

and, contrary to the first one, it was said to have been built using ornamental materials like

1
The validity of the only copy of this Visigothic text, a 17 th century version, is object of controversy among
scholars.

2
marbles2 and jaspers (del Hoyo 1697). In fact, the aforementioned Acta instaurationis

indicates that Alfonso III had marbles transported to Santiago de Compostela from southern

conquered territories, mainly from the unknown Ebeca/Aucca-Caucae (Sánchez Albornoz

1979) identified by some researchers as the ancient Roman town of Coria, in the Cáceres

province (Díaz Bustamante and López Pereira 1988; López Pereira 1993). This act would

have been a way for this Christian monarch to demonstrate his power against the Moors, as

those territories were under Muslim rule from the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, and it

would also provide noble material for the reconstruction of the second basilica. However, this

second temple was only in use for one century until its destruction in 997 by the Muslim

siege conducted by the general Almanzor and rebuilt later in a third and definitive sanctuary.

The building process of the Romanesque Cathedral was complex and slow, beginning in 1075

under the impetus of Bishop Diego Peláez and the king Alfonso VI and was finally

consecrated by the king Alfonso IX of León, in 1211.

Remodelling the western façade was the last stage of the building process which was directed

by Master Mateo who also led the works of the Portal of Glory, monumental structure

completed in 11883. During the following centuries, new Gothic and Baroque structures were

added to the Romanesque Cathedral changing its morphology over time and giving it its

present appearance, in which the Portal of Glory was protected in the interior of the western

2
During the archaeological excavations of the Cathedral in the 20th century, some small pieces of marbles were
discovered among the ruins of the Alfonso III basilica, most of them parts of shafts and Corinthian capitals
dated from the 4th century AD (Suárez Otero 2003, 57). Several authors have discussed about the origin of
marbles employed in the Alfonso III church (Sánchez Albornoz 1979; Díaz Bustamante and López Pereira
1988; and López Pereira 1993, among others).

3
Despite whether Master Mateo´s work was the restitution of a previous western portico or not has been object
of debate for a long time, today there seems to be agreement among researchers that one portal referred to in the
Codex Calixtinus existed before Master Mateo's work (Watson 2000). In any case, two unquestionable dates are
documented, the contract between king Fernando II and Mateo in 1168 and, twenty years later, the completion
of the work written on the lintels.

3
Baroque façade. Structural failures, the presence of continuous damp and the effects of

natural weathering in adverse climate conditions have caused serious decay problems all over

this millennial building (Silva et al. 1994). Consequently, during recent decades, it has

undergone a thorough restoration and preventive plan, the Santiago Cathedral Program4.

1.2 The Portal of Glory. The artwork of Master Mateo

The study of the emblematic western narthex of the Santiago Cathedral has been the focus of

many researchers, since it is one of the best documented Romanesque architectural and

sculptural sets (Vidal Rodríguez 1926; Gaillard 1958; Ward 1978; Moralejo 1985;

Castiñeiras 1999; Yzquierdo Perrín 2010; Nicolai and Rheidt 2015). Recognized as the height

of the Romanesque art in transition to Gothic aesthetics, the Pórtico de la Gloria was a

unique and universal project which concentrated master builders, masons and highly qualified

painters to design an avant-garde space carrying out the most innovative trends and

techniques of that moment. The statuary of this triple portal offers the spectacle of the

resources of an art that is varied in its expression, details, workmanship and polychromy. The

recovery of its material and immaterial values, as a whole, has been addressed based on the

consideration that this illustrative work of the history of art is an indissoluble part of the

western façade of the temple. The Portal not only has a powerful symbolic and liturgical

value as a place of worship and pilgrimage, but is also one of the most outstanding

international tourist destinations.

4
Bringing together the central and regional administrations (Ministry of Culture and Xunta de Galicia) and two
private foundations (Barrié de la Maza and Santiago Cathedral), this Program is an example of institutional
collaboration for the conservation of Cultural Heritage. From the beginning, it has been focused on research
attracting many national and international specialists from different disciplines, who have contributed their
experience to deepen the knowledge of various aspects such as the different construction stages, transformations
of the space and use, significance, iconographic program, materials used for carving, decorative techniques and
the adaptation of its aesthetics throughout the centuries.

4
For centuries the Portal of Glory not only served as the main entrance through the Cathedral

but also became the major platform and principal vehicle for the communication of religious

messages and political outlines (Raitt 2014). The tripartite structure shows Christ in Majesty

at its centre, surrounded by the representation of apostles, prophets, and evangelists. Both

semi-arch sides display scenes from the Old Testament on the left and from the Final

Judgment on the right. The whole scene is framed by the central archivolt representing the 24

Elders of the Apocalypse, each one holding a musical instrument. Three columns of high

quality marble, in white and grey bands are located in the central arch structure (Figure 3).

The southern and the northern are twisted, finely decorated columns, whereas the central one

(trumeau) bisects the central doorway and represents the linage of Christ through the tree of

Jesse. A fourth decorated column in homogeneous grey marble, with evidence of slight stone

decay, is placed in the extreme northern arcade with no respective counterpart on the other

side, breaking the symmetry. A fifth element carved in white marble is the head of one

apostle, traditionally identified as Saint Andrew. This has been ignored for years due to its

location at half height in the southern arcade, and thus out of the direct sight from the ground

floor (Figure 2).

One of the main interests in the preventive studies prior to the restoration works was to

recognize the nature of the stones and their quarry provenance. As the majority of the artwork

is in granite, the presence of those five unique marble pieces is surprising. Equally

outstanding is the high quality of the sculptural work achieved in granite, a material

extremely difficult to carve. At least, three varieties of granite were differentiated (De la

Torre Martín-Romo 2011; Morabito 2011): a medium to coarse grained variety with a high

content of potassium feldspar used in the walls masonry for the smooth ashlars of the façade

and counter-façade; a leucocratic fine grained granite, for certain columns and sculptural or

decorative works and a granite with fine to medium grain size and yellowish brown colour,

5
used mainly in sculptural work. Being all local raw materials, two different main areas of

granite bodies close to Santiago are their potential sources of supply: the area of Conxo-

Vidán with medium to coarse grained granite, and the area of Pedroso-Monte Fontecova-

Vrins where medium to fine grained granites have been quarried out.

During the intervention plan in the recent restoration works, the existence of three

polychrome phases was confirmed, all of them with linen oil, which must have changed the

appearance of the Portal over the centuries (Cortázar García de Salazar and Sánchez Ledesma

2017). Only few vestiges of the first medieval decoration are preserved but thanks to the

exhaustive analytic study carried out on each sculpture5, its component paints and the

meticulous technique executed were identified, especially that related to the flesh tone. This

first polychrome, applied using the most expensive pigments (lapis lazuli, vermilion, red

lacquer, green lacquer, lead white and black bone, among others) and luxurious materials

(pure gold and silver leaves), was evidently carried out at a time close to the construction of

the Portal of Glory. This original Romanesque polychromy is of such an outstanding

technique and richness of colour, that even in some cases the presence of clear decorative

motifs of tunics and mantles has been detected. The second polychrome discovered probably

dates from the 16th century, when the western access was modified and significant repair

works were undertaken in the temple, whereas the third was certainly done by Crispín de

Evelino in 1651, as documented in the archives of the Cathedral.

2. Research aim

If polychromy and granite are now well documented, the study of the five marble elements

deserves no less attention. They also show traces of the first medieval polychromy dated at

5
Using stereoscopic microscopy contrasted in the laboratory with stratigraphic analysis, gas chromatography,
infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, diffraction and X-ray fluorescence, among others.

6
the beginning of 13th century, but their importance stems from their uniqueness in the granite

ensemble. Thus, different hypotheses of provenance had been put forward but until now, no

archaeometric analysis has yet been carried out. Most scholars assume the logical use of local

raw material from Galician marble quarries (López-Ferreiro 1899; Ward 1978; Portela Silva

1985; García Iglesias 2009, 2011) and for others, they could be reused spolia materials from

elements of the pre-Romanesque basilica, but there is no mention of quarry sources. This

latter idea dates back to the 1860´s (Villa-Amil 1866) and according to the documentary

sources, as explained above in paragraph 1.1, these marbles could be part of the loot achieved

by the king Alfonso III. The aim of this paper is to analyze these marble pieces with a

twofold objective: firstly to check the application of our multi-method analytical database

recently created on local marble outcrops and secondly, to determine their provenance in

order to clarify the mentioned hypotheses and common beliefs.

3. Multi-analytical approach. Methodology

The restoration of the Portico was an exceptional occasion to sample these valuable pieces of

marble. The installation of scaffolding facilitated the close visual inspection to select the

proper areas in each stone. On the one hand, the heterogeneity of colors and patterns in the

marble directly affects the selection of the sample to be representative and on the other, the

extraction of a small chip must not alter the aesthetics or the integrity of the piece. After

macroscopic examination, differences in the state of conservation were registered and

millimetric samples, discretely chiselled off, were taken and conveniently documented.

Several analytical techniques were applied following a sequential approach (Lapuente, 2014)

to identify the marble provenance of the five artifacts. They combine Polarized-light optical

microscopy (OM), Cathodoluminescence microscopy (CL), X-ray power diffraction (XRPD),

Scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) and

7
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to determine C and O isotopes. Results were

compared to those obtained, using the same methodology, in a wide collection of quarry

marbles, being local (Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al. 2016), supra-regional (Lapuente 1995;

Lapuente and Turi 1995; Lapuente, Turi, and Blanc 2000; Lapuente et al. 2002, 2014, 2018;

Origlia et al. 2011) and classical marbles (Gorgoni et al. 2002; Capedri et al. 2004; Attanasio,

Brilli, and Ogle 2006; Attanasio, Bruno, and Yavuz 2009; Attanasio et al. 2015, 2017;

Lapuente et al. 2012; Antonelli and Lazzarini 2015; Brilli et al. 2015, 2018).

Thin sections were made from all the five samples, and before their powdering, weathered

surfaces were previously abraded to avoid possible contamination. OM was used to examine

the mineralogy, fabric, texture, grain boundary shape (GBS) and to determine the maximum

grain size (MGS). Combined with other analytical results, these parameters have a particular

diagnostic significance for discriminating the provenance of many ancient marbles, since they

are strictly related to their respective metamorphic history, as many references pointed out.

The presence of accessory minerals was checked by XRPD, under CL and using

complementary analyses by SEM-EDS (model JEOL JMS 6460 LV, Oxford Industries INCA

x-sight, calibrated using natural standards). XRPD was carried out with an automatic Philips

PW 1130/00 diffractometer (CuKa radiation at 40 kV, 20 mA; data recorded in the 3° –70°

2 range, 1°/min, 2s/step). CL was observed with CL8200 Mk5–1 cold equipment coupled to

a NIKON Eclipse 50iPOL OM. The electron energy was 15–20 kV and the beam current was

operated at 250–300mA. The luminescent colours, their intensity and distribution in each

sample were recorded with an automatic digital NIKON COOLPIX5400 camera. The CL

images taken were automatically controlled (29 mm focal length, f/4.6 aperture, 1s exposure,

ISO-200) to obtain comparative images. It is well known that the CL characteristics of

carbonates are related to their chemical impurities which can provide diagnostic CL

8
microfacies that help to identify some varieties of marble (Lapuente and Royo 2016). The

optical CL images were checked with those available from several classical quarrying areas

(Barbin et al. 1989, 1992; Lapuente et al. 2012), including those from the French Pyrenees

(Royo et al. 2015; 2018) and from ancient Iberian quarries (Lapuente, Turi, and Blanc 2000,

Lapuente et al. 2014; Lapuente and Blanc 2002; Àlvarez et al. 2009; Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et

al. 2016).

Oxygen and Carbon isotopes were determined by isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS)

with Finnigan MAT 252 equipment. A Finnigan MAT Kiel II automatic preparation device

was previously used for phosphoric acid digestion at 72° C and CO2 purification. The results

were expressed in terms of usual delta notation (13C and 18O) in parts per thousand relative

to the international reference standard PDB. Analytical precision was better than 0.1% for

both isotopic determinations. The isotopic signatures of the marble pieces were compared

with those of the main classical and Iberian marbles reported elsewhere. In addition, an

updated isotopic diagram of the most relevant quarry district in the NW of Iberia is provided

based on unpublished data recently achieved in the framework of the PhD Thesis in progress

of one author (M-C S.), (Figure 4A).

4. Results and discussion

The results of the mineralogical-petrographic examination, the main CL characteristics and

the 18O and 13C (PDB) values are displayed in Table 1. They are all fine grained calcitic

marbles, with an average grain size less than 0.9 mm in length and mostly a MGS < 2 mm, in

the limit of fine and medium size, or slightly larger in one sample, all with anisotropic fabric

and mainly heteroblastic but show different microstructure-textures depending on the thin-

section orientation.

9
4.1. The three central columns

The macroscopic observation of the marble columns from the central arch revealed a variety

of white-grey veined marbles, very hard and compact exhibiting an exceptional state of

conservation (Figure 3). They all show a moderate translucency in the white parts which

display light cream tones. The southern twisted column (SAN1) is irregularly banded in white

and grey, with the grey bands of several centimeters in width. The mullion (SAN2) is also

white but crossed by spotted and irregular grey-to-bluish bands and veins with fairly strong

contrasts, as can be fully appreciated in the handprint polished by the hands of thousands of

pilgrims. In detail, it also shows sheath micro-folds in darker grey and rare reddish streaks.

The northern twisted column is almost white with scarce thin grey veins. In fresh cut, the

analysed sample (SAN3) is white with light cream pinkish patches.

The macroscopic irregularities of these three non-uniform white or white and grey banded

marbles are also represented, on a microscopic scale, by a variety of textural aspects related

to the presence of microcrystalline aggregates formed by accessory minerals (Table 1).

Dolomite, mono and polycrystalline quartz with subrounded morphologies, in addition to

phlogopite, iron oxide impurities and sporadic pyrite are mainly scattered or grouped in

lenses, non-luminescent under CL (SAN1). All show anisotropic fabric with non-penetrative

foliation, either by preferential orientation of elongate calcite, by the disposition of the

microcrystalline lenticular or banded aggregates, or by a certain crystallographic preferred

orientation. All these aspects and others such as the deformation of carbonate twins and

undulating extinction manifest signs of dynamic recrystallization in accordance to a complex

structural tectono-metamorphic evolution with various phases of deformation.

The macro and micro features match well with those present in the fine grained marbles from

the Ossa Morena Zone of the Iberian Massif, in particular from the Cambrian-Ordovician

10
metacarbonate sequence of the Estremoz Anticline (Alto Alentejo, Portugal) and Almadén de

la Plata (Seville) districts (Lapuente et al. 2014). Though certain classical fine-medium

grained marbles exhibit similar petrographic characteristics, with anisotropic fabric,

deformed shape grain foliation and MGS like those from Mount Pentelicon in Athens, the

presence of phlogopite as an accessory makes this Greek origin incompatible with our

samples (Capedri and Venturelli 2004). Furthermore, their different CL-patterns help to

discriminate them from this classical marble, as will be discussed below.

Their isotopic values are quite uniform, ranging from -5.30 to -6.60 ‰ (18O) and from 1.36

to 1.98 ‰ (13C) reinforcing a possible common origin (Table 1). Plotted on the general

isotopic diagram for the white and white/grey fine-medium grained marbles, including

classical marbles and supra-regional marble sources (Figure 4B), they are all within the same

isotopic cluster of the Lusitanian marbles from the Estremoz Anticline, outside any other

isotopic field of Hispanic marbles, clearly apart from the updated local O Incio (Lugo)

isotopic field, but overlapping the cluster of Docimium and Pentelicon marbles.

With regard to CL, the three columns show a similar behaviour with faint to medium

intensity. These CL-microfacies give them a character that certainly confirms the Lusitanian

origin. Indeed, the heterogeneous distribution and the variable intensity (from faint to

medium or to moderately strong), typical of these Portuguese marbles, helps to discriminate

them not only from the Almadén de la Plata marble which exhibits homogeneous CL-patterns

in strong to very strong intensities (Lapuente and Blanc 2002; Lapuente et al. 2014), but also

from other classical marbles such as Pentelicon and Docimium. Marbles from these Greek

and Turkish districts exhibit peculiar patchy CL-patterns combining areas of very different

intensities unrelated to any specific crystal which give them a very distinctive characteristic

(Barbin et al. 1989, 1992; Lapuente and Royo 2016).

11
In summary, all the parameters and features of the three central columns described, point to

an undoubtedly Lusitanian origin in the Estremoz Anticline marble district.

4.2. The apostle’s head traditionally identified as Saint Andrew

Sample SAN4 corresponds to a white fine grained marble with a lamination of light grey

parallel bands and fine grey veins, which became more visible after cleaning (Figure 5). It

shows traces of paint, the remains of the first original polychromy. The grade of compactness

is less than those exhibited by the other four studied samples, offering a somewhat sugary

look, saccharoidal, with no translucent power. Compared with the above mentioned white

and white/grey banded marbles, despite being quite similar in most of the mineralogical-

petrographic and CL features (Table 1), the apostle´s head shows two parameters which help

to discriminate it clearly from the others. One is its finer grain size (MGS < 0.8 mm), in

accordance with the size of certain Galician marbles, and the second, the C and O isotopic

data, with a very low 18O value (-10.4 ‰). Indeed, this isotopic signature serves to rule out

the classical marble districts and the supra-regional ones as possible source origins, but on the

contrary, matches well with the isotopic data of the local O Incio marbles. As Figure 4B

shows, its 13C and 18O values falls within the isotopic cluster from this Galician district,

updated with additional data of quarry marbles in Figure 4A. Furthermore, the mineralogical-

petrographic and CL approach mostly agrees with published data dealing with these local

marbles (Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al. 2016). In particular, the heterogeneous CL-microfacies,

fabric, texture, MGS, and even the accessory minerals, are in common with the white

lithotype 1 defined from O Incio marbles.

4.3. The northern grey column

Contrary to the three previously discussed white or white /grey banded columns, the

northernmost column (sample SAN5) is visually distinctive by its uniform grey colour

12
(Figure 3). Despite being quite hard and compact, the sculptured relief is not as well

preserved as the other three columns. However the dimensions of all four are quite the same,

ranging from 1.725 to 1.75 m long and with a diameter of 0.24-0.25 m. This fine grained

marble exhibits an anisotropic fabric with deformed shape grain foliation, and slightly

heteroblastic texture, whose petrographic and CL features are analogous to those shown in

certain local and supra-regional marbles, but quite different from other Iberian marbles. In

particular, the grey marbles from the Hispanic districts of Macael, Almadén de la Plata,

Alconera and Viana do Alentejo must be ruled out due to their distinctive medium to strong

CL intensities (Lapuente, Turi, and Blanc 2000, Lapuente et al. 2014). However, some

marbles of the Estremoz Anticline and local marbles from O Incio could be comparable in

petrography and CL response. In fact, macroscopically, the colour of this column looks not

only similar to the grey bands of lithotype 2 defined in the O Incio quarry samples (Gutiérrez

Garcia-M. et al. 2016) but also to certain columns used in the Romanesque church of San

Pedro Fiz de Hospital, in the O Incio village.

Nevertheless, the isotopic data plotted in the diagram for grey marbles (Figure 6) help to

confirm this local provenance. The distinctive low 18O value (-11.16 ‰) of this fourth

decorated column falls on the limit of the updated isotopic cluster of O Incio (Figure 4A),

rejecting all the most famous grey classical marbles (known as bigio antico), and other supra-

regional districts like those mentioned above of Lusitanian marbles.

5. Conclusions

A simultaneous presence of local and supra-regional marbles has been evidenced through this

multi-analytical approach applied to the five unique pieces of the Romanesque Portal of

Glory. Comparing their physical and compositional parameters with the available database,

13
three samples match perfectly well with specific marbles collected in quarries of the southern

part of the Estremoz Anticline in the Alentejo region of Portugal. This result is an important

breakthrough because until now it was commonly accepted that these columns were made of

local Galician marble.

Furthermore, this source attribution has additional significant implications. On the one hand,

this is the first time that this Portuguese marble has been analytically detected in the Galician

medieval architecture, where the use of marble for sculpture and architecture is not unknown,

yet quite rare in comparison with granite and traditionally considered to be of Galician origin.

On the other hand, but also in this same sense, the attested presence of this Lusitanian marble

in a place as far from its area of production as Santiago de Compostela at a time when it was

no longer in trading networks, leads us to consider the possibility that these columns were

reshaped from previous marble elements, reused and decorated when the Portal of Glory was

built.

Indeed, it is well known that Estremoz Anticline marble was exploited and widely used in

ancient times, especially by the Romans from Early Imperial times until the Late Roman

period, as evidenced by the studies carried out in archaeological pieces not only from the

capital of Lusitania, Augusta Emerita (Lapuente, Turi, and Blanc 2000; Lapuente et al. 2014),

but also from areas relatively distant from the quarries such as Caesar Augusta in the NE of

Hispania (Lapuente et al. 2016; Nogales, Lapuente, and Rodà 2017) and even in the North of

Africa (Antonelli et al. 2015). In accordance with this distribution, Estremoz Anticline

marble also reached the northern regions of Roman Spain, as proven by a few, rare examples

of sarcophagi (González Soutelo, Gutiérrez Garcia-M., and Royo 2018; Vidal, Gutiérrez

Garcia-M., and García-Entero 2016). However, in Medieval times this material was no longer

the object of long-distance transport in trade networks, and in particular not with a Christian

reign established in the NW of the Iberian Peninsula, since the quarries were at that time

14
under Muslim control. Therefore, it seems extremely unlikely that the marble used for these

columns was of primary use, while the hypothesis of being recycled material from previous

Roman objects becomes stronger.

At this point, two questions arise in the light of the unquestionable fact of being Estremoz

Anticline marbles. First, are there any arguments to explain a possible re-use from a local

Roman monument? Or should the presence of Estremoz Anticline marbles be related to a

longer distance transport of these spolia? In response to these questions, it can be said that

there is no evidence for the first option as, at the moment, the scarce Roman and Late Roman

marble architectural pieces documented and archaeometrically analysed in this NW sector of

Hispania are of local provenance (see, for example, González Soutelo et al. 2016; González

Soutelo and Gutiérrez Garcia-M. forthcoming); Gutiérrez Garcia-M., Royo, and González

Soutelo 2018).

By contrast, the transport of large marble objects from central and southern Iberia to the

northern regions as part of military raids booty or to be used for prestige elements, is

documented in this period (González Soutelo, Gutiérrez Garcia-M., and Royo 2018).

Although it is not possible to confirm with absolute certainty whether the marbles were

actually moved in the Christian raid from the ancient Roman city of Coria, or from some

other places, it does reinforce the idea, in agreement to the written sources, that these spolia

could have been part of the loot brought to Santiago by order of Alfonso III. Moreover, the

fact that the Estremoz Anticline marbles were widely used in the territories of the ancient

Lusitania, not only in sculpture but also in architectural decorative elements of great size,

adds weight to attributing these columns as part of the materials mentioned in the Acta

instaurationis and used in the pre-Romanesque basilica.

15
Concerning the other two marbles pieces (the fourth column and the apostle´s head), the

scenery is completely different. The comparison with the multi-method analytical database

recently created on local marble outcrops makes it possible to assign both of them to marbles

from Galician quarries. The homogeneous grey colour and the results of its archaeometric

analysis, which point to the O Incio marble district, clearly set the fourth column apart from

the other three. However, the question of whether it was carved ex novo for the Portal of

Glory or, alternatively, carved from a pre-existing local marble piece is much harder to

elucidate. Although we cannot rule out this second hypothesis, the fact that the Romanesque

church of San Pedro Fiz de Hospital, in the same village of O Incio, was entirely built of

marble proves that materials from this district were in use during the last decades of the 12 th

century. Consequently, it is reasonable to believe that Master Matthews might have ordered it

specifically for the Portal. The apparent stone decay of this fourth column, which has been

put forward by some scholars as a sign of being recycled from the old façade (Moralejo

1991,16), could also be due, in fact, to the slightly lower quality of this local marble in

comparison to that of the Estremoz Anticline.

In any case, given the high degree of thought put into the creation of the Portal of Glory, for

which the best artisans and materials were made available, it seems likely that the presence of

marble, though rarely represented in the total of the stone pieces, plays a special role. Indeed,

the use of such a noble and highly appreciated material must be emphasized as a strongly

symbolic act. The strategic location of the three marble columns in the central arcade, added

to their exquisite carving, point to a special significance of its use, probably due to the fact

that they were spolia elements. As for the fourth local column, regardless of whether it was

made ex novo or was spolia, it is difficult to understand why it was included in the extreme

northern arcade with no respective counterpart on the other side, and thus breaking up the

symmetry. Considering the importance of the symbolic message used by Master Mateo,

16
perhaps even with the presence of polychromy, it could be an indication towards the

importance of the original grey colour of the marble.

Concerning the enigmatic marble head, it has been possible to confirm without doubt that it

was carved from local O Incio marble. If the discovery of it being made of marble is already

remarkable, its identification as a Galician source for such a beautiful work of art is even

more outstanding. The exceptionality of this portrait goes beyond the fact that is the only one

in marble on the whole Portal of Glory, as it is also a rare example of the use of the best

variety of O Incio marbles (lithotype 1, defined in Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al. 2016) for a free-

standing sculpture. In fact, so far, the use of this white local marble has been attested only in

decorative reliefs and architectural elements such as capitals, even from the first examples of

its use in late Roman times (González Soutelo et al. 2016).

Further questions arise from this latter element, for which there are no easy answers. In

particular, and regardless of whether it was reused or not, why is it the only marble portrait in

a set almost entirely made of granite? There seems to be an apparent contradiction between

the use of such material (white, homogeneous, fine-grained marble which is perfect for

achieving high-quality detail in sculptural work) and its presence almost out of sight from the

ground floor. Again, the answer must lie in the symbolism of Master Mateo´s work.

Additionally, the remains of pigments belonging to the first medieval polychromy confirm its

authenticity, ensuring that it was not added to the granite artwork at any later time.

Finally, the advantages of a multidisciplinary approach such us the one followed in this study

must be emphasized. This is an ideal example of the mutual benefit obtained from the

collaborative work to improve our knowledge of this exceptional artwork, where the

documentary sources are cross-checked by the analytical studies of marble provenance.

Furthermore, the identification of a non-local marble origin inevitably obliges us to

17
reconsider previous assumptions and draw attention to the need of performing archaeometric

analysis on other medieval marble elements, since it is evident that the panorama in which

Romanesque art was being created in this far corner of the Iberian Peninsula is in fact much

more complex than previously thought.

Acknowledgements and Funding

This contribution has been developed within the confluence of two research programs, the

“Santiago Cathedral Project” and the “Marmora Galicia” project. The first, sponsored by

several international and Spanish Institutions: Foundations of Barrié, Santiago Cathedral,

Andrew W. Mellon, Harvard’s Real Colegio Complutense; the Spanish Cultural Heritage

Institute and the Xunta of Galicia, committed to the conservation of the Cathedral. The

second, concerns an interdisciplinary research program with a double objective, creating a

database of the marble lithotypes from the main quarries in the NW of Hispania, and their

complementary application on the most relevant archeological and historical pieces made in

marble found in the same territory. This work was supported by the Spanish MICINN and

European FEDER founds (HAR2011-25011 and HAR2015-65319-P), in collaboration with

the LabEx Sciencies Archéologiques de Bordeaux (ANR-10-LABX-52) through the “Graver

dans le marbre” (ROMAE) project (2016-2018); and by the E20_17R Research Group

(GMG) of Zaragoza University. The authors are grateful for the sampling facilities to the

Servizo de Patrimonio de la Xunta de Galicia, Fundación Catedral de Santiago and Museo

Catedralicio; and Dr Brilli from the Instituto di Geologia Ambientale e Geoingegneria, CNR,

in Rome, for his contribution (ISRM).

18
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Figure captions

Fig.1. Map showing the geographical locations of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, Spain),
the marble districts mentioned in this study and Coria (Cáceres) mentioned in the
documentary sources.

Fig. 2. The Portal of Glory artwork with location of the studied pieces (Modified from
Cortázar García de Salazar and Sánchez Ledesma, 2017, Santiago Cathedral Project). The
three marble columns from the central arcade are SAN1 (northern twisted), SAN2 (mullion)
and SAN3 (southern twisted). The marble apostol´s head corresponds to SAN4. SAN5 is the
homogeneous grey column, located in the small northern arcade.

Fig. 3. The four marble columns studied.

Fig. 4A. Updated isotopic field of O Incio marble district in Galicia, Spain (modified from
Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al. 2016) plotted in the reference isotopic diagram from the fine
grained classical marbles (after Gorgoni et al. 2002, with additions from Lapuente et al. 2014
and Attanasio et al. 2015).

Fig. 4B. Isotopic signature of the four white and white/grey marble pieces of the Portal of
Glory in an isotopic diagram after Gorgoni et al., 2002, with the Iberian isotopic fields of
Macael (Lapuente, Turi and Blanc, 2000), Alconera, Estremoz Anticline and Almadén de la
Plata (Lapuente et al. 2014) and the updated isotopic field of O Incio.

Fig. 5. Apostol’s head (sample SAN4). On the left: general overview of the piece after
restoration with traces of polychromy in a fine-grained white marble with a few thin grey
veins. On the right: Microphotograph under crossed polars of the studied sample, image of
the faint CL response. In the bottom right corner, a SEM/EDS image showing small dispersed
dolomite grains and other accessories.

Fig. 6. Isotopic diagram for grey marbles with data of sample SAN5 (grey Northern column).
Classical bigio antico (after Attanasio et al. 2017) and Hispanic marbles (after Lapuente et al.
2014, 2018; and the updated O Incio marble modified here from Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al.
2016).

Table

Table 1. Minero-petrographic, CL and isotopic features of the marble pieces sampled.

26
Figure 1. Map showing the geographical locations of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, Spain), the
marble districts mentioned in this study and Coria (Cáceres) mentioned in the documentary sources.

27
Figure 2. The Portal of Glory artwork with location of the studied pieces (Modified from Cortázar
García de Salazar and Sánchez Ledesma, 2017, Santiago Cathedral Project). The three marble
columns from the central arcade are SAN1 (northern twisted), SAN2 (mullion) and SAN3 (southern
twisted). The marble apostol´s head corresponds to SAN4. SAN5 is the homogeneous grey column,
located in the small northern arcade.

28
Figure 3. The four marble columns studied.

29
Figure 4A. Updated isotopic field of O Incio marble district in Galicia, Spain (modified from
Gutiérrez Garcia-M. et al. 2016) plotted in the reference isotopic diagram from the fine
grained classical marbles (after Gorgoni et al. 2002, with additions from Lapuente et al. 2014
and Attanasio et al. 2015).

Figure 4B. Isotopic signature of the four white and white/grey marble pieces of the Portal of
Glory in an isotopic diagram after Gorgoni et al., 2002, with the Iberian isotopic fields of
Macael (Lapuente, Turi and Blanc, 2000), Alconera, Estremoz Anticline and Almadén de la
Plata (Lapuente et al. 2014) and the updated isotopic field of O Incio.

30
Figure 5. Apostle’s head (sample SAN4). On the left: general overview of the piece after restoration
with traces of polychromy in a fine-grained white marble with a few thin gray veins. On the right:
Microphotograph under crossed polars of the studied sample, image of the faint CL response. In the
bottom right corner, a SEM/EDS image showing small dispersed dolomite grains and other
accessories.

31
Figure 6. Isotopic diagram for grey marbles with data of sample SAN5 (grey Northern
column). Classical bigio antico (after Attanasio et al. 2017) and Hispanic marbles (after
Lapuente et al. 2014, 2018; and the updated O Incio marble modified here from Gutiérrez
Garcia-M. et al. 2016).

32
Sample Piece Fabric Texture GBS MGS AVG Accesory minerals CL IRMS (‰ PDB)
No. Type Foliation Strain Twins He S C L mm mm Dol Qtz-M Qtz-P Ms Phl Ap Py FeOx CM Su Colour Intensity Distribution 𝛅 18O 𝛅 13C
SAN1 S twisted column A L, V Un II>I He s C l 2,0 0,7 (+) + ++ (+) (+) B/DO N-Faint-Medium Ht B -6,37 1,41
SAN2 Mullion A D, Cr II>I He S c 2,7 0,5 (+) + (+) + DO Faint-(Medium) Ht -6,60 1,36
SAN3 N twisted column A (D) Un II>I>III (He) s C 1,0 0,4 + + + (+) DO Faint-(Medium) Ht -5,30 1,98
SAN4 Apostol's head (A) (D) II>(I),(III) (He) S c 0,7 0,3 + + + + + (+) DO/DR Faint Ht -10,4 1,42
SAN5 Northern column A D Un II>I (He) s C 1,8 0,9 + + (+) DO Faint-Medium Ht C -11,16 0,64

FABRIC TYPE: A, Anisotropic. (), sligthly.

FOLIATION: D, Deformed shape grain; L, Lenticular or banded aggregates; V, Size grain variation; Cr, Crystallographic preferred orientation. (), rare.
STRAIN: Un, Undulatory extinction.
TWINS: Twins type I,II,III, after Burkhard (1993). (), rare.
TEXTURE: He, Heteroblastic; (), sligthly
GBS: Grain boundary shape. S, Straight; C, Curved; L, Lobulated; E, Embayed; small letter: minority; capital letter: majority.
ACCESSORIES: (), microcristalline crystals, +, rare; ++, trace; +++, abundant; Do, dolomite; Qtz-M, monocrystalline quartz, Qtz-P, polycristalline quartz, Ms, muscovite; Phl, phlogopite; Ap,
apatite; Py, pyrite; FeOx, iron oxyde; CM, carboneous matter; Su, sulphide
CL COLOUR: B, Black; DO, Dark Orange; DR, Dark Red
CL INTENSITY: N, Null; (), millimetric spots
CL DISTRIBUTION: Ht, heterogeneous; C, different intensities related to several specific crystals; B, associated to lenticular or banded aggregates.

Table 1. Minero-petrographic, CL and isotopic features of the marble pieces sampled.

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