1st Semester

IWAS IRREG
ETHICS 101
MIDTERM REVIEWER
CHAPTER 1: Introducing Philosophy
and Ethics ( from the suggested readings )

Etymology of Philosophy - Philosophy can be divided into

Occidental (Western) and Oriental
The term "Philosophy" originates from the (Eastern) traditions.
Greek words “philos” (love) and “sophia” - Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the
(wisdom). Pre-Socratics are central to Western
- Philosophy is fundamentally about the philosophy.
pursuit of wisdom.
Pre-Socratics
Ancient Thinkers - Their inquiries laid the groundwork for
- Early philosophers sought to philosophical thought, emphasizing
understand nature systematically. natural explanations over divine ones.
Human Nature Thales
- Indicates a deep-rooted desire to find - Proposed that water is the essential
patterns and meaning in the element, highlighting a shift toward
environment. naturalistic explanations.
Human Response Anaximenes
- In the face of uncertainty, humans
often turned to gods and deities for - Suggested air's primacy over water,
guidance. reinforcing the idea of natural elements
Existential Inquiry being vital to life.
- Raises profound questions about
human agency and the ability to Empedocles and the Four Elements
navigate life independently.
Philosophical Implications - Earth, water, air, and fire are
- Challenges the notion of helplessness fundamental to understanding nature.
and invites exploration of human - Example: The burning matchstick
empowerment. illustrates the presence of all four
Core Idea elements, emphasizing a rational
- Taking control of one’s life fosters a approach to existence.
belief that destiny is shaped by
Rational Thought
personal actions rather than divine
intervention.
- The absence of divine explanations in
natural phenomena marks a significant
"Philos" is often oversimplified as love;
shift in philosophical thinking
however, it encompasses broader meanings
(Agape, Eros, Philos). Pythagoras

Alternative Term: “Philein” implies friendship - Advocated that numerical

or companionship, enriching the concept of understanding is crucial; if it can’t be
love in philosophy. quantified, it’s not worth discussing.

Pythagoras
- Credited with coining the term "love of
wisdom" as a mnemonic.

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Democritus Socratic Truth and Objectivity
- Introduced the concept of the atom, - Truth is universal and independent of
positing that understanding these individual biases, contrasting sharply
smallest units is key to comprehending with Sophist ideas.
existence. Plato’s Contributions
Anaxagoras - As the founder of the Academy, Plato
- Proposed that traits exist as seeds promotes rationalism, asserting that
within us, suggesting that abilities can reason should guide knowledge.
be cultivated through practice rather Aristotle’s Empiricism
than divine gifting. - Aristotle, Plato's student and founder of
Anaxagoras' Perspective on Traits the Lyceum, argues that knowledge
- Anaxagoras argues that individual arises from experience, laying the
traits (like swimming ability) are innate groundwork for empiricism.
(the "seed" of a fish) rather than Legacy of the Triumvirate
bestowed by divine curses, highlighting - The ideas of Socrates, Plato, and
a rational approach to human Aristotle, contrasted with Sophist
capabilities. thought, have significantly shaped the
study of ethics and moral philosophy.
Socratic Philosophy
- Socrates shifts the philosophical Domains of Moral Philosophy
inquiry from natural elements to ethical - Key Areas of Analysis
living and moral dilemmas. 1. Actions: What we do.
- Everyday decisions (e.g., lunch choices, 2. Consequences: The outcomes of
moral responsibilities) reflect the ethical actions.
questions Socrates raises 3. Character: The moral qualities of
individuals.
Definition of Ethics 4. Motive: The reasons behind
- Ethics, or moral philosophy, studies actions.
what is morally good or bad and what is Action-Reaction Principle
right or wrong. - The idea that actions lead to reactions,
often framed within ethical contexts as
Socrates and His Influence right or wrong.
- Plato's Writings: Socrates’ teachings Obligatory Actions
are primarily known through Plato’s - Morally required actions (e.g., not
dialogues, which depict Socrates as a cheating on an exam).
protagonist often in contrast with Optional Actions
Sophists. - Actions that are permissible but not
- Destruction of Dialogues: Many of required (e.g., choosing to snack before
these works were lost due to war, but 24 an exam).
complete dialogues survive. Ethical Decision-Making
- Scenario Analysis: Choosing whether to
Sophists cheat on an exam illustrates the
- Sophists are individuals known for distinction between obligatory and
exercising wisdom or learning, often optional actions.
viewed as antagonists to Socratic - Obligation to Act: Refusing to
thought. participate in cheating reflects a moral
- Subjectivity vs. Objectivity: Sophists obligation to uphold ethical standards.
emphasize subjectivity—truth is Supererogatory Acts
influenced by individual perception. - Altruistic actions that go beyond moral
Protagoras famously stated, “Man is the obligations, not required but
measure of all things.” commendable (e.g., reporting cheating).

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Categorization of Actions Pluralism in Ethical Theories
- Obligatory: Required by morality - Pluralism suggests that there are
- Optional: Not required but acceptable multiple standards or criteria for judging
● Neutral: Actions that have no right from wrong, rather than a single
moral weight set of rules.
● Upererogatory:Actions - Theoretical Approaches
exceeding moral duty ● Virtue Ethics: Focuses on
- Wrong Act (Not Permissible): Actions character traits and virtues
that violate ethical standards. ● Deontological Ethics:
Emphasizes duty and inherent
Deontological Ethics moral obligations.
- Focuses on the inherent duties of ● Consequentialism: Assesses
individuals regarding moral actions. morality based on the outcomes
- Morality is rooted in actions themselves; of actions
individuals have a duty to do what is Applied Ethics
right and avoid what is wrong (from the - Deals with controversial moral issues
Greek deon, meaning duty). that evoke strong opinions from
different groups.
Teleological Ethics - Examples of Issues
- Emphasizes the consequences of ● War
actions to determine morality (from the ● Animal rights
Greek telos, meaning goal-directed). ● Capital punishment
● Abortion
Virtue Theories ● Euthanasia
- Assess morality based on individual ● Environmental concerns
character traits—good traits (virtues) ● Homosexuality
lead to good actions, while bad traits ● Medical ethics
(vices) lead to immoral actions. ● Business ethics
- Importance of Virtue: A virtuous Morality
character fosters habitual good actions, - Often associated with Christian values
making ethical behavior instinctive. and moral theology in Western contexts
Motive in Ethics Ethics
- Ethical assessments must consider the - Commonly linked to professional fields
motives behind actions, as motives can (business, medicine, law) and serves as
significantly influence moral judgment. a personal code of conduct within these
areas.
Types of Ethical Assessment
—-------------------------------------------
Metaethics End of the Suggested Readings
- Examines the nature, origins, and
meaning of moral claims and
judgments.
- Objectivity vs. relativism, the
relationship between moral judgments
and emotions or reason, and the
dynamics of egoism versus altruism.
Normative Ethics
- Focuses on the content of moral
judgments and the criteria for
determining right and wrong.
- “The Golden Rule,” which suggests a
universal standard for ethical behavior
that everyone should follows

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

1st Semester
IWAS IRREG
ETHICS 101
MIDTERM REVIEWER
CHAPTER 1: Introducing Philosophy
and Ethics ( kay Ced )

Philosophy in Nature PLATO

- If a pig and a fool is statisfied then it - Father of Metaphysics

is better to be unstastified than to be a - Plato recorded Socrates’ ideas in the
pig and a fool…Learn from different form of dialogues
perspective and not conceal one’s own - Proposed socratic dialogue with
perspective into their respective (Xenophon and Alexamenus) which
paradigm. show how scorates used socratic
- We shall make choices the moment we method
ask something - Republic ̧ Apology, Meno, Sophist,
Statesman, and Laws, wrote over 35 of
Aristotelian Ethics the dialogue
- Plato’s Socratic dialogues—early,
- philosophy aims at maximum
middle, and later—and the later
connected truth about all available
dialogues have a shift in style that
experience.
enables us to differentiate between
Philosophy Plato’s teachings and those of his
master.
- Philosophy = philo and sophia meaning - Perfect Form (The Reality lies above)…
love for wisdom (Intellgence is World of forms and World of shadow
different from wisdom - The Body is evil and uniform
- Soul is good and eternal = Rational
MAIN THREE IN PHILOSOPY - Platos Trifold Division of the soul
- Socrate: 469 BC - 399 BC - Deductive Reasoing : General to
- Plato: 427 BC - 347 BC Specific
- Aristotle: 384 BC - 322 BC - True Knowledge
- The Academy: A garden full of flowers
SOCRATES
ARISTOTLE
- Father of philosopy in the west
- To find yourself think for yourself - Father of Natural Science: Disagreed
- Humans can doubt everthing but the with Plato
only thing they cant doubt is that they - Is more realist
are doubting / thinking - Negate the world of forms
- thinking rationally was a necessary - Knowledge is not abstract and distant it
aspect of living. is empirical is tangeble
- Socrate death is excution due to - Obsereve is to define essence
insigthing the youth - He Developed the Scientific method
- Socratic Method: Answer from Questioning -observation - Idea -
Question and Question from Experimentation - Analyzation -
Answer…Process of questioning Conclusion
- Did not published any books - The lyceum school of aristotle

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Philosopher doesn’t only give an impact to C. An attempt to gain view of the whole
their respective era and places but they have -we must be realistic
also shaped the world -“by nature we can see the whole”

Philosophy D. The Logical analysis of language and the

clarification of the meaning of the words
- 1. Philosophy: Love For Wisdom and concept
- 2. Maximum Connected truth about all -Look at the words and allow it to
availble experiences speak
-We can know the truth
-Aristotle
E. A group of problem as well as theories
- 3. The science of being in their ultimate about the solution of these problems.
reason, causes any principle aquired by
the aid of human reason alone Cosmocentrism: What Constituted the
-Celestine Bittbe universe
- Phenomenon: Sensible- the world as -In this view human were also created
we experience it in dust in cosmos.
- Noumenon: The experiences, the -Humans are microcosm of the
reality behind experiences. universe.
Microcosm: Smaller, self contained system
Ethics
- Humans cannot be conceived apart
- Ethicos: Moral Character from nature.
- Right or Wrong - What is happening to nature is
- A Decent principle, a branch of attitude happening to humans.
which defines what is good for
individual or society
Theocentric: Gods Creations
Being
- Faith is the companion of Reason
- Is = reality(The bag is Black) - Anthropocentric: Libreated from faith
- Meron (Pagmemeron) and nature
● We search philosophy for
THE FIVE VIEWS meaning
● Humans are the center, and the
-Titus and Smith
value of an object is based on its
A. Personal Attitude towards life and utility
universe
Existentialism: How do we live (Existence)
Ex: 7 Brilliant Quotes
Johnny Depp: Love is the answer 1. Actor not spectator
Bill Gates: Life is not Fair
2. Subjective
B. Method of Reflective Thinking and inquiry
Ex: 7 Secret of Succes 3. Situatedness
Like : get ; Love : Cherish
4. Freedom

5. Authentic (real) vs inauthentic

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Chirstian Philosophy:

- Myth of Sisyphus: Life Is absurb also

stated by Atheist: Atheistic
Existentialism

Theist

- Find meaning- give meaning

DIVISION BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

What is What Methaphysics The Relality

What is Epistemology Knowledge/

knowledge Truth

What is Axiology Life-beauty-va

life/good, and lue
beautiful

Methaphysics “the m analogy”

All m’s are good
All non m’s are not good
Only one perspective shows m

- This state that we are only looking at a

single reality

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

1st Semester
IWAS IRREG
ETHICS 101
MIDTERM REVIEWER
CHAPTER 2: PRELIMINARY TO THE STUDY OF ETHICS

Etymology of Ethics
- The word "ethics" originates from the Definition of Morality
Greek term ethos, meaning customs,
usage, or character. - Morality refers to the dimension of
- The Roman equivalent, mores, gives rise existence in which individuals confront
to terms like morality, moral, and an ideal vision of humanity, serving as
morals, indicating that ethics and a standard for their actions.
morals are often used interchangeably. - Actions are evaluated based on
whether they align with this moral
Understanding Norms of Morality standard, with "right" and "wrong"
- The terms "proper," "good," and "right" reflecting moral obligations, and "good"
can have varying interpretations within and "bad" indicating fulfillment or
a community’s ethos. failure to meet the ideal

Types of Norms Within a Community Concept of Value

- "Value" signifies what an individual or

Technical Norm
group finds useful or significant.
- Concerns the practical aspects of
- Relation to Ethics and Morality:
survival, health, and well-being.
● "Good" has an objective aspect toward
- Examples: Prescribed methods of work
human fulfillment, while "right" conveys
(e.g., proper ways to perform medical
moral duty.
procedures, farming techniques).
● Value focuses on subjective human
needs and desires, varying from
Societal Norm
material to moral contexts.
- Relates to group cohesion and social
● Moral values are those that should be
bonds
intrinsically desirable for all individuals
- Examples: Appropriate manners, attire,
and groups.
and rituals that foster community unity.
Socio-Historical Dimension of Ethics
Aesthetic Norm
- Pertains to perceptions of beauty in - Individuals are initiated into ethical and
various forms (color, sound, movement, moral life through their community's
etc.). traditions and practices.
- From family to broader societal
Ethical or Moral Norm institutions, individuals absorb cultural
- Refers to a community’s ideal vision of norms, aesthetic preferences, and moral
humanity and the standards for judging traditions.
actions as right or wrong.
- Often intertwined with religious beliefs,
forming an "ethico-religious"
framework.

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Moral Reflection
- Transformation of Moral Life: The
inherited moral tradition leads to moral
reflection, questioning and internalizing
ethical principles.
Factors Leading to Reflection
- Psychological Maturation: As
individuals grow, they begin to
appropriate and understand the moral
traditions they inherit, transforming
external precepts into internal
convictions.
- Nature of Ethical Experience: Morality
addresses individuals as autonomous
beings capable of reflection and action,
necessitating personal responsibility
and freedom.
- Encounters with Other Cultures:
Exposure to different moral traditions
prompts individuals to evaluate their
own, raising questions about the
universality and relativity of moral
principles.

—-------------------------------------------------------
END OF THE FUCKING READING

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

1st Semester
IWAS IRREG
ETHICS 101
MIDTERM REVIEWER
CHAPTER 3: READING #2_ Ethics by Venacio Ardales

Ethics Why Study Ethics?

- The study of right and wrong in human - The study of ethics is crucial for
behavior, focused on ethical principles understanding moral principles that
and standards. guide human behavior. It helps students
critically evaluate their actions and the
Moral societal norms they encounter, fostering
- Refers to the conduct derived from a deeper comprehension of right and
applying ethical principles; actions that wrong.
are acceptable within a social group. The Necessity of Studying Ethics
- Educational Value: The inclusion of
Ethical ethics in academic programs reflects its
- Describes behavior conforming to importance in developing morally
accepted standards. responsible individuals. Education aims
to cultivate knowledge that serves the
Unethical common good rather than selfish
- Behavior that deviates from accepted interests.
norms, often implying a lack of - Reasons for Ethical Study:
adherence to ethical codes. 1. Decision-Making: Ethics clarifies right
and wrong in decision-making
Immoral processes.
- Actions that do not conform to moral 2. Social Order: Ethical principles create
standards. agreements and rules necessary for
harmonious social life.
Amoral/Unmoral/Nonmoral 3. Critical Appraisal: Understanding past
- Refers to conduct that is neither moral and present moral systems allows for a
nor immoral. critical examination of their relevance
and impact.
Freedom 4. True Values: Ethics encourages the
- The ability to act according to one's will pursuit of genuine values in life.
without compulsion.
Moral Capacity
Right - Unlike other creatures, only humans
- A just claim or entitlement Obligation: A possess a moral dimension, allowing
duty or responsibility one is bound them to reflect on their actions and
to. their ethical implications.
Human Responsibility
Norm/Standard: - Individuals are accountable for their
- Principles of right action that guide choices and their consequences, as
acceptable behavior within a social ethical judgments apply to free,
group. voluntary actions.
Freedom
- Freedom entails the ability to choose
between alternatives, making it
essential for moral responsibility.

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Involuntary Actions harmful.
- Actions taken under compulsion do not
qualify for moral judgment, as true Situation
morality requires voluntary choices. - The circumstances surrounding an act
significantly influence moral decisions.
Self-Consciousness - Existentialist View: Sartre emphasized
- Awareness of oneself enhances freedom that moral choices cannot be made in a
by enabling individuals to make vacuum; they must be viewed in
informed choices based on reasoning context.
and ethical principles. - Aquinas’ Advice: Contextual
understanding is vital for moral action;
Factors Influencing Freedom circumstances can compel individuals
to act against their principles
Original Disposition
- An individual's inherent traits shape Relativity and Objectivity in Ethics
their potential and limitations.
Environmental Influences Ethical Relativism
- Family, culture, education, and - Subjectivism argues that morality is
surroundings play significant roles in based on individual opinions, making it
shaping one’s moral landscape and arbitrary and variable.
freedom.
Personal Choices Ethical Subjectivity
- How individuals exercise their freedom - Subjectivism argues that morality is
impacts their moral development, either based on individual opinions, making it
liberating or constraining them. arbitrary and variable.

Major Determinants of Morality Consequences of Relativism and

Subjectivity
Motive (Intention) - otential Issues: If everyone sets their
- Motive refers to the underlying own moral standards, chaos and
intention or will behind an action. It is conflict may ensue, leading to a
often not observable without inquiry breakdown of social cohesion and
into the agent's thoughts. moral order.
- Philosophical Views: - Warning Against Extremes: Relying
● Immanuel Kant: Emphasized the solely on individual moral standards
importance of good motives as the could result in a “might makes right”
foundation of moral actions. For Kant, scenario, undermining the possibility of
an act is good if its motive is good, shared values and community.
regardless of the outcome.
● Christian Ethics: Also values the inner Ethical Objectivity
moral quality, highlighting the - Ethical objectivity asserts that universal
importance of love and the quality of moral standards exist, applicable to all
one’s intentions, even toward enemies. people at all times, regardless of
personal beliefs or societal norms.
Means - Examples: Principles that value human
- The means refer to the methods or welfare and development are seen as
actions employed to achieve a goal. universal. Some standards, while
Unlike motives, means are observable objective, may have limited
and can be directly judged. applicability and are derived from
customs, traditions, laws, and religious
Consequences texts.
- The outcomes resulting from an action.
The moral assessment often considers
whether consequences are beneficial or
Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes
Ethical Theories Pessimism
- The view that life is fundamentally filled
with suffering and that existence often
Self-Realizationism brings more pain than pleasure.
- Proponent: Arthur Schopenhauer.
- Origin: Introduced by Aristotle.
- Focus: The goal of ethics is the total Stoicism
development of the person, - A philosophy that values virtue and
encompassing physical, intellectual, rationality as the highest goods,
and emotional growth. advocating for inner peace through
- Core Tenets acceptance of fate
- key Proponent: Epictetus
- The individual is central to ethical life.
Epicureanism
- Personal development is paramount.
- An ethical theory advocating for the
- Human beings are social, and pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance
personality is influenced by societal of pain, with an emphasis on mental
interactions. over physical gratification
- proponent: Epicurus.
Intuitionism
Reasons for Moral Behavior
- This theory posits that moral knowledge
comes from within the individual, John Hospers categorizes motivations for
primarily through motives or intentions. moral behavior into four main reasons
- Philosophical Proponent: Immanuel
Kant. Self-Interest
- Key Belief: A good will or good motive - People often act morally because of the
is the only inherently good quality; benefits they stand to gain, whether
consequences are secondary. immediate or future. This aligns with
- Autonomy: A moral act must stem from the adage, "it pays to do so."
an autonomous will to retain its moral Divine Command
value. - Many individuals are motivated by the
belief that they should act according to
Utilitarianism God's will, with the expectation of
divine rewards for right actions and
- A consequentialist theory that judges punishments for wrong ones. This
actions based on their outcomes, perspective relies on the existence of a
particularly regarding happiness and just God and an afterlife
pleasure. Common Interest
- Key Figures: Jeremy Bentham and - Some adhere to moral laws because
John Stuart Mill they believe these rules contribute to a
- Bentham: Focused on quantitative better society, which benefits everyone,
aspects of pleasure, advocating for including themselves. Recognizing that
actions that maximize overall happiness a cohesive society leads to mutual
- Mill: Emphasized the quality of benefit encourages moral behavior.
pleasures, distinguishing between Because It's Right"
higher (intellectual) and lower (sensory) - There are those who follow moral
pleasures. principles simply because they believe it
- Contrast with Intuitionism: is the right thing to do, irrespective of
Utilitarianism prioritizes consequences personal gain. For them, the inherent
over motives. rightness of an action serves as
sufficient motivation.

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

 Principles for an Ethical Life

To cultivate a moral and fulfilling life, Titus

provides several guiding principles

Value of Personality
- Respect the inherent value of oneself
and others. Humans, as rational and
moral beings, should never be treated
merely as means to an end.
Shared Values
- Life's most important values should be
shared. Collaboration and social
engagement enhance individual
happiness and foster a sense of
community.
Pursuit of Worthwhile Tasks
- Everyone should engage sincerely in
meaningful work. Dedication to a
worthy endeavor often leads to greater
fulfillment and joy
Cultivating Appreciation
- A broad range of interests enriches life.
Exposure to art, literature, nature, and
hobbies adds depth and vibrancy to
existence.
Presence of the Best

- Surrounding oneself with high ideals,

beauty, and truth fosters personal
growth and balance. Associating with
inspiring ideas and individuals elevates
one’s life and perspective.

—------------------------------------------------------

END OF THE READING

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

1st Semester
IWAS IRREG
ETHICS 101
MIDTERM REVIEWER
CHAPTER 4: MORAL REASONING ( READING )

Importance of Moral Reasoning

- Moral reasoning is crucial for making Guide Questions for Moral Deliberation
consistent and rational ethical
decisions. It involves clear thinking Identifying the Moral Dilemma
about moral dilemmas and - Is there a moral dilemma present?
understanding various perspectives, Understanding if a situation involves
leading to more credible moral moral implications is the first step in the
positions. deliberation process.

Key Aspects of Moral Reasoning Exploring the Dilemma

- What are the facts? Accurate facts are
Rationality and Consistency vital for informed decision-making.
- Rationalization seeks to maintain Misinformation can lead to
beliefs without question, while misunderstandings and flawed
justification aims for consistent and judgments.
rational beliefs. Good moral reasoning - What are the pros and cons? Weighing
demands that we align our beliefs with arguments for and against a decision
sound reasoning, ensuring they are not helps maintain impartiality amidst
merely based on personal biases or emotional involvement.
whims.
Determining the Right Action
Clarifying Moral Dilemmas - What is the right thing to do? This
- Moral reasoning helps identify and question requires personal reflection
articulate moral dilemmas. Not every and a commitment to a decision backed
decision requires deep moral by sound reasoning. Ultimately, only the
consideration, but significant choices individual can bridge the gap between
impacting oneself and others should be theory and practice.
evaluated carefully.
Moral Reasoning in Argument Form
Understanding Other Perspectives
- Moral reasoning fosters respect for Valid Argument
differing viewpoints. By analyzing the - A valid argument has premises that
principles underlying opposing views, logically entail its conclusion
we can engage in constructive dialogue - If a person is a father, the person is
rather than resorting to accusations of male.
bad faith, as seen in contentious issues - Pedro is a father.
like abortion. - Therefore, Pedro is male.

Invalid Argument
- An invalid argument allows acceptance
of the premises while rejecting the
conclusion

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

 - If a person is a father, the person is male.
- Pedro is male.
- Therefore, Pedro is a father.

Validity and Soundness of Arguments

Valid Argument
- An argument is valid if its conclusion logically follows from its premises.
- Example:
● If a person is male, he must be a father.
● Pedro is male.
● Therefore, Pedro is a father. This argument is valid but unsound because the first
premise is false.

Sound Argument
- A sound argument has both true premises and valid reasoning, ensuring the conclusion is
credible
- Example:
● if a person is a father, he is male
● Pedro is a father.
● Therefore, Pedro is male. This argument is valid and sound

Structure of Moral Arguments

Moral arguments typically follow this structure:

● Premise 1: A moral standard (e.g., "If an action violates the law, it is morally wrong.")
● Premise 2: A factual statement (e.g., "Affirmative action for women and minorities violates
the law.")
● Conclusion: A moral judgment (e.g., "Therefore, affirmative action is morally wrong.")

Criteria for a Good Moral Argument

- Defensibility: The moral standard should be sound, and the relevant facts must logically
support the conclusion. If the moral standard is questionable, the argument loses
credibility.
- Clarification of Terms: Key terms must be clearly defined. For instance, "affirmative
action" can have different meanings, leading to confusion
- Assessment of Premises:
● Evaluate Factual Claims: Ensure factual accuracy regarding the moral issue.
● Challenge the Moral Standard: Question the validity of the moral standard itself and
consider exceptions or consequences.
● Defend the Moral Standard: If challenged, provide supporting principles that reinforce the
standard.
● Revision and Modification: Be open to reformulating the moral standard to address valid
criticisms without abandoning it completely

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Minimum Requirements for Sound Moral Reasoning

James Rachels outlines the core principles every moral theory should accept:

1. Backed by Good Reasons: Moral judgments should rely on logical reasoning rather than
emotions alone, which can be unstable and subjective. Decisions should be based on solid
evidence and sound premises.
2. Based on Facts: Gather relevant information before making moral judgments.
Understanding the context is crucial for informed decision-making.
3. Based on Acceptable Moral Principles: Moral judgments should connect to principles that
withstand critical scrutiny. Ethical theories provide frameworks for evaluating these
principles.
4. Impartiality: Everyone's interests should be treated equally, avoiding arbitrary
distinctions. Justice requires that we do not privilege certain individuals without good
reason.

—----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

END OF THE READING

OUT NAKO MGA BAKS

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes

Transcribed by James Renduard A. Reyes