Energy Conservation

Energy conservation is the decision and practice of using less energy. Turning off the light when
you leave the room, unplugging appliances when they’re not in use and walking instead of
driving are all examples of energy conservation. The two main reasons people conserve energy
are to gain more control over their energy bill and reduce the demand on the earth’s natural
resources.

Energy Conservation vs. Energy Efficiency: What is the difference?

Energy conservation and efficiency may be related, but they have distinct definitions in the
energy world. Energy conservation involves using less energy by adjusting your behaviors and
habits. Energy efficiency, on the other hand, involves using technology that requires less energy
to perform the same function. Energy-saving light bulbs, large household appliances, smart
thermostats, and smart home hubs like Constellation Connect are all examples of technology that
can be energy efficient.

While energy conservation is trying to use less energy for cost and environmental reasons,
energy efficiency means using specific products designed to use less energy. These two concepts
are inherently similar but involve different methods. Examples of energy conservation include
using smart appliances and energy-saving bulbs in your home. Energy conservation can help you
save money and also increase your sustainability.

Energy Conservation Ideas

1. Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators account for as much as 13.7% of the total household
energy use. To increase energy savings, set your fridge to 37 degrees Fahrenheit and your freezer
to 3 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Use energy-efficient light bulbs. Install energy-saving CFL or LED bulbs in your lighting
fixtures to use 25-35 percent less energy, compared to regular incandescent bulbs.
3. Clean or replace air filters as recommended. The air conditioner and heater are the biggest
energy users in most homes, and these appliances have to work even harder with dirty air filters.
Write the date of installation on the filter to help you remember when it needs to be replaced.
4. Do full loads. Make sure your dishwasher and washing machine are full before running them to
get the most energy-saving use from each run cycle.
5. Use smart power strips. Even when not in use, household electronics still draw power from
outlets. This phenomenon is called “phantom load”. Energy-saving smart power strips, which
shut down appliances that have gone into standby mode, help you cut down on phantom-load
costs, potentially resulting in money and energy savings.
6. Air-dry dishes and clothes. Instead of using your dishwasher’s drying feature, consider letting
the dishes air-dry. And instead of using the dryer on a nice day, hang your clothes outside to dry.
7. Bake with glass or ceramic pans. You can set the oven’s temperature 25 degrees lower than
indicated in the recipe when you do this.
8. The cook uses the right-sized burner. Conserve energy by using your stove’s small burners for
small pots and large burners for large pots.

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9. Cut down on air leaks in your home. You’re paying for warm air in the winter and cool air in the
summer — don’t let that money escape! Check your windows and doors for cracks and gaps, and
seal them up with new weather stripping or caulk.
10. Keep your house a little hotter in the summer and a little cooler in the winter. Opt for wearing
lighter clothes in the summer and wearing a few extra layers in the winter in exchange for those
few degrees’ change in temperature. A good rule of thumb is to set the thermostat to 68 degrees
Fahrenheit in the winter and to 78 in the summer.
15 ways to conserve energy and electricity at home

Here are 15 ways to start conserving energy:

1. Adjust your day-to-day behaviors

2. Replace your light bulbs
3. Use smart power strips
4. Install a programmable thermostat
5. Use energy-efficient appliances
6. Reduce water heating expenses
7. Install energy-efficient windows
8. Upgrade your HVAC system
9. Weatherize your home
10. Insulate your home
11. Wash your clothes in cold water when possible
12. Replace or clean your air filters
13. Use your toaster oven instead of your oven
14. Use natural light
15. Dress appropriately for the weather inside and outside

Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency refers to any method where less energy is consumed to attain the same amount
of useful output. There are opportunities for energy efficiency measures at all levels of energy
use, from household appliances to large scale industrial projects. For example, an energy-
efficient 12-watt LED bulb uses 75-80% less energy than a 60-watt traditional bulb but provides
the same level of light. Across the board, energy efficient products reduce energy costs and
decrease reliance on energy imports. Similar to renewable energy sources, energy efficient
products and processes reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but given the price of renewable
energy, energy efficiency is sometimes the cheaper green option for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
Efficient energy use has been a rising trend in the United States due to increasing energy costs
and the environmental problems caused by greenhouse gas emissions. This clean energy trend is
evident in the products and appliances for sale to consumers, many of which become more
energy-efficient from year to year. An excellent example of trending energy efficiency is in
community design. “Energy smart” infrastructure and land development tactics to increase public
transportation accessibility, for instance, cuts both costs and carbon emissions as these practices

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spread. The trend also extends to homes: a growing number of prospective homeowners are
starting to request energy ratings before deciding to purchase property.
“Energy smart” land development refers to the method property developers use to ensure their
infrastructure is energy efficient. This concept can take many forms, including compact land
development to keep natural disruption to a minimum, and the accessibility and abundance of
walking or biking paths.
Energy efficiency financing: what's available?

Energy efficiency measures can increase your property values, reduce your electric bills, and
create a more comfortable living environment in your home. There are a variety of financing
options available to make it easier for homeowners and businesses to invest in energy efficiency.
In most cases, you can get a personal (also known as unsecured) energy efficiency loan or
an energy-efficient mortgage. Depending on where you live, you may also have access to on-bill
financing that you repay through your utility electric bill, or you may be able to take out a PACE
loan that you repay through your property taxes.

Why use financing for energy efficiency improvements?

Energy efficiency loans are similar to home improvement loans that homeowners have used for
decades to build a deck or add a second bathroom to their homes. When a homeowner borrows
money from a lender, they agree to pay it back, plus interest, in monthly installments over the
loan term.
Energy efficiency financing also has the same basic considerations as other types of loans:

 Lower interest rates result in lower overall costs for borrowers.

 Loans with shorter terms will generally have higher monthly payments and lower total costs
over the life of the loan.
 Loans can be either equipment-backed or mortgage-backed, which results in a wide array of
interest rates, term lengths, and credit requirements among loan offerings.
However, in many cases energy efficiency financing comes with an extra qualification step. For
energy efficient mortgages, PACE financing, and on-bill financing, you may have to get a home
energy audit so that you can prove to the lender that your improvements will be cost-effective.
There are four main types of energy efficiency financing options:
Energy efficient mortgages

Energy efficient mortgages (EEMs) are similar to a standard home mortgage in that they use
your property as collateral for a loan. With an EEM, you can purchase or refinance a home that is
already energy-efficient or you can purchase or refinance a home that will become energy
efficient after energy-saving improvements.

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Energy efficient loans

Energy efficiency loans are unsecured loans, which means they don’t require your property as
collateral. In practice, they are similar to the personal loans or lines of credit that you can take
out from a creditor.
PACE for energy efficiency

Unlike energy efficiency loans and EEMs, Property-Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) financing
doesn’t require a monthly loan payment to a creditor. If you take out a PACE loan to fund your
home energy efficiency improvements, you repay the amount owed on an annual basis as an
assessment on your property taxes.
On-bill financing

Funding your energy efficiency projects doesn’t always require taking out a separate
loan or refinancing your mortgage. Many utilities offer on-bill financing programs that pair loan
repayment with monthly energy bills to make it easier for homeowners and businesses to invest
in energy efficiency improvements for their properties.

Why conserve energy: the top benefits of using less energy

Energy optimization means maximizing the way you use energy in your home environment. This
goes beyond simply using less energy and should include expanding energy efficiency (and
savings) in the spaces you are already in. This can help improve the performance of your system
by not overusing it. There are many reasons why homeowners should consider optimizing their
energy use, from the clear environmental and financial benefits of cutting energy use to potential
improvements in mental and physical health. In fact, energy optimization has become one of the
common features that prospective homeowners look for when purchasing a home.Whether your
motivations for energy conservation are economic, environmental, or personal, the benefits of
energy efficiency will have something to offer for everyone. Here are the top eight reasons why
energy efficiency is important for your home and why it is important to optimize energy use:
1. Protect the environment

Energy efficiency is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint. Homes were responsible for
19 percent of national greenhouse gas emissions in 2016, and implementing energy efficiency
measures in your home can significantly reduce your emissions contribution. The typical
household can reduce its energy use (and by extension its greenhouse gas emissions) by 25 to 30
percent by investing in more efficient energy consumption.
2. Significantly reduce your utility bills

As a homeowner, energy costs can make up a significant portion of your recurring monthly
expenses. With energy efficient appliances and home upgrades, the U.S. Department of Energy
estimates that you can save anywhere from five to 30 percent on your utility bills. Energy
efficient appliances consume less energy throughout their service lives without sacrificing
quality, and are an excellent way to save on your energy expenditures.

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3. Earn a great return on your investment

Energy efficient purchases should not be viewed as an expense, but as an investment with utility
savings that add up over the service life of the product. Savings can offset the initial price
premium on energy efficient options, and offer a significant return in comparison to
conventional, non-efficient alternatives. Furthermore, the return you pocket through savings will
only increase over time as energy prices continue to rise in the United States.
4. Increase your property value

In the real estate market, energy efficient homes frequently sell for a higher price than standard
homes with comparable features. Every project that increases your home’s energy efficiency
adds a fraction of its cost to the final selling price. In addition, private residences with green
certifications have been proven to sell at a premium compared to similar homes in the area.
Coming with expectations of reduced utility bills and fewer repair bills, energy efficiency is an
attractive feature in any home.
5. Enhance your quality of life

By optimizing your energy use, you can increase the comfort of living in your home and, in
many cases, see notable health benefits. When you conduct energy efficient measures, your
home will be warmer, drier, and properly ventilated, which lowers the risk of illnesses and mold
growth. Energy efficiency also prevents the buildup of indoor pollutants, a major concern in
areas with high radon emissions. In fact, the financial benefits of energy-efficient buildings yield
a benefit-cost ratio of over 4 to 1, and 75 percent of those benefits can be attributed to health
advantages.
6. Energy savings tips help you easily cut costs

Energy expenses are often thought of as a fixed cost of owning a home or business, with
reductions only possible through pricey renovations. However, you can easily reduce your utility
bills through simple energy conservation behaviors or small energy efficient purchases.
Programmable thermostats, advanced power strips, and energy efficient lighting can decrease
your energy expenses with almost no effort on your part.
7. Earn incremental returns on energy efficiency investments

Energy efficiency measures, no matter how small, are capable of generating utility savings over
their service lives. However, your savings are usually proportionate to the cost of the energy
efficient upgrade – replacing light bulbs will only cost a few dollars, but will deliver marginal
savings, while upgrading your attic insulation can save hundreds of dollars in heating and
cooling bills. Upgrades can range from simply plugging in a smart power strips to an HVAC
system overhaul. How little or how much you choose to invest in energy efficiency is completely
up to you.
8. Insulate yourself from rising electricity prices

Utility residential electricity rates fluctuate seasonally and annually, but have risen steadily in the
last decade. This trend is likely to continue into the future. In addition to cutting your monthly

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 electricity bills now, conducting energy efficiency improvements on your home helps to insulate
you from the financial impact of unpredictable sharp energy price increases that could happen in
the years to come.
Energy management
Energy management includes planning and operation of energy production and energy
consumption units as well as energy distribution and storage. Objectives are resource
conservation, climate protection and cost savings, while the users have permanent access to the
energy they need.
Energy management includes planning and operation of energy production and energy
consumption units as well as energy distribution and storage. Objectives are resource
conservation, climate protection and cost savings, while the users have permanent access to the
energy they need. It is connected closely to environmental management, production
management, logistics and other established business functions. The VDI-Guideline 4602
released a definition which includes the economic dimension: "Energy management is the
proactive, organized and systematic coordination of procurement, conversion, distribution and
use of energy to meet the requirements, taking into account environmental and economic
objectives". It is a systematic endeavor to optimize energy efficiency for specific political,
economic, and environmental objectives through Engineering and Management techniques.

Energy Audit/Assessment

An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy flows in a building with the objective of
understanding the energy efficiency home or building being audited. Typically an energy audit is
conducted to seek opportunities to reduce the amount of energy used by the home or facility
without negatively affecting the comfort of the home or the production/output in case of a business.
This includes identifying the systems and areas of opportunity that will have the greatest impact in
improving comfort, indoor air quality, durability & reliability, energy efficiency as well as the
health and safety of the occupants.

An energy audit is an inspection survey and an analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in
a building. It may include a process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system
without negatively affecting the output. In commercial and industrial real estate, an energy audit is
the first step in identifying opportunities to reduce energy expense and carbon footprint.

Different types of energy audits

 Historical Data Analysis-Utility bills are collected for 1-3 years to evaluate the home or the
facilities energy consumption history and energy usage profiles.
 Do-It-Yourself Home Energy Audits-A diligent do-it-yourself walk-through keeping a check
list of repairs or changes needed to increase home energy efficiency. Sealing cracks and leaks
can save 5-30% on heating bills in winter.
 Walk-through audits-a brief review of the home or facilities utility bills and other operating
data, and a walk-through of the home or business to become familiar with the building
operation and identify glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency.

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 Professional energy audit by certified energy auditor/energy rater-Many professional energy
audits will include a blower door test. Most will also include a thermography scan and will
identify all energy conservation measures appropriate for the home or business.

Benefits of energy audit

An energy audit is recommended to determine the energy consumption associated with a facility
and the potential savings associated with that energy consumption. From a general point of view,
an energy audit provides enormous benefits in different areas:

1. Reduced Energy Expenses

The most obvious benefit is that the less energy your facility uses, the less money that you will
have to spend on energy costs. So, how much money can you actually save? According
to ENERGY STAR, industrial facilities can reduce their energy usage by up to 30 percent simply
by using more energy-efficient technologies and business practices.

2. Identify Problems

An energy audit can also help to identify any issues that your equipment might have. For
example, the auditor could find small leaks in your compressed air system. These leaks would
cost you a significant amount of money if you didn’t know about them until a major problem
presented itself later down the line.
Auditors can also detect dangerous health risks like the carbon monoxide that’s emitted from
equipment that hasn’t been vented properly. With a regular energy audit, you will be able to
address these kinds of issues promptly to help ensure the health and safety of your staff
members.

3. Increased Employee Comfort

During your audit, you might learn about changes that you can make regarding insulation and air
sealing. Completing these enhancements will help create a more reliable and more efficiently
cooled or heated space for you and your employees. In turn, more comfortable employees tend to
be more productive, so not only will you save on energy costs, but you may also improve overall
profitability for your business.

4. Personalized Recommendations

Working with an energy expert can help you learn about new energy-efficient technologies you
wouldn’t have otherwise known about. The professional will customize a plan just for your
business, recommending which upgrades will give you the most return on your investment.
These might include updated lighting systems, a new HVAC system, weatherization measures
like insulation and air sealing, and more. While some of the recommendations might have a
substantial up-front cost, you should remember that many of them will pay for themselves in a
short period of time with significantly reduced energy expenses.

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 5. Show Environmental Concern

By taking steps to be more energy efficient, you will be showing your employees and clients that
your company cares about the impact that you’re making on the environment. This may help you
reach those customers who are looking to work with an environmentally conscious business.

6. Increased Property Value

Using the recommendations of an energy auditor to make your facility more energy efficient
could also help to increase its overall worth. Things like solar panels, high-efficiency LED
lighting, and weatherization procedures are all things that contribute to a higher property value,
so it is definitely in your best interest to go as “green” as your budget will allow.

7. Longer Equipment Lifespan

An energy auditor might recommend that you update some of your equipment for maximum
energy savings. If you decide to upgrade, you will not only save on energy costs, but you can
also expect the equipment to last a long time. This is because newer, more energy-efficient
equipment doesn’t have to work as hard as the older, outdated units to provide the same level of
performance.
 It helps reduce energy costs in your facility.
 With a reduction in production costs, the competitiveness of your company will be improved.
 It helps reduce the dependence on foreign energy sources.
 It helps reduce environmental damage and pollution.
 It can increase the security of your energy supply.
 It can reduce the consumption of natural resources.
 It can reduce damage to the environment associated with the exploitation of resources.
 It helps reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions.
 It helps you to lower energy bills.
 It enables you to increase the comfort of those in the facility.
 It helps you to increase the life span of the equipment in your facility.
 It discovers any unaccounted consumption that may exist at the facility.

In summary, an energy audit can identify energy consumption and energy costs of the facility
and it can evolve over time to develop measures to eliminate waste, maximize efficiency and
optimize supply energy.
The energy audit affects three key factors:
 profitability through optimization of energy expenditure
 productivity through optimization of equipment and processes
 performance, thanks to the rationalization of energy use.

Advantages of an energy audit

An energy audit will give you a list of action items, with estimated costs and benefits, to reduce
your energy usage, energy costs and carbon footprint. With this clear guidance, its easy to

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 prioritise and know exactly what you need to do to reduce your energy costs and greenhouse gas
emissions, how much you’ll need to spend, and what you can expect to save.

When undertaken by an experienced energy auditor:

 An auditor should be able to identify a greater number of savings opportunities than you
could on your own.
 An auditor will be able to come up an estimate of savings to an acceptable degree of
accuracy (as determined by the audit scope).
 An auditor can identify likely desired and undesired consequences of a particular
upgrade, and undertake calculations to quantify them. Eg. In a cold climate the auditor
would quantify both the electricity savings arising from upgrading office lighting to high
efficiency LED, and the increased energy usage of the heating system to heat the
buildings (as more efficient lights produce less heat, heat which usually helps keep the
office warm). The maintenance savings from longer lasting LEDs would also be
identified.
 An auditor can give you up to date advice on specific technologies.
 An auditor can help you avoid investments in well-marketed technologies with dubious
energy saving potential.

Disadvantages of an energy audits

Some other disadvantages are:

 The audit has a “use by date” or limited useful life. As technologies change, energy
tariffs change, use of a facility changes, over time the recommendations and numbers in
energy audits will become out of date. For this reason, energy audit standards generally
consider that energy audits should be repeated every 3 years.
 An energy audit isn’t a design or works specification. You’ll still need to invest in a
design and specification to get a project “shovel ready”.
 The audit could be poorly done. Especially if you haven’t provided a clear scope of
works to the auditor and been careful in auditor selection.
 The results of an audit cannot be predicted beforehand. You don’t know whether or not
you can cut your electricity usage by 25% with less than a one year payback (not usual,
but I’ve certainly seen this result), or by just 10% with a 6 year payback (at the other
extreme, also rare, but I’ve also seen this result too).

Types of Energy Audits

Two types of energy audits are available: a preliminary energy audit and a detailed energy audit.
The type you choose will depend on your needs.
 Preliminary energy audit: This type of audit is simply a data-gathering exercise that offers a
preliminary analysis. Often the auditor will conduct this type of audit via a walk-through

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 investigation. A professional energy auditor will utilize readily available data and limited
diagnostic instruments to complete a preliminary energy audit.
 Detailed energy audit: This type of audit is completed by a professional auditor who monitors,
analyzes, and verifies energy use to establish problem areas and ways to implement energy
efficiency improvements. They will present their findings and suggestions in a detailed technical
report. Additionally, during a thorough energy audit, a professional energy auditor will use
sophisticated instrumentation such as a flue gas analyzer, a scanner, and a flow meter.

What Are Some Common Energy Wasters?

Some things at your facility waste more energy than others. Here are some of the most common
issues an auditor might point out:
 Leaving lights, computers, and other equipment on 24/7
 Air leaks in equipment hoses or connections
 Doors or windows that haven’t been properly weatherized
 Using personal heaters or fans instead of the HVAC system
 Inefficient lighting
 Poorly performing air compressors
 Outdated equipment or controls

Waste energy technology

Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the

form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or the processing of waste into
a fuel source. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes generate electricity and/or
heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such
as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels. Waste-to-energy plants burn municipal solid
waste (MSW), often called garbage or trash, to produce steam in a boiler, and the steam is used to
power an electric generator turbine. MSW is a mixture of energy-rich materials such as paper,
plastics, yard waste, and products made from wood. The most common waste-to-energy system is
the mass-burn system. In this system, unprocessed MSW is burned in a large incinerator with a
boiler and a generator to produce electricity (see illustration below). A less common type of system
processes MSW to remove uncombustible materials to produce refuse-derived fuel (RDF).

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A mass-burn waste-to-energy plant
The process of generating electricity in a mass-burn waste-to-energy plant has seven stages:
1. Waste is dumped from garbage trucks into a large pit.
2. A giant claw on a crane grabs waste and dumps it in a combustion chamber.
3. The waste (fuel) is burned, releasing heat.
4. The heat turns water into steam in a boiler.
5. The high-pressure steam turns the blades of a turbine generator to produce electricity.
6. An air-pollution control system removes pollutants from the combustion gas before it is
released through a smoke stack.
7. Ash is collected from the boiler and the air pollution control system.

Fuel from plastics

One process that is used to convert plastic into fuel is pyrolysis, the thermal decomposition of
materials at high temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves change of chemical
composition and is mainly used for treatment of organic materials. In large scale production,
plastic waste is ground and melted and then pyrolyzed. Catalytic converters help in the process.
The vapours are condensed with oil or fuel and accumulated in settling tanks and filtered. Fuel is
obtained after homogenation and can be used for automobiles and machinery. It is commonly
termed as thermo fuel or energy from plastic.

What is waste-to-energy?

Simply put, waste-to-energy is any process that converts waste (or trash) into a source of usable
energy, which is why it’s categorized as a type of energy recovery. Waste-to-energy
solutions can turn gaseous, liquid, and semi-solid waste into heat, fuel for transport, or
electricity. The trash that gets used by waste-to-energy technology is non-recyclable, meaning

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there’s no other way to convert it into something useful. Waste-to-energy companies manage
waste by turning it into energy.

In urbanized areas, the most common source of trash for waste-to-energy companies comes from
municipal waste, i.e. the trash that we all accumulate on a daily basis and can’t be recycled or
composted. The process is referred to as municipal waste treatment, or MWT.

According to a 2018 study, several EU countries, including Sweden, Denmark, Finland,

Germany, and the Netherlands have managed to keep landfills to an incredible 1%, instead of
redirecting the majority of municipal waste either to recycling and composting or to waste-to-
energy technologies via MWT.

While traditionally, the most commonly used method for waste-to-energy (WtE) conversion has
been incineration, there are lots of up-and-coming, progressive waste-to-energy that show greater
promise with fewer caveats, such as concerns about the toxic gasses that come from trash
incinerators.

Keep in mind that for waste-to-energy technologies to be truly a part of a circular economy, it’s
important that all compostable and recyclable waste is composted and recycled. As we’ll cover
towards the end of this article, some of the main criticisms of WtE plants arise from the concern
that repurposable trash won’t be repurposed so it can end up as energy.

Types of waste-to-energy solutions

Waste-to-energy technologies are divided into different types based on the process through
which the waste is turned into energy: thermal only, which includes incineration, thermo-
chemical, mechanical & thermal, and biochemical.

Thermal WtE plants are most common in handling MWT. This includes any sort of waste
management that uses heat to turn trash into treasure, i.e. power. However, the first thermal WtE
method, incineration, is one of the least favorable options because incineration plants are costly
to operate and have higher rates of emissions. Instead, let’s focus on what we came here to do -
look at the most innovative technologies in waste-to-energy.

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Anaerobic digestion (AD)

Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical process that takes feedstock and places it in a reactor in the
absence of oxygen to create biogas and digestate. The waste is broken down inside of reactors
that are rich in microbial communities.

The biogas resulting from AD is mainly made up of methane (the very same methane that arises
from landfills, though here it’s used for a purpose) and carbon dioxide. It also contains trace
amounts of water vapor, other gasses, and contaminants.

Anaerobic digestion biogas can be used as a transport fuel, heat, and electricity. The other
product of the AD process, the digestate, is a solid or liquid substance that can be used as a
fertilizer and to create bio products like construction materials or animal bedding.

Anaerobic digestion, however, is not as efficient as some other waste-to-energy technologies

we’ll talk about below. In fact, its estimated energy efficiency is 40%, at best. There is also room
for concerns regarding emissions.

Finally, a significant financial drawback of AD plant management comes from the high
maintenance cost for the proper handling of biogas and ensuring that no leaks or harmful waste
seep into the air and soil.

Future waste-to-energy technology in this sector would need to divide its focus between
improving efficiency, decreasing emissions, and building an infrastructure that would reduce the
chance of leakage and cut maintenance costs.

Gasification

Gasification is a thermal WtE method that’s generally considered a much better alternative to
incineration, as its product (syngas) gets cleaned before (rather than after) use. In other words,
gasification waste-to-energy plants produce much less pollution than traditional
incinerators. Gasification uses municipal waste as a feedstock rather than a fuel and converts it
into syngas under high temperatures. Syngas is a combustible synthetic gas (where the name
comes from, clearly) that can be used as fuel for transportation, an alternative to natural gas, and
for fertilization. Keep in mind that most gasification plants require careful sorting and pre-
processing of municipal waste, as not all materials are suitable for gasification. What’s great with

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gasification is that it works with non-recyclable plastics without emitting harmful air pollutants.
The newest development in gasification comes in the form of plasma gasification, or plasma arc
gasification.

Plasma gasification

Plasma gasification utilizes a plasma torch at extremely high temperatures (generally between
5,000°C and 7,000°C, but can be higher or lower) in a single reactor to turn feedstock (biomass,
coal, municipal waste, etc.) into that very same syngas (mainly made up of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide) we just talked about. This breakdown of molecules and change of chemical
composition due to plasma torching is also referred to as plasma pyrolysis. Not only is the
resulting syngas used as fuel and cleaned prior to use, but plasma gasification also creates
valuable byproducts. The glass-like byproduct of the process, i.e. the slag that remains from the
melted waste of plasma falsification, is safe to use as a construction material. If you’re worried
about toxins, don’t! Plasma torches have been utilized to destroy toxic waste and chemical
weapons in the past. The downside here is that dioxins still get released as the syngas cools
down. Still, they’re significantly less in comparison to the dioxins (and furans) that are formed at
traditional incinerator plants. Needless to say, future-proof waste-to-management technologies
are geared towards this direction, as it’s both efficient and pollutes less.

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)

Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) is a thermochemical process that turns organic waste

into structured carbons similar to fossil fuels (that take up to millions of years to form naturally).
HTC works with wet feedstock, and the process combines an acid catalyst and pressure at
somewhat high temperatures (180 to 250°C) to produce hydro-char, this fossil fuel-like product
that has high levels of carbon.

Not only can hydro-char be used as fuel but it can also be used to replace coal. The obvious
benefit of this is avoiding the many drawbacks of coal mining. The product can also be used to
enrich soil, and the feedstock can be used for gasification.

The main advantage of HTC over other thermochemical technologies like pyrolysis is that
it doesn’t require pre-treatment (pre-drying) of the feedstock, as it’s designed to work with wet
waste, which makes the process a lot faster.

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It also requires similar operating conditions to anaerobic digestion for the same energy output.
This, combined with the faster processing time, gives HTC an edge over competitive WtE
methods like anaerobic digestion.

However, the ecological effect of this novel technology remains largely unknown. A recent
study that compared using HTC to using mono-incineration plants for sewage sludge in Germany
found that HTC is more sustainable, but that the use of hydrochar in agriculture instead of NPK-
fertilizers had high emissions. So, there are a lot of parameters that we need to monitor when
searching for the cleanest ways to turn waste into energy.

The drawbacks of waste-to-energy technologies

The potential of waste-to-energy technology is undeniable, though there are some caveats we
can’t ignore if we want to paint a complete picture. Some major criticisms are directed at WtE
efforts by the global zero-waste movement.

These mainly revolve around the harmful byproducts of WtE facilities (incinerators release
pollutants in the air), the fact that waste is a non-renewable energy source, the questionable
efficacy of WtE plants, and the fear that waste-to-energy technologies would reduce the focus on
repurposing and recycling waste products.

Financial burdens

Some real-life examples show that these concerns are not unfounded. For instance,
Copenhagen’s Amager Bakke waste-to-energy plant has already taken a financial toll on
taxpayer’s money - both because of technical problems and the fact that the plant’s capacity for
waste is too high.

Energy conversion and storage

The conversion of raw materials into usable energy (electricity or heat) and storage of the energy
produced, are two very important aspects of everyday life. Whilst most of the electricity
generated is converted from primary energy sources (fossil, nuclear, hydro), there are many other
techniques increasing in popularity. The most important is the conversion of sunlight into
electricity using solar cells. Solar power stations are now feeding power into local electricity
distribution networks. Solar collectors are used to harness the heat of the Sun to heat water or
buildings.
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Fuel cells are becoming a commercial reality for generating electricity in a variety of
applications. Substantial effort has been devoted to exploring the generation of electric power
from the effect of gaseous plasma or liquid metal moving through a magnetic field, also known
as magnetohydrodynamics. Thermoelectric and thermionic conversion processes are being
investigated for possible use in space vehicles.

Batteries are used for both energy conversion and storage. Improved technology is leading to
longer life and better performances. Battery storage plants are now used for load levelling
applications in power systems. Hydrogen is a useful energy resource but its role in the future is
more likely to be in the area of energy storage and transportation.

Energy can be stored by other than chemical means. These include: mechanical energy storage,
primarily flywheels; capacitor banks, which are used for reactive power compensation or for
supplying a large amount of energy in a very short time for pulsed power applications; inductive
energy storage; compressed air energy storage in natural underground caverns and aquifers;
superconducting magnet energy storage which is often used for power system control; and
thermal energy storage using phase change materials, solar ponds, hot water tanks or ice.

The main energy conversion and storage processes and their classifications are:

Energy conversion
 Electrochemical conversion

 Primary cells

 Secondary cells

 Fuel cells

 Photoelectric conversion

 Phototelectrochemical conversion

 Magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion

 Thermo-electric conversion

 Thermionic conversion

 Chemical energy conversion

 Thermal energy conversion

 Photothermal conversion

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 Energy storage
 Mechanical (inc. flywheels and compressed air energy storage)

 Thermal (inc. solar ponds and tanks, phase-change materials)

 Chemical

 Hydrogen energy

 Capacitor storage (inc. capacitor banks)

 Inductive energy storage

 Superconducting magnet energy storage

Battery Applications

The table below shows the range of applications which use batteries together with typical battery
capacities required by the application. The section on Battery Types outlines the diverse range of
batteries which are available for powering these applications.

Energy Applications
Type

Miniature Batteries 100 mWh-2 Wh Electric watches, calculators,

implanted medical devices
(Mostly Primary Cells in
small Button Cell packages)

Batteries for Portable Equipment 2 Wh-100 Wh Flashlights, toys, power tools,

portable radio and TV, mobile
phones, camcorders, lap-top
computers, memory refreshing,
instruments, cordless devices,
wireless peripherals, emergency
beacons (Mostly Secondary
Cells such
as NiCad, NiMH and Lithium
Ion as well as
some Alkaline primary cells)

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SLI Batteries 100-600 Wh Cars, trucks, buses, lawn mowers,
(Starting Lighting & Ignition) wheel chairs, robots (Mostly Lead
Acid batteries)

Vehicle Traction Batteries 20 -630 kWh EVs, HEVs, PHEVs, fork lift
trucks, milk floats, locomotives
(NiMH and Lithium)

Stationary Batteries 250 Wh-5 MWh Emergency power, local energy

storage,remote relay stations,
communication base
stations, uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS). (Mostly Lead
Acid with Lithium recently making
some inroads)

Military & Aerospace Wide range Satellites, munitions, robots,

emergency power, communications
(Fuel Cells, Nickel
Hydrogen, Water
Activated batteries and
other Alternatives)

Special Purpose 3 MWh Submarines (Mostly Lead

Acid batteries)

Load Levelling Batteries 5-100 MWh Spinning reserve, peak shaving,

load levelling (Various Lead
Acid and Lithium plus Alternatives)

Battery Problems, Non Manufacturing Defects and Physical Damage

If the battery is stored, handled or fitted incorrectly, if the connectors leads are hammered onto
terminals, leads are not correctly fastened, the battery will have damage to casing and/or
terminals. This is not a manufacturing fault.

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If a battery is allowed to stand in a discharged state either on or off a vehicle for a period of time,
a chemical reaction takes place which will permanently impair the performance and life of the
battery, this process is called “sulphation”.

Sulphation can be seen as a fine white/grey coating on the positive plate and a non metallic luster
on the negative plate. In most cases this signifies the battery as not serviceable. Attempts to
recharge batteries left in a discharged state, even at very low charge rates will lead to damage to
the grid and active material interfaces and also sulphate deposits can be formed within the
separators which produce dendritic shorts.
The damage can occur in storage or if the battery is installed on the vehicle (or equipment) that is
not used for a period of time, for example tractor, motorcycle, boat, airport vehicle even a car or
truck that is stored with the battery connected can still damage the battery. This is because there
is a permanent drain on the battery from items such as the alarm, clock, lights, etc left on which
drag the battery down to its lowest possible state of charge. The longer the period left, the greater
the sulphation builds up on the plates.
The sulphation hinders the efficiency of the electrochemical reactions within the battery between
the active material of the plates and the acid. This is not a manufacturing fault.
Wear and Tear

As the battery is cycled, i.e. charged and discharged, the active materials within the battery plates
are in motion in order to release the electricity stored by the battery. Every time the battery is
charged and discharged a small amount of active material is permanently lost from the plates.

As the ultimate battery life is determined by many factors, such as temperature, battery operating
state of charge, duty cycle, etc it is impossible to stipulate a minimum/maximum life expectancy
in the field. This process of normal ageing will eventually cause the battery to lose capacity and
it will come to the point where the battery can no longer start the vehicle or equipment. Modern
fuel injected cars start much more quickly, typically using a surface discharge off the battery
plates, hence the unexpected failure of the battery is more often than not seen when the battery is
first put under stress, for example on a cold morning, or after a weekend stand. This is not a
manufacturing fault.
It is always best to take the opportunity of free battery checks prior to the onset of cold weather
or long airport parking periods.
Deep Cycling

As above, every time a battery is charge and discharge cycled a small amount of material is lost.
If a battery is subjected to deep discharging (greater than 35%) and rapid charging the process is
accelerated. Additionally if the recharge does not recover the discharge cycle in full, the battery
will exhibit loss of performance and concentration of the acid can occur between plates which
can lead to corrosion and loss of performance.
Even after recharging, the voltage will be low (under 12.4V) but if the cells acid gravities are
checked they will generally be even across the battery. This is not a manufacturing fault.

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Overcharging
If the alternator regulator is not set properly, or alternator voltage control circuit fails, then the
battery can be subjected to an excessive charge.

If left unchecked the battery will overheat and will start to evaporate the electrolyte. The
overcharging will accelerate the break up of the active material and grids and the battery will
lose performance. Examination of the battery will typically show low acid level and usually a
black coating on filler plugs and a strong smell. It is recommended that the alternator charging
voltage is checked by a mechanic. This is not a manufacturing fault.
False Claim

In order to minimise fraudulent battery claims each Yuasa battery has its own individual unique
number found on the back label of the battery. It is recommended that this number is recorded on
the proof or purchase at point of sale, to enable a double cross check to be made during the claim
procedure. The label has been made tamperproof.

Incorrect Application

The batteries recommended within this Yuasa application list are equal to or above the original
equipment specification. Fitting a smaller or less powerful battery will result in a shorter service
life and earlier failure. The failure will normally be seen as deep cycling/premature wear and
tear.
It should be noted that a vehicle fitted originally by manufacturer with an AGM battery should
be replaced only with an AGM battery. Likewise, a vehicle originally fitted with an EFB battery
should only be replaced by and EFB or AGM battery.

Undercharging

Undercharging occurs if the battery is not receiving enough charge to return it to a full state of
charge, this will slowly cause sulphation. This fault can occur if the car is being used only
occasionally for short journeys, or for Start-Stop urban motoring. Undercharging will occur if
alternator voltage is low (13.6-13.8volts), the alternator belt is loose or battery cables are worn
and causing high resistance – If in doubt seek advice from an auto electrician.

Battery Problems
Manufacturing Faults
Due to the high demands of the OEM market and the technical and manufacturing standards of
Yuasa batteries, the rate of genuine manufacturing faults is negligible.

Short Circuit/dead cell

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Typically seen in a battery within 12 months service life. One cell will show a dramatically
lower acid specific gravity reading than the others. The problem cell will usually boil visibly
under a high discharge, all other remaining cells will show a good specific gravity reading of
1.26 or above. Short Circuit/dead cells seen in later life are usually associated with the recovery
of a sulphated/overdischarged battery. It is possible to see variable acid specific gravities
between cells if sulphation is the route cause.

Internal Break

The battery will have good specific gravity but no voltage reading. Check for any physical
damage which may have caused an internal break.

Providing the correct battery, in the right condition has been used in the right application, the
number of battery problems encountered will be minimal. All batteries have a finite life
(otherwise there would not be an aftermarket battery business), the life is governed by the
conditions under which the battery operates. Battery failures caused by sulphation, wear and tear,
deep cycling and physical damage are not manufacturing defects and are not covered by the
Yuasa guarantee. Under normal operating conditions, a battery cannot become discharged on its
own. The reason can normally be traced back to:
 Malfunctioning alternator, regulator, or starter motor
 Slipping (incorrectly adjusted alternator charging belt)
 Electrical fault e.g. interior boot/glove box lighting, ECU/sensor interface issues where
vehicle does not go into “Sleep” after parking for more than 5 minutes, wiper motor fault
 Excessive use of electrical consumers, – air conditioning, stereo (incorrectly fitted direct to
the battery) etc
 Long standing time without recharge
 Vehicle lighting and/or hazard flasher left on
If a battery is consistently used/left in a discharged condition, it will eventually get to a state,
where it cannot be recovered by a controlled recharge. This is classified as deep
discharge/undercharging and it is NOT a manufacturing fault. If a battery is continuously deeply
discharged by stop/start motoring and heavy usage of vehicle consumer device and then not
adequately recharged, it will lose its performance relatively quickly. This is called deep
cycling/wear and tear and is not a manufacturing fault. Alternative battery technology, charging
and handling solutions need to found for these applications.
There are five primary factors that affect battery life: ambient temperature, cycling,
battery chemistry, application and maintenance.

1. Ambient Temperature
The rated capacity of a battery is based on an ambient operating temperature of 25°C (77°F).
Any variation from this operating temperature can alter the performance of the battery and
shorten its expected life.

2. Cycling

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Once utility power is restored, or a switch to generator power is complete, the battery is
recharged for future use. This is called
a discharge cycle. At installation, the battery is at 100 percent of rated capacity. Each discharge
and subsequent recharge cycle reduces the relative capacity of the battery by a small percentage.
The reduction in battery capacity is based on the length and depth of the discharge cycle. Lead
acid batteries are designed to deliver a maximum number of discharge/recharge cycles before
reaching end of life at which point the battery must be replaced.

3. Battery Chemistry
Because of the chemical composition of batteries, their ability to store and deliver power slowly
decreases over time. Even if you follow all the guidelines for proper storage temperature and
maintenance, you still must replace them after a certain period of time.

4. Application
It’s imperative that the right battery be used for the given application. Problems arise if the
wrong battery is used. For example – batteries such as the EnerSys HX line and C&D
Technologies MR line are rated in Watts-Per-Cell and have the ability to deliver very high rates
for a short period of time, generally 15-minutes to an end cell of 1.67vpc. On the other hand,
telecom and switch-gear batteries are rated in Ampere-Hours and are designed to run for longer
periods of time, typically 4-8 hours. If a battery is used in a telecom application the user will
likely try to run the battery for far longer than a battery is meant to run. Batteries are designed
with a greater number of thin plates in order to achieve the high rate discharge. Discharging a
battery for hours will cause the plates to overheat and deflect. When the battery cools it creates
stresses on the internal lead strap which holds the plates together. Over time this will cause the
battery to fail prematurely.

5. Maintenance
Service and maintenance of batteries are critical to the reliability of the battery. A gradual
decrease in battery life can be monitored and evaluated through voltage and impedance checks,
load testing or battery monitoring systems. Periodic preventive maintenance can help extend the
life and prevent the loss of capacity in a battery by preventing loose connections, removing
corrosion and identifying bad batteries before they can affect the rest of the string. Even though
sealed batteries are sometimes referred to as maintenance-free, EnerSys and other battery
manufacturers still require scheduled maintenance and service. Maintenance-free simply refers to
the fact that they do not require watering. Without regular maintenance, your battery may
experience heat-generating resistance at the terminals, improper loading, reduced protection and
premature failure. With proper maintenance, the end of battery life can be accurately estimated
and replacements scheduled without unexpected downtime or loss of backup power.

Energy management is the process of tracking and optimizing energy consumption to conserve
usage in a building.

There are few steps for the process of energy management:

1. Collecting and analyzing continuous data.

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 2. Identify optimizations in equipment schedules, set points and flow rates to improve
energy efficiency.
3. Calculate return on investment. Units of energy saved can be metered and calculated just
like units of energy delivered.
4. Execute energy optimization solutions.
5. Repeat step two to continue optimizing energy efficiency.

Energy management is the means to controlling and reducing a building's energy consumption,
which enables owners and operators to:

 Reduce costs – energy represents 25% of all operating costs in an office building.
 Reduce carbon emissions in order to meet internal sustainability goals and regulatory
requirements.
 Reduce risk – the more energy you consume, the greater the risk that energy price
increases or supply shortages could seriously affect your profitability. With energy
management solutions, you can reduce this risk by reducing your demand for energy and
by controlling it so as to make it more predictable.
A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) often refers to a long-term electricity supply
agreement between two parties, usually between a power producer and a customer (an
electricity consumer or trader). The PPA defines the conditions of the agreement, such as the
amount of electricity to be supplied, negotiated prices, accounting, and penalties for non-
compliance. Since it is a bilateral agreement, a PPA can take many forms and is usually
tailored to the specific application. Electricity can be supplied physically or on a balancing
sheet. PPAs can be used to reduce market price risks, which is why they are frequently
implemented by large electricity consumers to help reduce investment costs associated with
planning or operating renewable energy plants.

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