I-D.

Pharm Pharmaceutics Passing package

Passing package

1. Write a note on pharmacy as career.

Career In Pharmacy
1. As a pharmacist:
• The pharmacy diploma/degree holders can work in hospitals as hospital pharmacist, community pharmacist,
consultant pharmacist or industrial pharmacist.
2. Central and State Governments:
• Drug inspectors and pharmacists at government health services.
3. Pharmaceutical Industry:
• In production and manufacturing, research and development, quality control, quality assurance,
pharmacovigilance, regulatory affairs, business operations, sales, and administration, etc.
4. Pharmaceutical Sales:
• Registered pharmacists can sell bulk drugs as a bulk drug distributor or supplier and pharmaceutical products
as distributor, wholesaler, and retailer.
5. Pharmaceutical Marketing:
• As medical representatives.
6. Academics:
• As assistant teacher and laboratory assistant in D. pharm colleges.
7. Pharmaceutical Journalism:
• Pharmaceutical journalism is another opportunity for pharmacists which have great potential.
8. Consultancy:
• Consultant in regulatory affairs.
9. Clinical Research:
• In clinical research organization (CRO) pharmacists are employed as Clinical Research Associate, Regulatory
Affairs Associate, Clinical Data Manager, Clinical Development and Project Manager.
10. Organizational Management:
• They can work at managerial positions with health and welfare agencies.
11. Opportunities Abroad:
• There are lots of higher education and research opportunities in the developed countries.
12. Medical Transcription:
• A pharmacist can work with physicians as medical transcriptor to maintain the patient treatment history, the
drug to which patients are allergic etc.

2. Silent features of Indian pharmacopoeia.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA:
The term salient feature is defining elements that distinguish one target from another. Following are some important
distinguishing features of each edition of IP:

First Edition 1955:

• The titles of monographs have been given in Latin language. Abbreviated titles for use in prescription have
been given immediately below the Latin title.
• The English title has also been given below the abbreviation title.
• The weights and measures have been given in metric system.
• Doses are expressed both in the metric system as well as in the English system.
• A list of preparations has been given at the end of some of the monographs.
Second Edition 1966:
• The titles of monographs have been changed from Latin to English and the words of the title, for example,
Injection of Aminophylline' have been changed to 'Aminophylline Injection'.
• Doses are expressed in the metric system only.

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• Solubility is expressed in parts of solvent per unit part of solute.

• The preparations of a drug have been given immediately after the monograph on the parent drug.
• The test for sterility has been modified to provide for detection of fungi in addition to aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria.

Third Edition 1985:

• The new analytical techniques such as Flame Photometry, Fluorometry, Electrophoresis and Photometric
Hemoglobinometry have been introduced.
• Dissolution test has been introduced in the case of certain tablets.
• Disintegration test has been amended by modifying the design of the apparatus and method of testing.
• A microbial limit test has been prescribed for certain pharmaceutical liquid preparations.
• The pyrogen test has been revised to make the test less time-consuming.

Fourth Edition 1996:

• The text is available in two volumes.
• The computer-generated structural formulae have been introduced.
• Some titles have been changed to include the more commonly accepted names of India, for example,
'Hyoscine Hydrobromide' as 'Scopolamine Hydrobromide'.
• Infra-red and ultra-red absorption spectrophotometric tests for identification of drug substance have been
introduced as alternative tests to the classical chemical tests.
• The infra-red reference spectra of a number of drugs have been given in appendix.

Fifth Edition 2007:

• This edition is presented in three volumes.
• General chemical tests for identification have been almost eliminated and more specific infrared and
ultraviolet spectrophotometric tests have been given.
• The test for pyrogens involving the use of animals has been eliminated and the test for bacterial endotoxins
has been introduced.
• The test for abnormal toxicity is confined to certain vaccines.
• The use of chromatographic methods has been extended in assays to large number of pharmaceutical
products.
Sixth Edition 2010:
• The number of monographs of excipients, anticancer drugs, herbal products and antiretroviral drugs has been
increased.
• Monographs of Vaccines and Immunosera are upgraded in view of development of latest technology in the
field.
• A new chapter on Liposomal products and a monograph of Liposomal Amphotericin B injection is added.
• A chapter on NMR is incorporated in Appendices.
• The chapter on microbial contamination is updated to a great extent to harmonize with prevailing
international requirements.
Seventh Edition 2014:
• This edition includes advanced technology and experimental methods widely adopted in India and abroad.
• The standards are prescribed for drugs produced and/or marketed in India to contribute the control and
assurance of the quality of the medicines.
• This edition is presented in four volumes.
• It incorporates 2548 monographs of drugs out of which 577 are new monographs consisting of APIs,
excipients, dosage forms, antibiotic monographs, insulin products and herbal products etc.

Eighth Edition 2018:

• The new edition of Indian Pharmacopoeia has been brought out in 4 Volumes.

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• Standards for new drugs and drugs used under NHP are included.
• 53 New Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) monographs have been included, out of which 25 FDC monographs
are not available in any Pharmacopoeia.
• More specific infrared, ultraviolet spectrophotometer and HPLC tests have been given emphasis.
• The use of chromatographic methods has been greatly extended to assess the nature and extent of impurities
in ingredients and products.

3. Elaborate upon history of pharmaceutical education in India.

Pharmacy Education in India

• Pharmacy education in India is regulated by the PCI, under the Pharmacy Act of 1948, and the All-India Council
for Technical Education (AICTE), under AICTE Act of 1987.
• The first college in India was Madras Medical College established in 1835.
• In 1836, Calcutta Medical College was started at Kolkata.
• The first pharmacy college in Asia was started in Goa in 1842 by the Portuguese.
• The first two-year professional course 'Chemist and Druggist Diploma' was started in Madras Medical College
in 1874.
• An industry oriented 3-year Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm.) program was started by Mahadeva Lal Schroff,
the Father of Pharmacy Education in India' at Banaras Hindu University Varanasi in 1932.
• Prof. Schroff started a separate branch of Pharmaceutical Sciences at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) Varanasi.
• The first M. Pharm. program was introduced in 1940 at BHU.
• In 1943 a committee appointed by Indian Government under the chairmanship of Sir Joseph Bhore
recommended 3-tier system for pharmacy education.
• In 1944, B. Pharm. course was started at the Punjab University Lahore, which was oriented towards pharmacy
practice which in later years oriented more towards industry.
• In 1945, 'Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) program was introduced at BHU.
• In 1947, GOI through Legislature brought the 'Pharmacy Bill' to regulate, control and standardize pharmacy
education in India.
• In the same year, L M. College of Pharmacy was established at Ahmadabad (Gujarat).
• The first class of 'Chemists and Druggists' was conducted at Madras Medical College in 1870. It was a training
programmes to gain skills in the practice of pharmacy profession.
• Pharmacy Act in 1948 provided minimum standard of educational qualification for pharmacy practice to
regulate the practice, education, and profession of pharmacy.
• Pharmacy degree programs offered in India includes
o Diploma in Pharmacy (D.Pharm, 2 years)
o Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm, years)
o Master of Pharmacy (M. Pharm, 2 Years)
o Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D, 6 years)
o Doctor of Philosophy in Pharmacy (Ph.D., 4 years)

Chapter 2

4. What are different types of containers used in pharmaceutical industry?

Or, Classify packaging material with suitable example for each class.
Containers are the devices that holds the drugs and may or may not be in contact with the drug.
Materials used are glasses, plastic, rubber, metals, cork etc.
Glass is composed of sand, soda ash, limestone and cullet.
Type

Lime-soda glass Sulphured glass

Borosilicate glass Neutral glass

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Silicone-treated glass Amber colour glass

Advantages:
1. They are transparent.
2. They are available in various shapes and sizes.
Disadvantages
1. Glass is fragile, so its containers are easily broken when dropped or knocked.
2. Glass containers are heavy, which increases the cost of its transportation from one place to
another. 3. Glass containers may release alkali to aqueous preparations.

Plastics are synthetic polymers of high molecular weight. Plastic is made from one or more polymers
together with certain additives.
Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. They are light in weight and can be handled 1. They are permeable to water vapour and
easily. atmospheric gases.

2. They are poor conductor of heat. 2. They cannot withstand heat without
softening or distorting.

3. They have sufficient mechanical strength. 3. They are relatively expensive.

Metals are used for the construction of containers commonly used for this purpose are aluminium, tin plated
steel, stainless steel, tin and lead.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

(1) They are sturdy. (1) They are expensive.

(2) They are impermeable to light, moisture and (2) They may shed metal particles into the
gases. pharmaceutical product.

(3) They can be made into rigid unbreakable (3) They react with certain chemicals or drugs.
containers by impact extrusion

5. Describe primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging material with suitable example.
Type of packaging: primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging
Types of packaging are mainly organised by the place each one occupies in the different protection layers for the
product.

Primary packaging:
• Primary packaging is the type of packaging that is in direct contact with the products.
• Its main purpose is to protect them and maintain their ideal characteristics.
• The functions of primary packaging are to separate, protect, secure, communicate characteristics and expiry
and, in some cases, attract attention and build loyalty.
• Example, the following are considered primary packaging for goods:
• Milk cartons, Beer cans, Plastic bottles for detergent

Secondary packaging:
• The purpose of secondary packaging is to create unit loads grouping various types of primary packaging, to
make storage, transport and handling easier.
• Secondary packaging is presented as cardboard boxes or other materials of different sizes and thicknesses, but
also as plastic film.

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• Some examples for consumer products are the cardboard box in which bottles of beer are packed or the plastic
film for wrapping water bottles together.

Tertiary packaging:
• Tertiary packaging will in general be the outer layer, the
final and largest piece of packaging, which will also be
stored and handled inside the warehouse.

6. What are the idea requirements of pharmaceutical packing material?

There are a few factors that influence selection of packaging material:
(1) Physical Characteristics:
• Packaging material selection decisions are influenced by certain physical characteristics of the
product like the physical state, weight, stability, fragility, rigidity, surface finish etc. to be packaged.
(2) Formulation Components:
• Stability and compatibility with the formulation contents are major concerns.
(3) Stability:
• Certain environmental factors like moisture, oxygen, light, flame, bacteria, fungi, chemical action,
etc., affect stability of formulation.
(4) Economy:
• The packaging material should not be too expensive.
(5) Convenience:
• Packaging must necessarily be easy to open and close, easy to dispense, easy to dispose of, etc.
(6) Rules & Laws of the government:
• Packaging and labeling may be subject to government regulation in the countries. Some countries
have specified packaging standards for certain products.
(7) Buyer Specifications:
• In some cases, buyers like the exporters to give packaging specification.
(8) Retailing characteristics:
• It should give good impression and confidence for customer to buy it.
(9) Environmental Factor:
• The packaging material should be capable of withstanding the stresses and hazards of handling and
transportation, stacking, storing etc., under diverse conditions globally.
(10) Disposability:
• One of the qualities required for good package is that it could be easily disposed of or recycled.

7. Write a note on different types of glasses.

Types of Glass.
I. Lime-soda glass: It is composed of SiO2 (75%), Na₂O (15%), CaO (10%). Used to store solid
medicaments.
II. Borosilicate glass: It is composed of SiO2 (80%), B₂O3 (12%), Al2O3 (6%) and mixture of Na2O, CaO and
other oxides (2%). It is chemically more inert than lime-soda glass. It is a highly resistant glass.
III. Silicone-treated glass: Glass is treated with silicone so that it can be used for preparing containers to
store alkali sensitive products.
IV. Sulphured glass: It is a cheaper variety of glass used for construction of containers for parenteral
products. The soda-lime glass is exposed to moist SO₂ at about 500°C to get sulphured glass. It does
not liberate alkali.

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V. Neutral glass: It is composed of SiO₂ (72-75%), B₂03 (7-10%), Al2O3 (4-6%), Na₂O (6-8%), BaO (2-4%)
and K2O (0.5-2%). It is used for the preparation of multidose vials, transfusion bottles and ampoules.
VI. Amber colour glass: Amber colour glass container is used for storage of photosensitive
pharmaceutical products because it has the capacity to filter out U.V. radiations. It is obtained by
adding C, S or Fe and MgO₂.
Glasses used to storage of parenteral preparations.
i. Type I glass: It is also called borosilicate glass or neutral glass. It offers a high hydrolytic resistance
due to its chemical composition.
ii. Type II glass: It is a soda-lime-silicate glass with high hydrolytic resistance because of an appropriate
surface treatment with ammonium sulphate or Sulphur dioxide. The containers made from this glass
are suitable for most acidic and neutral aqueous preparations.
iii. Type III glass: It is a soda-lime-silicate glass with only moderate hydrolytic resistance. Used to store
non-aqueous preparations for parenteral use and for powders for parenteral use (except for freeze-
dried preparations).

Chapter 3
8. Types of preservatives. With examples. Write the ideal properties of preservatives.
▪ Preservative is a substance commonly added to pharmaceutical product in order to prolong its shelf life.
▪ Preservatives are added in pharmaceutical preparation to inhibit growth of bacteria, yeasts or molds
that can cause disease.
Types with Examples and Uses
(1) Based on mechanism of action:
I. Antioxidants: The agents that prevent oxidation of drugs Examples: Vitamin E, vitamin C, butylated hydroxy
anisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, etc.
II. Antimicrobial agents: These are agent that acts against microorganisms responsible for causing degradation
of pharmaceutical preparation.
Examples: Sodium benzoate, sorbates, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, etc.
III. Chelating agents: These are agents which form the complex with the pharmaceutical ingredient and prevent
degradation of pharmaceutical formulation. Examples: Disodium ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA),
polyphosphates, citric acid, etc.

(2) Based on source:

a. Natural Preservatives: These are substances obtained from natural sources such as plant, mineral
sources and animals which act as antimicrobial agents. Examples: Neem oil, sodium chloride, lemon,
honey, etc.
b. Artificial Preservatives: These are agents prepared by chemical synthesis which acts against various
micro-organisms in small concentrations.
Examples: Benzoates, sodium benzoate, sorbates, propionates, nitrites, etc.

Ideal Properties of Preservatives:

i) It should be non-irritant, non-toxic and physico-chemically stable.
ii) It should be compatible with other ingredients used in formulation.
iii) It should act as antimicrobial agent and exert wide spectrum of activity.
iv) It should be potent and act effectively in small concentrations.
v) It should maintain activity throughout product manufacturing, shelf life and usage.

9. Write a note on organoleptic agents.

• Organoleptic aids are used to improve colour, flavour and taste of the pharmaceutical products.
• The flavouring, Sweetening and colouring agents are grouped together as organoleptic aids.
• Organoleptic substances do not have any therapeutic value but they improve acceptance of the
pharmaceutical products by giving good appearance and palatability.

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• Pharmaceutical aids can also be known as additives, excipient or inactive ingredients.

Colouring Agents:
• Coloring agents are added to provide distinctive color with good appearance of the dosage form.
• Color agents helps for identification of the drug.
Various types of colouring agents are:
Sl.no Types Example
1 Natural colouring agents
Minerals Titanium dioxide (TiO₂)
Ferric oxide
Plants Indigo
B-Carotene
Animals Tyrian Blue
Cochineal
2 Synthetic colouring agents
Caramel and coal tar dark brown material obtained by controlled thermal application on
carbohydrates
Lake dyes These are aluminum or calcium salts of any water soluble colour.

Flavoring agents:
• Flavouring agents are usually used to mask the saline, bitter, sour, sweet taste sensations.
• Flavouring agent is required to increase the patient acceptance and are significant particularly in orally
administered liquid dosage forms, chewable tablets of antacids, vitamins and antibiotics.
• Examples: Volatile oils such as cocoa, citrus, cinnamon, orange and raspberry, clove fennel, orange,
wintergreen oil, and rose, jasmine, and lavender are used as flavours.

Sweetening agents
• Sweetening agents are used to impart sweet taste to the bitter pharmaceutical formulation.
• Example: Sucrose, liquid glucose, saccharine.

Chapter 4

10. Explain the construction and working of hammer mill with a neat, labelled diagram.
A hammer mill is an essential machine in the pharmaceutical industries. It is used to crush, pulverize, shred, grind
and reduce material to suitable sizes.

Principle:

▪ It operates on the principle of impact between rapidly moving

hammers mounted on rotor and the stationary powder bed.

Construction:

• It consists of a metal casing, enclosing a central shaft attached with

four or more swinging hammers.
• The lower part of the casing consists of a screen (Sieve), through
which material can pass and collected in a suitable receiver, when
the desired degree of size reduction is reached.

Working:

• The material is put into the hopper which is connected with the drum.
• The material is powdered to the desired size, due to fast rotation of hammers and is collected under the
screen.
• The mill can produce coarse to moderately fine powder.

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• Due to high speed of operation, heat is generated which may affect thermolabile drugs or materials.
Moreover, high speed of operation also causes damage to the mill if foreign objects such as stone or metal is
present in the feed.

11. Explain the construction and working of ball mill with a neat, labelled diagram.
❖ Principle:
It works on the principle of impact and attrition. The material grinding occurs during impact of
falling grinding balls (Impact) and abrasion of the particles between the walls (attrition).
❖ Construction:
• It consists of a hollow cylinder which is
mounted on a metallic frame in such a way,
that it can be rotated on its longitudinal
axis.
• The cylinder contains balls that occupy 30-
50% of the mill volume.
• The ball size depends on the size of the feed
and the diameter of the mill.
• The cylinder and balls are made of metal
and are usually lined with chrome.
• In pharmaceutical industry, sometimes the
cylinder & balls of the ball mill are lined with rubber or porcelain.
Working:
• The drug to be ground is put into the cylinder of the mill and is rotated.
• The speed of rotation is very important. At a low speed. the mass of balls will slide or roll over each other and
only a negligible amount of size reduction will occur (Fig. 5A).
• At a high speed, the balls will be thrown out to the walls by centrifugal force and no grinding will occur (Fig B).
• Maximum size reduction occurs at about 2/3rd of the speed, the centrifugal force just occurs with the result
that the balls are carried almost to the top of the mill and then fall in. (Fig. C).
• After a suitable time, the material is taken out and passed through a sieve to get powder of the required size.

Applications:
• It is used to produce very fine powders.
• Ball mills are used for wet grinding, e.g Suspensions.
• It is suitable for both wet and dry grinding processes.
• Ball mills can be used for grinding of hard and abrasive materials.
• Rubber ball mills are used for blending of explosive materials.

12. Explain the construction and working of sieves.

Sieves
• A sieve, also called sifter, is a device used for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample.
• It is made up of using a woven sieve such as a mesh or net or metal. A sieve has very small holes.
(a) Construction:
• Based upon application specially designed sieves, for example, electroformed sieves, perforated plate sieves,
sonic sifters, air jet sieves, wet wash sieves, etc., are used.
• Generally, sieves are made up of stainless steel, brass, bronze, etc., and are not coated with any material to
avoid wear and tear as well as contamination in the products.
• Sieves for pharmaceutical use are non-reactive and resistant to corrosion.

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• The most common choice of material for sieves is iron because it is cheap but has limitation for its use for its
inherent corrosion and contamination properties.
• Sieves made-up of woven cloth made of cotton, nylon and silk are used if fine powders are to be separated.
(b) Working:
The working of mechanical sieving devices is based on any following methods.
1. Agitation
2. Brushing
3. Centrifugal
Agitation methods: Sieves may be agitated in a number of different ways, such as:
I. Oscillation: The sieve is mounted in a frame that oscillates back and forth.
It is a simple method but the material may roll on the surface of the sieve.
II. Vibration: The sieve is vibrated at high speed by means of an electric
device. The rapid vibration is imparted to the particles on the sieve which
helps to pass the powdered material through it.
III. Gyration: In this method, a system is made so that sieve is on rubber
mounting and connected to an eccentric fly wheel. This gives a rotary
movement of small amplitude to sieve which in turn gives spinning motion
to the particles that helps to pass them through a sieve.
(c) Applications:
o Sieves are used for particle size analysis of variety of dry and wet materials.
o These are used for size separation of coarse materials down to 150 μm.
o These used in pharmaceutical production to determine product quality and integrity.
o Sieves are used to ensure that ingredients and finished products are quality assured during production
and before use or dispatch.

13. Classify powders.

14. Write a note on standards of sieves.

1. Number of sieves:
Sieve number indicates the number of meshes in a length of 2.54 cm in each transverse direction parallel to
the wires or it’s a number that denotes the number of meshes in a length of 2.54 cm (=1 inch).
2. Nominal size of aperture:
Nominal size of aperture indicates the distance between the wires. It represents the length of the side of the
square aperture. The I.P. has given the nominal mesh aperture size for majority of sieves in mm or in um.
3. Nominal diameter of the wire:
Wire mesh sieves are made from the wire having the specified diameter to give a suitable aperture size and
sufficient strength to avoid distortion of the sieve.
4. Approximate percentage sieving area:
This standard expresses the area of the meshes as a percentage of the total area of the sieve. It depends on
the size of the wire used for any sieve number.
Generally, the sieving area is kept within the range of 35 to 40 per cent to give suitable strength to the sieve.
5. Tolerance average aperture size:
Some variation in the aperture size is unavoidable and when this variation is expressed as a percentage, it is
known as the 'aperture tolerance average'.

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15. Write a note on cyclone separator.

Principle:
❖ In cyclone separator, the centrifugal force is used to separate solids from fluids.
❖ The separation depends not only on the particle size but also on density of particles.
❖ The centrifugal force causes the particles to migrate to the outside of the chamber and after, they fall down to
the bottom because of gravity.
Construction:
❖ It consists of a cylindrical vessel with a conical base.
❖ In the upper part of the vessel is fitted with a tangential inlet and a
fluid outlet and at the base it is fitted with solid outlet.
Working:
❖ The suspension of a solid in gas (usually air) is introduced tangentially
at a very high velocity, so that rotary movement takes place within
the vessel.
❖ The fluid is removed from a central outlet at the top.
❖ The rotatory flow within the cyclone separator causes the particles
to be acted on by centrifugal force.
❖ The solids are thrown out to the walls, thereafter it falls to the conical base
and discharged out through solids outlet.
Applications:
❖ Separation of suspensions of a solid in a gas or air or liquids.
❖ It is mostly used for separation of fines from coarse granules.
❖ Cyclone is connected to the extraction line of a tablet press, intercepting waste powder before it
reaches the central extraction system.
❖ It can be used in air-handling systems to produce particle free clean air.
16. Explain the construction and working of triple roller mixer. Give any two applications.
a) Principle:
❖ A three-roll mill is a machine tool that uses the shear force created by three horizontally positioned rollers
rotating at opposite directions and different speeds relative to each other to mix, refine, disperse, or
homogenize viscous materials fed into it. The grinding effect is achieved by mutually pressing the surfaces of
the three horizontal rollers and rubbing at different speeds.
b) Construction:

❖ The mill consists of three rollers which are made of a hard abrasion-resistant material.
❖ These rollers are arranged in such a way that they come very close to each other. These rollers are rotated at
different rates of speed.
❖ The material coming between the rollers is crushed depending on the gap between them and the difference
in speed of movement of the two surfaces.
c) Working
❖ The material after passing through hopper, comes between roller 1 and 2 and is reduced in size in the process.
❖ The gap between roller 2 and 3 is usually less than that between 1 and 2, further crushes and smooths the
mixture which adheres to roller 2.
❖ A scraper is arranged in such a way, that it can remove the mixed material from the roller no. 3 and does not
allow the material which has not passed between both sets of the rollers to reach the scraper.
d) Applications:

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❖ The triple roller mill is very useful for the purpose of mixing of solid powder in ointment base.
❖ A triple roll mill is effective mixing equipment used for squeezing (compression) and homogenizing of pastes.

17. Explain the principle and working of turbine mixer.

Turbine Mixer
(a) Principle:
❖ combination of centrifugal and rotational motion. This combined motion causes effective mixing of low to
medium viscosity fluids.
(b) Construction:
❖ A turbine consists of a circular disc to which a few short blades are attached. There is a wide range of turbine
designs, Fig. 4.8.
❖ The blades may be straight, pitched, curved or disk type.
❖ The diameter of the turbine ranges from 30-50% of the diameter of the mixer vessel.
❖ Turbine rotates at a lower speed usually 50-200 rpm.
(c) Working:
❖ A mixer is filled through an opening at its top.
❖ Usually, it is a pan or drum within which mixing blades revolve about the vertical axis.
❖ The variable speed drills with turbine mixer whip air into the mixture of materials. The air in mixture yield
bubbles contributing mixing.
❖ Top entry high shear causes uniform homogenization.
(d) Applications:
❖ They are used as an alternative to propellers for mixing low viscosity liquids and typically for the effective
mixing of medium viscosity liquids.
o Highly used in chemical reactions and extraction operations, for example, liquid and gas reactions.
o Used in preparing emulsions, suspensions, and syrups.
o Used to mix high viscosity liquids, semisolids, and paste.

18. Discuss the theory of filtration.

Theory of Filtration
❖ The theory of filtration gives an idea about the factors influencing the rate of filtration through the filtering
medium.
❖ The factors affecting the rate of filtration were studied by a scientist named Darcy and he expressed it in the
form of an equation, which is known as "Darcy's law". The equation is:
❖ V = ΚΑΔΡ/ ⴄl
Where,
V = Volume of filtrate
K = Permeability coefficient and is dependent on the nature of the precipitate to be filtered and the filter medium
A= Area of filter bed
ΔP= Pressure difference on the liquid and below the filter medium
ⴄ = Viscosity of the fluid
l = Thickness of filter cake
The above equation makes it clear that the rate of filtration depends not only on the nature of liquid undergoing
filtration but also on so many other factors.

19. What are membrane filters? Give its applications.

Membrane Filter

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A membrane is a thin layer of semi-permeable material that separates substances when a driving force is applied across
the membrane.

Principle:
❖ It works on the principle of physical separation. The principle is quite simple that the membrane acts as a very
specific filter that allows water to flow through, while it catches suspended solids and other substances.
Construction:
❖ Membrane filters are plastic membranes based on cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, or mixed cellulose esters
with pore sizes in the micron or submicron range.
❖ The filters are between 50 and 150 µ thick and are available in sizes up to 60 cm².
❖ A membrane filter has 400 to 500 million pores per square centimeter of filter surface.
❖ The pores are uniform in size and occupy about 80% of filter volume.
Working:
❖ The membrane separation process is based on the presence of semipermeable membranes.
❖ The principle is membrane acts as a very specific filter that will let water flow through, while it catches
suspended solids and other substances.
❖ During use membrane filters are supported on a rigid base of perforated metal, plastic, or coarse sintered glass.
Applications:
❖ It is used in dehydration, concentration/separation of substances or the treatment of residual liquids.
❖ It is used for isolation and enumeration of micro-organisms.
❖ It is used in drinking water purification.

20. Write a note on sintered glass filter.

Principle:
❖ It works on the principle of physical separation.
❖ The liquid to be filtered is poured into the sintered
glass funnel and drawn through the perforations by
vacuum suction.
Construction:
❖ These are made of borosilicate glass. Borosilicate
glass is finely powdered, sieved and particle of
desired size are separated.
❖ It is then packed into a disc mould and heated to a temperature at which adhesion takes place between the
particles. The disc is then fused to a funnel of suitable shape and size.
❖ Sintered filters are also made up of stainless steel which has a greater mechanical strength.
❖ However, these steel filters are very much liable to attack by the solutions passing through them.
❖ The funnel with a sintered filter is numbered according to the pore size.
Working:
❖ The porous fritted glass disc in the middle allows filtrate to drain through leaving solids behind.
❖ The filtration may be carried out under reduced pressure.
❖ The suction flask traps vacuum to ensure that no fluids are carried over from the vacuum pump to the
evacuated apparatus or vice versa.
Applications:
❖ It being permanent is used as an alternative to filter paper.
❖ For separation of viruses from bacteria.
❖ Sterilization of certain thermo-labile material.
❖ Filtration of broth cultures of bacteria.

21. Explain the working fluidized bed dryer with neat,

labelled diagram. Give any two applications.
Fluidized bed dryer
Principle:
❖ The FBD works on a principle of fluidization of the feed
materials.
❖ In this process, hot air is introduced at high pressure
through a perforated bed of moist solid particulate.

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❖ If air is allowed to flow through a bed of solid material in the upward direction with the velocity greater than
the settling rate of the particles, the solid particles are blown-up and remain suspended in the air stream.
❖ Heat transfer is accomplished by direct contact between the wet solid and hot gases. Use of hot air to fluidizing
the bed increases the drying rate.

Working:
❖ Material to be dried is placed in the bowl type vessel.
❖ Air is introduced from the top and heated at required temperature by the heaters.
❖ The air is filtered through the filter and the passes through the bed of the material at the bottom.
❖ The airflow is generated by the fa fitted at the top of the equipment. The air flow rate and the
operating temperature adjusted by the control panel.
❖ As the flow of air increases, the bed expands, and particles powder start to rise up in a turbulent
motion.
❖ The regular contact with air causes the material to dry. The air leaving the FBD passes through
the filter to collect the fine particles of the material.
❖ FBD bags have finger-like shape to increase the volume of the drying bed that helps to increase
the drying rate and decrease the drying time.
❖ The vaporized liquid is carried away by the drying gases. Sometimes to save energy, the exit gas is
partially recycled.

Applications:
❖ FBD is used for drying and mixing of powders and agglomeration of materials.
❖ It is used in granulation and coating of powders, granules, tablets, pellets, beads.
❖ It is used as fluidized bed reactors, for solids separation and for heat/mass transfer.

22. Explain principle of freeze drying. Mention its applications.

Principle of freeze drying
❖ The principle involved in freeze drying is sublimation, where water passes directly from solid state (ice) to the
vapour state without passing through the liquid state.
❖ Sublimation of water can take place at pressures and temperature below triple point of water (4.579 mm of
Hg at 0.0099 °C).
❖ The material to be dried is first frozen and then subjected under a high vacuum to heat (by conduction or
radiation or by both) so that frozen liquid sublimes leaving only non-volatile solid, dried components of the
original liquid.
❖ The concentration gradient of water vapour between the drying front and condenser is the driving force for
removal of water during freeze drying.
d) Applications:
❖ The process is mainly used for drying of biological products such as antibiotics, blood products, vaccines,
enzyme preparations, microbiological cultures and other thermolabile pharmaceutical substances.
❖ Freeze-drying is used to increase the shelf life of thermolabile products, such as vaccines and other injectable.
❖ It is used to enhance stability of products during storage, shipping, and transportation.
❖ Freeze-drying is used to reduce weight of products.

23. Define percolation.

The process of separating medicinally active constituents of plant and
animal tissues with the help of selective solvents and standard procedures
is termed extraction.
▪ The term percolation has been derived from the Greek word percolate
which means to pass through.
▪ Percolation (or Process P) is also termed lixiviation.
▪ It involves extracting the constituents of granulated or powdered drug by
slowly passing down through it a suitable menstruum.

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▪ The menstruum while travelling down the drug column under the influence of gravity, extracts the drug
particles layer-wise, which are further replaced with the layers above as it moves downwards.
▪ Percolation method achieves complete drug extraction.

Chapter 7
24. What are novel drug delivery systems (NDDS)? Give its advantages. Add note on challenges in NDDS.
❖ NDDS are safe with high efficacy exhibiting improved pharmacokinetics and decreased dosing
frequency.
Advantages:
❖ Reduction in the total amount of drug administered over the period of treatment.
❖ It provides convenient route of administration.
❖ Increases the patient compliance.
❖ It helps to achieve targeting of drugs to specific sites with reduced side effects.
❖ It offers reduced blood level fluctuation characteristic of multiple dosing.
❖ It provides protection from the first pass metabolism and gastrointestinal tract degradation thus
maximizing availability with minimum dose.
CHALLENGES OF NDDS
❖ It demands high capital investment and is time consuming, expensive and faces the problem of
toxicity, low efficacy, biocompatibility, side effects, fast excretion, and degradability.
❖ There are no specific methodologies for testing effects of NDDS and establishing safety profile of
NDDS based product is challenge for regulatory approval of product.
❖ There are no specific regulatory guidelines for NDDS products and thus pharmaceutical
companies, to obtain market approval of product, have to convince regulatory authority based
on scientific concepts.
❖ Patent defending for NDDS is difficult because there are already existing patents of some NDDS.
The other patent issues include patent land grab and overlapping patents.
❖ There is lack of discussion platforms, for scientists to learn from failures in NDDS research, and
coordination amongst academia, industries, physician, patients, and economist for data
gathering about performance of marketed NDDS.

25. Classify novel drug delivery systems with examples.

(1) Controlled Release Drug Delivery System (CRDDS):

(a) Encapsulation: In this system, drug release is controlled by dissolution controlling coating excipients like cellulose,
polyethylene, glycols, polymethylacrylates, and waxes.

Example: Ecosprin (aspirin), progesterone tablets.

(b) Dissolution and diffusion-controlled release system: In this system, the drug is encapsulated in partially soluble
membrane (coat) in which pores are formed that permits entry of aqueous medium into core and drug release starts
by diffusion of dissolved drug out of system.

Example: Aspirin Tablet

(2) Microencapsulation:

Microencapsulation is a process in which active substances are coated by extremely small capsules.

Examples: Sulfasalazine Tablet, Mesalamine Tablet, Olsalazine Capsule, Balsalazide Tablet.

(3) Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery System (MDDS):

Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems can be classified as:

(a) Oral delivery system.

(i) Buccal delivery system.

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(ii) Sublingual delivery system.

(b) Vaginal delivery system.

(c) Rectal delivery system.

(e) Nasal delivery system.

(4) Implantable Drug Delivery System (IDDS)

(a) Implants: Implants are drug delivery systems which provide a controlled delivery of drug over a period of time at
the site of implantation.

Example: Histrelin (Vantas),.

(5) Transdermal Drug Delivery System (TDDS): TDDS are drug delivery systems that are applied on to the intact skin,
usually patches, to deliver the drug through the skin at a controlled rate by diffusion, for local and systemic effects.

Examples: Clonidine, Nicotine and Testosterone transdermal patches.

(6) Gastroretentive Drug Delivery Systems (GRDDS): GRDDS are dosage forms that can be hold within the stomach
which has ability to prolong gastric residence time (GRT) and control release of a drug thereby increases drug
concentration to improve bioavailability.

(a) Floating systems.

(b) Inflatable systems.

(c) Gastro-adhesive systems.

(7) Nasopulmonary drug delivery system (NPDDS): NPDDS is a system in which drugs are insufflated through the
nose. It involves inhalation of drug formulation through mouth and the further deposition of inhaled drugs in lower
respiratory airways.

(a) Inhalers.

(b) Nasal sprays.

(8) Targeted Drug Delivery.

Chapter 5

26. Classify different types of tablets with suitable examples.

CLASSIFICATION OF TABLETS
I. Tablets Ingested Orally
1. Compressed Tablets
2. Multiple compressed Tablets
3. Enteric coated Tablets
4. Sugar coated Tablets.
5. Film coated Tablets.
6. Chewable Tablets
II. Tablets used in oral cavities.
1. Buccal Tablets
2. Sublingual Tablets
3. Lozenges
4. Dental cone
III. Tablets used by other routes.
1. Implantation Tablets
2. Vaginal Tablets
IV. Tablets used to prepare solutions.
1. Effervescent Tablets

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2. Dispersible Tablets
3. Hypodermic Tablets

27. Define capsule. Differentiate hard and soft gelatine capsules.

Capsules are solid dosage forms in which medicament is stored inside the gelatine shell.
HARD GELATIN CAPSULE SOFT GELATIN CAPSULE
Hard gelatin capsules are used for enclosing solid Soft gelatin capsule is a solid capsule surrounding a
medicament or dry powders of drug substance. liquid or semi solid mass.
It is also known as dry filled capsule. They are also known as soft gel .
They are less flexible and consist of cap and body. They donot have cap and body
Prepared in many steps. Prepared in single step

28. Preparation of hard gelatine capsule and soft gelatine capsule.

PRODUCTION OF HARD GELATIN CAPSULES - STEPS INVOLVED:

1. Dipping:
• Machine holds the Gelatin mixture in a container/tank called “Dip Pot”.
• The gelatin mixture is heated and maintained at temperature 34-40 °C.
• The stainless pins are then dipped in this gelatin mixture. This results the formation film on the surface of
each pin.
2. Spinning: The pins are removed from the dip pot and rotated so that uniform thickness of film is obtained.
3. Drying: After spinning, pins are passed through
drying. A large volume of air is blown over them.
The excess water is removed during drying.
4. Stripping: Now the capsules are removed from the
pins with the help of the bronze jaws.
5. Trimming / Cutting -The excess length of capsules
are removed with the help of stationary knives.
6. Joining: Now both the halves of the capsules are
obtained and they are joined .
7. Brushing and polishing: capsules are polished and
rubbed with clothes.

FILLING MACHINES
1. Hand operated capsule filling machine.
2. 2.Semi Automatic capsule filling machine.
3. 3 Automatic capsule filling machine.

HAND OPERATED CAPSULE FILLING MACHINE

The machine is used for laboratory purpose. It has 200 holes. Approximately 5000 capsules can be prepared in one
hour.

1. First tighten the handle and place lever on the position. Now machine is
ready for capsule filling. Place empty capsules on loading tray either
manually or simple loading device.

2. Put capsule in such a way that body is lower side and cap is upper side.

3. Place the filled loading tray over the bed.

4. The powder tray is placed in proper position.

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5. Place powder onto the surface of body plate and spread with spatula to get uniform filling of each bodies.
Remove the excess powder.

6. Remove the power tray after filling.

7. The cap holding tray is then repositioned over the body.

8. The capsules are rejoined by manual pressure.

9. Remove the loading tray and collect the filled capsules.

PRODUCTION OF SOFT GELATIN CAPSULE

Soft capsules are prepared by following methods

1. Plate process
2. Rotary die process
3. Reciprocate Rotatory Die process
4. Accogel Machine

1. Plate process:
1) In this method, warm sheet of plain or colored gelatin is placed on a die plate that has many die pockets.
2) Then apply vacuum.
3) The vacuum draws gelatin sheets into the die in this process.
4) A measured amount of medicament is filled in die pockets.
5) Place a second gelatin sheet on the filled die pockets.
6) The pressure is applied to the combined plate using die press.
7) Then soft gelatin capsules are formed and cut into individual units.

This method is not advantageous because these capsules are too moist and soft and may not withstand certain
environmental conditions.

2 Rotary die process:

1) In this process, soft gelatin capsules are produced, filled and sealed in a continuous operation.
2) In this method, liquid gelatin flows from overhead tank and enters into the machine and form two continuous
ribbons.
3) These ribbons come together between twin rotating die and
form pocket of gelatin ribbon.
4) Then the measured amount of medicament or material are
injected into it with the stroke of a pump.
5) These filled material gelatin pockets are sealed by pressure
and heat.
6) The formed capsules are washed (naptha wash) thoroughly to
remove mineral oil lubricant.
7) The capsules are dried in a tumble drying tunnel with an
elevated temperature and a large volume of forced air.

The following points should be monitored such as: Gelatin temperature, Fill temperature, Ribbon thickness, and the
Fill quantity.

This is similar to the rotary process, but differs in the actual encapsulation process.

29. Describe ointment bases with suitable examples.

❖ Ointment Bases: The ointment base is the vehicle for the medicament.
An ideal ointment base should possess the following properties:
• It should be inert, odorless and smooth.
• It should be physically and chemically stable.
• It should be compatible with the skin.

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❖ Classification of Ointment Bases

• Oleaginous bases
• Absorption bases
• Emulsion bases
• Water soluble bases
1. Oleaginous Bases: These bases consist of water insoluble hydrocarbons, vegetable oils, animal fats and
waxes. The constituents of hydrocarbon bases are soft paraffin, hard paraffin and liquid paraffin.
❖ Petrolatum (soft paraffin): It is a purified mixture of semi-solid hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum.
❖ There are two types of soft paraffin:
a) Yellow paraffin (melting point 36°C- 42°C)
b) White paraffin (obtained by bleaching yellow paraffin)
Disadvantages of Oleaginous bases:
• They are greasy.
• They are sticky and are difficult to remove both from skin and clothing.
• They do not help in the absorption of medicaments.

2. Absorption Bases: These bases are substances which have the property of absorbing (emulsifying)
considerable quantities of water but still retaining their ointment-like consistency.
❖ The absorption bases are of two types:
✓ Non-emulsified bases: wool fat
✓ in oil emulsions: lanolin

3. Emulsion Bases: These bases are semisolid or have a cream like consistency.
❖ Both o/w and w/o emulsions are used as ointment base.
❖ The oil in water type of emulsion bases are more popular because these can be easily removed from
the skin or clothes by washing with water.
❖ The w/o type of bases are greasy and sticky. The emulsifying ointment is prepared from emulsifying
wax, white soft paraffin and liquid paraffin.

4. Water Soluble Bases: These are commonly known as “grease less ointment bases”.
❖ The water-soluble bases consist of water-soluble ingredients, such as, polyethylene glycol polymers which
are popularly known as “carbowaxes “.
❖ Tragacanth, gelatin, pectin, cellulose derivatives, bentonite, magnesium-aluminium silicate and sodium
alginate are also used as water soluble bases.

30. What are ointments? Classify with examples.

Ointments are semi-solid preparations meant for external application to the skin or mucous membrane.
Classification of Ointments may be classified as follows:
▪ According to their penetration property.
▪ According to their therapeutic uses.
Ointment classified according to properties based on penetration:
i) Epidermic ointments: These ointments are meant for action on epidermis and produce local effect.
They are not absorbed. These are mainly used as protectives, antiseptics, local anti-infectives.
ii) Endodermic ointments: These ointments are meant for action on deeper layers of cutaneous
tissues. They are partially absorbed and act as emollients, stimulants and local irritants.
iii) Diadermic ointments: These ointments are meant for deep penetration and release the
medicaments that pass through the skin and produce systemic effects.
Ointments classified according to therapeutic uses:
a. Antibiotic ointments: These ointments are used to kill microorganisms. The antibiotics used
are bacitracin etc.

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b. Antifungal ointments: These ointments are used to kill the fungi. The commonly used
antifungal e
c. Anti-inflammatory ointments: These ointments are used to relieve inflammatory, allergic.
d. Antipruritic ointments: These ointments are used to relieve itching. The antipruritic drugs
commonly used are benzocaine and coal tar.
e. Astringent ointments: These ointments cause contraction of the skin and decrease
discharges. The astringents commonly used are made of zinc oxide.
f. Counter-irritant ointments: These ointments are applied locally to imitate the skin, thus
reducing, or relieving another irritation or deep-seated pain.
g. Parasiticide ointments: These ointments destroy or inhabit living insects, such as lice and
ticks, The drugs commonly mixed with ointment bases are benzyl benzoate etc.
h. Protectant ointments: These ointments protect the skin moisture, air, sun rays or other
substances such as chemicals. Example: calamine ointment.

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CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Pharmaceutical chemistry

1. With a neat, labelled diagram of apparatus write the principle and reactions involved in the
limit test for arsenic IP.
Arsenic limit test:
Principle:
• Arsenic if present in the sample as an impurity is converted to arsine gas AsH3.
• The arsenic present in the sample is converted to arsenic acid.
• Then it is further treated with a reducing agent such as stannous chloride. Arsenic acid is reduced to
arsenious acid.
As H3AsO4
Arsenic Arsenic acid

H3AsO4 H3AsO3
Arsenic acid Arsenious acid
• Potassium iodide which is also added forms hydriodic acid which also reduces arsenic acid to
arsenious acid.
• The arsenious acid is further reduced to arsine by nascent hydrogen produced by the action of
granulated zinc and hydrochloric acid.
H₂AsO3 + 6H AsH3↑ + 3H₂O
Nascent hydrogen Arsine gas

• When arsine meets dry paper saturated with mercuric chloride, it produces a yellow stain.

• The intensity of the stain is compared standard stain which is similarly and simultaneously prepared
by taking a specified quantity of dilute arsenic solution in place of the test substance.
• If the test stain is less in intensity of colour than the standard stain, the sample passes the test.
• All the reagents used excepting strong and dilute arsenic solutions should be arsenic-free.

Apparatus:

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2. Explain types of errors.
❖ Error is the difference between measured value & true value. The errors are of two types:
1. Indeterminate (Random errors or accidental errors)
2. Determinate (Systematic or constant errors)

a. Determinate Errors (Systematic Errors, Constant Errors)

❖ These errors are determinable and can be either avoided or corrected. They may be constant or
variable, but can be accounted for required corrections. They arise from causes such as:
(i) Personal errors made by the individual analyst.
e.g. (a) Poorly identified visual end points (colour changes) due to colour blindness or due to
late reading of end points. (b) Mathematical errors in calculation.

(ii) Errors of the method caused by incorrect procedure.

e.g., Incorrect sampling, contamination of precipitates, impurities in reagents, improper
selection of indicators.
(iii) Instrumental or apparatus errors due to poor construction or calibration.
e.g., Incorrect weights, poorly calibrated flasks, burettes and pipettes, inequal lengths of the
arms of the balance.
b. Indeterminate Errors (Random Errors, Accidental Errors)
• These are slight variations in a series of measurements or observations made by the same analyst
under similar conditions.
• The causes of such errors are difficult to detect. These errors cannot be determined.
• These random errors can be minimized, but some uncertainty is always associated with every
measurement.
• Evaluation of such errors require statistical method, random distribution (probability curve or curve
of errors).

3. Write the principle and reactions of limit test for chlorides.

Principle:
• The limit test for chlorides is based on the reaction between silver nitrate and soluble chlorides
forming a precipitate of silver chloride which is insoluble in presence of dilute nitric acid. The
opalescence produced depends upon the amount of chlorides present in the sample.
• It is compared with the opalescence produced in a standard solution containing the prescribed
quantity of chloride similarly treated.
• If the opalescence in the sample is less than that in the standard, it passes the test and is declared
as standard.

Dil Nitric acid

-
CI + AgNO3 AgCl ↓ + NO3-
silver nitrate silver chloride

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Procedure: Take two 50 ml Nessler cylinders. Label one as "Test" and the other as "Standard".

Steps Test Standard

Dissolve specified quantity of the substance Pipette out 1ml of a 0.05845 percent w/v
(1g of dextrose) in distilled water or prepare solution of sodium chloride into the Nessler
1 a solution as directed in the text in the cylinder
Nessler cylinder.

2 Add 10ml of dil Nitric acid Add 10ml of dil Nitric acid
Add 1ml of Silver Nitrate solution Add 1ml of Silver Nitrate solution
3

4 Dilute to 50 ml with water Dilute to 50 ml with water

Stir immediately with a glass rod and allow Stir immediately with a glass rod and allow to
5
to stand for 5 minutes stand for 5 minutes

4. Differentiate between iodometry and iodimetry.

5. Define accuracy, precision, and significant figures.

• Accuracy means degree of closeness of an experimental result with true value or actual result.
• Precision means the degree of reproducibility or agreement between repeated measurement.
• Significant figures are the digits necessary to express results which are constant with the precision
of the measurement.

CHAPTER 2: Volumetric and gravimetric analysis

6. Explain complexometric titrations and write the assay of calcium gluconate.
• In these titrations, metal ion is converted into a complex, by addition of a complexing agent, which
is stable and water soluble.
• Complexing agent is any electron donating ion or molecule, usually called a ligand. It forms
complex with metal ions due to its ability to form one or more covalent bonds with metal ions.

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• Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) is a complexing agent, which reacts with most polyvalent
metal ions. It is hexadentate ligand having six electron donating groups. But generally, disodium
salt of EDTA is used as a titrant in the titration. It is quadridentate ligand.

Assay of Calcium Gluconate:

❖ Principle: It is based upon complexometric titration. This sample is treated with hydrochloric acid and
to this solution sodium hydroxide is added to maintain pH (about 10) and is directly titrated against
standard disodium edetate solution, using screened indicator (mixture of murexide and naphthol
green). Each ml 0.5 M disodium edetate = 0.2242 gm CaC1₂H₂2O₁4.H₂O
Ca++ + Na₂H₂V → Na₂CaV+ 2 H+
❖ Procedure: Weigh accurately about 0.8 g sample and dissolve in 150 ml water containing 5 ml dilute
hydrochloric acid. Add 15 ml of solution of sodium hydroxide, 40 mg of murexide and 3 ml of solution
of naphthol green and titrate with 0.05 M disodium edetate until the solution is deep blue in colour.

Calculation: % w/v of calcium gluconate = (T-X) x N x 0.022420 × 100

Weight taken.
x = Titrate value of magnesium sulphate titration
T = Titrate value of calcium + magnesium titration.
N = Normality of M/20 E.D.T.A

7. Explain the principle and reactions involved in the assay of sodium chloride.
Principle:
It is assayed by precipitation titration (Mohr's method). It is analyzed by direct titration of sodium chloride
against standard solution of silver nitrate using potassium chromate solution as an indicator. The end-point
is when it gives a brick red precipitate due to the formation of silver chromate. Each ml 0.1 AgNO3= 0.005845
g of NaCl
NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NaNO3
2 AgNO3 + K2CrO4 →→ Ag2CrO4 + 2 KNO3
(Brick red ppt)
Procedure: Dissolve 0.25 g of substance in 50 ml water and titrate the solution against 0.1 N silver nitrate,
using a solution of potassium chromate as an indicator.

8. Define assay.
• An assay is a process of analysing a substance to determine its composition or quality.

9. Define oxidation-reduction titrations.

• A redox titration is a titration in which the analyte and titrant react through an oxidation-reduction
reaction.
• Oxidation reaction is the reaction where addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen takes place,
while in reduction, there will be addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen.

CHAPTER 3: Inorganic Pharmaceuticals

10. Write a note on dental products.
• The inorganic compounds and formulations which are used to maintain the oral and dental hygiene
are called DENTAL Products.
• Dental Products include Abrasive, Anticaries Agent, Polishing Agent, and Desensitizing Agent.
Abrasives: These preparations are used by the dentist in cleaning and polishing teeth.
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• They are not suitable for patient's self-use because they may be entirely too harsh for continued or
unsupervised use. (e.g., Pumice, in very fine powder, in the form of paste or powder with other suitable
ingredients). Generally, powders are more abrasive than pastes.

DRUG Calcium carbonate

(CaCO3)
STORAGE Store in air-tight containers and avoid freezing
USES Antacid.
Relief in gastric and duodenal ulcers.
In the treatment of hyperchlorhydria
To treat diarrhoea.
Polishing agent.
PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATION Calcium carbonate tablet I.P.
MARKET PREPRATION Calcio Carbonate 600 mg.

Anticaries Agents
• Dentifrices are the products that enhance the removal of stain and dental plaque by the toothbrush.
• To prevent caries including flossing and brushing accompanied by administration of fluoride internally
or topically to the teeth.
• Various inorganic compounds such as fluorides, carbonates, phosphates, etc. are used as dental
products to prevent caries.
Fluorides: Sodium Fluoride (NaF) (Mol. Wt. 42)
DRUG Sodium fluoride
STORAGE Store in air-tight containers, protected from moisture
USES To treat dental caries
PHARMACEUTICAL Sodium Fluoride Tablet, Sodium Fluoride Gel, Sodium Fluoride Rinse.
PREPARATION
MARKET PREPRATION Fluoride 1 mg (2.2 mg sodium fluoride) chewable tablet.

Denture Cleaners
• Dentures are also known as false teeth where prosthetic devices are used to replace missing teeth
which are surrounded by soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity.
• A denture cleaner (also termed denture cleanser) is used to clean dentures when they are out of the
mouth. The main use is to control the growth of microorganisms on the dentures, especially Candida
albicans, thereby preventing denture-related stomatitis.

Pharmaceutical Formulation Market Preparation

Denture cleaners can come in cream and Clinsodent Powder,
liquid format. Clinsodent Tablet,
Others come in powder, paste, or tablet Clinsodent Brush,
format, Fixon Cream.

Denture Adhesives
• Denture adhesives are pastes, powders or adhesive pads that may be placed in/on dentures to help
them stay in place. Sometimes denture adhesives contain zinc to enhance adhesion.
• Adhesive helps enhance the natural forces that hold your dentures in place.
Mouthwashes

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• They are medicated liquids (mainly antiseptics) used for cleansing the mouth or treating affected
mucous membranes including during operative procedures and postoperatively.
• Mouthwashes contain antibacterial agent, alcohol, glycerin, sweetening agent, flavouring agent and
colouring agents.
Uses:
• They are used as antiseptic to treat oral infection and maintain the oral hygiene.
• Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, or antifungal action.

Pharmaceutical Formulation Market Preparation

Oral Solution Chlorhexidine mouth wash,

Colgate Plax which is alcohol free

11. Define and classify antacids with examples.

❖ Antacids are agents that counteract (Act Against) the acidity.
❖ Antacids are compounds used to neutralize excess of gastric hydrochloric acid that may be causing
pain and ulcers in GIT.
The ideal requirements of antacids are:
1. It should not be absorbable or cause systemic(blood) alkalosis
2. It should not act as a laxative or cause constipation.
3. It should exert its effect rapidly and over a long period of time.
4. It should buffer in the pH range 4 - 6.
5. The reaction between antacid and gastric hydrochloric acid should not produce a large volume of
gas.
6. The antacid should inhibit pepsin, the proteolytic enzyme.
The compounds are:
a) Aluminum hydroxide gel
b) Sodium Bicarbonate
c) Magnesium hydroxide
d) Calcium carbonate
e) Magaldrate

12. Define acidifying agents. Explain about HCL.

▪ They are chemical substances which increase the acid content (acidity) of the stomach.
▪ Achlorhydria is the condition in which there is absence of hydrochloric acid in the gastric secretions.
▪ This condition is also known as Gastric hypoacidity.
Dilute Hydrochloric Acid:
• Its clear colorless liquid with an acid taste.
• Dilute hydrochloric acid contains 10% w/w (limits 9.5 to 10.5) of HCI.
• It is prepared by diluting hydrochloric acid (35-38% w/w HCI) with purified water such that it contains
10% w/w HCI (ie. 274 g hydrochloric acid in 726 g water).
Uses:
• Dilute hydrochloric acid is used in the treatment of achlorhydria.
• It is also used in the management of metabolic alkalosis, given by intravenous infusion, diluted with
water, or in suitable fusion fluids.
Storage: Stored in stoppered containers of glass or other inert material, below 30°C

13. Write a note on haematinics.

❖ Hematinic are substances required in the formation of blood. They are used in the treatment of
Anemias.

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Official Iron Compounds:
(i) Ferrous Sulphate (iv) Ferrous ascorbate
(ii) Ferrous fumarate (v) Carbonyl iron
(iii) Ferrous ammonium citrate
DRUG Ferrous Sulphate Ferrous Ferrous Ferrous Carbonyl iron
fumarate ammonium ascorbate
citrate

Store in air-tight It is preserved Stored in It should be It should be

containers (since it in well-closed tightly closed kept at room kept at room
effloresces in dry container. light resistant temperature temperature
STORAGE air and oxidized in containers
moist air).

It is most widely Hematinic in Used in Treatment of iron

used hematinic. prevention & hematinic iron deficiency replacement
treatment of syrups and anaemia and product and is
It is used in Iron deficiency elixirs (because anaemia due used to treat
anaemias caused anaemias of high water to chronic or prevent iron
USES due to iron solubility). kidney disease. deficiency and
deficiency. iron deficiency
Used in food anemia.
products as
acidity
regulator.

Dried ferrous Ferrous Suspension Tablet Tablet,

sulphate IP Fumarate and Syrup, Powder.
Tablets, U.S.P. Capsule
Ferrous sulphate XVIII
PHARMACEUTICAL
PREPARATION
tablet IP
Ferrous
Fumarate
Tablets LP.

Feosol Tandem, Pons Ferojin-XT. Icar Pediatric,

MARKET
Ferro-Sequels Suspension, Irco. Afroz Tab.
PREPRATION
Intavital Syrup,

14. Define cathartics, protective agents, astringents, adsorbents, antimicrobials, astringents.

• Protectives and adsorbents are drugs which adsorb gastro-intestinal toxins, bacteria etc., and also
give a protective coating to the inflamed mucosal walls.
• Cathartics are the agents that promote defecation, ie., the agents that facilitate the passage of, and
elimination of the feces from the intestinal tract, especially through the colon and rectum.
• Antimicrobials are the drugs which cause suppression of the growth of micro-organisms e.g.,
Bacteria, fungi, protozoans, etc.
• Astringent is an agent which shows a local or surface protein precipitant action when applied to
damaged skin or mucous membranes.

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CHAPTER 5: Drugs Acting on Central Nervous System

15. Define and classify sedatives and hypnotics with examples. Write the structure of diazepam.
❖ Definition of Sedatives: These are the CNS depressant drugs that reduce the excitement, tension, anxiety &
produce relaxation without inducing sleep.
❖ Definition of Hypnotics: These are the CNS depressant drugs that reduce excitement, tension, anxiety, produce
relaxation, with inducing sleep.
Classification:
I. Barbiturates: Phenobarbital*
II. Benzodiazepines: Diazepam*, Nirazepam
DIAZEPAM:

16. Classify general anaesthetics with examples. Write the structure of thiopental sodium.
General Anaesthetics
Definition: These are the CNS depressant drugs that produce loss of sensation or consciousness.
Classification:
I. Inhalation Anaesthetics: Nitrous Oxide, Halothane, Isoflurane
II. Intravenous Anaesthetics: Thiopentone Sod*, Ketamine HCL*, Propofol
Thiopental sodium:

17. Classify antipsychotics with examples. Write the structure chlorpromazine hydrochloride.
Definition: These are the drugs used to treat psychiatric disorders
CLASSIFICATION:
I. Phenothiazine derivatives: Chlorpromazine HCl*
II. Fluoro Butyrophenone: Haloperidol*
III. Benzisoxazale: Risperidone*
IV. Benzenesulfanamide derivative: Sulpiride*
V. Thienbenzodiazepines: Olanzapine
VI. Thiazole derivative: Lurasidone
VII. Miscellaneous: Quetiapine
Chlorpromazine hydrochloride:

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18. Classify anti-convulsant with examples. Write the structure of carbamazepine.

Definition: These are the CNS depressants drugs that prevent or control convulsions.
Classification:
I. Barbiturates: Phenobarbital
II. Hydantoins: Phenytoin*
III. Dibenzoazepine derivative: Carbamazepine*
IV. Benzodiazepine: Clonazepam
V. Gaba Analogue: Gabapentin*, Vigabatrin
VI. Carboxylic Acid: Valproic acid*
VII. Newer ones: Lamotrigine, Topiramate
Carbamazepine:

19. Classify anti-depressants with examples. Write the structure of amitriptyline hydrochloride.
Definition: Drugs that are used to elevate mood & Alertness.
Classification:
I. Tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline* HCL, Imipramine* HCL
II. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: Fluoxetine*, Paroxetine, Citalopram
III. Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor: Venlafaxine
IV. Selective serotonin & Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor: Duloxetine
Amitriptyline hydrochloride:

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CHAPTER 6: Drugs Acting on Autonomic Nervous System

20. Classify anti-cholinergic with examples. Write the structure of atropine sulphate.
The drugs which block the actions produced by stimulation of parasympathetic nervous system are called
cholinergic blocking agents.
Atropine Sulphate
Ipratropium Bromide
Atropine Sulphate:

CHAPTER 7: Drugs Acting on Cardiovascular System

21. What are anti-anginal drugs. Explain in detail about isosorbide dinitrate.
Definition: These are drugs used in the treatment of angina pectoris.
Classification:
1. Nitrates: Isosorbide dinitrate
2. Beta Blocker: Propranolol
3. Calcium channel blockers: Verapamil
4. Potassium channel opener: Nicorandil
Name of the
Storage Uses Formulations Brand
compound

ISOSORBIDE • Store in an airtight • Sorbide

• Tablet
DINITRATE container away from • Antianginal agent nitrate
• Capsule
sunlight. • Isorbil

22. Define antihypertensive drugs and classify them. Explain in detail about captopril and ramipril.
Definition: These are the drugs used to treat high blood pressure
Classification:
I. ACE Inhibitors: Captopril, Ramipril
II. Calcium Channel Blocker: Nifedipine
III. Beta Blocker: Propranolol
IV. Alpha-2 Agonist (Centra sympatholytics): Clonidine, methyl dopa
V. Vasodilator: Hydralazine

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Name of the compound CAPTROPRIL* RAMIPRIL

Structure

Not Applicable

1-[(3-mercapto)-2-methyl]
IUPAC name
propionyl proline

Storage Airtight container away

from light

Anti-hypertensive agent
Uses To treat CHF
To treat CHF
To treat high blood pressure
To treat angina

Formulations Tablets Tablet

Brands Captril Cardace

Capoten Ramistar

23. Define and classify antiarrhythmic agents with examples.

Anti-Arrhythmic drugs
Drugs that are used to treat cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats)
Classification:
I. Sodium channel blocker: Quinidine, Procainamide, Lorcainide, Phenytoin sodium*
II. Beta Blockers: Propranolol*, Potassium channel blocker
III. Potassium Channel Blocker: Amiodarone, Sotalol
IV. Calcium channel blocker: Verapamil

CHAPTER 8: Diuretics
24. What are diuretics? Classify with examples.
Definition: The drugs that increase urine output.
CLASSIFICATION:
1. High efficacy:
Sulphamoyl derivatives: FUROSEMIDE, BUMETANIDE
2. Medium efficacy
Benzothiadiazines: BENZTHIAZIDE
THIAZIDE LIKE: CHLORTHALIDONE, XIPAMIDE, METOLAZONE.
3. Low efficacy
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: ACETAZOLAMIDE
Potassium sparing diuretic: SPIRONOLACTONE.

25. Write the structure, chemical name and uses and two brand names of Frusemide and
acetazoleamide.

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DRUGS USES STORAGE FORMUALTION BRAND NAME
Store above 25⁰C.
Glaucoma, Capsules Diamox
ACETAZOLAMIDE Away from light and
Epilepsy. Tablets Diamox sequels
moisture.
Anti-hypertensive, Store above 25⁰C.
Oedema, CHF, Away from light and Tablet Diaqua-2
FUROSEMIDE
Liver cirrhosis, renal moisture. Solution Lasix
failure.

FUROSEMIDE:
4-Chloro-2-[ ( furan-2-ylmethyl ) amino ] -5- sulfamoylbenoic acid

CHAPTER 9: Hypoglycemic Agents

26. Write a note on hypoglycemic agents. Give the structure of metformin.
The drugs used to treat diabetes mellitus (elevated sugar levels).
Or
The drugs that lower elevated blood sugar levels are called hypoglycemic agents.
CLASSIFICATION:
➢ HORMONES: Insulin
➢ ORAL HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS:
• SULPHONYL UREAS: Tolbutamide, Glibenclamide, Glimepiride.
• BIGUANIDES: Metformin.
• MEGLITINIDES: Repaglinide, Nateglinide.
• THIOAZALIDINDIONES: Pioglitazone, Rosiglitazone
• GLIFLOZINS: Canagliflozin
• GLIPTINS: Sitagliptin, Vildagliptin
METFORMIN: N, N-Dimethylimidodicarbonimidic diamide

27. Explain the different types of insulin preparation.

Insulin injection is used for controlling blood sugar in type 1 diabetic patients (situation in which the body
cannot control the amount of sugar in the blood as it does not produce insulin) or in type 2 diabetic patients
(situation in which the blood sugar is too high as the body cannot produce or use insulin normally), when
they do not respond to oral medications.

Insulin Preparations:

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Short Acting Insulin:
• Crystalline soluble insulin
• Amorphous insulin zinc suspension (Semilente)

Intermediate Acting Insulin:

• Globin zinc insulin
• Insulin zinc Preparation (Lente)
• Isophane insulin suspension

Long-Acting Insulin:
• Protamine zinc suspension
• Extended insulin zinc crystalline (Ultralente)

28. Give the structure of glibenclamide.

GLIBENCLAMIDE:
5 chloro-N {2- [4-(Cyclohexyl carbamoyl sulfamoyl) phenyl] ethyl} methoxybenzamide.

CHAPTER 10: Analgesic And Anti-Inflammatory Agents

29. Define and classify analgesic and ant inflammatory agents?
Analgesics are drugs which give relief from pain without producing loss of consciousness.
Classification:
i) Narcotic analgesics: these are the drugs mainly used for relief of severe pain by depression of central
nervous system.
Morphine and related compounds ex: morphine, codeine.
ii) Non-narcotic analgesics: Synthetic compound, ex: pethidine, pentazocine, methadone.

Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce inflammation and relieve pain due to inflammation. Inflammation due to
arthritis is relieved.
Classification:
i. Nonselective COX inhibitors:
1. Aromatic carboxylic acids
▪ Salicylic acid derivative ex: Aspirin, Methyl salicylate
▪ Anthranilic acid derivative ex: Mefenamic acid
2. Alkanoic acid derivative
▪ Acid or ethanoic acid derivative ex: Diclofenac
▪ Indole derivative ex: Indomethacin
▪ Propionic acid derivative ex: Ibuprofen
3. Enolic acids
▪ Pyrazole derivative ex: Oxyphenbutazone, Phenyl butazone
▪ Oxicame ex: Piroxicam

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▪ Benzotrazines ex: Azapropazone ii) Nonacidic compounds ex: proquazone
ii. Preferentially COX inhibitors:
Nimesulide
iii. Selective COX-2 inhibitors:
Celecoxib, Rofecoxib.
iv. Analgesic, antipyretic with poor anti-inflammatory:
Paracetamol.

30. Write the structure of ibuprofen.

IBUPROFEN
2-(4-(2-methylpropyl) phenyl) propanoic acid
Or
2-acetyloxy benzoic acid

31. Write the structure, chemical name, uses and any two brand names of Paracetamol and aspirin.

DRUGS USES STORAGE FORMULATION BRAND NAME

PARACETAMOL To treat mild fever and At room temperature. Tablet Calpol
pain. Between 20⁰-25⁰ C. Pandol
To teat muscle aches, In a well-sealed
toothaches, common cold, container.
headaches. Away from sunlight.

To treat mild fever and At room temperature.

pain. Between 20⁰-25⁰ C. Aspir-81
ASPIRIN To teat muscle aches, In a well-sealed Tablet Aspi-Cor
toothaches, common cold, container.
headaches. Away from sunlight.

ASPIRIN PARACETAMOL

Acetyl-salicylic acid. N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide

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CHAPTER 11: Anti-Infective Agents

32. Define and classify antifungal agents. Write the structure of fluconazole and ketoconazole.
ANTI-FUNGAL DRUGS
These are the drugs used against fungal infections.
Classification:
1) Antibiotics:
i. Polyenes: Amphotericin B, Nystatin, Natamycin.
ii. Heterocyclic benzofurans: Griseofulvin
2) Antimetabolites: Flucytosine
3) Azoles:
i. Imidazoles: Miconazole, Econazole.
ii. Triazoles: Fluconazole, Itraconazole.
4) Allylamine: Terbinafine
5) Other topical agents: Benzoic acid, Tolnaftate.

KETOCONAZOLE

FLUCONAZOLE

33. Define and classify anti- UTI agents. Write the structure of ofloxacin.
These are the drugs used in treatment of urinary tract infections (UTI).
UTI are classified as:
• Primary anti- UTI agents
• Secondary anti- UTI agents.
• Tertiary anti- UTI agents.
• OFLOXACIN
•
• 7-fluoro-2-methyl-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-10-oxo-
4oxa-1-azatricyclo (7.3.1⁵)trideca-5(13)6,8,11-tetraene-
11-carboxylic acid.

34. Define and classify anti-tubercular agents. Write the structure of pretomanid.
These are the drugs used against tuberculosis, lung infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Classification:
FIRST LINE DRUGS SECOND LINE DRUGS NEWER DRUGS
H- isoniazid
E- ethambutol Para-amino salicylic acid Ciprofloxacin
R- rifampicin Cycloserine Ofloxacin
Z- pyrazinamide Kanamycin Azithromycin
S- streptomycin

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Pretomanid:

35. Define and classify antiviral agents with examples. Give the structure of acyclovir.
These are the drugs used against viral infections.
Classification:
1) Anti-herpes virus: Idoxuridine, Acyclovir, Foscarnet
2) Anti-retrovirus:
i. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: Zidovudine
ii. Non- Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: Delaviridine
iii. Protease inhibitors: Indinavir, Favipiravir.
3) Anti-influenza virus: Amantadine and Rimantadine
4) Non-selective anti-viral drugs: Ribavirin
ACYCLOVIR
2-amino-1,9-dihydro-9((2-hydroxyethoxy) methyl)-3H-
purine-6-one

36. Define and classify antimalarial agents with examples. Give the structure of mefloquine.
Anti-malarial agents are the drugs used in the treatment of malaria.
Malaria is caused by protozoan plasmodium.
Classification:
i) Cinchona alkaloids: Quinine
ii) 4-aminoquinoline derivative: Chloroquine, Amodiaquine
iii) 8- aminoquinoline derivative: Primaquine
iv) 9-amino acridine derivative: Mepacrine
v) Biguanide derivative: Proguanil
vi) Diamino pyrimides: Pyrimethamine, Trimethoprim
vii) Miscellaneous: Dapsone, Prontosil
Mefloquine

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37. Define sulphonamides. Write the structure chemical name and uses of dapsone and
cotrimoxazole.
Sulphonamides are antimicrobial compounds containing sulphonamido group (-SO2NH2) and derivatives
of sulphanilamide.
SULFACETAMIDE DAPSONE

N-[(4-aminophenyl) sulfonyl] acetamide 4,4-Diaminodiphenylsulphone

CHAPTER 12: Antibiotics

38. Classify antibiotics. With examples.
These are chemical substances produced by micro-organisms used to prevent growth or kill other micro-organisms.
Classification:
1. According to their spectrum, antibiotics are classified as:
i. Narrow spectrum antibiotics ex: Penicillin, Streptomycin
ii. Broad spectrum antibiotics ex: Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline

2. According to chemical structure, antibiotics are classified as:

i. Beta-lactam antibiotics: Cephalosporin, Penicillin
ii. Non-beta-lactam antibiotics
a) Polypeptides: Bacitracin, Colistin, Polymyxin
b) Polyenes: Nystatin, Amphotericin, Candicidin
c) Aminoglycosides: Streptomycin, Kanamycin, Neomycin, Gentamycin, Vancomycin, Tobramycin
d) Macrolide & lincomycin: Erythromycin, Linomycin, Clindamycin
e) Tetracyclins: Tetracyclin, Chlorotetracyclin, Oxytetracyclin
f) Miscellaneous: Novobiocin, Rifampicin, Griseofulvin, Cycloserine, Chloramphenicol

39. Write short note on the chemistry of amoxicillin, Penicillin, chloramphenicol.

Drugs Uses Stability and storage Formulation Brand name
Injection
Pericarditis,
PENICILLIN G Stored in refrigerator powders Pfizerpen
endocarditis.
Solutions
Room temperature
Bacterial 15⁰-25⁰C. Away from Suspensions, Amoxil
AMOXICILLIN
infections, UTI moisture and Tablets Trimox
sunlight
Enteric fever, Store at low Powder for
CHLORAMPHENICOL chloromycetin
meningitis temperature solution

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AMOXICILLIN:

6-{[(2R)-2-Amino-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetyl] amino} -3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-

azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-2-carboxylic acid.

CHLORAMPHENICOL:
2,2 -dichloro-N-[1,3-dihydroxy-1-(4-nirophenyl) propan-2-yl] acetamide

CHAPTER 13: Anti-Neoplastic Agents

40. Classify antineoplastic agents. With examples.
Definition:
Drugs that are used to treat cancer are called anti-neoplastic agents.
Classification:
i) Alkylating agent: ex: mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, chlorambucil, busulfan, cisplatin
ii) Antimetabolites ex: mercaptopurine, thioguanine, fluorouracil
iii) Antibiotics ex: actinomycin, mitomycin, doxorubicin
iv) Plant products ex: vinblastine, vincristine
v) Hormones ex: mitotane, dromostanolone propionate
vi) Enzymes ex: L-asparaginase vii) Miscellaneous ex: hydroxy urea

41. Write short note on the chemistry of fluorouracil, cyclophosphamide, and cisplatin.

Drugs Uses Stability and storage Formulation Brand name

Malignant Injection
Cyclophosphamide lymphomas, Store in refrigerator Powder for Procytox
leukaemia solution
Fluorouracil Acute Room temperature Injections Carac
lymphatic 15⁰-25⁰C. Away from Solutions
leukaemia moisture and sunlight
Cisplatin Breast cancer, Room temperature Injections Platinol
testicular 15⁰-25⁰C. Away from Solutions
cancer, moisture and sunlight
ovarian cancer

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CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE:

2-{bis(2-chloroethyl) amino]-1,3,2-oxazaphosphinan-2-one.

FLUOROURACIL:

5-fluoro-1H,3H-pyrimidine-2,4-dione

CISPLATIN
Diaminedichloroplatium(II)

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Chapter 1

1. Write the historical development and present status of pharmacognosy.

Historical development
PRE-CHRISTIAN ERA:
❖ Egyptians wear aware of medicinal uses of several plants and animals and also about human anatomy.
❖ The Greek physician Hippocrates (460- 360 B.C) known as 'Father of medicine’.
❖ Ebers papyrus of Egyptians described the medicinal value of plant in his book “Papyrus Ebers” which is an
ancient volume containing 800 formulae and 700 different drugs.
❖ Aristotle the renowned philosopher (384 - 322 B.C.) is well known for his studies on animal Kingdom and
Theophrastus (370 - 287 B.C.) for the plants Kingdom.
THE CHRIST-ERA:
❖ Pedanius Dioscorides, (040- 080 A.D.) A Greek physician in 78 A.D. described several plants of medicinal
importance in "De Materia Medica".
❖ Pliny the Elder (23-70 A.D.) who compiled 37 volumes of natural history.
❖ Greek pharmacist Galen (131 - 200 A.D.) described various methods of preparation containing active
constituents of crude drugs.
❖ The branch of dealing with the extraction of plant and animal drugs is known as Galenical Pharmacy.
❖ GALEN is also the first pharmacist.
❖ Indian history of medicinal plants is dated back to 3500 B.C. The curative properties of plants have been
mentioned in the Suktas of Rigveda and Atharvaveda.
❖ Ayurveda has also described good number of plants with their therapeutic properties. The ancient well
known known treaties in Ayurveda the Charak Samhita (divided medicinal plants into 50 groups and 10
herbs each) and Sushruta Samhita (divided 760 herbs in 7 groups based on common properties) are written
by Charka and Sushruta Respectively.
❖ DIOSCORIDE is known as the “father of Pharmacognosy”.
❖ SYEDLER coined the term Pharmacognosy in his book Analecta pharmacognostica.
❖ SWEDE LINNAEUS classified plants by introducing binomial system.
❖ G.MENDEL introduced plant hybridization in 1865.
❖ ANATOMICAL ATLAS OF CRUDE DRUGS was introduced by BERG in 1865.
❖ ANATOMICAL ATLAS OF POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS was given by Greenish Collin in 1904.
MODERN PHARMACOGNOSY:
❖ Isolation of penicillin by Alexander Flemming in 1922.
❖ Isolation of streptomycin by Walkman in 1944.
❖ Dr. C. Chandrashekar Kokate is the first INDIAN PHARMACIST.

PRESENT STATUS OF PHARMACOGNOSY:

❖ At present time, the people have realised that the use of natural occurring drugs are not only economical but
even safer too.
❖ Active constituents from naturally occurring drugs have led to rapid developments in Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry. In present scenario, modern state of art facility like structure determination and
pharmacological screening are available.
❖ Rapid developments in the fields of Chemistry Biochemistry and Pharmacology have further supported
advancements in Pharmacognosy.
❖ Plants like podophyllum, liquorice, valerian, artemisia, veratrum were earlier considered to be less important
but their re-evaluation has established their utility.

2. Write the scope of pharmacognosy.

• Pharmacognosy as an applied science has played an important role in developing different disciplines of
science,
Scope of Pharmacognosy is discussed below:
• Synthetic Drugs and Antibiotics: The demand of pharmaceutical products of plant origin has increased
due to the worldwide use of synthetic drugs and antibiotics.

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• Indigenous System of Medicines: Plants synthesise biologically active secondary metabolites due to
which They are called a chemical laboratory. Based on the availability of medicinal plants as raw
material, the WHO Has emphasised the utilisation of indigenous system of medicines.
• Herbal Medicines: Since herbal medicines do not have any toxic or side effect (unlike the modern
medicines), They have gained popularity in the recent years.
• Medicinal Plants: Medicinal plants are found distributed in almost all parts of India; thus it is the
richest Source of medicinal plants. Ayurvedic and Unani medicines are manufactured from the drugs
supplied by the Herb collectors and small traders.
• Novel Medicines: The evolution of novel medicines depends on pharmacognosy.
• Crude Drugs: Galenical’s and therapeutically active substances are prepared using crude drugs, as they
cannot Be synthesised economically. Crude drugs obtained from medicinal plants also provide
intermediates required for synthesising active compounds. Pharmacognosy provided a system in
which the active principles of crude.
Drugs can be dispensed, formulated, and manufactured in dosage forms accepted by the Allopathic
medicine System.
• Plant Drugs and Remedies: Complex diseases like cancer and AIDS are treated by plant drugs and
remedies, which are safer than the synthetic medicines.
• Alkaloids, Glycosides, and Antibiotics: Many these substances have been isolated, identified, and used
as a curative agent.
• Phytomedicines: The following natural plants are used as phytomedicines:
i) Artemisinin (antimalarial agent),
ii) Taxol (anticancer agent),
iii) Forskolin (an antihypertensive),
iv) Rutin (used as vitamin P and a capillary permeability factor), and
v) Piperine (enhances bioavailability).
• Natural Products: These have been used as drug substitute for semi-synthesis of many potent drugs.

Chapter-2

3. Enumerate the classification of crude drugs. Explain pharmacological classification.

Classification of drugs is as follows:

• Alphabetical classification.
• Taxonomical classification.
• Morphological classification.
• Pharmacological classification.
• Chemical classification.
• Chemo-taxonomical classification.
• Sera-taxonomical classification.
❖ ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION:
Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any disconnected or alphabetically similar
crude drug.
❖ TAXANOMICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In that classification drugs are classified based on their division, class, subclass, order, family, genus and
species.
❖ MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In these types of classification, the crude drugs are divided into the parts of plants like leaves, fruits, flowers,
woods, barks, extract, gums etc.
❖ CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In this classification crude drug are put together, which are contains the similar chemical constituents.
❖ CHEMO-TAXONOMICAL:
In this classification combine the two classifications for defining the crude drugs.
In which we investigate the drug category and chemical composition.
❖ SERA-TAXONOMICAL:
This technique is based on the highly specific relationship between antigens and the antibodies produced in
response to the animal during the any infection or harm.

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❖ PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In this classification drugs are placed together, which show the similar pharmacological function or
therapeutic effects.
Drug action is a specific function for each drug due to its chief chemical constituents.
Chemicals are bind to the specific receptors of our body and play a great role in the therapeutics.
Some crude drug are classified below.
Pharmacological action Examples.
Drug action on Opium, cannabis, nux-vomica, Belladona, ephedra .
Nervous system Coriander, caraway, cinnamon, clove.
Carminatives Castor oil, Ispaghula, senna.
Laxatives Catechu.
Astringents Gokhru, punarnava.
Diuretics Digitalis, arjuna.
Cardiotonics Rauwolfia.
Antihypertensive Guggal, colchicum.
Antirheumatics Vinca.
Antitumor Cinchona
Antimalarial Pterocarpus, gymnema sylvestro.
Antidiabetics Vasaka, tolu balsam, Tulsi.
Antitussives Nux- vomica, cinchona, gentian.
Bitters

MERITS:
❖ Even if the content of the crude drugs are not known, they can be classified properly on the basis of
therapeutics or pharmacological property.
❖ Pharmaceutical Aids are also a crude drugs, which are not place in this classification because pharmaceutical
Aids shows many pharmacological effects.
DEMERITS:
❖ The drugs which are dissimilar in their action of mechanism even though their therapeutic effects is same
(Example- bulk purgative and irritant purgatives etc.) are put together.
❖ It is also possible that the same drugs with two different actions in the body, may be classified seperately at
both the places. for example: cinchona is grouped as antimalarials and bitters and stimulants.

4. Write the chemical classification of crude drugs with merits and demerits.
• In this classification crude drug are put together, which are contains the similar chemical constituents.
• It is very important expect in the classification system because chemicals are responsible for the
pharmacological action.
• It is very important for the phytochemical study of crude drugs.

Chemical classification is as given below:

MERITS: This classification aids in substitutes of unavailable drug

DEMERITS:

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• This type of classification fails in proper placement of drugs containing two different types of chemicals.
• For examples, certain drugs are found to contain alkaloids and glycosides (cinchona), Fixed oil and volatile oil
(nutmeg), fixed oil and enzymes (bitter almond) together and hence makes it difficult to categorize them
systematically.
• Confusions occur in his classification system.

5. Alphabetical, Taxonomical, Morphological, Chemo-taxonomical- definitions, merits, and de-merits.

❖ ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION:
Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any disconnected or alphabetically similar
crude drug.
Merits:
• The system is easy and quick to use.
• No entries appear repetitively hence avoid confusions.
• Location, tracing and adding drug entries can be done easily.
Demerits:
• It lacks relationship with previous and successive drug entries.

❖ TAXANOMICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In that classification drugs are classified based on their division, class, subclass, order, family, genus and
species.
MERITS:
• Evolutionary developments are understood in this classification.
DEMERITS:
• It fails to recognize organized and unorganized form of drug.
• Many drugs are not entire plants, hence gives unwanted information.
• Chemical nature and therapeutic significance is not included.

❖ MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In these types of classification, the crude drugs are divided into the parts of plants like leaves, fruits, flowers,
woods, barks, extract, gums etc.
MERITS:
• This type of classification is more convenient for practical purposes, even if the chemical nature is not known,
a drug can be studied based on their morphological and pharmacological characteristics.
• This type of classification is very useful in identifying the adulterants used.
• In the natural state crude drugs from plant source can be readily distinguished.
DEMERITS:
• Operations like collection, drying, preparation for the market produce distortion of the natural form making
their recognition very difficult.
• Animal drugs and mineral drugs are difficult to classify by this method.

❖ CHEMO-TAXONOMICAL:
In this classification combine the two classifications for defining the crude drugs.
In which we investigate the drug category and chemical composition.
MERITS:
• This system provides better understanding of relation between chemical constituents, biosynthesis, and action.
DEMERITS:
• It is complex to recognize the chemicals in plant. Hence it is time consuming process.

❖ SERA-TAXONOMICAL:
This technique is based on the highly specific relationship between antigens and the antibodies produced in
response to the animal during the any infection or harm.

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Chapter 3

6. Define adulteration. Explain the different types of adulteration.

❖ Adulterations are defined as admixture of articles with spurious or harmful substances. (Or) The action of
making something poorer in quality by the addition of another substance is also known as Adulteration.
❖ Methods of adulteration: -
Unintentional Adulteration:
❖ Name Confusion: Similarity in the names of certain herbs in traditional systems of medicine causes
confusion and leads to their interchange or adulteration or substitution.
for example, Parpatta in Ayurveda is Fumaria parviflora and Parpadagam in Siddha is Mollugo pentaphylla.
❖ ii) Lack of Knowledge about Authentic Source:
❖ Nagakesar (a famous drug in Ayurveda) is obtained from Mesua ferrea. Its available market samples are
adulterated as they are found to be mixed with flowers of Calophyllum inophyllum.
Following are the various methods used for intentional drugs adulteration.
❖ Substitution with manufactured materials: -
This is done with artificially manufactured material which resembles various drugs in form and appearance.
Example: - Paraffin wax has been colored yellow to substitute bee wax.
❖ Substitution with Inferior material: -
Drugs are sometimes adulterated and substituted with standard commercial material. The common example
of substitution is adulteration of cloves by mother cloves.
Saffron is adulterated with dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower).
Following are the various methods used for intentional drugs adulteration.

❖ Substitution with manufactured materials: - This is done with artificially manufactured material which
resembles various drugs in form and appearance. Example: - Paraffin wax has been colored yellow to
substitute bee wax.
❖ Substitution with Inferior material: - Drug are sometimes adulterated and substituted with standard
commercial material. The common example of substitution is adulteration of cloves by mother cloves.
Saffron is adulterated with dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower).
❖ Substitution with Exhausted material.: Exhausted material the vegetable residues which remain after
the original material has been use for drug preparation. Example: The substitution of Alexandrian Senna with
Arabian Senna.
❖ Substitution with cheap natural substance: Sometimes drugs are adulterated with cheaper natural
substance which has no relation to the genuine article. Example: - Japan wax for bee’s wax and sterculia gum
for Tragacanth.
❖ Adulteration with non- plant material: Plant materials are sometime adulteration with worthless non-plant
materials.

7. Write in brief about physical evaluation of crude drugs.

✓ Physical standards are to be determined for the drugs, wherever possible.
✓ These are rarely constant for crude drugs, but may help in evaluation, specifically with reference to moisture
content, specific gravity, density, optical rotation, refractive index, melting point, viscosity, and solubility in
different solvents.
i. Moisture content- The moisture content of a drug will be responsible for decomposition of crude
drugs either producing chemical change or microbial growth. So, the moisture content of a drug
should be determined and controlled. The moisture content is determined by heating a drug at 105oc
in an oven to a constant weight.
Eg. The moisture content of digitalis and ergot should not be more than 5%W/W, respectively.
ii. Solubility- Drug specific behaviour towards solvents are taken into consideration.
Eg. Solubility of colophony of colophony in light petroleum, the solubility of balsam of Peru in solution
of chloral hydrate.

8. Write in brief about organoleptic/ morphological evaluation of crude drugs.

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:

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• In this types of classification, the crude drugs are divided into the parts of plants like leaves, fruits,
flowers, woods, barks, extract, gums etc.
Part of Plant Drugs

Woods Quassia, Guaiacum, Sandalwood.

Flowers Clove, Rose, Saffron etc.

Barks Cinnamon, Arjuna, Cinchona, etc.

Seeds Linseed, Nutmeg, Nux-vomica, etc.
Gums Guar, Ghatti, Acacia etc.
Dried Juices Aloe, Red gum, Kino.
Fruits Bael, colocynth, lemon, orange, Coriander.
Extracts Catechu, Agar, Gelatin.
SubterraneanParts Ginger, Rhubarb. Turmeric, Aconite, Rauwolfia.

MERITS:
❖ This type of classification is more convenient for practical purposes, even if the chemical nature is not known,
a drug can be studied on the basis of their morphological and pharmacological characteristics.
❖ This type of classification is very useful in identifying the adulterants used.
❖ In the natural state crude drugs from plant source can be readily distinguished.
DEMERITS:
❖ Operations like collection, drying, preparation for the market produce distortion of the natural form making
their recognition very difficult.
❖ Animal drugs and mineral drugs are difficult to classify by this method.

9. Define biological, chemical evaluation of crude drugs.

a) Chemical Evaluation:
• Chemical comprises of different chemical tests and chemical assays.
• The isolation, purification and identification of active constituents are chemical methods of
evaluation Quantitative chemical tests such as Acid value, Saponification value etc.
• It also helps in proper identification of various crude drugs.
b) Biological Evaluation:
• The estimation of potency of crude drugs is done by means of its effect on the living organism like
bacterial, fungal growth or animal tissue or entities animal, it is called as bioassay.
• Bioassay is the measure of sample being tested capable of producing the biological effects as that of
the standard preparation.

Chapter 4

10. Define alkaloids. Write the general methods of isolation of alkaloids.

The term “alkaloid” (alkali-like) is commonly used to describe basic heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds of
plant origin that are physiologically active. Derived from amino acids.
ISOLATION OF ALKALOIDS
Isolation of alkaloids is performed by different process-
❖ Stas-otto process.
• Initially powdered materials are defatted with non-polar solvents and moist with water and treated
with NH3 (free alkaloids).
• Then extract is obtained by the mixing of organic solvent (chloroform, ether) and concentrate it.
• Then dissolved the alkaloid salt and basified with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate.
• Finally obtained the organic phase free alkaloids and dry them.
❖ Manske’s process.

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•
Initially powdered materials are defatted with non-polar solvents and convert the methanol extract by
adding methanol and concentrate it.
• Then dissolve in water and acidified up to PH-2 and stand for several days in refrigerator or boiled
water paraffin and filter it.
• Filtrate is shake with organic solvent and basified with ammonia.
• Finally obtained the organic phase free alkaloids and dry them.
❖ Kippenberger’s process
• The crude drug is powdered, sieve and digested with solution of tannin in glycerol.
• The resulting mixture is further heated and to 50⁰C and then cooled.
• The filtrate is thoroughly shaken with petroleum and ether.
• The fat free drug is acidified and shaken with chloroform to remove alkaloids.
❖ Steam distillation method:
This method is used for volatile alkaloids like nicotine.

11. Define terpeniods and chemical tests of terpeniods.

Terpenoids are organic polymers of isoprene units.
i) Noller’s Test
• The Test solution was warmed with a piece of tin and a few drops of thionyl chloride.
• Violet or purple colouration indicates the presence of terpenoid.
ii) Salkowski test
• Each extract (0.5gm) was dissolved in chloroform (2ml), then 5 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was
added carefully and examined.
• Reddish brown coloration indicates the presence of terpenoid.

12. Chemical tests of glycosides, tannins, resins.

Chemical tests of glycosides:
i. Killer-Killiani test
• To the alcoholic extract of drug equal volume of water and 0.5 ml of strong lead acetate solution was added,
shaked and filtered.
• Filtrate was extracted with equal volume of chloroform. Chloroform extract was evaporated to dryness and
residue was dissolved in 3 ml of glacial acetic acid followed by addition of few drops of FeCl3 solution.
• The resultant solution was transferred to a test tube containing 2 ml of conc. H2SO4. Reddish brown layer is
formed, which turns bluish green after standing due to presence of digitoxose.

ii. Borntrager test

• To 1 gm of drug add 5–10 ml of dilute HCl boil on water bath for 10 min and filter.
• Filtrate was extracted with CCl4/ benzene and add equal amount of ammonia solution to filtrate and shake.
• Formation of pink or red colour in ammoniacal layer due to presence of anthraquinone moiety.

Chemical tests of tannins:

i. Gelatine test:
• To a solution of tannin, aqueous solution of 1% gelatin and 10% sodium chloride are added.
• A white buff colored precipitate is formed.
• Conforms the presence of tannins and pseudo tannins.
ii. Goldbeater’s skin test:
• A small piece of goldbeater skin (membrane prepared from the intestine of an ox) is soaked in 2% hydrochloric
acid, rinsed with distilled water, and placed in a solution of tannin for 5 minutes.
• The skin piece is washed with distilled water and kept in a 1% solution of ferrous sulphate.

Chemical tests of resins:

The resins can be analysed by the following tests:
i. Colophony resins:
• 100mg of resin powder is dissolved in 10ml acetic anhydride. To this solution, a few drops of sulphuric acid is
added which results in purple colour.

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• Powdered resin agitated with petroleum and then filtered. To the filtrate double volume of copper acetate
(dilute) solution is added and agitated and let it stand. An ethereal layer attains an emerald green colour.
ii. Guaiacum resin:
• A solution of resin in ethanol is prepared and this is treated with ferric chloride that gives deep blue
colour.

Chapter 6
13. Write the preparation of silk.
SILK
Synonyms - fabric, sarsenet, textile, Mantua, Pongee, Samite and Sendal.
Biological source- These are the fibres obtained from the cocoons of Bombyx mori and other species of Bombex
and also from Antheraea species.
Family- Bombycidae.
Order- Lepidoptera.

Preparation of Silk-
a. Cultivation of silkworms:
Silkworm is the caterpillar of small half moths
belonging to "bombyx" which lives only on leaves of
mulberry tree.
The silkworm spent their entire life in eating these
leaves.
b. Hatching :
Eggs of silkworm are warmed up for hatching in winter
by spreading them over the trays in the hatching shed
and chopped leaves of mulberry trees are spread on
the perforated paper.
For eating the leaves, the worm climbs through the
holes.
c. Moulting:
After 35 days of hatching, worm is 10,000 times as heavy as it was born. Worm becomes greenish white
caterpillar, and starts spinning and the silkworm built its cocoon to settle down in it.
d. Spinning of the Cocoon
The liquid silk comes from two glands called spinneret in the silkworm head.
As the liquid comes out, it is hardened into very fine filaments which are coated by a gummy substance
called sericin which comes from other two glands nearly.
e. Sorting the Cocoons:
The cocoons are sorted according to colour, size, shape, and texture as all these affect the final quality of
the silk.
f. Softening the Sericin:
The cocoons are put through a series of hot and cold immersions, as the sericin must be softened to
permit unwinding of the filament as continuous filament.
g. Reeling the Filament:
The process of unwinding of the filament from cocoon is reeling.

14. Define surgical catgut, ligatures.

Sutures: These are the sterile threads, strings, or strands specially prepared for use in surgery meant for sewing
tissue together.
Ligatures: Ligatures are specially prepared and sterilized threads which is used without a needle for tie the
blood vessels and other tissue together.

SURGICAL CATGUT
Synonyms: kit gut, violin gut, surgical gut, collagen fibre.
Source:

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Catgut is a type of string or cord that is prepared by the natural fibres, present in the cattle intestine.
First time it was prepared by the sheep intestine fibres.
It is also prepared from many cattle intestine like goat, horses, donkey, etc.

PREPARATION OF SUTURES
1) Raw Material: When sheep are slaughtered the intestine are roughly washed and placed in cold brine for
transport
2) Selection and Washing: The intestines are washed thoroughly with water. Poor samples are rejected.
3) Splitting: The intestinal tube fitted over the end of a flat curved peg and then split longitudinally with knife
into "smooth" ribbons.
4) Removal of Unwanted Layers: The gut consists of 4 layers-mesenteric, muscular, submucous, and mucous
layers. All submucous layers are scraped away mechanically by blunt knife.
5) Orientation of Fibers: During above scrapping process the constituent fibres of gut become arranged more
parallel way.
6) Hardening: At this stage the ribbon may be tanned or hardened by soaking in the solution of chromic salts.
7) Spinning: The ribbons are next tied at the ends in group of two, three or more, depending on the gauge of
thread to be prepared, pulled to an even tension, and spun, Chromicising can be done.
8) Drying: This is done in an atmospheric condition about temperature and humidity.
9) Finishing: The dried strings are rubbed against an abrasive surface to produce a smooth, uniform string of
circular section.
Sterilisation
1) Heat Process:
a) Tubing
b) Drying.

2) Chemical Process: Guts are sterilised by immersing them in iodine solution. 3) Ionising Radiation Process:
Guts are packed in aluminium foils containing 90% isopropyl alcohol and passed through gamma irradiation.

15. What are the sources of wool, cotton?

WOOL
Synonyms- fleece, coat, woollen hair.
Biological source- Wool fibres are obtained from the fleece of sheep Ovis aries.
Family- Bovidae
Order- Ungulata.

Preparation of Wool Fibers-

1. Shearing: The hairs forming the fleece of the sheep are
removed at shearing time.
2. Scouring: They are then processed to remove the wool
fat and dirt.
3. Sorting: The clean and defatted wool is subjected to
sorting of the wool strings.
4. Grading and dyeing: the wool strings are graded along
their length and subjected to dyeing.
5. Weaving or knitting: the obtained fiber is carded and
spun into yarn.

COTTON
Synonyms- Cotton wool, surgical cotton, absorbent cotton, purified cotton.
Biological source- Cotton consists of the epidermal trichomes or hairs of the seed of cultivated plant Gossypium
herbaceum and other Gossypium species.
Family- Malvaceae

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Cultivation and collection and preparation-

• Cotton plant is a perennial plant they grow well in tropical climate but are generally grown as annual
plants in temperate regions.
• After 80-100 days of planting, white blossoms develop which turn into reddish colour. After few days
they get detached; but small green triangular pods, called bolls replace them.
• The plant after flowering bears fruits known as capsule. The fruit are 3 to 5 celled and each capsule
contain numerous seeds. The seed covered with hairs are known as bolls.
• The bolls are collected dried and taking to the ginning press, where in the trichomes are seperated from
the seed and delintering process is done to separate long and short hairs.
• Short length hairs are known as linters and are used in the manufacturing of absorbent cotton, and long
hair are used in cloth preparation.
• They are passed through carding machine which arranges the fibers in parallel direction and free them
from immature fibers.
• Short fibers are removed mechanically by the method of combing.
• In final step, the processed cotton are deflated with alkali, washed, bleached with chlorinated soda,
washed again with dilute mineral acid dried and sterilized.

CHAPTER 7
16. Write the basic principle of involved in siddha system of medicines.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE.
The five elements
• According to the Siddha system, there are five elements
that exist in nature: earth, water, fire, air, and ether, all
of which form the original basis of all corporeal things.
• In the human body the element of earth is present in
the bone, flesh, nerves, skin, and hair;
• The element of water is present in bile, blood, semen,
glandular secretions, and sweat;
• The element of fire is present in hunger, thirst, sleep,
beauty, and indolence; the element of air is present in
contraction, expansion, and motion; and the element of
ether is present in the interstices of the stomach, heart, neck, and head.
→ Three of the elements—air, fire, and water—are emphasized in Siddha medicine because they are believed
to form the three fundamental components that make up the human constitution.

TRIDOSHAS ACCORDING TO SIDDHA MEDICINE.

These three components—vatham, pitham, and karpam (representing air, fire, and water, respectively)—are known
as humours, and their inharmonious interaction produces various pathological states.

17. Principles of ayurveda and homeopathy.

PRINCIPLES OF HOEMEOPATHY SYSTEM
• Principle 1: The Law of Similars or like cures like (The fundamental law of homeopathy)
✓ A substance that can artificially produce certain disease-like symptoms on a healthy person; only
that Substance can cure a similar disease when it is given to the patient in the form of homeopathic
medicine.
• Principle 2: Single remedy for multiple complaints
✓ Treating man as a whole with one single remedy which is most similar in all his sufferings.
• Principle 3: Individualisation
✓ No two patients get the same remedy even though they may be having the same disease.
• Principle 4: Long-term results
✓ Treating your skin disorders and other associated complaints with the application of creams or
medicine That temporarily relieve symptoms but do not cure you internally is called suppression.
✓ It leads to the Development of more serious illnesses in the future.

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• Principle 5: Order of Healing

✓ After any treatment, your health should never progress from milder illnesses to more severe
illnesses.
✓ There is a defined order in which the cure should happen, as per natures law.
• Principle 6- The Minimum Dose
✓ The dose and repetition of medicine has to be minimum to ensure that the treatment is safe and free
From side-effect.

18. Define churna and lehya and gives its methods of preparation.
CHURNA:
These are solid dosage form of medicament meant for internal use.
These are two types:
1. Simple churan: It contains only one medicament.
2. Compound churan: It contains two or more than two medicaments.
Method of preparation:
▪ The drugs are cleaned and dried properly.
▪ They are finely powdered and sieved. If more than one drug are present then each one is separately
powdered, sieved, accurately weighed and then all mixed together.
▪ The powder is fine to the extent of at least 80 mesh sieves.
▪ It should not adhere together or become moist. The finer powder has better therapeutic value.
Example: agnimukh churna, ashwagandhadi churna, eladi churna etc.

LEHYA:
▪ Lehya is is one of the forms of ayurvedic medicine having semi-solid consistency.
▪ It is prepared from herbs by the addition of Gur (jaggery), Sharkar (sugar or sugar candy) and boiled with
prescribed swarasa (drug juice) or Kwath / Kashayam (decoction).
AVALEHYA
• Avalehya is also known as jam or paste like product.
• Jaggery or sugar candy is dissolved in liquid, boiled and strained.
• The powdered drug in small quantities are added and stirred continuously to form homogenous mass.
• Ghee or oil is added when preparation is added hot.
Ex: Chyawanprash, Kutajavaleha, Drakshavaleha.

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF LEHYA:

In the preparation of lehya ingredients present are:
A) Kashaya (decoctions or other liquids)
B) Gur / Guda / Sharkara (jaggery, sugur or sugar candy)
C) Churna (powders or pulps of certain drugs)
D) Ghrita (Ghee or tailam (oil) E) Madhu (honey)
• Gur / Guda / Sharkara (jaggery, sugar or sugar candy) is dissolved well in the decoction or liquid and strained to
remove the foreign particles. This solution is then boiled over a moderate fire.
• When the Pak (Phanita) is tantuvat (thread like) when pressed between thumb and index finger or when it sinks
down in a glass of water without getting easily dissolved, it should be removed from the fire.
Churna (fine powders) of herbs are then added in small quantities and stirred continuously and vigorously to form a
homogenous mixture.
• Ghrita (Ghee) or Taila (oil), if mentioned is added while the preparation is somewhat hot and mixed well. Madhu
(honey), if mentioned is added last when the mixture is cool.
Example: kutajavaleha, draksavaleha etc.

CHAPTER 8
19. Write a note on role of medicinal and aromatic plants in national economy.
Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in National Economy:

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• Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) contribute to the local and national economy and become the source
of cash for the rural livelihood.
• Aromatic plants are those plants which produce a certain type of aroma (smell/odor).
• Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) have many parts/ingredients that can be used to treat various types of
ailments, infections and other disorders.
• Ayurvedic, Naturopathy and aromatherapy systems of medicines heavily depend on Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants (MAPs).
• A Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPS) also serve as raw material for condiments, soaps, fragrances, hair
oils and more.
• The demand of these MAPs is ever increasing rapidly; they exported abroad to countries like Canada, France,
the US, the UK and Turkey. This contributes to major Indian export.
• Domestic and foreign markets for medicinal and aromatic plants are growing rapidly.
• India possesses all types of climatic conditions and topography has been considered as "Botanical Garden of
the world".
• This botanical wealth constitutes more than 2200 species of medicinal and essential oil containing plants.
The rapid growth of phytopharmaceuticals, perfumery and allied industries in India showing a great role in
improving national economy.

20. Write the exports potential of medicinal and aromatic plants.

Export Potential of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
❖ India has been the major supplier of medicinal plants in the world market till 1976. Later on with increasing
demand in abroad major drugs are exported from India.
❖ The plants of export value from India were opium, psyllium husk and seeds, Vinca rosea, Senna leaves and
pods, etc.
❖ The export of these drugs is permitted by firms obtaining certificates from the chief conservator of the forest
or officer authorized by him that the material is of plantation or nursery origin.
❖ Huge amount of foreign exchange can be earned by exporting medicinal plants to other countries.
❖ Examples of medicinal and aromatic plants and their photochemicals exported from India:
❖ Opium alkaloids (Papaver somniferum)
❖ Seed husk and seeds of Isabgol (Plantago ovate)
❖ Root and root alkaloids of Vinca (Catharanthus roeus)
❖ Leaves, pods and total sennoside concentrate of senna (Cassia angustifolia)
❖ Quinine and quinidine alkaloids (Cinchona officinalis)
❖ The essential oils are also exported regularly such as sandalwood oil (Santalum album), Jasmine otto and
absolute (Jasminum grandi floure).

CHAPTER 9
21. Define pre-biotics and pro-biotics and give its therapeutic application.
PRO-BIOTICS:
• Probiotics are friendly bacteria that promote healthy digestion and absorption of some nutrients.
• They crowd out pathogens, such as yeasts, bacteria, and viruses that may cause disease and develop
a mutually advantageous symbiosis with human GIT.

Therapeutic Applications:
 Probiotics help balance the friendly bacteria in digestive system.
 They include good bacteria, which are live microorganisms that provide health benefits on consumption.
 Due to their ability to restore the natural balance of gut bacteria, they provide health benefits.
PRE-BIOTICS
• Prebiotics are indigestible carbohydrates that promote the growth of good bacteria of large
intestine, e.g., Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli.
• Bacterial breakdown (fermentation) of prebiotics form Gases and Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs),
which feed bacteria themselves and colonic lining cells.
Therapeutic Applications:
→ Prebiotics improve immune function in the gut and body.
→ They establish a healthier balance of bacteria in the gut.

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→ They promote regular bowel movements.

→ They reduce the risk of intestinal infection.

22. Define and classify nutraceuticals.

NUTRACEUTICALS
He defined nutraceutical as a substance that is considered as a food or its part, which provides nutritional
value and other health benefits, including disease prevention or health promotion. Nutraceuticals are foods
or food ingredients that provide medical or health benefits.

CLASSIFICATION
Depending upon various characteristics, nutraceuticals are classified into the following major classes:
A) Nutraceuticals according to their food source.
B) Nutraceuticals according to their mechanism of action.
C) Nutraceuticals according to their chemical nature.
D) Nutraceuticals according to their higher contents in specific foods items.

A. Nutraceuticals According to Food Source

Nutraceuticals can be obtained from plants, animals and microbes.

Sources Examples of Nutraceuticals

Plants Ascorbic acid, quercetin, capsaicinoids, lycopene. B-carotene, catechins, curcumin, ellegic
acid, anthocyanates, cellulose, a-tocopherol
Animals Conjugated Lenoleic Acid (CLA), EPA, DHA, choline, ubiquinone, and sphingolipids
Microbes Yeast, Lactobacilus acidophilus, and Streptococcus salvaricus

B. Nutraceuticals According to Mechanism of Action:

In this system, the nutraceutical factors can be grouped together without considering the food source, based
upon their confirmed physiological properties.
The classes included are antioxidant, antibacterial, antihypertensive, anti hypercholesterolemic anti-
aggregate, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic osteoprotective, etc.
ANTICANCER POSITIVE ANTIOXIDANT ANTI- OSTEOGENETIC
INFLUENCE ON ACTIVITY INFLAMMATORY OR BONE
BLOOD LIPID PROTECTIVE.
PROFILE
Lactobacillus Β-Glucan CLA Linolenic acid CLA

Limonene ϒ-Tocotrienol Ascorbic acid DHA Soy protein

Curcumin Tannins Lutein Curcumin Casein

C. Nutraceuticals according to chemical nature:

They are classified as follows:
1) Isoprenoid derivatives – carotenoids, saponins
2) Phenolic substances – tannins, lignins.
3) Fatly acids and structural lipids- CLA, MUFA.
4) Carbohydrates and derivatives- Ascorbic acid, oligosaccharide.
5) Amino acid-based substances- amino acids, indoles.
6) Microbes-probiotics, prebiotics
7) Minerals- Ca, K, Cu.

D. Nutraceuticals According to their Higher Content in Specific Food Items:

Nutraceuticals can be grouped on the basis of relatively concentrated foods.

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For example, interest can be in the nutraceutical qualities of a local crop or a traditionally consumed food in
a geographic region.
Numerous nutraceutical substances are present in higher concentrations in particular foods or food families.
These include capsaicinoids (present mostly in pepper fruit) and allyl sulphur (organosulphur) compounds
(mainly concentrated in onions and garlic)
Nutraceutical substances Foods of remarkable high content.

Ally Sulphur compounds Onion, garlic

Catechins Teas, berries

Indoles Cabbage, cauliflower, spouts

Nutraceuticals can also be categorised based on the foods available in the market:
1) Traditional Nutraceuticals:
i) Chemical constituents:
a) Nutrients,
b) Herbals, and
c) Phytochemicals.

ii) Probiotic microorganisms, and

iii) Nutraceutical enzymes.
2) Non-traditional Nutraceuticals:
i) Fortified nutraceuticals, and
ii) Recombinant nutraceuticals.

23. Give source and examples of dietary fiber, spirulina, carotenoids.

CAROTENOIDS
• Carotenoids are the pigments that occur naturally in animal and plant kingdoms.
• This group of fat-soluble pigments contains more than 700 compounds imparting red, orange, and yellow
colours.
Following are some examples of carotenoids:
1) β-Carotene: It is a thermolabile orange coloured pigment, which is sensitive to light and oxygen.
It provides protection against heart diseases and cancer.
2) Lycopene: This pigment belongs to the sub-group of non-oxygenated carotenoids.

Therapeutic Applications:
1) Vision Benefits:
• Supplements containing carotenoids with antioxidant properties (B carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin) prove to
be helpful in the treatment and prevention of age-related macular degeneration.
• Lutein and zeaxanthin supplements improve eye function and reduce the risk of eye diseases.
2) Cardiovascular Benefits:
• Carotenoids reduce the risk of atherosclerosis by controlling the risk factors, like hypertension, glucose
intolerance, and abdominal obesity.

DIETARY FIBERS
• Dietary fibres are edible, but non-digestible plant carbohydrates, containing at least 3 monosaccharides.
• Lignin (not a carbohydrate) is also a dietary fibre.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS:
• Dietary fibre taken in adequate amount promotes good health and provides various health benefits, like
improved bowel function, controlled blood sugar level, improved gut health, and improved immunity.

SPIRULINA
• Spirulina is a blue green alga, Spirulina platensis or Spirulina maxima (and belongs to family Oscillatoriaceae).
Spirulina can be consumed by humans and other animals.
Therapeutic Applications:

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• Spirulina shows immunostimulant activities as it stimulates the production and activity of bone marrow stem
cells, macrophages, and T-cells. It also enhances the of spleen and thymus gland.
• In vitro studies on spirulina have shown that it increases cell nucleus enzyme activity and DNA repair, and
therefore shows anti-cancer properties.

CHAPTER 10
24. Mention the various herbal formulation and explain the preparation of any one advanced herbal formulation.
→ According to WHO the herbal drugs are defined as Finished, labelled medicinal products that contains as
active ingredients aerial or underground parts of plants or other plant material or combination thereof
whether in the crude state or as plant preparations.

TYPES OF HERBAL FORMULATION OTHER HERBAL DOSAGE FORMS

a) Syrup 1) Ointments
b) Mixture 2) Herbal creams
c) Tablet 3) Herbal balms
d) Infusions 4) Inhalations
e) Tincture 5) Plasters & patches
f) Novel dosage form 6) Medicated oil
7) Herbal soaps

SYRUP
Definition
→ A saturated solution of sucrose formed in purified water with the concentration of 66% w/w sugar is known
as simple syrup.
→ These preparations are viscous and sweet in taste

Formulation
• These preparations are formulated by incorporation of sugar with plant extract such as Infusions, decoctions,
expressed juices fermented liquors or simple water solutions are called as syrup
• Ayurvedic herbal cough syrup comprising goodness of herbs such as Tulsi, Liquorice, Ginger, Vasaka which
has been reported to provide effective relief in cough without causing adverse effects.

Advantage
• They get hydrolysed partially in reducing sugars, like laevulose and dextrose, thus, retards oxidation.
• Bacterial growth, fungal growth, and growth of molds are the main reasons of decomposition of vegetable
material in solution form.
• Such contaminations are prevented by syrups due to their high osmotic pressure.
• It is advantageous to incorporate syrups in nauseous preparations as the sweetness of sugar makes the
preparation palatable.

CHAPTER 11
25. Give the sources, chemical constituents, cosmetics uses and commercial preparation of almond oil.
Source: Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the seeds of Prunus amygdalus.
Family: Rosaceae.
Chemical Constituents: -
• Bitter almond contains fixed oil (40-50 percent), Protein (20 percent), enzyme emulsin and bitter glycoside
amygdalin (1-3 percent).
• It also contains volatile oil (0.5 percent).
• Amygdalin gives benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid upon hydrolysis.
• Bitter almond oil contains 80 percent benzaldehyde and 2-6 percent hydrocyanic acid.
Therapeutics Use: -
• Inflammation
• Immune changes
• Impaired wound healing
Cosmetics Uses: -
• Acne can be frustrating and difficult to treat.

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• Moisturizing Properties
• It is uses of preparations of lipstick and skin cleansing products include almond oil to help moisturize your skin.
• Earwax plays a vital role in protecting your ears and keeping them clean.

26. Write the biological sources, chemical constituents, and uses of olive oil and rosemary oil.
OLIVE OIL:
Family: Oleaceae
Source:
• It is the fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of Olea europaea Linne.
Chemical Constituents:
• The olive oil contains the triglycerides mainly in the form of Olein, palmitin and linolein.
• It consists mainly of oleic acid (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid (up
to 21%) and palmitic acid (up to 20%).
Therapeutic Uses:
• It is used as nutrient, demulcent and as mild Laxative.
Cosmetic Uses:
• It is used to soften the skin and crusts in eczema and psoriasis.
• It also used as an ingredient of ear wax.

ROSEMARY OIL
Source: Rosemary oil is distilled from the flowering tops of leafy twigs of Rosmarinus officinalis.
Family: Lamiaceae
Chemical Constituents:
• The main constituents of the oils were p-cymene, linalool, gamma-terpinene, thymol, beta-pinene, alpha-
pinene and eucalyptol.
• The oil consisted of monoterpenic hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.
Therapeutic Uses:
• Memory. Taking rosemary by mouth might somewhat improve memory in young adults. It's not clear if
rosemary aromatherapy helps.
• May Help Relieve Pain.
• Reduce Joint Inflammation.
Cosmetics Uses:
• Stimulates Hair Growth.
• It deeply hydrates skin and can be used instead of moisturiser.
• Its anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties help battle acne.
• It helps reduce the appearance of blemishes and can be used to lighten stretch marks.
CHAPTER 12:
27. Write a note on Soxhlet method of extraction.
✓ The process of separating medicinally active constituents of plant and animal tissues with the help of
selective solvents and standard procedures is termed extraction.

Continuous Hot Extraction (Soxhlet Extraction)

▪ The apparatus for continuous hot extraction used on a laboratory scale,
consists of a flask, a Soxhlet extractor, and a reflux condenser.
▪ The raw material is placed in a thimble (of filter paper) inserted in the wide
central tube of the extractor.
▪ The drug after getting moistened with the menstruum is packed into the
extractor in a way that the extract outlet present at the bottom is not blocked.
▪ The menstruum is placed in the flask and boiled at its boiling point.
▪ The resultant vapours rise up the larger right tube in the upper part of the drug
and then enter the condenser, where it condenses and drops back on to the
drug.
▪ During percolation, the menstruum extracts the soluble constituents of the
drug.

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▪ When the extract reaches to the top level of syphon tube, the complete percolate syphons over into the
flask.
▪ The suction effect of syphoning allows the menstruum to penetrate the drug.
▪ Thus, the menstruum is required in a limited amount for repeated percolation through the drug.
▪ This process is continued till the drug gets completely extracted, and the final extract obtained in the flask is
further processed.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 1

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS – PASSING PACKAGE

I. OSSEOUS SYSTEM – 5M
1. Classify bones of Skeleton system (axial or appendicular)
AXIAL
❖ SKULL
I. Cranium bones: Cranium is 8 bones.
a. Frontal bone - 1
b. Parietal bones - 2
c. Temporal bones - 2
d. Occipital bone - 1
e. Sphenoid bone - 1
f. Ethmoid bone - 1
II. Facial bones: The bones which make the face are 14 in number.
a. Maxillae (upper jaw) 2
b. Mandible (lower jaw) 1
c. Palate bones 2
d. Zygomatic bones 2
e. lacrimal bones 2
f. Nasal bones 2
g. Inferior turbinate bones 2
h. Vomer 1
• HYOID BONE
• EAR OSSICLES
✓ Two malleus bones
✓ Two stapeses.
✓ Two incus.
❖ VERTEBRAL COLUMN: In all, there are 26 vertebrae. In children there are 33 vertebrae.
Classification of vertebrae:
1. Cervical vertebrae: 7 in number.
2. Thoracic vertebrae: 12 in number.
3. Lumbar vertebrae: 5 in number.
4. Sacral vertebrae: 1 in number.
5. Coccygeal vertebrae: 1 in number.
❖ Sternum
❖ Ribs: They are arranged in twelve pairs, On the back side, all of them are attached to thoracic vertebrae.
Depending on their attachment in the front, they are classified as:
➢ True ribs which are the upper seven pairs.
➢ False ribs which are the lower five pairs.
➢ Floating ribs are the lowest two pairs.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
❖ BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
• Two innominate bones.
❖ BONES OF UPPER LIMB
• SCAPULA
• CLAVICLE

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• HUMERUS
• RADIUS & ULNA
❖ BONES OF WRIST AND HAND
• scaphoid, lunate, triquetral and pisiform bones.
• trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones.
✓ Bones of Palm
• metacarpal bones.
• carpal bones.
• phalanges. (finger bones)

❖ BONES OF LOWER LIMB

• FEMUR:
• PATELLA
• TIBIA
• FIBULA
❖ BONES OF FOOT
• Tarsal bones (7 bones).
• Metatarsal bones (5 bones).
• Phalangial bones (14 bones).

2. Define and classify joint? Explain Synovial joint.

❖ Joint: Any connection between bones of the skeleton is called as a joint or articulation. Arthrology is
the term applied for the study of joints.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
❖ Fibrous joints
❖ Cartilagenous joints
❖ Synovial joints
SYNOVIAL JOINTS (or diarthroses): They called as freely movable joints. The characteristics of are also these
joints are:
• Articular ends of bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.
• Bones are bound together by ligaments.
• Joint is enclosed by fibrous capsule.
• Capsule of the joint is lined by synovial membrane.
• The cavity of the joint contains synovial fluid.
Classification of synovial joints:
1. Gliding joint (plane joint): Here two flat surfaces of bones glide on each other.
Example: joint between carpal and tarsal bones.
2. Hinge joint: Here, movement is possible in one plane only.
Example: elbow joint.
3. Pivot joint: In this joint, rotation is the only possible movement.
Example: joint between radius and ulna.
4. Ball and socket joint: Articula: end of one bone is ball like. It fits into the socket like cavity of another
bone. Movement in all directions is possible in this type.
Example: shoulder joint and hip joint.
5. Condyloid joint: It is similar to hinge joint, but movement occurs in two planes.
Example: Wrist joint.
6. Saddle joint: It has one concave surface. This results in free movement in all directions.

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Example: joint between metacarpal bone of thumb and trapezium.

II. HAEMOPOTITIC SYSTEM – 5+3+=8M

3. Write Composition and function of blood.
Composition of blood:
❖ Blood contains a fluid called plasma, in which the cellular elements of blood are suspended.
❖ Plasma: It contains
1. Water to the extent of 91%.
2. Proteins (albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen).
3. Other substance like glucose, sodium chloride, iron, urea, uric acid, and cholesterol.
❖ Plasma proteins: Plasma proteins occur in blood to the extent of 7 to 8%. The plasma proteins are:
1. Albumin: It is present in very high concentration. It is responsible for osmotic pressure of blood.
It is synthesized in the liver.
2. Globulin: It is of three types: alpha, beta and gamma. It is produced in lymphoid tissues. It
produces antibodies and immune substances.
3. Fibrinogen: It is responsible for coagulation of blood. It is synthesized in the liver.
❖ Serum is obtained from plasma after removing fibrinogen.
(Serum = plasma - fibrinogen).
❖ CELLULAR ELEMENTS OF BLOOD
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
2. White blood cells (leucocytes)
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
Functions of blood
• It transports oxygen and nutrients to various tissues.
• It transports waste products to organs of excretion.
• It transports hormones from endocrine glands to various tissues.
• It redistributes water from one part of the body to the other.
• Clotting of blood protects against hemorrhage.

4. Explain the Process of hemopoiesis.

PROCESS OF HEMOPOIESES/HEMATOPOIESIS
❖ Hemopoieses is the process through which the body manufactures blood cells.it begins early in the
development of embryo well before birth and continues for the life of an individual.
❖ Hematopoiesis begins during the first weeks of embryonic development.
❖ All blood cells and plasma develop from a stem cell that can develop into an any other cell.
❖ About 1% of body’s blood cells must be replaced every day.
❖ The process of hemopoiesis being with a stem cell these stem cells multiplies and some of these new
cells transform into precursor cells.

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1. Erythropoiesis: It is the process by which RBCs are formed. In the foetus, RBCs are formed in the liver, spleen
and red bone marrow. After birth, they are formed only in the red bone marrow of sternum, ribs, vertebrae
etc.
The stages in the developments of RBCs are as follows.
❖ Proerythroblast is the first stage. It is a large cell having a nucleus. It does not have hemoglobin
initially. In the latter stages, hemoglobin starts appearing.
❖ Normoblast is the second stage. It is a smaller cell with degenerated nucleus. Hemoglobin is fully
present.
❖ Reticulocyte develops from normoblast. It contains hemoglobin and reticulum in the cytoplasm.
❖ Erythrocyte which is the fully developed RBC. It does not contain reticulum but contains adequate
hemoglobin.
Both vitamin B12 and folic acid are necessary for the development of RBCs.

2. Leucopoiesis: is a process by which WBCs are formed. Myeloblast and monoblast originating from the
granulocytes and monocyte colony forming cells

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3. Thrombopoiesis: formation of platelets is known as thrombopoiesis. CMP cells transform into three
different cell types before becoming platelets.

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5. Write the Functions of blood cells (ANY 1)

a. Red blood cells
Functions of haemoglobin are.
❖ It transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
❖ Maintenance of acid base equilibrium.
b. White blood cells
Functions of WBCs
❖ Protection against infection. This is done by neutrophils and monocytes which engulf bacteria.
This process is called as phagocytosis.
❖ to aid in the repair of injured tissues.
❖ To produce immune substances which defend against diseases. This is done by lymphocytes
through the synthesis of gamma globulin.
❖ Basophils secrete an anticoagulant substance called heparin.
c. Platelets
Function of platelets:
❖ Thromboplastin liberated from platelets is essential for clotting.
❖ They close minute lesions in the walls of blood vessels.
❖ They aid in body's defence mechanism against bacteria.
❖ They contain histamine and serotonin.
❖ They contain some antigenic substances also.

6. Explain Mechanism of blood clotting

❖ Clotting of blood is a defence mechanism of the body. It prevents loss of blood from the site of injury.
If a leak develops in blood vessels, a clot is formed, and it plugs the leak. This prevents the loss of
blood.
❖ An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release coagulation promoting substance
called thromboplastins, which activates the mechanism of coagulation tissue at the site of injury also
release tissues thromboplastin.
❖ Thromboplastin help in the formation of the enzyme complex called thrombokinase.
❖ Thrombokinase converts inactive protein prothrombin present in the plasma into thrombin.

❖ Thrombin is an enzyme which converts soluble fibrinogen of plasma into insoluable fibrin calcium
ions are essential for both the activation and action of thrombin.

❖ Fibrin form a network of threads which traps dead and damaged formed elements of blood to form
the blood colt or coagulum.
Clotting factors: The various factors involved in the scheme of clotting described above are designated by
numbers as factors I, II etc. These factors are:
1. Factor I - Fibrinogen

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2. Factor II - Prothrombin
3. Factor III - Thromboplastin
4. Factor IV - Calcium
5. Factor V- Quick's labile factor
6. Factor VI - Existence of this factor not accepted.
7. Factor VII - Quick's stable factor
8. Factor VIII - Antihemophilic factor
9. Factor IX Christmas factor
10. Factor X – Stuart power factor
11. Factor XI – plasma thromboplastin antecedent
12. Factor XII – Hageman factor
13. Factor XIII – Fibrin stabilizing factor.

7. Write a note on blood groups.

❖ BLOOD GROUPS: In early times, transfusion of blood from one person to another was dangerous and
unsuccessful. This is because, plasma of some individuals contains some factors.
❖ These factors produce agglutination or hemolysis of the erythrocytes of other persons. These
reactions occur due to the presence of agglutinins and agglutinogens in blood. Agglutinogens are
present in erythrocytes. They are of two types: A and B. Agglutinins are present in plasma. They are
of two types: a and b. Depending on the presence of these two substances, blood is grouped as
follows:
Group A contains A agglutinogen and b agglutinin.
Group B contains B agglutinogen and a agglutinin.
Group AB contains AB agglutinogens and no agglutinins.
Group O contains no agglutinogen but a and b agglutinins.

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❖ Agglutination occurs between the same type of agglutinogen and agglutinin (e.g., A and a). But no
agglutination occurs between different types of agglutinogen and agglutinin (e.g., A and b).
❖ So, it can be seen that group O blood (contains no agglutinogen) can match with all other blood
groups. But this group of individuals can receive blood only from 0 group and not from any other
group.
❖ Individuals with 0 group of blood are called Universal donors. Individuals with blood group AB
(contains no agglutinins) can receive blood from all groups. They are called as (Universal recipients).

Rh factor: It is another type of agglutinogen. It is called as Rhesus factor (Rh factor) since it was first seen in
Rhesus monkey. Rh +ve individuals have this factor. But Rh -ve individuals do not have this. The
corresponding agglutinin is never present in the body. But it is developed after the first exposure to the
agglutinogen. If a Rh +ve blood is given to a Rh -Ve person, no immediate reaction occurs. But during a
second transfusion, the Rh -ve person develops Anti-Rh agglutinin. This further leads to agglutination.

III. CARDIOVASULAR SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

8. Explain the anatomy of heart.
❖ Heart is a conical, hollow, musculotendinous organ. It lies in the thorax between lungs and behind
the sternum. It is about 10cm long and weighs about 300g.
❖ The base of the heart is above, and apex is below. Two thirds of the heart is on left side.
❖ Heart is surrounded by an outer covering called pericardium. It contains two layers called visceral
pericardium & parietal pericardium. Pericardial fluid is present between these two layers.
❖ The middle layer is made up of cardiac muscle fibres and it is called as myocardium. The inner
epithelial lining is called as endocardium.
❖ Heart is made up of four chambers. They are right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left
ventricle. The two atria are separated by inter atrial septum and the two ventricles are separated by
inter ventricular septum.
❖ The opening between right atrium and right ventricle is guarded by tricuspid valve. The opening
between left atrium and left ventricle is guarded by bicuspid valve (mitral valve). Tendinous cords
called as chordae tendinae arise from lower borders of these valves. These chordae tendinae are
attached to papillary muscles which arise from ventricular walls.

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❖ The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and
coronary sinus. Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs for
oxygenation. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs through four pulmonary veins.
The aorta carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle and supplies to all parts of the body. The
opening of aorta and pulmonary valves are guarded by semilunar valves.
❖ The heart receives blood supply through right and left coronary arteries. They are the first branches
of aorta. Venous blood of heart is collected by coronary sinus which opens directly into the right
atrium.
❖ Heart is supplied by sympathetic and vagus nerves. Branches from these nerves pass to the Sino
auricular node.

9. Explain Blood circulations (pulmonary, systematic, coronary)

• The continuous flow of blood throughout the human body is known a blood circulation.
• The blood is circulated throughout the body from heart and blood vessels.
1. Systemic circulation: It is the circulation involving blood supply to all parts of the body except
lungs. This starts from aorta which carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle. It breaks up into
smaller arterioles and finally ends in capillaries. These capillaries later unite to form smaller
venules which join up to form veins. These veins finally form two larger venous trunks namely
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava which open into right atrium of the heart.

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2. Pulmonary circulation: It is the circulation involving the purification of blood in lungs. Impure
venous blood is drained out by right ventricle through pulmonary artery to lungs where it gets
oxygenated. Four pulmonary veins carry this pure blood from lungs to left atrium of the heart.
3. Coronary circulation: It is the circulation involving blood supply to heart itself. Ascending aorta
gives off left coronary artery and right coronary artery which supply heart itself. Venous blood is
collected by coronary sinus that opens into right atrium.
4. Portal circulation: It is the circulation of blood through liver. Portal vein carries blood that has
circulated in stomach, intestines, and pancreas to liver. It divides into capillaries in liver. These
capillaries join with the capillaries of hepatic artery. The venous blood of liver is collected by
hepatic vein which joins inferior vena cava.

10. Write a note on Cardiac cycle.

• Cardiac cycle is sequence of events which occur in the heart during a single beat. The rate of heart is
72 beats per minute. So, the time taken for one beat is 0.8 second. So, the sequence of events occurs
every 0.8 second. Cardiac cycle occurs in two phases.
1. Systole - a period of contraction
2. Diastole - a period of relaxation

• The cycle of events occurs as follows:

• Blood from the superior and inferior vena cava fill the right atrium and the pulmonary veins fill the
left atrium.
• This is followed by a wave of contraction in the atria. This leads to emptying of atrial blood into
respective ventricles.
• When the ventricles are full, they contract. Blood in ventricles is forced into systemic & pulmonary
circulation. At this stage, the semilunar valves guarding the aorta and pulmonary arteries are opened.

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At the same time, the atrioventricular valves are closed. This period of muscular contraction of the
heart is called Systole.
• This is followed by a period of rest called Diastole.
• This sequence of events constitutes the cardiac cycle.

11. Briefly explain Blood pressure and its regulations

BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
❖ It is the lateral pressure exerted by blood-on-blood vessels. The blood pressure which is normally
expressed is arterial blood pressure. It has two phases:
1. Systolic blood pressure: It is the maximum blood pressure. This occurs during the systole of the
heart. (Range 100 to 120 mm Hg.)
2. Diastolic blood pressure: It is the minimum pressure. It occurs during the diastole of the heart
(range 60 to 80 mm Hg.)
❖ Blood pressure is usually measured by an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
❖ The cardiovascular centre is located in the medulla and pons of brain. It responds to inputs from
baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and higher centers of brain.
❖ Baroreceptor’s: These are present in carotid and aortic bodies. A rise in blood pressure sends
input to cardiovascular centre from baroreceptors. Centre responds and stroke volume of heart
decreases and blood vessels become more dilated. Blood pressure gets decreased.
❖ Chemoreceptors: These are present in the carotid and aortic bodies. They are primarily involved
in the control of respiration. They are sensitive to changes in the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen
and pH of the blood.
❖ Higher Centers in the Brain: Input to cardiovascular centre from higher centre is influenced by
emotional states that may stimulate changes in blood pressure. Cardiovascular centre responds
by adjusting the diameter of blood vessels in skin.

IV. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – 3M

12. Explain the Mechanism of breathing.
1. Inspiration (or breathing in): It is an active process. It is produced by the contraction of the
following muscles:
• Diaphragm, the contraction of which enlarges the chest cavity vertically (i.e., from above
downwards).
• Intercostal muscles when contract produce elevation or ribs and sternum. This enlarges the
chest cavity in all the other four sides.
• The lungs expand at this stage and fill this increased space. Now, the pressure in the lungs is less
than atmospheric pressure. So, air flows into the lungs.
2. Expiration (or breathing out): It is a passive process. It is produced by the relaxation of diaphragm
and intercostal muscles.
• This produces reduction in the size of chest cavity. So, the pressure in the lungs increases which
forces the air out.
• The rate of respiration is 16 to 18 per minute in adults. The rate is higher in children.

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13. Write a note Respiratory volume and capacities.

I. Tidal volume (TV): It is the volume of air passing in and out of the lungs with ordinary quiet
breathing (Normal value is 0.5 litres). (500ML).
II. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): It is the maximum amount of air inspired tidal volumes by
deepest inspiration.
• Its value is about 3000ml (2500 to 3000ml) or 2.5 litres.
III. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): It is the amount of air expired over tidal volume by most
forceful expiration.
• Its value is 1000ml (1000-1100ml) or 1 litre.
IV. Residual volume: It is the amount of air that remain inside lungs after forceful expiration, Residual
volume cannot be given out of lungs.
• Its value is 1200ml (1200-15000ml).
V. Inspiratory capacity (IC): It is the amount of air, one can inspire by maximum distension or
expansion on his lungs, it’s called as inspiratory capacity. In its inspiratory reserve volume and tidal
volume are included.
IC = IRV + TV
= 3000ml + 500ml
IC = 3500ml
VI. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): It is the amount of air that normally remains inside lungs after
inspiration. In its expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are includes.
FRC = ERV + RV
= 1000ml + 1200ml
FRC = 2200ml
VII. Vital Capacity (VC): It is the amount of air that can be expired by most forceful expiration after a
deepest inspiration, in its inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and tidal volume
are included.
VC = IRV + ERV + TV
= 3000ml + 1000ml + 500ml

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VC = 4500ml
VIII. Total lung Capacity (TLC): It is the maximum amount of air that lungs can hold, in its inspiratory
reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are included.
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
= 3000ml + 500ml + 1000ml + 1200ml
TLC = 5700 ml (6000ml)

14. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of respiratory system.

V. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

15. Describe the Structure and function of liver.
❖ Structure: Liver is the largest abdominal organ. It lies in the upper part of abdominal cavity below the
diaphragm and under the cover of lower ribs. External features: Externally, the liver contains two lobes
and four surfaces.
❖ Lobes: They are:
• A right lobe.

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• A left lobe
❖ Surfaces: They are:
• Superior surface which is in contact with the wit surface of diaphragm.
• Inferior surface which is facing the abdominal viscera.
• The hilum or portal fissure is present in the inferior surface.
• The blood vessels of liver and bite duct pass through the hilum.
• Anterior surface which is separated from ribs and costal cartilages by the diaphragm. 4.
Posterior surface which lies in front of vertebral column, aorta, inferior vena cava and lower
end of oesophagus.
Internal (minute or microscopic structure):
• The liver consists of a large number of liver cells called lobules each lobule has a central vein or
intralobular vein.
• The connective tissue lying in between the lobules contains the branches of:
➢ Portal vein
➢ Hepatic artery
➢ Bile duct

FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
➢ Secretion of bile.
➢ Synthesis and storage of glycogen.
➢ Formation of urea by the de-amination of amino acids.
➢ Synthesis of plasma proteins like albumin and globulin.
➢ Conversion of unsaturated fats into saturated fats.
➢ Storage of iron and Vitamin B12 (which are necessary for the formation of RBC).
➢ Synthesis of prothrombin and fibrinogen which are necessary for blood coagulation.
➢ Synthesis of heparin, the natural anticoagulant.
➢ Production of heat because of metabolic reaction.
➢ Inactivation of toxic substances and drugs.
➢ Storage of vitamins A, D, E and K.

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16. Explain the structure and functions of stomach.

STOMACH
• Stomach is the dilated portion of alimentary canal, and it receives food from oesophagus.
• Stomach is a hollow, muscular, bag-like structure. It differs in size and shape in every individual from
time to time, depending upon the contents present in the stomach.
• Body posture is another factor that alters its shape and size at any given moment of time. Stomach lies
between the oesophagus and the small intestine.
• The second phase of digestion (after mastication) takes place in the stomach where the food (or bolus)
is broken down into smaller components before being passed on to the remaining parts of the
digestive system.
• Parts of stomach:
I. Two surfaces: an anterior and a posterior surface.
II. Two borders: an upper border called lesser curvature; a lower border called greater curvature.
III. Two ends: Upper end called cardiac end; it is guarded by cardiac sphincter. Lower end called pyloric
end; it is guarded by pyloric sphincter. a dome shaped upper part lying to the left of cardiac end.
IV. Fundus: A dome shaped upper part lying to the left of cardiac end.

Functions of stomach
• Its act as a storage of food material
• The water present in the stomach further liquifies food material which is swallowed.
• It helps in mixing of food.
• The gastric gland presents I the stomach secrets gastric juices which help in chemical digestion.
• Stomach helps in absorption of water glucose and certain drugs.

17. Write a note on Pancreas.

STRUCTURE: Pancreas is a long, slender gland which lies transversely across the posterior abdominal wall.
It lies behind the stomach at the level of 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
• Pancreas consists of a head, body, and tail. Organs
• Head lies in the C-shaped curve of duodenum.
• Body lies in front of the bodies of lumbar vertebrae.

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• Tail lies in contact with the hilum of spleen.

• The substance of pancreas contains number of lobules of secretory cells called acini. In between the
acini there are groups of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans.
• Small ducts emerge from these lobules. These ducts unite and reunite to form the pancreatic duct
(duct of Wirsung). This duct begins at the tail and emerges from the head of pancreas. It entres the
duodenum along with common bile duct.

FUNCTION: The secretions of pancreas can be classified into:

a. Exocrine secretion: It is pancreatic juice which is digestive in function. It is conveyed to duodenum
through pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains the following digestive enzymes:
➢ Lipase, which converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
➢ Amylase which converts starch into maltose.
➢ * Trypsin which converts pe1ptones into amino acids.
➢ Chymotrypsin and trypsin
b. Endocrine secretion: It is secreted by the islets of Langerhans and directly poured into circulation. This
secretion contains two different hormones which are secreted by the two different cells of islets of
Langerhans. These hormones are:
➢ Glucagon secreted by alpha cells.
➢ Insulin secreted by beta cells.

18. Write a note on salivary gland.

I. SALIVARY GLANDS
• There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. They are parotid, submandibular and sublingual
glands.
1. Parotid glands: One on each side is present below and in front of each ear. Each gland has a duct called
Stenson's duct.
2. Submandibular glands (Submaxillary glands): They are smaller than parotid glands. One on each side lies
under the angle of jaw. Each gland has a duct called Wharton's duct.
3. Sublingual glands: They are the smallest salivary glands which lie under the tongue.
SALIVA: It is a mixed secretion of all the three pairs of salivary glands. It is an alkaline fluid containing water
the extent of 99%. The solid contents of saliva are mucin which is a glycoprotein, ptyalin, an enzyme which
converts starch into maltose. Also, it contains salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.

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VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

19. Explain the Structure and function of spinal cord.
Spinal cord structure
• Spinal cord is the elongated part of the CNS extending from the lower end. It is cylindrical in shape
and includes the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal. It ranges from the level of the upper
border of the atlas to either the upper border or the lower border of vertebra, Spinal cord forms
the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain.
• The spinal cord and spinal nerve contain neural circuits responsible for rapid reaction towards
environmental stimuli.
External structure
• On viewing the spinal cord externally, two visible enlargements i.e. the cervical enlargement
(superior) and lumbar enlargement (inferior) are seen. From the cervical enlargement, arises the
nerves to and from the upper limb; and from the lumbar enlargement, arises the nerves to and from
the lower limbs.
Internal structure
• Internally, the spinal cord is made up of grey and white matter.
• The grey matter is arranged in the shape of H or a butterfly and is surrounded by the white matter.
• The grey matter is made up of dendrites, neuronal cell bodies, non-myelinated axons, and neuroglia;
and the white matter consists of bundles of myelinated axons of neurons.

Function
• Sensory and motor tracts are contained within the white matter of the spinal cord.
• The sensory tracts conduct nerve impulses towards the brain and the motor tracts conduct motor
nerve impulses from the brain to the effector organs.
• The grey matter of the spinal cord forms the spot for integration (summing) of Excitatory and Inhibitory
Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs, respectively).

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• CNS is connected to the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands all over the body via the spinal nerves
and their branches.
• All reflex activities are mediated through spinal cord.
Reflex action
• An action produced instantaneously and automatically without intentions, in response to a mechanical
stimulus (produced by stimulation of specific receptors) is termed as a reflex activity.

20. Write physiology of cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, basal ganglia, and hypothalamus.
(ANYONE)
a. Cerebrum
❖ Frontal lobs
• Controls voluntary activities if opposite half of the body.
• Control the spoken speech.
• Control emotional, concentration, attention, and judgement.
❖ Parietal lobs
• Perception of exteroceptive (touch, pain, and temperature).
❖ Occipital lobs
• Reception and perception of isolated visual impression of colour, size, form, motion .
❖ Temporal lobs
• Reception and perception of isolates auditory impression of loudness, quality, and pitch.

b. Cerebellum
❖ Body posture and equilibrium is maintained by the cerebellum. The muscles, joints, eyes, and
the ears bring in the sensory input for these functions.
❖ To maintain the balance and equilibrium of the body, the cerebellum acts to influence impulses
leading to the skeletal muscle contraction. It is responsible for controlling and coordinating the
movements of several groups of muscles, resulting in smooth, even, and clearcut action.
❖ The coordination of voluntary muscular movement is carried out by the cerebellum. Activities of
the cerebellum cannot be controlled voluntarily.

c. Medulla oblongata
❖ Medulla oblongata (med-oo-la ob-long-ah-ta), often just called the medulla, is a key part of your
nervous system.
❖ It’s key not only because of its location but also because of what it controls.
❖ Some of its jobs include:
• Manages heart, circulation, and breathing. Your medulla is where your cardiovascular and
respiratory systems link together into a united system that controls your heart rate,
breathing, blood pressure and more.
• Manages other automatic processes. These are things that your body often does without you
having to think about them. Some examples include coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting
and maintaining your balance.
• Nerve connections. Most major nerves converge at your spine, carrying signals to and from
your brain. That means those signals must pass through your medulla. Four of your 12 cranial

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nerves (which connect areas of your throat and tongue directly to your brain) pass through
your medulla.
• Crossover point. your medulla is the location of a region called “the pyramids,” where most of
the movement-related nerves in your body crisscross. That crossover is why one side of your
brain almost always controls parts on the opposite side of your body.

d. Basal gangalia
❖ The basal ganglia are best known for how they help your brain control your body’s movements.
However, ongoing research continues to uncover other ways that the basal ganglia interact with
other parts of your brain.
❖ Though experts continue to uncover more about the inner workings of the basal ganglia, there’s
much about them that remains unknown.
Movement
• The basal ganglia are a key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your body’s
voluntary movements.
• They can approve or reject movement signals that your brain sends, filtering out unnecessary or
incorrect signals.
• If the basal ganglia approve a signal, it continues to the motor pathways, the nerves that
eventually carry the signal down your spinal cord and nerves to their destination muscle. If they
don’t approve the signal, they redirect it into an area where other brain cells dampen those signals
until they stop.
• The parts of your brain that process information from your senses, namely sight, sound, smell,
taste, and touch, also send that information to your basal ganglia.
• That sensory information helps the basal ganglia refine your movements further.
Decision-making
• Another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and risks. It also processes
signals that affect your emotions and your motivation. That means it also plays a role in learning
and forming habits, planning, and carrying out tasks, and more.

e. Hypothalamus
❖ Hypothalamus receives chemical messages from nerve cells in your brain and from nerve cells in
your body (your peripheral nervous system), which is also responding to signals outside your
body.
❖ Hypothalamus’s main function is to react to these messages to keep your body in a stable state or
internal balance.
• Body temperature.
• Blood pressure.
• Hunger and thirst.
• Sense of fullness when eating.
• Mood.
• Sex drive.
• Sleep.

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❖ Hypothalamus performs many of its “body balancing” jobs either by directly influencing the
autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones. Your autonomic nervous system (bodily
functions that work automatically) controls several important functions, such as your heart rate
and breathing (respiration).
❖ Hypothalamus makes some hormones itself that are stored elsewhere (in your posterior
pituitary)
❖ Sends signals (hormones) to your pituitary gland, which either releases hormones that directly
affect a part of your body or sends another signal (hormone) to a different gland in your body
that then releases its hormone.

21. Difference between Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It is the thoracolumbar system • It is the craniosacral system

• Sympathetic trunk ganglia and collateral • Parasympathetic ganglia are present.

ganglia are present.

• Ganglia are close to the CNS and distant from • Ganglia are near or within the wall of visceral
visceral effectors. effectors.

• The preganglionic nerve fibres are smaller. • The preganglionic nerve fibres are longer.

• The postganglionic nerve fibre is larger. • The postganglionic nerve fibre is smaller.

• The preganglionic neuro- transmitter is • The preganglionic neuro- transmitter is

adrenaline. acetylcholine.

• The targeted receptors are mostly • The targeted receptors are mostly
adrenergic. cholinergic.

• Distributed throughout the body. • Distribution is limited particularly to head

and viscera of thorax, abdomen and pelvis.

• It is also known as adrenergic nervous • It is also known as cholinergic nervous

system. system.

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VII. SENSE ORGANS- 5+3=8M

22. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of Eye.

23. Explain the structure and function of Ear.

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MECHANISM OF HEARING
✓ Sound waves in air are collected by pinna.
✓ The external auditory meatus directs these waves to the tympanic membrane which then vibrates.
✓ The vibrations are transmitted by malleus incus and stapes to the membrane covering fenestra.
✓ From the inner surface of this membrane, vibrations are transmitted to organ of Corti through perilymph
and endolymph.
✓ From the organ of Corti the impulses (produced by perilymph and endolymph. Vibrations) are carried to
brain stem through cochlear portion of 8th nerve.
✓ The fibres are then carried to auditory centre of brain which is present in the temporal lobe of the
opposite side.
MECHANISM OF EQUILIBRIUM
✓ Movement of head or alteration in its position produce movement of endolymph present in the semi-
circular canals.
✓ The movement of endolymph stimulates the nerve endings in ampullae.
✓ The impulses are carried to brain through the vestibular portion of 8 th nerve.
✓ These impulse produce sensations which make us conscious about the position of the head.
✓ If the position of head is disoriented, we can then adjust it to maintain balance and equilibrium.

24. Explain the structure and function of Skin.

Functions of skin
1. SECRETIONS OF SKIN: The two secretions of skin are Sweat and Sebum.
❖ Secretion of sweat: Sweat is secreted by sweat glands arise from dermis.
✓ They are twisted tubular glands, and their ducts open in epidermis.

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✓ Sweat glands are more numerous in the palms of hands and sole of feet. About 400 ml of sweat is
formed in 24 hours.
✓ Sweat contains water, some salts and trace of other waste products.
❖ Secretion of sebum: Sebum is a greasy secretion produced by sebaceous glands.
✓ They are small, flask shaped glands present in dermis. They have a duct which opens into a hair
follicle.
✓ The sebaceous glands are present in the skin of many parts except the palm of hands and sole of
feet. Sebum keeps the skin oily and prevents it from drying.

2. Regulation of body temperature: Regulation of body is an important function performed by the skin.
✓ The normal body temperature is 98.4°F (37°C). It may be slightly lower in the morning, and it may
increase in severe muscular exercise.
✓ The normal body temperature is maintained by a balance between heat production and heat loss.
3. Sensation: for the detection of stimuli of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain these are the numerous
receptors and nerve endings present on the skin.
4. Protection: skin function as a physical barrier.
5. Physiology of pain: Pain is a protective mechanism which warns the body against disorders and defects
in its parts. Pain can be classified into:
❖ Cutaneous pain: It may be produced by:
✓ Pathological states of skin
✓ Injury to skin.
✓ Release of chemical substances such as those which produce itching.
❖ Visceral pain: It may occur due to an altered physiology of an internal organ like kidney, liver etc.
✓ Sometimes sensation of pain is displaced from the affected area and felt at adjacent areas, and
it is called as referred pain.
❖ Deep pain: It arises from the receptors of muscles, tendons, and joints.
❖ Headache: Headache may occur due to a variety of conditions like anxiety, tension, pathological
changes in intracranial blood vessels or visual defects.

VIII. URINARY SYSTEM- 3M

25. Explain the process of urine formation.
FORMATION OF URINE: The formation of urine by kidneys involves three processes
1. Glomerular filtration.
2. Tubular secretion.
3. Tubular reabsorption.
1. Glomerular filtration: The filtration of blood under pressure is called ultrafiltration, it occurs in glomerular
hence it is called as glomerular filtration.
✓ The blood containing waste materials is carried into the glomerulus by afferent arterioles.
✓ The walls of glomerulus capsule act as a filter and blood are filtered under pressure of about 10mm
Hg.
✓ About 125ml of blood is filtered out per minute as a glomerular filtrate.
2. Tubular secretion: It is an active process which occurs in the convoluted tubules.
✓ Abnormal substances or normal substances present in excess in blood are eliminated by this process.
✓ Potassium, hydrogen and drugs like penicillin are excreted by tubular secretion.

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3. Tubular reabsorption: The rate of glomerular filtration is about 100 ml per minute.
✓ So about 6 litres of glomerular filtrate can be formed in one hour. But the volume of urine eliminated
per day is only about 1.5 litres.
✓ It is so, because nearly 99 percentage of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed.
✓ Reabsorption of water occurs in the convoluted tubules and collecting tubule. In addition to water,
some salts are also reabsorbed in the renal tubules.

26. Describe Renin Angiotensin System (RAAS).

✓ Renin-angiotensin system is a physiological hormone system involved in the regulation of arterial blood
pressure and plasma sodium concentration.
The members of the renin-angiotensin system are:
• Renin
• Angiotensin I
• Angiotensin II
• Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE)
• Aldosterone
Functions of the Renin-Angiotensin System
• Build resistance vessels, hence increasing arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance.
• Stimulates delivery of sodium at different renal tubular sites and increasing the bod water retention.
• Stimulates the liberation of vasopressin the posterior pituitary and increases liquid retention by the
kidneys.
• Stimulates the liberation of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary and increases liquid retention by the
kidneys.
• Provides release of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and prevents norepinephrine uptake
thereby optimizing sympathetic adrenergic function.

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IX. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-5+3=8M

27. List out the hormones of pituitary gland Pituitary gland and write their functions.
I. ANTERIOR PITUITARY: Hormones of anterior pituitary:
1. Growth hormone is necessary for the normal growth and development of the body.
2. Thyrotrophic hormone regulates the synthesis of thyroid hormone in the thyroid gland.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesise its hormones.
4. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates.
i) Ovary in females to synthesise oestrogen.
ii) Testes in males to produce spermatozoa.
5. Luteinizing hormone stimulates:
i) Ovary in females to produce progesterone.
ii) Testis in males to produce testosterone.
6. Luteotropic hormone (prolactin) stimulates milk production in females.

II. POSTERIOR PITUITARY: The posterior lobe of pituitary secretes two hormones. They are oxytocin and
vasopressin.
Oxytocin:
i) Contraction of uterus during labour (delivery) and o bring about parturition (i.e., birth of
baby).
ii) Ejection of milk from the breast.
Vasopressin (Antidiuretic hormone, ADH):
i) Decreasing urine output by increasing tubular reabsorption in the kidney.
ii) Increasing blood pressure by constricting capillaries and arterioles.

28. Name the hormones of adrenal gland adrenal gland and write its functions.
1. An outer cortex: secretes three groups of hormones.
a. Zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids.
b. Zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids.
c. Zona reticularis secretes sex steroids.
➢ Mineralocorticoids: The mineralocorticoids are aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone. They influence
water and mineral metabolism.
• By increasing the reabsorption of sodium in the renal tubules.
• By promoting excretion of potassium.
➢ Glucocorticoids: The glucocorticoids are cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone. The glucocorticoids
influence carbohydrate metabolism.
• Increase the synthesis of glycogen.
• Increase the breakdown of protein into amino acids.
• Anti-inflammatory and anti- allergic effect.
➢ Sex steroids: They are androgens (in males) and oestrogens (in females). These two hormones are like
those produced by testes and ovaries. These two hormones influence growth and sex development.

2. Adrenal medulla: secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Function of adrenaline and noradrenaline:
➢ Vasoconstriction and rise in blood pressure.

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➢ Contraction of splenic capsule and release of RBCs.

➢ Dilatation of the pupil.
➢ Contraction of nictitating membrane in animals.
➢ Relaxation of the intestine.
➢ Erection of the hair due to contraction of erector pili muscle (of hair follicles).

29. Write the functions of thyroid hormones Thyroid gland.

1. Thyroxine
2. Triiodothyronine.
Functions of thyroid hormones: The thyroid hormones influence growth and metabolism.
• Increase in oxygen consumption and heat production in tissues.
• Increase in basal metabolic rate (BMR).
• Increase in the absorption and utilisation of glucose.
• Increase in the rate of cholesterol synthesis in liver.
• Myelination of central nervous system.
• Storage of iodine.

Note: These questions totally carry 59 marks. Select the chapters you feel easy to study.
Highlighted Chapters with yellow colour can be ignored if you want to just pass.
*********** ALL THE BEST***********

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 1

CHAPTER:4
Respiratory infections
SIGN AND
CAUSATIVE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOM/CLINICAL
NAME ROLE OF PHARMACIST
AGENT PERIOD TRANSMISSION PRESENTATION/MANIFES
TATIONS
• Fever
• Pain
• Red small papules
Varicella zoster 14 to 16 days or • Droplet infection Pharmacist should educate people,
Chicken pox ➢ Runny nose
virus 10 to 21 days • Personal contact. Immunoglobin vaccine
➢ Tired
➢ Severe headache
➢ Vomiting
• Sneezing
RNA Paramyxo 10 to 14 • Droplet infection
Measles • Photophobia MMR Vaccine
virus days • Personal contact
➢ Kolpik’s spots
10 to 12 days
• Fever
[exposure to • Personal contact
• Headache
prodrome] • Droplet infection
Rubella Rubella virus • Runny nose MMR Vaccine
14 days • Pregnant woman
• Red eyes
[exposure to to foetus
rash].
• Fever
• Headache
2 to 3 • Personal contact
Mumps Paramyxovirus • Muscle aches Immunoglobulin, MMR Vaccine
weeks • Droplet infection
• Tiredness
• Loss of appetite
• Administration of vaccines
Influenza A • Droplet infection. • Fever &chills • Recombinant vaccine
Influenza Influenza B 18 to 72 hours • Personal contact • Muscle pain • Live attenuated vaccine
Influenza C • Infected birds • Headache • Neuraminidase-specific vaccine
• Cough • Amantadine (a prophylactic drug).
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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 2

➢ Bird flu vaccine

➢ Bleeding nose and
gums
• Close contact
• Fever &chills
with birds
• Muscle pain • Avoid Domesticated Birds
Influenza virus • Touching infected
Avian flu 2 to 5 days • Headache • Wash Hands: It is one of the simplest
[H5N1-H7N9] birds
• Cough ways to prevent infection.
• Cooking infected
➢ Sickness
bird
• Fever &chills
• Headache
➢ To identify and isolate the persons
Virus belonging • Personal contact • Cough
suspected to be infected, follow the
SARS to corona virus 1 to 4 days • Droplet infection • Difficulty in breathing
basic hygienic practices, like washing
family. • Surface contact • Muscle pain hands after touching the patients etc.
➢ Fever 100.4 F
➢ Sore throat
• Fever &chills • Hands should be washed with soap and
• Headache water, or alcohol-based hand Sanitizer
• Personal contact • Cough should be used.
2 to 7 days 0r
MERS MERS CoV • Droplet infection • Difficulty in breathing • Proper respiratory hygiene measures
10 to 14 days
• Surface contact • Muscle pain (covering mouth and nose while
➢ Fever 100.4 F coughing or sneezing) should be
➢ Sore throat followed.
• Fever &chills
• Headache
• Wear a Mask, People should keep
• Personal contact • Cough
1 to 14 days or distance of at least 6 feet from others
Covid-19 SARS-CoV-2 • Droplet infection • Difficulty in breathing
4 to 5 days use hand sanitizer before putting on
• Surface contact • Muscle pain
their mask.
➢ Fever 100.4 F
• Sore throat
• Personal contact • Immunization with DPT vaccine
Corynebacterium • Fever
Diphtheria 2 to 5 days • Droplet infection which should be given to a child on
Diphtheriae • Fatigue
• Surface contact reaching the age of 6, 10 and 14 months.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 3

➢ Grey-yellow-coloured
patches
• Personal contact • Fever
Whooping Bordetella • Isolating contacts and cases
7 to 14 days • Droplet infection • Cough
cough Pertussis Treating with erythromycin.
• Surface contact • Inspiratory whoop
• Headache • Polysaccharide vaccine
• Personal contact
Meningococcal Neisseria 3 to 4 days or 1 • Fever • Conjugate vaccines
• Droplet infection
Meningitis Meningitidis to 10 days. • Neck stiffness • Chemoprophylaxis
• Surface contact
• Nausea and vomiting Protein-based vaccine
• Cough
• Personal contact
Acute Rhinovirus, • Runny nose • Vaccination against pneumonia at proper
2 to 14 • Droplet infection
respiratory Respiratory • Sore throat age saves millions of children from dying.
days • Surface contact
infection Syncytial virus. • Fever • Measles Vaccine, Hib Vaccine
• Airborne
• Difficulty in breathing
• Cough
• BCG vaccination should be given up to 20
• Personal contact • Runny nose
years of age.
Mycobacterium • Droplet infection • Sore throat
Tuberculosis 3 to 4 weeks • Mass vaccination of uninfected children
Tuberculosis • Surface contact • Fever
and young adults should be conducted.
• Airborne • Difficulty in breathing
• Weight loss
• Cough • Any proven treatment regime for EVD is
• Runny nose still not available.
• Personal contact • Sore throat • But various potential treatments
Ebola virus [Zaire
2 to 21 days or • Droplet infection • Fever including blood products, immune
Ebola ebolavirus
8 to 10 days • Surface contact • Difficulty in breathing therapies, and drug therapies.
species]
• Airborne • Rashes • Ebola vaccine (named rVSV-ZEBOV)
• Diarrhoea proved to be highly effective against the
• Vomiting EVD.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 4

INTESTINAL INFECTIONS

CAUSATIVE INCUBATION MODE OF SIGN AND SYMPTOM/CLINICAL

NAME ROLE OF PHARMACISTS
AGENT PERIOD TRANSMISSION PRESENTATION/MANIFESTATIONS
• Faecal-oral • Fever &chills
Route
• Headache
Poliomyelitis Polio virus. • Droplet • Salk’s vaccine and Sabine
7-21 days. • Cough
infection vaccine.
• Difficulty in breathing
• Direct infection
• Muscle pain
Hepatitis A:
• fatigue,
• fever,
• pain in abdomen
• nausea, Diarrhoea
• Jaundice
Hepatitis B:
• Contaminated • loss of appetite
water and food • Vomiting
• Maintaining good personal
• Direct Contact • body aches
Viral hygiene to prevent the
Approximately • Blood • mild fever, dark urine and
hepatitis Hepatitis A, B, C, D transmission.
28 days. transfusion jaundice.
• Practicing proper food handling.
• Parenteral Hepatitis C:
Route • decreased appetite
• sexual contact. • fatigue
• pain in abdomen
• jaundice and itching.
Hepatitis D:
• Jaundice
• Anorexia
• enlarged liver
• nausea and vomiting.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 5

• Contaminated
water and food • Abdominal pain
• Direct Contact • Diarrhoea
Cholera Few hours to
Vibrio Cholera • Blood • Decreased BP Maintain good hygiene
5 days.
transfusion • Vomiting
• Parenteral
Route
Bacteria
[salmonella, vibrio • Contaminated • Maintain Good Personal
Acute and Few hours to • watery stools,
water and food • Hygiene, Maintain Good Food
diarrhoeal parahaemolyticus] 5 days or 1 to • vomiting and fever
• Ingestion of Hygiene
disease Virus [ norovirus, 3 days • dehydration
contaminated Maintain Good Environmental
rotavirus, • shock
beverages Hygiene
sapovirus and
astrovirus]
• Loss of appetite
• Contaminated • Muscle aches and pains
food and water • Chest congestion • live oral Ty21a vaccine (Vivotif
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi 7-28 days. • High • Headaches Berna)
(S. typhi). concentration of • Abdominal pain & the injectable typhi,
bacteria in discomfort polysaccharide vaccine.
Faeces • Fever up to 104° F,
Diarrhoea
• Faecal-oral
pathway
• Abdominal cramps
• person-to-
2-4 weeks, • Diarrhoea • Improved Water Supply,
person
Entamoeba but can also • Fatigue Sanitation, Food Safety, Health
Amoebiasis • by eating or
histolytica. range from a • Excessive gas Education
drinking
few days to • Rectal pain General Social and Economic
contaminated
years • weight loss. Development
food or water
• Sexual
transmission.
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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 6

• Vectors: fly,
cockroach
• Abdominal cramps
• contaminated • Never walk barefoot in soiled
Worm Approximately • Diarrhoea
Necator human faeces. areas with a high contamination
infestation - 7-14 days. • Fatigue
americanus and • when one walks risk
Hookworm • Excessive gas
Ancylostoma barefoot on soil • Never sit on the ground without
Infection • Rectal pain
duodenale or consumes soil using a barrier
• weight loss.
particles.

• Consuming
contaminated
food • Nausea, Vomiting
• Raw or • Abdominal cramping • Safe Storage of Foods
inadequately • Diarrhoea • Safe Food Preparation, Thawing
Food poisoning Bacteria and virus 1-2 days.
cooked foods • fever, chills Food Safely
(seafood, cross • bloody stools Safe Cooking.
contamination • dehydration
by handling raw
seafood).

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 7

ARTHOPODA BORNE INFECTION

SIGN AND
INCUBATION SYMPTOM/CLINICAL
NAME CAUSATIVE AGENT MODE OF TRANSMISSION ROLE OF PHARMACISTS
PERIOD PRESENTATION/MANIFEST
ATIONS
• Mosquito Control Vaccines: No
satisfactory vaccine is available.
Arbovirus is • Aedes aegypti is a Other Measures: isolation under
• Dengue haemorrhagic
transmitted mosquito the bed nets during first few days
fever without shock
through vector • transmit the infection can provide individual protection
Dengue 4-10 days • Dengue haemorrhagic
mosquito Aedes to another host when against mosquito
fever with shock.
aegypti and Aedes the blood meal is
albopictus. interrupted.

• By an early diagnosis using blood

smears, properly maintaining the
Plasmodium vivax, • high fever drainage system
• Mosquito •
Plasmodium fatigue, and body • DDT or kerosene for destroying
falciparum, • Uninfected mosquito aches, the mosquitoes.
Malaria Plasmodium 14 days bites infected person, • hot and cold stages • By using mosquito nets and/or
malariae, it will become infected • headache, nausea, repellents for preventing
Plasmodium ovale. with the malaria. • shaking chill (rigors), mosquito bites, anti-malarial
• sweating, and weak drugs, e.g., quinine and
chlorquine.

Wuchereria • elephantiasis. • Reducing contact with the

bancrofti, Brugia • Mosquito bites • Elephantiasis occurs in mosquito vectors
Filariasis
malayi, and Brugia 8-16 months. • Harbouring infective the lower extremities, • Chemotherapy.
(elephantiasis)
timori. larvae. • blindness.

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• high fever Vector Control Antilarval

3-7 days
• fatigue, and body measures, Vaccine: No vaccine
(ranges has been developed
CHIKV) it is aches,
between 1-12
chikungunya transmitted by • Mosquito. • hot and cold stages
days).
Aedes mosquitoes. • headache, nausea,
• shaking chill (rigors),
sweating, and weak

SURFACE INFECTION
CAUSATIVE INCUBATION SIGN AND SYMPTOM/CLINICAL
NAME MODE OF TRANSMISSION ROLE OF PHARMACISTS
AGENT PERIOD PRESENTATION/MANIFESTATIONS
• Direct contact
• Indirect contact by • Inflammation • Sulphonamides
Chlamydia sharing towels, • abrasion of the cornea • Tetracycline
Trachoma 5 to 10 days.
trochomatis. kerchiefs, and pillows. • corneal ulcer • Antibiotics.
• blindness

• Pharmacist should guide people

• Open cut or wound
to Avoid walking in bare foot
Clostridium • dressing material is • Neck and back become stiff
Tetanus 3-21 days Tetanus Toxoid (TT), DPT
tetani unhygienic • Deglutition becomes difficult.
• Antibiotics such penicillin and
tetracycline chemoprophylaxis.
• Indirect contact • Hypo pigmented • Pharmacist should guide people
Mycobacterium variable, 2-5
Leprosy • Droplet Infection. • Loss of digits either in the about leprosy infection.
leprae years.
hands or feet.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 9

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE

CAUSATIVE INCUBATION MODE OF SIGN AND SYMPTOM/CLINICAL

NAME ROLE OF PHARMACISTS
AGENT PERIOD TRANSMISSION PRESENTATION/MANIFESTATIONS
Primary Stage:
• firm, round, painless, inguinal
lymphadenopathy.
Secondary Stage:
• Direct mucous
• body rashes, multiple, painful, • Pharmacist educate people
membrane
odorous, and infectious about contraceptive method
Treponema contact,
lesions near vulva or anus. • Avoid sexual intercourse with
Syphilis pallidum. 21 days • Blood transfusion.
Latent Stage: multiple partners
• Sexual contact
• asymptomatic for a long • PAM or benzathine penicillin.
period of time.
Tertiary Stage:
• Organ damage, including
heart, blood vessels, liver,
bones and joints.
Females:
• Increased vaginal discharge,
• pain while urinating,
• Sexual
• Disturbed menstrual cycle • Procaine, penicillin or penicillin
intercourse
• Vaginal bleeding with probenecid,
3 to 5 • Accidental
Neisseria Males: • Providing health education on
Gonorrhoea days transmission
gonorrhoeae • pain while urinating, STDs and related problems.
• Perinatal
• Urethral yellowish white
transmission.
discharge
• rectal pain,
• itching
• constipation or tenesmus
6 years • Sexual contact Acute infection: • Pharmacist should guide the
Human
or • Contaminated • fever people about HIV testing
Aids Immunodeficiency
more. blood transfusion, • malaise • Treatment of HIV infection,
Virus
• Headache treatment
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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 10

• Placental • lymphadenopathy • Management of HIV disease

transmission Asymptomatic latent infection: state complications, infections,
Symptomless in last several years, • Prevention of HIV infection
Aids related complex (symptomatic • HIV education
phase): Social services and HIV
• persistent diarrhoea infection
• weight loss
• fatigue
• fever
• lymphandopathy.
End Stage:
• Respiratory infection
• Dyspnoea,
• GIT infection
• CNS infection

Generally Pharmacist has the following roles in management of diseases.

1. Pharmacist should instruct the infected person to isolate.
2. Pharmacist should provide health education regarding the disease and its complications to the people.
3. He/she should guide people regarding appropriate hand hygiene and general illness management.
4. He/she should educate, promote, and also provide vaccinations against the diseases.
5. People should wash their hands with soap and water, especially after coughing or sneezing.
6. They should also use alcohol-based hand sanitizers.
7. People should avoid close contact with sick people.
8. To identify and isolate the persons suspected to be infected.
9. To follow the basic hygienic practices, like washing hands after touching the patients, using appropriate and well-fitted masks, and following infection
Control measures.
10. Advise on healthy eating and Lifestyle modification
11. Provide advice on disease management
12. Assist with medication adherence
13. Provide patient education
14. Educate on health, sanitation, Hygiene, nutrition, infectious disease and well-being
15. Drug therapy management
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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 11

DEFINITIONS
1. Define epidemiology. *****
It is defined as the Distribution of Disease or any condition in a community which influences the distribution of diseases over the population.

2. Write the applications of epidemiology. ******

• To Study the history of disease in relation to its rise and fall in a community.
• To study the respective roles of agents, host and environmental factor in spread of disease prevalent in community.
• To estimate a person risk of developing a disease and his chances of survival.
• It helps to diagnose the health problem of the community by studding occurrence distribution of age, sex, occupation and locality.

3. What are the aims of epidemiology?

To describe distribution and Size of disease. In population [how effectively it has been Spreader].
To identity aetiological [causative] factor of the disease.

4. Define epidemic.
It is defined as the sudden outbreak of infection disease that spreads rapidly through the population if leads to affecting large number of people in short
period of time.

5. Define pandemic.
It is the condition in which epidemic spreads from one country to another or even the whole world affecting most of the population.

6. Define endemic.
When an Inflections disease is more or less prevalent in a Locality o community.
Eg: chikungunya.

7. Define mode of transmission.

Direct transmission: Transmission of disease occurs without intermediate.
Indirect method: transmission of infection diseased person to healthy person occurs through vectors or vehicles and some agents.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Chapter-4 Communicable Diseases 12

8. Define outbreak.
It is sudden rise of in the number of causes of disease. An outbreak may occur in a community or geographical area or may affects several contain.it may
later for few days.

9. Define quarantine.
it is the process of separates and restricts the movement of people who were exposed to a contagious disease.it is a restriction on the movement of
people, animals and gods which is intended to present the spread of disease.

10. Define isolation.

It is the process of separation of Sick or infected people who are suffering from contagious disease or communicable disease from healthy people.

11. Define incubation period. *

It is the time interval between the entry of the disease agent into the host’s body & the appearance of the first signs and Symptoms of the disease. During
the Incubation period the infectious agent multiplies in the host.

12. Define contact tracing.

The process of identifying people who have recently been contact with someone diagnosed with an infection disease especially in order to treat or
quarantine then.

13. Define morbidity.

It is defined as the number of diseased people in a community or number of rate act which the disease occurs in a community.

14. Define mortality.

It is the rate at which death occurs or also defined as rate of death in a community due to a disease.

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 I-D.Pharm Social Pharmacy Passing Package Part-1 1

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS – PASSING PACKAGE

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PHARMACY 3M+5M=8M
1. Define Social Pharmacy? Explain the role of pharmacist in public health.
❖ It is defined as the discipline that deals with the medicine's role by considering scientific and
humanistic perception.
Role of Pharmacists in Public Health
❖ They provide population-based care.
❖ They conduct disease prevention and control programs (including, medication safety programs) in
their institutions and communities.
❖ They develop health education policies and programs within their institutions concerned with the
needs of patients, health care professionals, community leaders, and the public.
❖ They collaborate with state and local authorities, involving local and state health departments and
boards of health, to address local and regional health care needs (such as, environmental hazard and
emergency preparedness programs).
❖ They advocate for sound legislation, regulations, and public policy related to disease prevention and
management.
❖ They involve in population-based research and initiate campaigns for distributing new knowledge.
❖ They put a positive influence on drug policy, drug use and outcomes as well as other health care
aspects in collaboration with other health professionals at a community level.
❖ They participate in formulation of drug policy, comprising of drug regulation.

2. Define Health? Write a note on Dimension of Health

❖ "Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing.
DIMENSIONS OF HEALTH
1. Physical Dimensions: Physical health is defined as a state indicating perfect functioning of the body.
Signs of physical health:
• A good complexion, A clean skin, Bright eyes, not too fatty, A sweet breath, A good appetite,
Sound sleep.
2. Mental health: Mental health is a state of balance between the individual and the surroundings
world including the environment.
Characteristics of mentally healthy person
• Mentally healthy person will be capable of making personal and social adjustment.
• Mentally healthy person is free from internal conflicts.
• He faces problems and tries to solve them intelligently.
• He has good self-control balances rationally and emotionally.
3. Social Dimensions: A quantity and quality of an individual inter-personalities and the extent of
involvement with the community.
4. Spiritual Dimensions: Spirituality health matter involving values and beliefs providing a purpose in
an individual’s life.

3. Explain Health Indicators.

❖ Mortality Indicators: These include:
➢ Crude Death Rate: It is the number of deaths per 1000 population per year in each community. It is
a fair indicator used for comparing the health of individuals.

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➢ Life Expectancy: It is the average number of years a newborn will live in a population if the current
age-specific mortality rates persist.
➢ Infant Mortality Rate: It is the ratio of deaths occurring in infants each year to the number of births
of live infants in the same year.
➢ Child Mortality Rate: It is the number of deaths of 1-4 years old children each year per 1000
children of the same age group at the midpoint of the same year.
➢ Maternal mortality rate: it is the proportion of deaths of women of reproductive.
➢ Disease-Specific Mortality: Mortality rates can even be determined for specific diseases.
Example: cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular.
❖ Morbidity Indicators: These indicators are used for improving the mortality data so that the health
status of a population can be properly described.
➢ incidence and occurrence.
➢ Attendance rates in out-patient departments and health centers.
➢ Rates of admission, re-admission, and discharge.
❖ Nutritional Status Indicators: Given below nutritional indicators used health current time:
➢ Anthropometric measurements height, mid-arm circumference).
➢ Height and weight children school entry, and
➢ Occurrence of low weight (less than 2.5kg).
❖ Indicators of Social Mental Health: These the homicides, juvenile accidents, family violence, battered-
baby, and battered-wife syndromes.
❖ Environment Indicators: These indicators describe the quality of physical and biological environment in
which individuals are living and diseases are occurring they include indicators of air and water
pollution, radiation, solid wastes, noise, exposure to toxic substances in food and drinks.
❖ Socio-Economic Indicators: These indicators are not directly used for measuring the health status but
interpret the indicators of healthcare.
❖ Health Policy Indicators: A most essential health policy indicator is an allocation of adequate resources
by a healthcare government.

4. Describe Determinants of Health

❖ Income and Social Status: As the income and social hierarchy increases, the health of an individual
improves.
❖ Employment: Poor health arises due to unemployment, underemployment, and working under stressed
conditions.
❖ Education: Health of an individual is also determined by the education level.
❖ Social Environments: Values and norms of a society also affect an individual's health and well-being in
different ways.
❖ Physical Environments: Air and water quality are the physical factors in the natural environment which
put their impact on health.
❖ Healthy Child Development: The effect of pre-natal and early childhood experiences has a very
powerful impact on health, well-being, coping skills, and competence.
❖ Personal Health Practices and Coping Skills: Health is greatly influenced by eating a balanced diet,
being active, smoking, drinking, and the way of dealing with life's stresses and challenges.
❖ Health Services: Health is also influenced when an individual makes use of the services provided for
preventing and treating diseases.
❖ Social Support Networks: A better health results from support provided by families, friends, and
communities.
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❖ Biology and Genetic Endowment: Inheritance determines lifespan, healthiness, and probability of
developing certain illnesses.
❖ Gender: Men and women at different ages suffer from different types of diseases.
❖ Culture: It is defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs, and institutions of a population passed
down from generation to generation.

5. Write a note on National Health Policies

1. NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY (1983): - To attain the objectives "Health for all by 2000 AD", the Union
Ministry of Health and Welfare formulated National Health Policy 1983.
Key elements of national health policy 1983
• Creation of greater awareness of health problems in the community and means to solve the
problems by the community.
• Supply of safe drinking water and basic sanitation using technologies that people can afford.
• Reduction of existing imbalance in health services by concentrating more on the rural health
infrastructure.
• Provision of legislative support to health protection and promotion.
• Concerned actions to combat widespread malnutrition.
• Greater co-ordination of different system of medicine.

2. NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY 2002-2010

• Eradication of Polio & Yaws by 2005
• Elimination of Leprosy by 2005
• elimination of Kala-azar by 2010
• Elimination of lymphatic Filariasis by 2015
• Achieve of Zero level growth of HIV/AIDS by 2007 Reduction of mortality by 50% on account of
Tuberculosis, Malaria, Other vector, and water borne Diseases by 2010
• Reduce prevalence of blindness to 0.5% by 2010
• Reduction of IMR to 30/1000 & MMR to 100/lakh by 2010
• Increase utilization of public health facilities from current level of <20% to > 75% by 2010

3. NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY (2017)

❖ Aim: - The primary aim of the National Health Policy, 2017, is to inform, clarify, strengthen, and
prioritize the role of the Government in shaping health systems in all its dimensions
Key Policy Principles
• Professionalism, Integrity and Ethics, Equity, Affordability
• Universality, Patient Cantered & Quality of Care, Accountability
• Inclusive Partnerships, Pluralism, Dynamism and Adaptiveness:

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CHAPTER 2: PREVENTIVE HEALTH CARE 3M+3M+5M+5M=16M

6. Define Demography? Write a note on Demographic Cycle
❖ Demography may be defined as the science dealing with the study of human population.
Or
❖ The statistical study of population which involves studying the structure, size, and distribution (birth,
ageing, death, migration) of population The main sources of demographic data include registration
system and census. The following 3 types of phenomena can be observed in human population.
a) Changes in population size (growth or decline)
b) The composition of population.
c) The distribution of population in space.
Demographic Cycle
There are five stages of demographic cycle: -
1. High stationary stage: It is the first stage from which each nation begins. During this stage,
population remains stationary since high birth rate is associated with high death rate.
2. Early expanding stage: It is the second stage in which the death rate begins to fall while the birth
rate continues at or near to the maximum, resulting in increase in population.
3. Late expanding stage: It is the third stage in which the birth rate begins to decline but the population
continues to grow because the birth rate is still higher than the death rate.
4. Low stationary stage: It is the fourth stage in which the population again becomes stationary with
a low birth rate and low death rate.
5. Declining stage: In the fifth and last stage, the population declines because death rate exceeds the
birth rate.

7. Explain Contraceptive methods.

• Birth control also known as contraception, anticonception, and fertility control, is a method or device
used to prevent pregnancy.
1. RHYTHM METHOD
❖ This method is because ovulation occurs 12 to 16 days before the onset of menstruation, i.e., 7 days
before and 7 days after the menstrual cycle are considered safe for intercourse. This is not a very
reliable method as menstrual cycle vary in females.
• Advantages: It is the natural means of birth control. It does not need any artificial means.
• Disadvantages: It is not reliable. It is difficult to find out safe period for a woman whose
menstruation period changes. It requires arithmetical calculations. Many times, there is no co-
operation between opposite sexes.

2. COITUS ININTERRUPTUS
❖ It is one of the oldest methods of birth control. It is popularly known as withdrawal. In this method,
the sexual intercourse is started and when male is about to ejaculate, the penis is withdrawn from the
vagina.
• Advantages: No appliances must be used.
• Disadvantages:
✓ It is not a reliable method.
✓ Escape of a drop of a semen containing spermatozoa before ejaculation.

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✓ Inability of some men to withdraw penis in time.

3. Chemical Contraceptives
❖ The objective of using the chemical contraceptives is to halt the progress of sperms completely or to
kill them before they enter the uterus. There are three types of chemical contraceptives.
✓ Pastes and jellies: They are pushed into the vagina with the help of an applicator. Sufficient time is to
be given for the chemical to be spread on the mouth of the uterus. The chemicals contain spermicidal
agents which kill the sperms before entering the uterus.
✓ Aerosols (foam tablets): Foam tablet is kept into the vagina five minutes before the Intercourse. At
body temperature it melts and produces foam which acts as a barrier for the entry of sperms into the
uterus.
• Advantages: These are easy to obtain and simple to use.
• Disadvantages: Some products can cause itching to women. Foam tablets are to be checked before
use with the help of water.

4. Mechanical Contraceptives
❖ There are three types of mechanical contraceptives:
(a) Condom
(b) Diaphragms and caps
(c) Intra Uterine Devices (IUD)
a. Condom: It is put on the penis before intercourse. It is an efficient method to prevent conception. It is
made up of latex. Proper use of condom is necessary for success. Man should take out penis without
leaving condom in vagina.
• Advantages: They are easy to use and easy to obtain. They give protection against venereal
diseases and AIDS.
• Disadvantages: It is not 100% efficient.

b. Diaphragms and Caps: The object of using diaphragms and caps is to close off the entrance to the vagina
i.e., to stop sperms from getting in. Diaphragms are made up of rubber, shaped like shallow bowl. It is
put in place before intercourse and kept there after intercourse at least for 8 hours.
• Advantages: These are reliable. They do not interfere with sexual pleasure; they are easy to handle
and are cheap.
• Disadvantages: Some women have allergy to the material of diaphragm.

c. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs): Intrauterine device also known as intrauterine contraceptive device
(IUCD), or coil is a small often T-shaped birth control device it is inserted into the uterus to prevent
pregnancy. Various intrauterine devices include Lippe’s loop, double coil, Margulies spiral, and
copper T, copper 7.
• Advantages: These are cheap and highly reliable. Once fitted, these are effective for years
together.

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• Disadvantage: IUDS have many side effects such as irregular or sometimes heavy bleeding from
vagina, backache, pain in pelvis etc.

5. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES
❖ These are the most effective spacing methods of contraception. Thera hormonal Contraceptives
contain one or more different sex hormones.
✓ Combined pill: It contains estrogens and progesterone. The combination is given from the 5 day of
menstruation for 21 days followed by a break of 7 days during which period the menstruation
occurs. If taken regularly it is 100% effective e.g., Mala N and Mala – D.
✓ Once a month pill: It contains combination of long-acting estrogens ‘Quin sterol’ and short acting
progestogen and is given once a month. They are not much of use because of side effects.
✓ Mini pill: (Progestogen only pill or POP) They contain small amount of progestogen (norethisterone
or levonorgestrel) and is take daily throughout the month. This is useful in selected women in which
estrogens is contraindicated.
• Advantages: It is one of the reliable methods. It is not necessary to consult a doctor once these pills
are prescribed. It does not interfere with sexual pleasure.
• Disadvantages: These pills cause headache, pain in pelvis, unhealthy feeling and increase in body
weight The pills may cause cancer.

6. STERILIZATION
❖ It is the most reliable method. It involves surgical operation. In this method male and female rendered
Permentally infertile.
• Male Sterilization or Vasectomy: In this both the vasdeferens are cut and tied so that the sperms
cannot enter the urethra. It is simple and easy surgical procedure and does not need
hospitalization.
• Female Sterilization or Tubectomy: In this both the fallopian tubes are cut and tied so that ovum
cannot reach the uterus. The operation is performed in the operation theatre and female needs a
rest for few days.

8. Describe the Importance of breast feeding.

❖ Breast feeding helps keep your baby healthy. It protects allergies, sickness, and obesity.
❖ Benefit for Child milk are the essential nutrients for the growing baby. It helps many ways like…
❖ Improve resistance power: - Mother milk contains the many antibodies, which are responsible for the
protection of child against the disease. IgA is the major immunoglobulin in human colostrum and milk.
Resistance provides by milk against disease like Asthma, respiratory disease, obesity, diabetes, car
infections, gastro-intestinal infections, cancer, and any syndrome etc.
❖ Fulfil nutrients supply: -Milk are the best food supplement for the growing baby because it contains
the essential supplement (vitamins, minerals, proteins, amino acids, fat, or lipids etc.)
❖ Proper growth and development: - Due to involvement of supplement, it helps in proper growth and
development and of body parts (bone, muscle, liver, brain, heart etc.) and provided the strength to
body parts.
❖ Benefits for Mother- Breastfeeding is simply not responsible for a baby growth apart from this, it is also
responsible for mother health. In mother keep it safe from many conditions. Diabetes, ovarian cancer,
regulated cholesterol level, breast cancer, high blood pressure etc.
❖ Breast feeding is associated with better cognitive development possibly due to high content of
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which plays an important role in brain development.

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❖ Breast milk is a natural food and is more easily digested and absorbed by the infant as compared to
formula milk prepared from other sources.
❖ Start breast feeding within half an hour after delivery and do not discard colostrum.
❖ Take a nutritionally adequate diet both during pregnancy and lactation.

9. Briefly, Explain Vaccine.

❖ Vaccine is the chemical substance and biological preparation produced from living organisms, which
provides the immunity against a particular disease.
Types of Vaccines
1. Live attenuated vaccine (LAV) - Live attenuated vaccines (LAV) is prepared by pathogens (virus or
bacteria) which causes the infections or disease that have been weakened under laboratory conditions.
Live microorganisms provide continual antigenic stimulation giving sufficient time for memory cell
production.
Example – Tuberculosis (BCG), Oral polio vaccine (OPV). Measles, Rotavirus, Yellow Fever, Mumps.
2. Inactivated vaccine (Killed vaccine)- Inactivated vaccines are prepared by the method of killing antigens
through the physical or chemical processes.
Example- Hepatitis A, Influenza, Pneumococcal polysaccharide.
3. Recombinant Subunit vaccine (Purified antigen)-Subunit vaccines contain the antigenic parts (disease
causing portion) of antigen. Like inactivated vaccines it does not contain the live components of antigen,
it only contains the antigenic parts like surface protein, conjugated chemicals, polysaccharide etc.
Example- Hepatitis B.
4. Toxoid vaccine (Inactivated Toxoid)-Toxoid vaccines are based on the toxin produced by certain bacteria
(tetanus or diphtheria). Released toxin is used to prepare the vaccine and these parts are necessary to
elicit a protective immune response and produce antibodies.
Example- Tetanus Toxoid (TT), Diphtheria Toxoid.
5. Conjugate polysaccharide-protein- Conjugate vaccine is a type of subunit vaccine which combines a weak
antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak
antigen.
Example- Pneumococcal.
Composition of Vaccines
● In addition to the antigen, which is the main component of vaccines, vaccines are formulated by mixing
with other fluids like water or saline, additives, or preservatives, and sometimes adjuvants, collectively,
these additional ingredients are known as Excipients.
● They ensure the quality and potency of the vaccine over its shelf life.
● Vaccines are usually formulated as liquids but may be freeze-dried (lyophilized) for reconstitution
immediately prior to the time of injection.
➢ Additives: A substance added to something in small quantities to improve or preserve it.
➢ Preservative: It is a substance or a chemical that is added to prevent the decomposition by microbial
growth or by undesirable chemical changes.
➢ Adjuvant: It is an ingredient used in some vaccines that helps to create a stronger immune response
in people receiving the vaccine. It also helps to work better.
➢ Saline: It is a mixture of sodium chloride and water.

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10. Define and Classify immunity? Explain the types of immunity.

❖ Immunity is defined as the ability of the immune system to produce the immune response against the
disease-causing organisms like bacteria, virus, fungi, and other foreign particles.
❖ Immunity is an individual’s ability to respond to foreign substances and microbes.
❖ It is also called disease resistance; The lack of immunity is known as Susceptibility.
Types of immunity: immunity has 2 types.
1. INNATE IMMUNITY: It is present at the time of birth, so it is called inborn immunity.
● It is a natural response of the body to external agents.
● It provides different types of barriers to stop the entry of foreign particles or any pathogen into our
body.
● It is a non-specific immunity.
● It has 4 types of barriers.
I. Physical barrier: They are mechanical barriers, in the form of skin and mucus. Skin is the main
barrier which prevents the entry of pathogens.
II. Physiological barrier: They are chemical barrier, which secreting the substance of our body like
acid in stomach, tears from eyes, saliva in the mouth (secret a special type of enzyme LYSOZYME
to kill the bacteria Interferon), Body temperature, Cerumen (ear wax).
III. Cellular barrier: They are in the form of phagocytes (WBCs), natural killer cells, monocytes, and
neutrophils (a type of WBC that provides phagocytosis). The phagocytic cell destroys the
microbes.
IV. Cytokine: Virus infected cell secretes protein called interferon which protects non infected cell
from further infection.

2. ACQUIRED or ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY: The resistance is acquired by an individual during life.

• This type of immunity is the set of responses which the immune system activates to target specific
pathogens, so it is also known as specific immunity.
• It is the pathogen specific immunity which is characterized by memory. This means that our body
when the entry of a pathogen for the first time produces a response called primary response which
is of low intensity.
• Subsequent entry of the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic
response.
• The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of
Lymphocytes present in our blood that are B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
• The B-lymphocytes (antibody mediated immunity AMI) produce an army of proteins in response to
pathogens into our blood to fight with them. These Proteins are called antibodies.
• The T-cells (cell mediated immunity CMI) themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells
Produce them. Different types of antibodies are produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgG,
• They are 2 types:
1. Active immunity.
2. Passive immunity.
a. Active immunity: This type of immunity is the resistance acquired or developed by an individual after
effective contact with an antigen. These contacts may be in the form of either natural infection or by
vaccination. (Prepare own antibody.
b. Passive immunity: This type of immunity is an individual by performing antibodies (usually in the form
of antiserum) against infective agents or toxins. Passive immunity is effective for a very short duration,
but it is important when immediate immune response is required.
Example: anti-venom is used in cases of snake bites.

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11. Define immunization.

❖ A process by which a person becomes protected against a disease through Vaccination.

12. Explain Environmental Pollution due to Pharmaceutical.

❖ Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is defined as contamination of the environment with
pharmaceutical medications and their metabolites that reach the marine environment (groundwater,
rivers, lakes, and oceans) through wastewater. Drug pollution is hence mainly a form of water pollution.
Causes of Pharmaceutical Pollution
➢ Drugs Used and How They are Ingested and Expelled: Only fractions of ingested drugs are metabolized
by the body.
• The remaining portion is sweated out and a large fraction is excreted through urine or feces. The
excreta will be a part of the wastewater.
➢ Healthcare Institutions: Hospitals and nursing homes also add to the pharmaceutical contamination. In
nursing homes flush the drugs down the toilet or drain.
➢ Drug Manufacturers: This is because some factories dispose the drugs in a landfill or some flush them,
even if other suitable ways of disposing the drugs are available.
➢ Agriculture and Agro-Products: Domesticated animals do not metabolize all the drugs fed to them.
Therefore, the undigested drugs are excreted. Some of these hormones and antibiotics reach the
groundwater or waterways adding to pharmaceutical pollution.
➢ Human Domestic Drug Use and Disposal Behavior: Consumers play part for a specific amount of
pharmaceutical and personal care products leached into streams, groundwater, lakes, and rivers.
Effects of Pharmaceutical Pollution
➢ Effects on Fish and Aquatic Life: Several studies state that estrogens and similar chemicals have a
feminizing influence on male fish and can change female-to-male ratios.
• Such estrogens is present in birth control pills and post-menopausal hormone drugs.
➢ Disrupting the Normal Sewage Treatment Process: Infections are treated widely by antibiotics which
hold materials that can disturb the sewage treatment process and microbial ecology of shallow water.
➢ Effects on Drinking Water: After being excreted from the body or flushed down the toilet, pharmaceutical
chemicals enter the waterways.
➢ Effects on Wildlife: Pharmaceuticals flushed into the environment by humans or through sewage disturb
the wildlife.
• Water containing these particles and fishes swimming in this water are consumed by the animals.
Solutions to Pharmaceutical Pollution
➢ Proper Drug Disposal: Preventing the drugs from reaching the waterways is the easiest, cheapest, and
most effective resolution for pharmaceutical pollution.
• The public should be educated on proper disposal of drugs so that people will have idea on how to get
rid of old or expiring medicines properly without causing pharmaceutical pollution.
➢ Tougher Regulations: Strict regulations should be made by the nation or state’s health care department
or by the national body that handles health issues.
➢ Additional Research on the Potential Dangers of Pharmaceutical Pollution: More investigation is needed
to measure the likely human effect of pharmaceutical contamination.
➢ Limit Bulk Purchases: One more solution is to limit the purchases of pharmaceuticals in bulk. Limiting
bulk purchases ensures the supply of only the vital number of pharmaceuticals and therefore, less
pharmaceutical pollution.
➢ Trashing is better than Flushing: Unused drugs thrown into the trash are incinerated or buried in landfills.
• This way of disposing them is more improved than flushing them down the drain. The trashing drugs
they should be removed from their packaging, crushed, and sealed in a plastic bag with water.

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13. Define Occupational illness with any 2 examples.

❖ The disease which results due to the exposure to risk factors arising from work activity is known as
occupational disease. There are multiple causes of “work related disease”, where factors in the work
environment may play a role in the development of such diseases, along with other risk factors.
❖ Occupational illness includes Dermatitis, Respiratory illnesses, Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDS)

14. Write a note on sewage and solid waste disposal.

❖ Sewage: It is the wastewater containing food Residue, animals and human excreta detergent and
industrial discharge generated every day in cities and towns as municipal waste.
1. Primary treatment or Physical treatment
✓ In these large solids (diameter more than 2cm) and grit (soil and small pebbles) are removed by
filtration and sedimentation.
✓ Initially floating debris is removed by filtration. Then the grit is removed by sedimentation (solid sink
to bottom, oil and grease raise to surface)
✓ All solids that settle form the primary sludge and the supernatant forms the effluent. The effluent
from primary settling tank is taken for secondary treatment.
2. Secondary treatment or biological treatment
✓ There are several methods of secondary treatment of sewage. Example oxidation tank method,
trickling filter method and activated sludge system Activated sludge system-
✓ The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks where it is constantly agitated mechanically,
and air is pumped into it. This allows growth of aerobic microbes into flocs.
❖ Flocs-It is masses of bacteria associated with fungal filament to form mesh like structures.
❖ Biological oxygen demand
✓ It is the amount of the oxygen that would be consumed if all the organic matter in one liter of water
oxidized by bacteria.
✓ Once the BOD of sewage water reduced to 10-15% of raw sewage it is passed into settling tanks where
the bacterial 'flocs' are allowed to sediment. This sediment is called activated sludge. A small part of
activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as inoculum.
✓ The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into other larger tanks called anaerobic sludge
digestors.
✓ Here other kinds of anaerobic bacteria digest the aerobic bacteria and the fungi in the sludge. During
this digestion anaerobic bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphides
and carbon dioxide. This mixture of gases called biogas and used as a source of energy as it is
inflammable.
✓ Finally, the treated effluent is subjected to chemical treatment for disinfection before releasing into
natural water bodies.

❖ Solid waste: The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting,
treating, and disposing of solid wastes.
❖ Sources of Solid Wastes
✓ Solid domestic garbage. Solid waste material from various industries.
✓ Solid agricultural waste.
✓ Plastics, glass, metals, e-waste, etc.
✓ Medical waste.
✓ Construction waste, sewage sludge
❖ Solid waste management
❖ Disposal of Waste

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✓ Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and hazardous domestic
wastes. The biodegradable waste includes rotten food, vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste.
Recyclable waste includes plastic and hazardous wastes include, bulb, batteries, etc.
✓ The industry generated waste from chemical factories, medical waste from hospitals is considered as
Hazardous Solid Waste and they need special settings to dispose of them.
❖ Methods of disposal
✓ Dumping
✓ Controlled tipping or sanitary Landfill
✓ Incineration Composting
✓ Manure pits

15. Define psychotropic drug with examples.

❖ Psychotropic drugs are also called psychopharmacological agents that primarily show effect on psyche
(mental processes) and are used for treating psychiatric disorders.
❖ They are capable of decreasing, increasing, or changing the emotional and behavioural characteristics in
mental illness, and controlling perturbed psychological processes.
Examples: Anti-Anxiety Agents (Anxiolytics), Antipsychotic Agents (Neuroleptics).

16. Define narcotic drugs with examples.

❖ The drugs which relieve pain, often induce sleep, alter consciousness and are potentially addictive are
called Narcotic analgesics.
Example: Morphine, caffeine, heroin, or other synthetic derivatives.

17. Write the causes and preventive measures of suicidal behaviour.

Causes of Suicide:
• Suicidal thoughts, Earlier suicide attempts, Depression, Drug and alcohol abuse, Family history of
violence and/or sexual abuse, Previous imprisonment.
• Violent behavior towards others.
Prevention
• Suicide prevention programmed and suicide hot lines provide crisis intervention.
• Establishing a positive relationship.
• Understanding and clarifying the programme.
• Assessing suicide potential.
• It will also allow mental professionals to assess any underlying mental health concerns more accurately
so that they can be properly treated.

CHAPTER 3 NUTRITION AND HEALTH 3M+3M+5M=11M

18. Write a note on Micro and Macronutrients
Micronutrients
❖ They are needed in smaller quantities as compared to macronutrients.
Example: vitamins and minerals.
Macronutrients
❖ These nutrients provide calories or energy to the body and are needed in large quantity for maintaining
its function and carrying out the daily life activity.
Example: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibres, water

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19. Write the importance of water and fibres in diet.

Water
• It helps in the transport of nutrients and waste products in and out of body.
• It is required for all digestive, absorption, circulatory and excretory function.
• It is required for utilizing the water-soluble vitamins.
• It is required for maintaining proper body temperature.
• It keeps sufficient bloodstream liquid to flow through blood vessels.
• It regulates the body temperature through sweating.
• It moistens mucous membranes of lungs and mouth.
Fibre
• It provides some nutrients, called roughage.
• It helps in intestinal peristalsis movement.
• The weight and size of stool increases and softens because of dietary fiber. A bulky stool can be easily
passed, decreasing the chance of constipation.
• A high fiber diet can reduce the risk of developing haemorrhoids.
• Soluble fiber (in beans, oats, flaxseed) reduce total blood cholesterol levels by reducing low density or
bad cholesterol level.

20. Define balanced diet.

❖ A balanced diets one that contains all the essential nutrients that the human body needs.
❖ The 7 components of a balanced diet are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and
water, A nutritious, well-balanced diet lowers the risk of disease and enhances general health.

21. Define malnutrition with their types.

• Malnutrition occurs when the body doesn’t get enough nutrients. (Lack of nutrition)
• Malnutrition also called as malnourishment.
Types of malnutrition
1. Under nutrition
• It is one type of malnutrition; it occurs when the body does not get enough food and nutrients.
• It consists of stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height) underweight (low weight
for age) and micronutrients deficiencies (lack of important minerals)
2. Over nutrition
• It is another type of malnutrition. It occurs when we take more nutrients than they need.
• It consists of overweight, obesity, diet-related non communicable diseases (such as heart disease,
stroke, diabetes, and cancer)

22. Write the nutritional deficiency disease.

Macronutrients Deficiency disease

❖ Carbohydrates. ❖ Acidosis, ketosis, hypoglycemia, and constipation

❖ Proteins. ❖ Kwashiorkor, cachexia, marasmus, protein C and

protein S deficiency.

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Micronutrients Deficiency disease

❖ Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) ❖ General fatigue and loss of muscle tone.

❖ Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) ❖ Angular stomatitis, cheilosis, dermatitis

❖ Vitamin B3 (Niacin (nicotinic ❖ Dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.

acid)
❖ Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic) ❖ Dermatitis and adrenal insufficiency.
❖ Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) ❖ Rarely observed because of wide distribution of
foods.
❖ Vitamin B7 (Biotin) ❖ Dermatitis and conjunctivitis.

❖ Vitamin B9 (Folate) ❖ Megaloblastic anemia and diarrhea.

❖ Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) ❖ Pernicious anemia, megaloblastic anemia, and

degeneration of nerve fiber of spinal cord.
❖ Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) ❖ Multiple hemorrhages, slow wound healing,
anemia.
❖ Vitamin A (Retinol) ❖ Stunted growth, night blindness, dryness of eyes
and keratinization
❖ Vitamin D (Calciferol) ❖ Rickets in children
❖ Vitamin E (Tocopherol) ❖ Anemia in pregnant women and neurological
disorder

❖ Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) ❖ Slow blood clotting and hemorrhages in newborn.

❖ Calcium ❖ muscle cramps, numbness, tingling of fingers,

fatigue, poor appetite, and irregular heart
rhythms.

❖ Magnesium ❖ fatigue, weakness, appetite loss, nausea and

vomiting.

❖ Sodium ❖ Hyponatremia.

❖ Potassium ❖ muscle cramping, weakness, constipation,

bloating, or abdominal pain caused by intestinal
paralysis.

❖ Phosphorus ❖ Anorexia, anemia, proximal muscle weakness

❖ Iron ❖ anemia, feeling weak and tried.

❖ Iodine ❖ goiter

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❖ Fluoride ❖ Dental caries and possibly osteoporosis

❖ Zinc ❖ loss of appetite, taste, or smell, decreased the

function of immune system and retarded growth,
diarrhea, hair loss

❖ Selenium ❖ Keshan disease a type of cardiomyopathy or

disease of heart muscle
❖ Kashin beck disease a form of osteoarthritis

23. Define fortification of food with any 2 examples

❖ Fortified foods are those in which nutrients that do not naturally occur in the food are added. These
foods are intended for improving nutrition and increasing the health.
Or
❖ Fortification of food id defined as the practice of adding vitamins and minerals to commonly consumed
foods during processing to increase their nutritional value.
Examples: fortified foods
Food product Fortifying food
Salt Iodine, iron
Flours, bread, rice Vitamins B1, B2, B3 and iron
Milk Vitamin D, A
Sugar Vitamin A
Ready to eat cereals Vitamins, minerals

24. Define adulteration.

❖ Food adulteration means the act of intentionally debasing the quality of food by either adding or
replacing the food substances with alternative components.
or
❖ Food adulteration is the practice of adulterating food or contaminating food materials by adding
adulterants, which are poor quality substances added to food items for economic and technical
benefits.
Example
FOOD PRODUCT ADULTERANTS

Milk, curd Water and starch powder

Ghee, cheese, butter Mashed potatoes, vanaspati and starch powder
Grains Dust, pebbles, stones, damaged grains

Pulses Dyes, chemical and lead chromate

Sugar Chalk powder, washing soda,

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Pepper Dried papaya seeds

and blackberries
Cinnamon sticks Cassia bark
Master seeds Argemone seeds
Chilli powder Redbrick powder

25. Explain the effects of artificial ripening.

• Fruits ripened with calcium carbide are inferior in taste and flavors.
• It also shortens shelf life of fruits.
• Calcium carbide is dangerous chemical which may cause several harmful effects on human health like
Vomiting, diarrhea (with or without blood), burning sensation in chest and abdomen, thirst, weakness,
irritation or burning in eyes and skin, permanent eye damage, skin ulcers, sore throat cough and
shortness of breath.
• It can cause stomach upsets and disrupts intestinal functions,
• Artificially ripened frits may change the texture, taste, colour of the fruit.
• calcium carbide contains traces of arsenic and phosphorus hybrid which may produce arsenic or
phosphorus poisoning.
• Ethylene glycol may lead to acute renal failure and cause death.

26. Write the uses of pesticides.

• The major advantage of pesticides is that they can save farmers by protecting the crops from insects and
other pests.
• They control human/livestock disease vectors.
• To increase food productivity.
• They give higher crop yields and improve growth of crops.
• They also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions.

27. What is genetically modified food? Write the advantage and disadvantage.
❖ Genetically Modified (GM) foods are derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been
modified by using modern biotechnology, gene technology, recombinant DNA technology, and genetic
engineering.
❖ Genetically modified foods are the foods derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has
been modified in a way that does not occur naturally.
Advantage of genetically modified crops
• They control to pest, disease, and herbicide in plant.
• It helps to improved nutritional value.
• They allow greater precision and selecting traits.
• They reduce the risk of random occurrence of undesirable traits.
• They improve the agricultural yield with less labour and cost input.

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Disadvantages
• Environment: Undesired environmental effects include harming non-target and/or beneficial species
of crops with engineered insecticidal properties, as well as development of new strains of resistant
pests.
• Health: Presently, there is no evidence to suggest that whether GM foods are safe. Undesired health
effect allergens, antibiotic resistance, decreased nutrients, and toxins.
• Decreased nutrients: Since the DNA of genetically engineered plants is modified it is a matter of
concern that some GMCs may decrease the levels of vital nutrients, as DNA is the code to produce
nutrients.
• Toxins: Residual toxins releasing from the genes introduced into Bacillus thuringiensis in Bt cotton
crops are not likely to harm humans.

28. Define nutraceutical with their example.

❖ In 1989, Stephen De felices discovered the term nutraceuticals from nutrition and pharmaceutical.
❖ It a substance that is considered as a food or its part, which provides nutritional value and other health
benefits, including disease prevention or health promotion.
❖ Nutraceuticals are foods or food ingredients that provide medical or health benefits.
Medicinal plant used as a nutraceutical.
Name of the plant Parts of the plants Constituents Uses
being used
Allium sativum Bulbs diallyl sulphides, diallyl hyper cholesterol mina
(Garlic) disulphides. condition, anti-inflammatory.
Azadirachta indica Mature leaves Proteins, fibres, fat, Burning sensation, leprosy, and
(Neem tree) carbohydrates and intermittent fever.
minerals like calcium, iron.
Curcuma longa Rhizomes Protein, fat, Skin tumour, ant gastric ulcer,
(Turmeric) carbohydrates, fibres, balances the endocrine system
minerals like iron and and improves immunity.
vitamin like vitamin c and
vitamin B3.

29. Define drug food interaction.

• When a food or nutrient alters the effects of a drug, the alteration is considered a food-drug
interaction.
• Food-drug interaction can occur with prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, herbal products, and
dietary supplements.
• Drug food interaction beneficial or harmful.
Examples of food-drug interactions
Drug class Food or nutrient Interaction
IRON Avoid dairy products These food item enhance the amount of iron the body
• Ferrous sulphate with iron absorbs.
• Ferrous
gluconate

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Tetracyclines Avoid dairy products, Taking this medication with dairy products and food
and high in calcium, high in calcium, magnesium, and iron result in lower
magnesium, and iron. doxycycline blood levels.
Allopurinol • Avoid low low protein meals will result in higher blood levels of
protein meals. this drug.
• Avoid low fluid
content.

Note: these questions totally carry 60 marks. Select the chapters you feel easy to study.
Highlighted Chapter with yellow colour can be ignored if you want to just pass.
*********** ALL THE BEST***********

JC College of Pharmacy Sira Ph No: 8722929949 Email-id: jccollegeofpharmacy@gmail.com