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Method of Teachingt

The document outlines effective teaching skills and general teaching methods for primary education teachers, emphasizing the complexity of teaching as a dynamic process that involves planning, implementation, and evaluation. It highlights the importance of understanding teaching concepts, components, and skills necessary for successful lesson delivery, including lesson planning and assessment. The document aims to equip teachers with the competencies needed to enhance student learning outcomes and adapt to educational advancements.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

49 views183 pages

Method of Teachingt

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Saint Mary Institute

For Preparing Primary Education Teachers

Juba - South Sudan

Effective Teaching Skills “General Teaching Methods”

For the primary school teacher

Preparation

Prof. Dr. Zakaria Gaber Hennawi Bishay

Professor of Curricula and Teaching Methods - Faculty of Education

Assiut University

January 2024
Chapter one

Chapter One: Principles of teaching and learning

Concept of teaching and its components

Teaching skills

Skill of daily lesson planning.

Analysis of the lesson content.

Identify the previous experiences of curriculum topics which are necessary for
the new lesson.

Identify and formulate lesson objectives.

Learning outcomes:
By the end of this chapter, the teacher/student will be able to:

1. Understand the concept of teaching and its components

2. Classify the teaching skills

3. Learn the skill of daily lesson planning.

4. Analyze the content of the lesson.

5. Determine previous experiences related to curriculum topics and necessary for

the new lesson.

6. Determine and formulate the lesson objectives in a procedural/behavioral

form.
First: Concept of teaching and its components
Introduction:
Teaching is a complex process that includes many procedures and skills that
work in a dynamic, overlapping and intertwined manner simultaneously. Teaching
is a human and social process that depends on relationships and personal
communication between the teacher and the learner. Teaching is a profession that
has its origins, a science that has its components, and an art that has its talents. It
is an educational process based on foundations, rules, and theories that require
those working in it to know general and specialized scientific knowledge.
The teaching profession is viewed as the “Mother Profession” because it precedes
all other professions and is thus considered the primary source that paves the way
for other professions and provides them with qualified human elements
scientifically, socially, artistically and morally.
The tasks and roles of the teacher are no longer limited to simply transferring
knowledge to the learner, but rather these tasks and roles have expanded and
diversified to face the continuous and rapid developments such as the scientific
and technological revolution, the knowledge explosion, globalization, and the
emergence of new educational technologies in the fields of goals, curricula,
teaching methods, educational methods, management, and evaluation, which is
With these roles, he became a teacher, facilitator and producer of knowledge,
educator, leader, mentor, guide, contributor to research and investigation, renewal
and consolidator of values and cultural identity, unleashes the energies of learners,
maximizes their competitive abilities, and pushes them to dialogue, thinking, and
anticipating future prospects.
The philosophy of teacher preparation currently is based on competencies, that is,
on providing the student teacher with the basic competencies necessary for him to
carry out the process of teaching students to the fullest extent, which includes:
adequate lesson planning, implementation in the classroom, and then evaluation.
Each competency includes several sub-competencies, or partial skills, which lead to
Learning all of them aims to develop the teacher’s teaching skill, and the main areas
of skills are summarized in lesson planning skills - implementation - evaluating
student learning), and each of them includes major sub-skills that will be addressed
appropriately.
Activity
Create an appropriate definition of teaching of your own, then discuss it
with your colleagues.

Teaching concept:
Teaching has many concepts and various definitions, and knowing its meaning is
essential, as it is needed by the teacher who will carry out the teaching process, the
student who will participate in it, and the director who supervises the institution in
which teaching takes place. One of his duties may be to know whether each teacher
he has is performing the teaching process or not? The educational
mentor/supervisor whose work is related to evaluating the teaching process to
determine the strengths and weaknesses in the teacher’s work or to issue a
judgment on the teacher’s ability to teach students, and knowing the meaning of
teaching for every teacher is important because; Because the teacher’s educational
thought has a profound impact on the teaching process in all its aspects. There are
some teachers who believe that teaching is merely a transfer of information from
the teacher to the learner, and this type of teachers makes him unique in the
educational situation, emphasizing the importance of the teacher’s book.

Question:
Is the previous concept of teaching consistent with the age of cognitive
explosion? Explain the reasons?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................... .........................
There are some teachers who believe that teaching is a process of interaction,
guidance, and the practice of multiple activities that depend on the students’
effectiveness and efforts, and the teacher’s direction and guidance, because
teaching involves modifying behavior through the experiences that the students
are prepared for or go through. He believes that his role in the teaching process is
limited to playing the role of an assistant. Directing it to a plan for its stimuli, it must
therefore determine the goals that should be achieved, the activities that the
learners will undertake to achieve them, and what can stimulate the learners’
effectiveness to do or be directed to it.

Question: Identify the requirements for implementing the previous

teaching concept in the classroom?
.............................................................................................................................
............................................................................... ..............................................
..

There are those who define teaching as the process by which the teacher creates
opportunities for students to learn, and that it includes all decisions and activities
related to implementing the curriculum, including the learning and guidance
processes used to influence the learner in order to achieve desired educational
goals. According to this definition, the teaching process, the roles of the teacher
the learner inside and outside the classroom, the type of classroom interaction
between the teacher and the learner, and the way students are seated and
organized
Within the class, whether individually, small groups, or large groups, and the time
during which teaching takes place.

Teaching is a human activity:

The teaching process consists of a group of activities carried out by the teacher for
the purpose of helping his students achieve certain educational goals. Teaching is
a behavior that can be observed and measured and thus can be controlled,
evaluated and improved. Teaching is also a social behavior that does not arise in a
vacuum, but rather has its own fields, which are represented by the teacher, the
learner and the subject. And the learner’s environment, and that there must be
interaction between the four areas: the teacher and the students, between the
students and the educational material or educational experiences, and between
the teacher and the students in the presence of a fertile environment for learning.
Teaching system:
Teaching as a system consists of three sequential parts:
It includes the teacher and his psychological, personal and physical characteristics.
Job qualifications and educational philosophy; The social and economic
background also includes the learner and his psychological, personal and
achievement characteristics. Social and economic background and gender. Inputs
also include school materials and curricula and their components: goals, content,
educational and evaluative activities, etc. Finally, they include environmental
inputs for the learner and the components they contain: furniture, equipment,
educational and administrative means; In addition to all the educational,
recreational and administrative facilities that constitute the school as a purposeful
social and educational institution.
Teaching processes:
Setup processes include; Interaction, evaluation, and follow-up, which will be
discussed later.
Teaching outcomes:
These are the changes required to be brought about in personality development in
the cognitive, skill, emotional and social aspects.
The following figure shows teaching as a system consisting of inputs, processes, and
outputs:

Inputs Processes Outputs

- Teacher - Preparation process -Cognitive aspect
Characteristics - Performance process
-Emotional aspects
- Characteristics of - Assessment process
students - Follow-up -Skillful aspects
- Characteristics of
-Social aspects
the curriculum
- Environmental
Characteristics
Feedback feedback

Teaching as a multi-stage step:

The teaching process is not limited to what the teacher does in teaching and
learning situations, but rather it is a process that includes many activities before,
during and after the teacher meets his students. The teaching process contains
three mains, integrated and follow-up stages, which are:
1- Preparation stage for the educational situation:
It is the stage of the teacher’s mental activity, in which the teacher analyzes the
learning material, determines the educational objectives for the learning
situations, and chooses the best methods to achieve those objectives, in addition
to determining the evaluation methods for detecting the learning outcomes. This
stage is called the pre-interaction stage because it takes place outside the
classroom and is A stage in which the teacher’s educational position appears to be
an easy and harmonious position.
2- The stage of purifying the educational situation:
It is the stage of interaction where the confrontation between the teacher and his
students begins, and the plan drawn up by the teacher for the course of the lesson
is implemented. It is the stage of free interaction, which is characterized by the
speed of its performance, and what seemed logical and easy in the preparation
stage becomes a complex psychological situation at this stage.
3- The stage after implementing the educational situation:
It is the evaluation and follow-up stage, during which the teacher assesses the
impact he has had on his students, and thus determines the effectiveness of the
preparation. Implement and benefit from these in the following educational
situation:
The following figure shows the three stages of the teaching process:

The performance stage (interaction)

The preparation step Implementation Evaluation and follow-up stage

- Determine the objectives - Introduction and - Post assessment
of the lesson. preliminary evaluation
- Determine previous - Presentation the new - Learning outcomes
requirements . educational material.
- Teaching strategies
- Determine strategies - Applications.
and teaching methods - Assessment during the used and activities
- Determine procedures of lesson. - Performance time
teaching activities and -Closing the lesson and
methods. (different elements of the
mentioning the homework
- Determine means of instructional situation)
assessment learning
outcomes

Feedback Feedback

Teaching is a purposeful activity:

Teaching aims to bring about a change in personality development, and teaching is
a means to an end, which is learning or modifying students’ behavior to help them
achieve comprehensive growth. The goals of teaching are multiple, from acquiring
knowledge and scientific thinking to acquiring skills and forming attitudes, values,
and formal tendencies, in addition to acquiring the ability to excel, as well as
excelling. Teaching objectives depend on the type of subject being learned, the
objectives of teaching it, the levels of those objectives, and the nature of the
students’ stage of development. The fourth chapter explains the relationship
between teaching and educational objectives.

Teaching and assessment:

Teaching is subjected to a comprehensive and continuous evaluation process, and
it has previously been noted that the teaching process includes three main steps:
the preparation step, the implementation step, and finally the evaluation and
follow-up step in which the teacher determines the extent of his influence on the
students, and thus identifies the effectiveness of teaching. Evaluation is a
comprehensive process for all elements of educational situations, including the
teacher, the learner, and the academic subject (the subject of learning). It also
includes the three steps, where the preparation and implementation steps are
evaluated to determine their effectiveness and benefit from those in the following
educational situations. Evaluation is also a continuous process before, during, and
after teaching. The fifth chapter explains the relationship between teaching and
evaluation.

Training:
• Compare the previous definitions.
• Explain the strengths and weaknesses of each.
• Select the definition that you prefer more than others and explain the reasons.

In light of the above analytical description of the teaching process, it can be said
that:
Teaching: A purposeful, planned human activity in which interaction takes place
between teacher, learner, and subject of learning in the presence of a fertile
environment for learning. As a result of this interaction, progress occurs in the
learner’s cognitive, emotional, and skill aspects, and he is subjected to a
comprehensive and continuous evaluation process.

Teaching components:
Teaching has four basic components: -
Teaching objectives,
Teaching content (learning experiences),
Teaching methods and activities,
Assessment teaching outcomes.
These four components are so intertwined and interacting that it is difficult to
separate them. In light of the lesson objectives, the teaching content, experiences,
methods and activities are determined and the achievement of

Lesson objectives: Its outcomes (teaching and learning outcomes) are measured
and assessed, then teaching paths and directions are developed or modified and
even its content also.

Activity:
Design a diagram of your own that explains the components of the teaching
process.
Share this diagram with your colleagues, and discuss with them the
differences between your design and your colleagues' designs.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................... ..................
.......................................................................................................................
................................................................................... ....................................
.......................................................................................................................
................................................................. ......................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................. .....................
.......................................................................................................................
................................................................................ .......................................

Second: Teaching skills

Teaching skills:
We mentioned previously that the teaching process includes three successive and
complete Steps:
The lesson preparation step, the lesson implementation step, and finally the
evaluation and follow-up step. At each of these steps, we find many skills that the
teacher must acquire and master, and experience plays an essential role in the
teacher’s acquisition of these skills. We will present the main teaching skills and the
sub-skills that make up each skill.

Activity:
Together with your partner, try to come up with a list of the set of
skills involved in each of the three steps of the teaching process
First: Lesson preparation skills: These include the following skills:
1- Skill of analyzing lesson content.
2- Skill of identifying previous requirements.
3- Skill of setting lesson objectives.
4- Skill of drawing up a plan for the sequence of presenting lesson content.
5- Skill of identifying strategies and teaching methods appropriate for the lesson.
6- Skill of determining educational methods and activities for the lesson.
7- Skill of preparing questions according to the lesson plan.
8- Skill of creating class time.
9- Skill of determining how to close the lesson.
10- Skill of identifying tools and methods for assessing learning outcomes.
Second: Lesson introduction skills: These include the following skills:
1- Skill of preparing for the lesson.
2- Pre-assessment skill (diagnosis and treatment).
3- Skill of presenting good educational material.
4- Skill of employing specific tools.
5- Skill of asking questions.
6- Skill of using activities during the lesson.
7- Skill of organizing the blackboard.
8- Skill of closing the lesson.
9- Skill of solving problems.
10- Skill of storing in the classroom.
11- Skill of dealing with students at different levels (individual differences between
students).
12- Skill of using various reinforcement methods.
13- Skill of variation the stimuli in the lesson.
14- Skill of changing the interaction style (methods and strategies) within the
classroom.

Third: Assessment and follow-up skills: These include the

following skills:
1. Skill of preparing tests.
2. Skill of applying tests.
3. Skill of correcting tests.
4. Skill of diagnosing students’ mistakes.
5. Skill of treating students’ errors using remedial methods and activities.
6. Skills of evaluating teaching procedures: starting from the objectives, content,
teaching, use of the blackboard, performance time, and learning outcomes.
Skill of planning daily lessons

Initiation Activity
What do you think of the following statement?

Saw sharpening before cutting down trees

-If I had eight hours to cut down a tree, I would spend six hours sharpening the
saw.

-If you don't want to get tired, then make an effort so that you don't get tired.

.................................................. .................................................. ...........................

Serious warning:
Not preparing well for the lesson: This leads to confusion during the explanation
in the classroom, and creates an idea among the students that I am an
.incompetent teacher

Participate
Tell your group members about a situation that happened with you personally
(or with one of your colleagues) ... a situation in which you were exposed to
confusion as a result of not preparing the lesson well.

We previously mentioned that the teaching process includes three elements:

planning, implementation, and evaluation.
The planning process occurs before implementation when the teacher prepares
himself to teach the lesson and has specific requirements, including: knowing the
characteristics of the learners, analyzing the content of the study material, knowing
the capabilities, means and activities available, formulating the lesson objectives in
a behavioral manner, determining teaching strategies, and determining evaluation
methods.
The teacher puts all these requirements in a plan to guide him when teaching the
lesson topic.
Planning of teaching can be defined as a procedural description of the best
activities, means, tools, materials and activities that will be used to achieve
teaching objectives and how to employ and prepare them.
Planning of teaching can also be defined as preparing a guide to implement an
educational matter or specifying proposals to achieve an educational goal.
Therefore, planning gives an opportunity to think about the best ways and methods
that can be employed to help students achieve specific goals, investing in the
various available capabilities.
The importance of lesson planning:
The art of teaching is not an improvisational or random process, but rather a
process that requires planning and preparation. It is a grave mistake for the teacher
to rely on his memorization of the material and his mastery of it, as every lesson,
no matter how easy it is, requires the teacher to prepare his material, set its limits,
and arrange the facts included in his lesson. And develop a specific, clear plan that
will reach the goals in the shortest way.

Experience has proven that preparing lessons for all teachers, at all levels, and that
negligence, neglect, or haste in it, puts the teacher in critical situations in front of
his students and subordinates, and the teacher who does not make a plan for his
lesson is exposed to confusion, distraction, and forgetting some important
elements of the subject. And hesitation in his information, and therefore, before
teaching, he must prepare the plan for the lesson, taking into account the students’
ages, abilities, and experiences, and determine the goal of his lesson, and explain
the stages of its progress in it, and the time required for its implementation, and
then specify the means that will help him achieve his goals, as he should. He must
be familiar with the aspects of the subject he is studying, and be prepared to face
all possibilities that may arise in the lesson.

Accordingly, preparing lessons allows the teacher to do the

following:
1. The opportunity to enrich his knowledge, by referring to various sources, to
clarify ambiguous points in the lesson, explain some vocabulary, or verify some
components of the lesson.
2. The opportunity to verify some of the information contained in the lesson, or
from those who heard it without studying or researching.
3. Determining the amount of material appropriate for the allowed time, the
beginning and end of the lesson, and the difficulty and ease of the material.
4. Selecting interesting material for students that arouses their interest from
various sources without adhering to the text book.
5. Arranging the material and organizing it in an appropriate logical manner.
Lesson planning also has an important advantage, which is that the class ends with
the achievement of the objectives, which gives students a sense of accomplishment
and increases their motivation to learn. However, if the learning objectives are so
complex that it is impossible to achieve them in one class, it is necessary to plan
each class so that it ends with a natural, logical ending, and so that the teacher has
sufficient time to clarify what he has explained and show the relationships between
its parts.

There are four questions that the teacher must ask himself before starting to
prepare the lesson:

1- What do I teach?

2- Why do I teach?

3- How do I teach?

4- Did learning happen?

Activity
Think about the possible answer to each of the previous four questions:

Question Answer from your point of view

1- What do I teach? ……………………………………….

2- Why do I teach? ………………………………..

3- How do I teach? ……………………………………

4- Did learning happen? …………………………………….

Each of the previous questions refers to an important aspect that must be

included in good preparation for the lesson, as is evident from the following:
• When we ask ourselves, What I we teach,” “we are looking for the beginning of
the question: What is the educational content that we want to teach? Answering
this question requires the teacher to determine the level of the lesson, and analyze
this level into the various aspects of learning: facts, concepts, generalizations, skills,
and problem solving...
• Also, when we ask ourselves “Why do I teach,” we mean what goals we want to
achieve? This requires the teacher to determine and formulate the objectives of
the lesson according to the general objectives of the subject he is teaching, the type
and content of the lesson, the characteristics of his students’ stage of development,
etc.
• Question: How do I teach? Answering it requires the teacher to determine the
teaching methods, educational activities, and appropriate teaching aids for
presenting this content in an attempt to achieve the lesson objectives.
• As for the question: “Did learning happen?” What we mean by it are: What are
the questions, exercises, and tests that the teacher must conduct on his students
in order to ensure their learning? The answer to this question requires the teacher
to determine the most appropriate assessment methods (questions, tests,
interviews, observations, etc.). etc.), which can help him to ensure that lesson
objectives are achieved and learning happen.
According to the logical sequence of the four questions mentioned above, the
teacher’s preparation for his lesson should include the following five points:

1- Analyze the lesson content.

2- Identify previous experiences of curriculum topics and necessary for the new
lesson.
3- Identify and formulate lesson objectives.
4- Determine a content submission sequence plan.
5- Assessment of learning outcomes.

As is clear, the first and second points answer the first question: What do we teach?
The third point answers our question: Why do we teach? While the fourth point
answers the question: How do we know? As for the fifth and final point, it answers
our question: Did learning happen?
In the following pages, we discuss each of the previous points in some detail.
First: Analysis of the lesson content:
The concept of content analysis:
It is intended to extract the learning aspects included in a lesson and includes
cognitive aspects, such as concepts, facts, information, laws, and generalizations,
and emotional aspects, such as: values and attitudes, and psychomotor aspects,
which are: skills that can be acquired by learners (academic-social).

Lesson content analysis procedures:

The process of analyzing lesson content answers a main question that the
teacher (analyst) must put before him, which is: Why this lesson? That is, was this
lesson planned to revolve around a concept? Or skill? Or something else?

Hence, we find the process of content analysis reveals the aspects of learning
included in the lesson, helps formulate behavioral objectives clearly, and also
reveals the ambiguity that reveals goal setting: it shows us how to formulate the
goal in the correct field, as there is a common error in formulating objectives, It is
to formulate them all in one field, which is the cognitive field.

The starting point in content analysis is the educational objective. A well-

formulated educational objective facilitates the analysis process and enables
learning to isolate the necessary elements from the unnecessary elements. It is
possible to carry out content analysis according to the following procedures:

1- Read the lesson as a general overview:

In this step, the lesson is read carefully in general, until the general objective of
this lesson is identified, which represents the second step.

2- Determine the general objective of the lesson:

Here the general objective of the lesson is determined, and this step is only
completed after going through the previous step, which is the overall reading
process of the lesson.
3- Read each paragraph of the lesson separately:
After setting and defining the general goal of the lesson, this step comes, which
is to read each paragraph of the lesson separately, because each paragraph has a
special goal that serves the general goal that was previously determined.

4- Determine what each paragraph is about:

Through the process of individually reading each paragraph, it is determined
whether this paragraph revolves around a concept, skill, value, etc. from the
various aspects of learning.

5- Prepare a list of the aspects of learning around which the lesson

revolves:
Through the previous steps, a list of the various aspects of learning around which
the lesson whose content is being analyzed is determined, and it is not possible to
determine that list except after going through the previous steps.

6- Formulate one or several goals around each paragraph:

This step represents the final step in the content analysis process, in which one
or several objectives are formulated around each paragraph, depending on the
aspect of learning that that paragraph revolves around. Hence, we avoid falling into
the mistakes of formulating educational objectives; Because the learning aspects
are before us.

Content analysis is a method that aims to describe the content objectively and
systematically, which leads to identifying the basic elements of learning. The
learning content contains three main aspects, each of which contains sub-sections,
as laid out in the following layout:
Learning content

Cognitive Skill domain (skills) Emotional domain

domain - Cognitive (mental) skills (inclinations and
(knowledge) Performing skills (manual - trends)
- Facts - Trends and values
- Concepts - Tendencies
-skills Appreciations -
- Solve
problem

During preparing the lesson, it should include a brief analysis of the learning
content in the lesson. Of course, all of these aspects and sections may not be
present in every lesson, but the lesson may contain some of them and not contain
others. Such an element of brevity should be emphasized in referring to the
content.
:
Example: Content analysis of a mathematics lesson:

Lesson title: Area of quadrilaterals.

Concepts:

Quadrilateral - rectangle - square - parallelogram - rhombus - kite.

Generalizations:

o The area of a square is equal to the length of the side times itself

o The area of a rectangle is equal to the length times the width.

o The area of a parallelogram is equal to the length of the base

times the height.

o The area of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the areas of the

two triangles that make it up.

Skills:

o Find the area of the square.

o Find the area of the rectangle

o Draw a column on the base of a parallelogram

o Determine the base and height of the parallelogram.

Problem Solving:

A planted garden in the shape of the letter L as in the figure, find

the planted area.
Practical activity:
Choose a lesson in your field of specialization from a primary school class, and
analyze its content.
Example: Content analysis of a lesson in the subject
................................

the title of lesson: ..............................................

Concepts:

.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ................................

Generalizations:

o .................................................

Skills:

o .................................................

Problem Solving:

Each topic of the educational content taught to students has its own nature, which
is that it is a cumulative topic that includes an ordered and connected series of
knowledge (facts, concepts, generalizations...) and each part in the series
necessarily requires students’ familiarity with the previous parts.
Therefore, through introducing any new educational topic, the teacher must
specify the previous experiences and learning experiences that are considered prior
learning requirements for the new learning.
Example: Identifying prior learning requirements for a science lesson.

Lesson title: Understanding the existence of atmospheric air

Concepts:

-Basic concept: atmospheric air.

- Basic concepts: life - properties - everywhere - vacuum - atmosphere.

- Learning requirements and previous experiences: plants, animals, taste, movement, rotation,
and the surface of the earth.

-Special concepts: all directions.

Examples: vegetables, humans, the cavity of an empty bottle, the movement of the wind, the
weight of the air inside the ball.
Atmospheric air

Atmosphere Space Everywhere Characteristics Life

Earth's surface Taste scent

Weight Movement

All directions Animal Plant

200 km

Practical activity:

Choose one of the lessons in your field of specialization from one of the primary
school classes, and specify the previous learning requirements for this topic:

Third: Determine and formulate the objectives of the lesson.

Example: Identifying previous learning requirements for a lesson in

................

Title of lesson: .......................................

- Basic concept: ........................

- Education requirements and previous experiences:

- ................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
................................
Activity:

• Define the goal in general.

• ................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
....................................

• Define the educational objective.

Definition of educational objective:

The word goal generally refers to the goal or intention that we seek to reach. As for
the educational goal, it can be defined as “the expressions that describe the
expected outcomes or outcomes in all dimensions of the human personality of any
educational system, whether these outcomes are for the formal or non-formal
education system in society.” What, or the formal education system or the teaching
system.
Objectives are defined as a statement or statements that describe the behavior or
performance expected to be performed as a result of going through an educational
experience or educational situation under certain conditions and in a visible
manner that can be observed and measured to a certain degree.
Objectives can also be defined as: stating the type of change we aim to achieve in
the learner’s behavior in its emotional, cognitive and motor aspects.
Definition of educational objective:
The goal is the result, the goal or intention that the student wants to achieve after
going through an educational situation.
The goal is a description of the learning outcome in the form of behavior or
performance expected of the student as a result of his exposure to an educational
experience.
Levels of educational objectives:
The proposed formula for levels of educational objectives consists of three
major levels:
The first level:
Aims of Education: They represent the major educational goals of the education
system as a whole, both its formal and non-formal types, in a given society.
The second level: Educational Goals
They represent the general goals of any formal education system, whether it is the
education system in society as a whole, or the education system at an academic
level or for specific curricula.
The third level: Instructional Objectives
They represent the goals of the teaching system, whether for a course, a unit of
study, or a single lesson.
Teaching objectives can be defined as:
Statements that explain the types of learning outcomes in student behavior that
are expected to occur from the teaching system.
If these outcomes are formulated in a procedural manner, that is, in the form of
behavior or performance that can be observed and measured, then the objectives
are called behavioral objectives or performance objectives.

activity:
• From the point of view, is defining educational objectives/learning
outcomes important? And why?

a. The importance of setting goals for the teacher:

1- It helps the teacher choose teaching methods that can be considered a direct
means to achieving goals.
2- It helps the teacher choose teaching methods and activities because they are an
important and necessary means of positive learning.
3- It helps in choosing evaluation methods and means that seek to measure the
extent to which goals are achieved. The teacher chooses, according to the goals,
whether the evaluation is individual or group, written or oral, theoretical or
practical.

B. The importance of setting goals for the learner:

Many studies have proven that learners’ knowledge of the lesson objectives
increases the level of achievement and leads to attention, concentration, and
directing energy towards realizing the objectives set by the teacher at the
beginning of teaching. For example, the teacher says, In today’s lesson we will learn
together about cases in which two lines are parallel, and I hope you will pay
attention that we will focus To know these cases, when lines are not parallel, and
how to use that in solving some exercises.

Activity:

• From the point of view, are there conditions in writing the educational
objective? What are they?

2- It suits the abilities, aptitudes and inclinations of the students.

3- It takes into account the human and financial capabilities of the teachers and
the school.

4- Its investigation is proportional to the time period available for investigation.

5- It can be achieved and is easy to measure and determine the extent of

verification.

6- It is easy to formulate in procedural and behavioral forms.

Activity:

• Discuss these statements with your colleague: Explaining whether they are true
or false:

1- “Educational goals should focus only on the mental aspect of the student.”

2- “Developing of the student’s mental and performance skills is an essential

component of the educational process.”

3- “The teacher is not responsible for developing the psychological and emotional
aspects of the students.”

The classification (Bloom 1956 and Krathwohl 1964) is considered one of the most
famous classifications in the field of identifying and defining educational objectives.
The classification consists of a group of sections that contain all the possible
learning outcomes that we expect learning to produce. The interpretation is based
on a basic assumption, which is that learning outcomes can be described in the
form of specific changes in students’ behavior, and this division is useful in
formulating behavioral educational objectives. Bloom's division of educational
objectives consists of three components:

First: Cognitive objectives:

5It includes objectives that express the cognitive aspects of the information
included in the educational process, as the cognitive domain includes objectives
that emphasize intellectual learning outcomes such as: knowledge, understanding,
and higher thinking skills. The classification of objectives in this field is divided into
six main sections that range in complexity. These are divided in turn into
subsections, and these six cognitive levels can be represented in the following
hierarchical:
Level of the cognitive domain of goals

-Evaluation
-Synthesis
-Analysis
-Application
-Understanding
-Memory

Behavioral actions for each level

-criticize - balance - decide - approve - prefer -

-Form- install - produce - compose - design
-Classify - distinguish - analyze
- solve - infer - prove - conclude
-Explain – give reasons - deduce - show - clarify - predict -
-Mention - identify -define - determin - enumerate -

What should be noted is that this classification, the cognitive objectives, is arranged
hierarchically from easy to difficult, or from simple to complex, such that the lowest
level is the easiest and simplest level, and achieving it is the key to success at the
level directly above them. In other words, an individual's success and mastery at a
certain level of the hierarchy means his success and mastery at all levels below that
level.

Examples of behavioral actions for cognitive goals:

1-Level of recollection:
He mentions, repeats, knows, records, names, memorizes, lists, describes, recites,
says.

2- Level of understanding:
Discusses, explains, adds, expresses, paraphrases, classifies.
3- Application level:
Translate into scientific reality, explain, draw a diagram, explain, use, practice,
apply, solve, tabulate, illustrate by application, show, calculate, explain,
experiment, modify, use.
4- Level of analysis:
Distinguish, compare, contrast, analyze, test, differentiate, illustrate, raise a
question, and connect.
5- Installation level:
Assemble, construct, invent, propose, collect, design, prepare, plan, organize,
compose, demonstrate, derive.
6- Evaluation level:
He judges, chooses, evaluates, corrects, reviews, grades, measures, and estimates.
Second: Affective goals:
It includes goals that express the emotional or emotional aspects that relate to the
individual's degree of acceptance or rejection of something. These goals also relate
to expressing feelings of love, appreciation, inclinations, and aesthetic taste. Under
this type of behavior, we find five levels, in terms of their levels of complexity or
difficulty, in the following ascending order:
-Satisfaction or acceptance
-Response
-Evaluation
-Value arrangement
-Value assignment (representation)
Examples of behavioral actions in the emotional domain:
1- Level of acceptance:
He allows to me, is aware, cares, accepts, listens.
2- Response level:
He gets excited, responds to me, desires, obeys, tends, responds.
3- Evaluation level:
He follows up, listens to advice, takes the initiative, performs his work accurately,
persuades, expresses his opinion, addresses, prefers, commits, and confesses.
4- The level of value organization:
Resolves differences, changes opinions, changes position, intends, defines
relationships and values, organizes values, maintains, links moral standards,
balances, tends to, shapes.
5- Level of value allocation:
He is imbued with principles, imbued with a certain philosophy, imbued with a
certain model, believes, trusts, develops, and develops.

Third: Skill objectives: (Psychomotor):

It includes goals that express manual skills, motor skills, the ability to handle and
use tools and devices, and the ability to perform a specific performance that
requires psychomotor and neurological coordination.

Examples of behavioral actions in the psychomotor field:

He throws, knocks, tastes, wears, writes, swims, plays, runs, prays, plays on me,
cooks, sprinkles, pushes, rises, whispers, devours, paints, mixes, squeezes, stabs,
handles, weighs, spreads, stirs, mixes. , reads.
Practical Activity:

Dear teacher:

Choose a unit/topic in your field of specialization...and formulate and prepare a

set of educational objectives that you wish to impart to students through teaching
this subject...provided that these objectives include the three areas of educational
objectives:

- Cognitive field.

-Emotional field.

- Skill field.

1. Write what you learned during this unit................................................

2- Write one thing that you need more practice and explanation about.

3- What ideas can you convey to your students in the classroom in teaching?

The concept of motivational warm-up for the lesson

The importance of motivational warm-up

When will successful introduction take place?

Conditions of good incentive warm-up.

Types of warm-up.

Motivational conditioning methods.

Practical activities on motivational warm-up.

Learning outcomes:

By the end of this chapter, the teacher/student will be able to:

1- Defines the concept of motivational warm-up for the lesson.

2- Conclude the importance of motivational warm-up.

3- Decides when successful warm-up takes place.

4- Deduce the conditions for good motivational warm-up.

5- Recognizes the types of warm-up.

6- Applies motivational warm-up methods.

7- Designs applied activities on motivational warm-up.

introductory activity
Nicest comment:

o Show the following picture to the trainees:

o Ask the trainees to contemplate the picture for two minutes...
then...
o Ask each trainee to write a comment on the photo on a sticky
note... then paste it on the wall... to create a gallery
o Ask the trainees to get up and read the comments written by
all their colleagues, and put a star on the most beautiful
comment.
o The trainer selects the comment with the highest number of
stars.
o Rewarding the person with the most beautiful comment (a
chocolate bar).

Discussion Questions:
Lead the participants in the following discussion by asking the following set of
questions:

- What did you learn from this activity?

- Can such an activity be applied in the classroom?

- What is the purpose of implementing this activity?

- Do you support the teacher using activities like these at the beginning of
presenting the lesson?

- Do you have previous experiences in which you did an interesting activity at the
beginning of the lesson?

-Can you share it with us?

- What are your students’ impressions after implementing this activity?

Warm-up skill for the new lesson

Introduction:

Preparing students mentally, emotionally, and physically to learn the new lesson is
one of the most important things that the teacher should pay attention to before
going into the details of the lesson.
Activity:

What is meant by warming up for the lesson?

Motivational warm-up for the new lesson:

• Motivational warm-up for the lesson means the group of practices that the
teacher performs with the intention of preparing the students for the new lesson,
so that they are in a mental, emotional, and physical state that allows them to
receive the lesson and respond to the teacher. This warming up also aims to
attract the students’ attention and their enthusiasm for the lesson, so that it

Ensure their participation in the lesson

Activity:

What do you think of the following statement?

“Do not surprise students with information about the new lesson.”

Through your teaching experience

How do you provide successful warm-up for your lesson?

Successful warm-up for the new lesson:

• The teacher succeeds in preparing for the lesson when he takes into account the
answer to three questions:
Successful Warm-up

1-Why warm-up

When does warm-

up take place?

How to present the

Warm-up ?
First: Why warm-up?

Why do you prepare for the new lesson?

• Preparation for the new lesson is being carried out for the following reasons:

• Arouse students’ attention and interest in what they will learn.

• Stimulates students’ motivation to learn.

• Provide clear meaning of the new concepts that students will learn.

• Providing integrated instruction for students, by recalling the experiences they

gained in previous lessons and linking them to the experiences of the new lesson.

Activity:

From your point of view:

When is successful warm-up?

• This is because the lesson usually includes several diverse activities, each of
which needs appropriate warm-up in order to achieve its purpose.

Types of warm-up

3- Evaluative Transitional 1- Orientation

warm-up warm-up warm-up

The first type: Orientation warm-up:

• This type of preparation is used to direct students' attention towards the topic
of the lesson we want to teach.

• It provides a framework that helps students imagine the educational activities

that will be included in the lesson... and also helps in clarifying the objectives of
the lesson.

• It is used in orientation preparation at the beginning of the lesson.

Example (1):
Example (2):

Activity:
Design an activity (it could be a picture or a game) that you can use as an
orientation warm-up with your students at the beginning of the new lesson.

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The second type: transitional warm-up

This type of warm-up is characterized by one main characteristic:
It is mainly used to facilitate the gradual transition from previously discussed
material to new material or from one educational activity to another.
The teacher usually relies on examples that can be measured against, and on
activities that he knows that the students have experience in, in order to achieve a
gradual transition to presenting the lesson elements.

Example: Happiness Ball

The idea: It is a small ball held by the teacher.

Use the happiness ball at the beginning of the class until the end of the class...

The teacher throws the ball to one of the students in the class to ask him a
question, participate in an activity, or give a comment.

Happiness Ball: One of its advantages is that you can throw it to anyone if you
do not want to answer.
After I finish, I return the ball to the teacher or to any colleague, and so on until
the end of the class...then the ball is returned to the teacher.

Note: The ball is moved during the class by only 3 to 4 students, more or less
depending on the time of the class.

Activity:

- Give one of the participants a “happiness ball” and ask him to answer a specific
question related to the topic of the lesson, such as: “What happens if rain falls in
Juba this year?”
- Ask this participant, after answering the question... to pass the ball to a
colleague... and he asks him a question related to the topic of the lesson.
- Ask the participants: What are the uses/applications that the happiness ball can
be used for in the classroom?
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The third type: assessing warm-up

This type is mainly used to assess what has been learned before moving on to
new activities or experiences. This type depends largely on activities centered
around the student... and on the activities he presents to show the extent of his
mastery of the educational material.

Example:

Write the numbered elements drawn on the map in front of you.

1- ...............

2- ...............

3- ...............

4- ...............

5- ................

6- ................

7- .................
Conditions of good motivational warm-up:
• Providing an educational classroom environment suitable for learning
(ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, ...)

• Creating the psychological atmosphere for students.

• Be exciting and motivating to learn.

• To be innovative and new

• Short in time, not more than 5 minutes.

• Appropriate and closely related to the lesson topic.

• Suitable for the level of students.

• To connect the previous lesson or previous experiences with the experiences of

the new lesson.

(3) How is motivational warm-up provided? (motivational

conditioning methods)
Warm-up methods vary from one teacher to another, and from one stage to
another.

We will discuss some of the methods from the educational field.

1- The introduction links the previous lesson to the current lesson.

This is done through an organized set of questions that must be answered by

recalling previous experiences and information necessary for learning new
experiences, and arranging these questions so that they gradually lead students
to the topic of the new lesson.

Example:
• If the topic of the new lesson is (rain), the teacher begins the lesson by linking
it to the previous lesson (temperature), and displays some pictures showing
the rising temperatures.
• He says, for example: Who reminds me of our previous lesson and shows
pictures of rain or a movie clip and says in this lesson we will highlight the
degree of connection between them and then elicits the answer from the
students.

(2) Warm-up by carrying out a quick diagnostic and treatment process based on
previous experiences in the form of a set of questions or dialogue and discussion.

The purpose of this is to determine the level of students in the class, and to ensure
that each student has the necessary amount of information to follow the new
lesson.
like:
• Direct questions asked by the teacher to his students for the purpose of
identifying and recalling previously learned information necessary for the new
lesson.
• Question or exercise: The teacher presents it to his students, and by reviewing
their answers and various solutions, he can ensure the existence of this
information.
• Dialogue or discussion: between the teacher and the students who possess this
information for the purpose of reminding his students of it and preparing them for
the new lesson.
(3) Warm-up for lesson by clarifying its objectives:
For example, the teacher lists and clarifies the objectives of his lesson to his
students, at the beginning of the class. This technique means an advanced system
for the student’s activity and sharing of the lesson’s experiences. This technique is
based on an important hypothesis which is that defining the objective (objectives
of the lesson) and making it clear to the student may lead to bridging the gap in
Students’ cognitive construction between the desired outcome (objective level)
and the students’ previous information (prior levels), which leads to generating a
type of internal motivation for each student to bridge that gap and acquire the
objective.

(4) Warm-up through the historical introduction to the lesson topic.

This is through the teacher’s approach to bringing the development history of some
theories, facts, or scientific phenomena.

Activity:
Think with me: How can this image be used to warm-up for a new lesson?

(5) Warm-up through problem solving.

For example, the teacher presents the topic of the lesson (a theory, an exercise, or
a problem) in the form of a problem, and asks his students to participate in thinking
about the solution. The teacher may help them by asking some examples and
questions to help them solve that problem.

(6) Brainstorming
The student is asked to present the largest number of ideas about the given
situation, whether this situation is a visual image, a written passage, or a role play
situation. . And so on

Example:

If we fold the corresponding figure:

What shapes will be produced?

The activity can be carried out practically by making a cardboard cube.

(7) Telling stories:

If the topic of the lesson is (…………), then the teacher begins the lesson by telling
a story whose events are about the topic of the lesson, through which the students
deduce the title of the lesson and learn its elements.
Example:

The story of Uncle Jacob: the orange seller.

Lesson topic: Negative numbers and positive numbers
Objective: Teach students the meaning of profit and loss.
Activity:

Create a story from your imagination... suitable as a warm-up for presenting one of
the topics of your specialization.

(8) Presentation of current events:

If the topic of the lesson is about (the economic crisis), for example, the teacher
begins the lesson by reading one of the recently published news about the
economic crisis that shook the world’s economy. Then he asks the students about
the causes of this crisis, and after discussing those causes briefly, and when the
students reach at the answers, the teacher writes the title of the lesson on the
board. The blackboard and begins to teach them its elements.

Activity:

Choose an event or news related to South Sudan, whether (sport event, economic
event, environmental...), and link it to one of the sport in your field of
specialization... and use it as an input in presenting the lesson.
Share with your colleagues in the rest of the group what you have come up
with.

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(9) Asking stimulating questions:
If the lesson topic is (climate change)
The teacher can begin the lesson by asking a question such as: What would
happen if the temperature in Juba became 30 degrees below zero?
He begins to receive answers from the students and records each of them as they
go on the far left side of the board, and does not interfere in judging their accuracy.
He should encourage the students to add more answers, and after the students
finish the answers, he just says that the correct answer to this question will be
known from studying our study of today’s lesson, then he writes the title of the
lesson on the board and begins teaching the elements of the lesson.
(10) Students practice of investigative or exploratory activities:
If the topic of the lesson is about (the water cycle), the teacher begins with an
activity in which a dotted and colored piece of paper is distributed, and between
the colors and dots a group of letters is written. The student begins to discover the
letters and form the names of the stages. This activity represents an introduction
to teaching them the lesson.

(11) Scientific anecdotes activities:

Scientific anecdotes are considered one of the most efficient methods and
approaches that the teacher uses to arouse the interest of his students whenever
the need arises. The philosophy of scientific anecdotes in general is based on
suspense and attracting interest.
Providing rare information, an exciting offer, or a strange experience can attract
the learner to it and stimulate his curiosity. Likewise, the repetition of such
information, presentations, and experiments, which all share the element of
humor, quickly generates in the learner the desire to know, watch, and practice
more of it. The desire quickly develops into the need to go deep into the study of
science, explore its depths, and learn about its most intimate secrets. Then trends
emerge from the need. It quickly grows and takes root in the learner if it is provided
with opportunities for reinforcement and continuation. It turns into positive
tendencies that push the learner to love science, subject matter, method, and
teacher. The subject of science is characterized - in nature - by many characteristics
that can attract the largest number of learners to study it, but this depends on the
way the curriculum treats its subject, and the way the teacher presents it.
The science teacher can use scientific anecdotes as an introduction to the lesson to
prepare and motivate the students: by presenting many of the lessons in an
interesting way that attracts the attention of the students and arouses their
interest in this topic.

Activity:

The science teacher and his colleagues in the rest of the group, implements
these activities
Activity (1): Do you know the scientist who ran naked in the streets?

• In a lesson on “Archimedes’ Rule,” the teacher could introduce it by

mentioning the method of “a scientist running naked down the street.”

• Where he explains to them how the secret of the forged crown was
discovered, and then the scientific base that was linked to the name of this
scientist who went out running naked in the middle of the streets of his
city, and what had occurred to him made him forget, that he was still
naked.

• In one of the lessons, the teacher brought a large beaker, put an appropriate
amount of water in it, and closed it with a tight cork with two holes, one of which
led through a wooden leg carrying a small bell at its end, and a glass tube that
ended with a rubber tube with a clamp on it.
• The teacher shook the beaker and the students heard the bell ring clearly.
Then he heated the beaker to the point where the water boiled and its vapor
expelled the air in it. Then the teacher closed the opening of the rubber tube by
tightening the clamp on it. After that, he left the flask to cool, and the vapor
condensed and an almost cavity occurred inside it. At this point, the teacher
shook the flask, and the students saw the movement of the bell, but they did
not hear it ring. The teacher opened the tube to let air in, then shook the beaker
again, and the students heard the bell ring clearly. This presentation was an
exciting introduction to a lesson on Transmission of Sound.

Activity (4): Does the sky rain fish?

• When teaching a lesson on “The cycle of air in nature,” the teacher can raise
with his students the anecdote “When it rains fish.”

•
Activity (3): Does iron float on the surface of water? •

In one of the lessons, the teacher asked his students whether it was •
possible for iron and steel to float on the surface of the water, and
the students answered that this was possible if the object was
.hollow

So he began before them trying to float a pin, a needle, and a • •

razor blade on the surface of the water in a cup, and the attempt
succeeded several times, even though these objects were not
hollow, and the teacher asked them for an explanation for that. This
was an interesting and engaging introduction to a lesson on surface
.tension

12- Draw and Win activity:

Putting a group of cards in a box and asking students to choose a card and read it
to the class. This game is useful for measuring previous information before
starting to study.

Providing new experience.

• . Activity (5): “Don’t blame the female”
• • When teaching a lesson on “sex determination,” the teacher can
interest his students by saying, “Don’t blame the female,” and then
goes on to ask: Does the female actually have a role in determining
sex? Does it have a role in whether the fetus is male or female? Can
she offers her husband , a baby birth according to the gender he
wants? Then the teacher begins to deny all of this on genetic
grounds.
. •

13- Role play to conclude the lesson topic: Role Play

It is a simplified model for embodying situations in which students participate
through different events and roles, so that the roles are divided among a group of
students according to the content and
components of the new lesson.

Activity:

Choose one of the topics in your specialty.

Design a “role-playing” activity that suits the topic of the lesson.
Implant the roles on your group members... and ask them... to act out the activity.
Activity duration: 5-7 minutes.
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Reflection

Activity (1)

Consider the group of methods and activities that were presented to prepare
students for the new lesson topic.

Choose the five best ones for you and the most appropriate for your academic
major. Write it in your own list:

1- ...................................

2- ...................................

3- ........................................

4- .......................................

5- ...................................
Display this list on the display board...to create an idea gallery.

Look at the lists prepared by the rest of your colleagues... and compare them
with your list.

Discuss the contents of the lists with the rest of your colleagues.

Reflection

Activity (2)

2. Write what you learned during this unit.

2- Write one thing that you need more practice and explanation about.

3- What ideas can you convey to your students in the classroom in teaching?

Chapter Three: The skill of using teaching and learning

strategies

Instruction, learning and teaching

The concept of teaching strategy

Active Learning

Foundations of active learning

The role of the teacher and learner in active learning:

Principles of active learning:

Characteristics of active learning

Benefits of using active learning

Active learning environment

Obstacles to active learning

How to overcome obstacles to implementing active learning

Active learning strategies

Strategy: Think – Pair – Share

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, the teacher/student will be able to:

o Recognize the concept of: instruction, learning and teaching

o Deduce the concept of teaching strategy

o Know the philosophy of Active Learning

o Define the foundations of active learning

o Enumerate the roles of the teacher and the learner in active

learning:

o Recognize the principles of active learning:

o Explain the characteristics of active learning

o Identify the benefits of using active learning

o Design an active learning environment

o Discuss the obstacles to active learning

o Adopt solutions to overcome obstacles to implementing active

learning

o Apply active learning strategies

o Employ the strategy: Think - Pair – Share

Introductory activity

Follow Mau's advice

• When Chinese President Mau Tey Tong visited a school in Beijing, the capital,
the lesson was about growing an important crop. The Chinese leader noticed the
students’ many questions, and he also noticed the teacher’s confusion in
answering.

• Mau asked that the teacher to accompany his students to the fields.

• On the way, the president said to the teacher: Take your students to natural
sites so they will stop asking questions, and also take them to museums so the
information will stick to their minds more.

Activity:
Discuss with your colleague... the difference between the following educational
terms:

Instruction / Didactic

Learning

Teaching

The Skill of using teaching and learning strategies

Introduction:

Teaching is the applied aspect of the educational and pedagogical process, and
includes teaching strategies and methods that represent tools and procedures that
address how learners become familiar with the school curriculum and its
educational content in order to deliver it to the learners. The teaching process
refers to all the conditions and capabilities that the teacher provides to his students
during the lessons, and it also refers to the actions he takes in order to help his
students achieve the goals set for the lesson.
Instruction, learning and teaching:

The concept of Instruction / Didactic

The term Instruction / Didactic refers to the science of teaching and learning,
and is of Greek origin meaning “teachability”. As the etymology of the word shows,
this term basically includes all the basic components that are part of teaching and
learning in modern education, and these components are:
o Teaching activity

o Choosing the content to be taught

o Teaching resources, i.e. methods and tools of communication and connections.

o Understanding schools and classrooms as spatial and social environments

o Learning.

It is noted that there is an overlap between learning and teaching. Teaching is

defining learning and controlling its conditions because students can learn on their
own. In addition, instructions - despite defining and controlling the conditions of
learning - may not be very efficient if there is no readiness, motivation, or...
Attention from the learner's side.
Instruction is facilitating the learning process. Education is not an end in itself,
but rather its goal is to teach the learner easily and conveniently.

From here, the concept of Instruction can be defined as:

An intentional or unintended process that takes place inside or outside the school
may take place at any time and may be carried out by a teacher or not. It contains
multiple methods; including concrete and moral ones. It varies according to the
mental and physical capabilities of the individual and aims to refine skills in a
specific field to gain experience, knowledge and perhaps creativity. .

The concept of learning

There are multiple definitions of learning:
• An intended change in behavior, inferred from the learner’s performance,
resulting from experience or training, and relatively stable.
• A relatively constant change in behavior or experience resulting from the
individual's own activity and not as a result of natural maturation or accidental
circumstances.
• An almost permanent modification in behavior as a result of going through an
experience
• A process carried out by the teacher to make the student acquire knowledge and
skills. In simple terms, the teacher practices teaching and the student practices
learning.

This means that learning cannot be observed directly, but rather we infer it by
observing some changes that occur in the individual’s behavior. Learning can be
likened to electrical energy, which we do not directly observe, but rather we
observe its effect on lighting, operating devices, etc.
The learner must have an intended goal that he seeks to achieve by himself, not
imposed on him. In addition, the changes that occur in behavior must be due to
training or experience, and this means that a change that occurs as a result of
something other than experience or training is not considered learning, such as
Changes in the behavior of individuals resulting from fatigue, illness, alcohol, or
drugs.
It can be said that all organic beings, including humans, are in a constant state
of learning from cradle to grave, and humans do not learn from school alone, but
from the environment as well.

Teaching concept
The concept of teaching varies according to the educational objectives and the
differences in teaching. There is the traditional method in the educational process,
which sees that teaching is based on indoctrinating the student with knowledge
and information, and thus the student’s position is negative (in the future only). As
for the modern trend, it sees teaching as a process of guidance, not indoctrination,.
The role of the teacher is an instructor , guide, and he preparers for the teaching
conditions and environment, but the concept of teaching can be defined as:
An intentional and planned process carried out by the teacher inside or outside
the school under its supervision. The teacher follows a set of procedures that he
plans to use in implementing the teaching of a specific subject to achieve the
desired educational goals in light of the available capabilities.
There is no doubt that successful teaching comes from a teacher who transforms
his lesson into interaction and harmony and has the full ability to accommodate
the learners, in terms of their desires, inclinations and attitudes.
The concept of teaching strategy
Teaching strategy can be defined as a set of steps taken by the teacher in an
educational situation that helps students learn and achieve pre-determined
teaching goals. These steps differ from one method to another, from one specialty
to another, and from one teacher to another.
The teaching strategy is concerned with the student is achievement of a specific
goal, and it also protects the student from any negative outcomes such as neglect,
lack of confidence, failure, or loss of self-confidence.
Teaching strategy is also defined as: “the procedures that the teacher follows
to help his students achieve educational goals. The procedures may be discussions,
asking questions, raising a problem, trying to discover, or other procedures.”
The teaching strategy is one of the most important elements of the curriculum in
achieving its goals. There was a traditional view of the teaching method as teaching
lessons by the teacher to the learners. Whereas the teaching methods that were
prevalent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represented a process of
giving or lecturing presented by the teacher, and the students had to listen and
listen to it using speech and the blackboard. The teacher represents the positive
element in the instruction process, while the student does not contribute positively
to the process of instruction and learning.
By the progress and development in the field of education, psychology, and other
fields, educational studies have concluded that there is no optimal method suitable
for teaching all subjects and all students at various levels of education. Therefore,
the effort expended in modern teaching methods has shifted from the teacher to
the learner and his activity in the learning process.

Active Learning

- What is active learning?

Active learning is an educational philosophy that aims to activate the role of the
learner and make him - that is, the learner - pivotal in the educational learning
process. It seeks to move the learner from the state of a passive recipient (as is the
case in the lecture method) to be a positive and effective learner in the educational
situations (as is the case in Active learning strategies) by primarily targeting higher-
order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, based on different
educational situations and activities that require research, experimentation, work,
and self- or collective learning as well... to acquire skills, obtain information, and
form attitudes and values.
Activity (1):

Below is a set of definitions for the concept of active learning.

Choose an appropriate definition in your opinion for active learning

Then write your own definition of active learning.

Active learning is defined as:

Learning based on the belief that the student’s learning should be active, linked
to the student’s experience, and should be as similar to life as possible.
It is to keep students busy doing something in addition to listening to the teacher
and taking notes to help them to apply the academic material. Students may
participate in speaking and listening to others, or writing, reading, and their
individual reflections.
A teaching method that engages learners in doing things that force them to think
about what they are learning.
A comprehensive term for a group of teaching methods and strategies that focus
on placing responsibility for learning on the learner.
A teaching method that allows learners to learn for themselves through practice.
It is learning based on the various activities practiced by the learner, which result
in behaviors that depend on the learner’s active and positive participation in the
educational situation.
Trainee/Teacher:

I prefer the following definition of active learning:

Classify the teaching practices below as examples of active learning by placing (√)
or (x) next to the non-indicative examples. Be prepared to discuss the answers
with the trainer.

1) A teacher explains and works hard for the student to memorize and apply.

2) The teacher answers the students’ questions and asks them to record them in
their notebooks.

3) A teacher is keen to recall the students’ previous experiences before starting

the new lesson.

4) A teacher organizes the content of the instructional material in the form of

learning outcomes that he seeks to achieve, and determines for each outcome

the appropriate teaching method.

5) A teacher uses a lot of achievement tests, considering their results an indicator

of effectiveness.

6) A teacher who encourages individual competition among his students and

supports it with educational activities.

7) A teacher organizes the instructional situation in the form of problems that

require thinking and research by the student in order to Get out with benefit.

8) A teacher follows one teaching method that is familiar to all students and
avoids deviating from it.

9) A teacher organizes the educational situation in the form of activities and

events through which students practice and write information.
10) A teacher ensures that the student remains active and involved and does not
get bored.

Principles of active learning:

In light of the constructive theory of teaching/learning, the principles of active
learning have been identified as follows:

• Students’ participation in choosing a system and its rules.

• Relying on the assessment of the students themselves and their colleagues.

• Providing communication in all directions between the teacher and students.

• Creating an atmosphere of reassurance and enjoyment while learning.

• Each student learns at his own pace.

• Using student-centered teaching methods.

Active learning also focuses on the learner as he is the focus of the educational
process, and therefore relies on many principles, including:

• Students’ participation in choosing the work system and rules.

• Involving students in setting their educational goals.

• Diversity of learning sources.

• Using student-centered teaching strategies that are appropriate to his abilities,

interests, learning, and intelligence.

• Relying on students’ assessment for themselves and their classmates.

• Providing communication in all directions between learners and the teacher.

• Allow students to self-manage.

• Creating an atmosphere of reassurance, fun and enjoyment while learning.

• Each student learns according to his own abilities and speed.

• Helping the student understand himself and discover his strengths and
weaknesses.

The role of the teacher and learner in active learning:

Although the learner in active learning bears the greatest burden in the learning
process, the teacher has an essential role in implementing the education process.
Therefore, through the following table, we can display some important roles and
responsibilities for both the teacher and the learner in active learning:
A- The role of the teacher

In active learning - as it focuses on the learner's effectiveness and positivity - the

teacher is no longer the prompter and the only source of information, but rather
he has become a mentor, guide, motivator and facilitator of learning. The teacher
does not control the educational situation, but rather manages it intelligently and
directs the learners towards the goal smoothly through:
o Ask appropriate questions.

o Designing motivating and interesting educational situations.

o Effective selection of instructional methods.

o Diversifying teaching methods and classroom activation techniques.

o Encouraging and motivating learners.

B- The role of the learner

The learner in active learning is positive and involved in the educational process:

o He initiates, interacts, discusses, and asks questions.

o Searches for information from multiple sources.

o Practices self-assessment and peer evaluation.

o Works in groups and cooperates with colleagues.

o Participates in lesson planning and implementation.

Study the following table explaining the role of both the teacher and the
learner in active learning:

The role of the teacher The role of the learner

o Design learning strategies that are o Productive and positive interaction

aligned with learning objectives with activities and with colleagues
o Support the process of involving all o Ask questions related to activities
students in educational activities o Reflection, thinking and problem
o Asking questions that encourage solving
reflection, thinking, and using o Take responsibility for self-education
knowledge to solve problems o Respect others
o Class organization o Expressing new ideas and forming
o Develop plans to collect and provide opinions
resources and tools
o Conduct formative assessment and
give feedback
Activity:

The following is a group of statements that describe the learner/pupil’s

performance.
Required: Cut each phrase separately.
Determine whether this statement falls within the traditional learning activities
or the active learning activities.
Paste the statement in the appropriate place in the table.

Statements:
- The learner prefers to memorize a large part of what he learns.
- The learner integrates the new information into his mind, which gives him self-
confidence.
- It is difficult for the learner to remember things unless they are mentioned in the
order they appear in the book.
- The learner is usually keen to understand the overall meaning of the topic and
does not get lost in the details.
- The learner prefers theoretical topics that require deep thinking.
- The learner allocates sufficient time to think about the importance of what he is
learning.
- The learner confuses conclusions with arguments and examples with definitions.
- The learner links each new topic he studies to previous related topics.
- The learner often believes that what he learns is exclusive to the teacher and
unrelated to life-application.
- The learner tries to connect new ideas with life situations.
A comparison between the learner activities in traditional education and in
active learning

Learner activities in traditional Learner activities in active learning

education
In traditional methods, the learner In active learning, the new information
prefers to memorize a large part of is truly integrated into the learner’s
what he learns. mind, which gives him self-confidence.
- It is difficult for the learner to - The learner is usually keen to
remember things unless they are understand the overall meaning of the
mentioned in the order they appear in topic and does not get lost in the
the book details.
- The learner prefers theoretical topics - The learner allocates sufficient time
that require deep thinking. to think about the importance of what
- The learner confuses conclusions he is learning.
with arguments and examples with - The learner tries to relate new ideas
definitions. to life situations.
- The learner often believes that what -The learner links each new topic he
he learns is exclusive to the teacher studies to previous related topics.
and is unrelated to life-application. -The learner tries to integrate the
learned facts of different subjects
together.

Which activities do you agree with and which do you disagree with?

Principles of active learning:

Active learning has many principles, including:

• Students learn through active learning the positivity of acquiring experiences,

skills, values and attitudes.

• The student does not receive ready-made knowledge negatively, but rather
does his best to ensure that his role in receiving it is positive.

• The student builds a cognitive structure for himself and organizes it self-
organizing, while finding links between them.

• The student’s new experiences and knowledge that he has acquired are
integrated with his previous knowledge and integrated with each other.

• Students actively participate in discussions, solve exercises, infer and discover

information in order to learn better.

• The student cooperates with his colleagues in a group form in which he bears a
degree of responsibility for completing the tasks assigned to the group.

• Every individual helps and presents his suggestions to the group, and has the
right to ask his colleagues for help and assistance, and extends his hand to help
others, and does not finish his task until everyone has finished.

Characteristics of active learning

The characteristics of active learning can be identified as follows:

First: The student is the focus of the instructional process, and his interaction
during the educational process makes him able to go through direct educational
experiences, make him discover a lot of scientific and life information and
knowledge, and acquire multiple skills that lead to the development of his higher
thinking skills.

Second: The role of activities in the instructional process is very effective:

They also have an effective role in modifying students’ behavior, thoughts, and
goals, and developing moderate behaviors until they reach a high degree of
performance.

Third: The teacher is directed to knowledge and is not its only source:
he helps the students to obtain the required knowledge and information on his
own, in addition to helping him perform the activity himself and deduce the facts.
The role of the teacher also becomes clear in stimulating the educational process
and encouraging performance, follow-up and constructive observation, and
comprehensive assessment of the students. And help them assess themselves and
their colleagues.

Fourth: Active learning seeks creativity and innovation.

Creativity and innovation prepare the mind for good performance, excellence,
achievement and sound thinking, and all these are the outcomes of students
achieving high-level mental abilities.

Fifth: Assess the active learning strategies,

which differ according to each type of activity, as active learning focuses on
acquiring realistic skills, and therefore each skill needs its own assess method. For
example, the interaction skill needs an observational assessment method that is
practiced by the learner and teacher, and psychological and technical skills. You
need to evaluate behavioral performance and behavioral attitudes, while
educational skills require evaluation through discussion and dialogue.

Sixth: The effective strategies used by the teacher,

which develop the learner’s multiple skills, including: physical - mental -
psychological - linguistic - motor - emotional skills.

Seventh: Multiple resources of learning,

including visual tools and written tasks that students perform, through which they
employ skills such as taking notes, summarizing, generating ideas, forming
meanings, and other critical thinking skills, which motivates them to produce more.

Benefits of using active learning

You may have noticed from the contrast between active learning and its opposite,
that the former has many benefits and cons, which we can summarize as follows:

1- It leads to higher engagement between students and teacher.

2- Improves cooperation skills

3.- It builds self-confidence

4- Enhances information retention

5- It makes learning more fun and exciting

6- It increases learners’ motivation to learn

7- Increases creativity and innovation

8- Improves critical thinking and problem-solving skills

Active learning environment

The active learning environment is a rich environment in which learning
sources are diverse, and an atmosphere of reassurance, fun, and enjoyment
prevails during learning. The student’s adaptation to the classroom environment
and his compatibility with his colleagues and teachers is an essential component
in attracting the student to school and in the success of the educational process.
Therefore, it encourages and motivates students in building knowledge. Students
in active learning are more effective. Because an active learning environment is
more flexible, and therefore supports positive and active learning, and
contributes to creating interaction between students and teachers. The teacher in
an active learning environment is a mentor, guide, leader and facilitator of the
learning process within the classroom.

Activity:

What are the standards that must be met in an active learning environment?

In cooperation with your group members, draw a mind map of the standards of
the active learning environment.

Describe these criteria

......

Active
learning
..... environment .....
standards

....

Active learning environment standards:

This feature is the cornerstone of teaching and organizing the
classroom, because the teacher must care about arranging
the active learning environment, but he may need to modify
Flexibility:
it upon application, to suit the needs of the learners, the
requirements of the educational situation, and the
specifications of the classroom.

The teacher must keep in mind that the activity that the
learners will perform is what determines the shape of the class
Activity and the arrangement of their seats and movements. He must
variety: also diversify activities to include: movement activities - acting
- role-playing - exploration.

Organizing a classroom for active learning means organizing

-Organizing the the place, so that students can work alone or in large or
seating system, small groups
material and tools:

The class must contain some learning resources that are

-Learning appropriate for the age group and at the same time
Resources: challenge the abilities of the learners.

In terms of (the number of students - their sizes - the

-Differences appropriate size of furniture - their learning styles - their
academic levels)
You must clarify your classroom activities, the rules
Classroom
governing them, and appropriate behaviors during teaching,
organization
and these rules have specifications that govern them
Plan:

Activity:
Discuss with your group members:

What are the challenges and obstacles that may hinder the application of active
learning in your classroom in Juba?

What are your plans and proposals to overcome these obstacles?

.................................................. .................................................. ...........................

Obstacles to active learning

The obstacles to active learning are as follows:

1_ Fear of trying or implementing new strategies.

2_ Increased classroom density

3_ Some teachers are not convinced of the benefits of active learning.

4_ Some teachers’ perception that it takes more time and effort.

5_ Fear of losing control over the learners and the class, especially if the class is
large.

6_ Teachers’ poor possession of skills in managing discussions.

7_ Class limited time; The large number of classes assigned to the teacher each
week.

8_ It takes a long time to plan and prepare.

9_ Lack of materials, devices and learning resources required to apply it.

10_ The fear of students refusal of participation, and other criticizing others for
breaking the norm in education.

11_ The many administrative responsibilities assigned to the teacher

How to overcome obstacles:

It is not difficult to overcome these obstacles, and this requires the teacher to:

To choose activities that increase learners’ motivation

It also requires that the teacher himself believe in active learning strategies

He must also have sufficient knowledge of the philosophy of active learning.

The teacher must carefully plan lessons that enable him to use effective active
learning methods.

Since he has full knowledge of active learning strategies and proper planning, he
will be more able to choose activities appropriate to the nature of the subject he is
studying.

Active learning strategies

Activity:
Dear teacher/trainee: In the following figure is a diagram of a group of active
learning strategies.
Cut each strategy separately.
Discuss with your colleague about this strategy:
What is your knowledge about this strategy?
How to apply it in the classroom?
Have you ever applied it with your students?
What are the requirements for its application?

Can it be applied in the South Sudan environment?

Active learning strategies

-Self-learning.

-Peer learning

- Instructional.

-Role play. -Tell me and I will forget

-Problem Solving. -Show me that I may remember

-Concept maps. - Get me engaged and I will understand

-Instructional Corners.

-Storytelling.

-Cooperative learning.

-Brainstorming

.................................................. .................................................. ...........................

Strategy: Think - Pair - Share

The Think-Pair-Share strategy is one of the active learning strategies known as the
(T, P, S) strategy, which was proposed by Frank Lyman in (1981), and the goal that
prompted him to discover... This strategy is to study how to direct questions in
teaching collaboratively.

Its concept:
It is one of the active learning strategies based on the idea of giving the student
time to think on his own after the teacher asks the question, then he thinks about
the same question with one of his colleagues before asking all members of the
group of four students to think, and thus it includes the participation of the largest
number of students in the class. .
This strategy includes the following activities:
Asking a question: Students confront an event or situation and ask questions about
it
Individual thinking: The teacher gives students a little time to think about the
answer
Pairing: As the teacher assigns each student to discuss his answer with his
colleague, they reach a specific, agreed-upon answer.
Student participation: their answers with all the students in the class.

Steps to implement the strategy:

This strategy is implemented according to the following steps:

1- Think
In this step, the teacher stimulates the learners’ thinking by asking a question
related to the lesson, and asks them to think about the question directed
individually. The teacher must take into account that the directed question is
stimulating to the learners’ thinking, has a high cognitive level as much as possible,
and is appropriate for their level. To ensure the success of this step, the teacher
must allocate the learners the necessary time to think based on his knowledge of
their level, their individual abilities, the nature of the question he asked, and its
degree of complexity.

2- Pair
The teacher asks the learners to each choose a colleague, preferably the one who
sits next to him. In order to ensure order and calm in the hall; This is to form pairs
of learners, where the teacher assigns each learner to discuss his answer with his
colleague. In order to compare each other's ideas, and exchange those ideas
between them. In this step, the learners and the pairs may reach an agreement
(one opinion), or they may not agree.
3- Share
In this step, the teacher asks each pair of learners in turn to present the solutions
and ideas they have arrived at regarding the question directed to them in front of
the class. Each pair receives questions and inquiries from the students in the class,
and tries to answer them, and provide evidence and proof of the validity of the
answers they have arrived at. Discussions continue until the largest number of pairs
have the opportunity to present what they have reached according to the time
specified for this stage by the teacher. The teacher can record the answers on the
blackboard or display screens.
In order to reduce time and effort, when the teacher notices the repetition of the
same answers in more than one pair, he must intervene immediately and ask: How
many pairs have reached the same result? Are there couples who have different
answers, or arrived at the answer in a different way? It gives them the opportunity
to present their answers and their related justifications.

Activity:
Choose one of the lessons in your field of specialization, and design an activity
using the strategy (Think - Pair - Share).

Think:

Pair:
.................................................. .................................................. ...........................
....................... .................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. .................................................. ..............................

.................................................. .................................................. ...........................

Meditation

Activity

3. Write what you learnt during this unit.

2- Write one thing that you need more practice and explanation about.

3- What ideas can you convey to your students in the classroom in teaching?

Chapter Four: The skill of using teaching and

learning strategies _ 2

Meaning building strategy K W L

- What is the meaning building strategy K W L?

- Steps of the meaning building strategy K W L:

Thinking Maps strategy

- Forms of thinking maps

- Stages of teaching according to thinking maps

Problem – Based Learning Strategy (PBL)

- What is the problem-based learning?

Steps of the problem-based learning (PBL) strategy:

Conditions that must fulfill when teaching using the problem-based

learning strategy:

- Learning environment according to the problem-based learning

strategy:

- The roles of the teacher and the learner according to the problem-
based learning strategy

Learning outcomes:
By the end of this chapter, the teacher/student will be able to:

- Know the meaning building strategy K W L

- Apply the steps of the meaning building strategy K W L:

- Recognize the Thinking Maps strategy

- Distinguish the shapes of thinking maps

- Apply the stages of teaching according to thinking maps

- Understand the nature of problem-based learning

- Define the steps of the problem-based learning (PBL) strategy:

- Know the conditions that must be fulfilled when teaching using the
problem-based learning strategy
- Create the learning environment according to the problem-based
learning strategy:

- Distinguish between the roles of teacher and learner according to

the problem-based learning strategy.

Introductory activity

Consider the two pictures in front of you!

What impressions do you get from each picture?

Discuss with your colleague: What are the similarities and differences between
the two teaching situations?

As a teacher: Which of the two methods do you prefer to follow in your

classroom with your students?

What are the justifications for your choice?

Activity: Active learning strategies

What I learnt What I want to What I know Name of the
know strategy
K.W. L
5 E Model
Problem Solving

Brainstorming

role play

The six hats

Think-Pair-Share
Survey inquiry

Peer learning

C.R.A

Ask the trainees to complete the activity by identifying what they know about
the active learning strategy; What they would like to know; Leaving the last
column to be completed later at the end of the day.

Give the trainees about 15 minutes to complete the activity.

Draw the trainees’ attention that they had just practiced one of the active
learning strategies, which is called K-W-L. What do I know? what do I want to
know? What did you learn?

Ask the trainees:

o What is K.W. L’s strategy?

o ................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ...................

o What are the steps to implement it in the classroom with students?

o What are its advantages?

Meaning building strategy K W L

- The emergence of the K.W.L. strategy
The K.W.L strategy is considered an active learning strategy. It dates back to
Graham Detrick in 1980, who derived this strategy from the ideas of Piaget in 1964
and called it the knowledge formation strategy. Then Mason (1982) made it part of
his problem-solving model. Then Donna Ogle developed it in (1986) at the National
College of Education in Evanston in America as part of the graduation programs for
reading and language arts to activate learners’ prior knowledge, understand text
and use it. She worked on developing it and placing it in its final form that it has
now, as Donna Ogle and Elaine Carr did in 1986. (1987) developed the K.W.L
strategy to add two steps to it that contribute to developing the student’s thinking
to become (k.w.l PLUS). These two steps are: concept mapping, and summarizing
and condensing the information.
A fourth step was added to sum-up this strategy to four stages with the addition
of (H), which means the word (How) with which the question begins: How can we
learn more? (Technique K.W.L.H) has become an effective technical model for
active thinking during learning, as each letter represents the activity that is
practiced during thinking, so the strategy became composed of four steps as
follows:
K)) to indicate (Know) with which the question begins: What do you know about
the topic (What we know), which represents the first step of this strategy, which is
the exploratory step, through which the student is able to recall the previous
information he has learned about the topic that helps to understand New topic.
The strategy letters indicate the following:
• (W) to indicate the word (want) with which the question begins: What do we want
to learn about the topic? (What we want to find out) which helps students to
determine or discover what they want to learn and achieve through these topics.
At this stage, the teacher must take everything that leads to activating the students’
motivation towards researching the topic and everything they want to learn about
the subject of study.
• (L) to indicate the word (Learn), which represents the beginning of the question
“What we learned,” which requires the learner to evaluate what they have learned
from the subject and the extent to which they have benefited from it.
• (H) to indicate the word (How), which represents the beginning of the question
and means how can we learn? (How we can learn) It means helping students to
learn more, discover and investigate other learning sources to develop their
knowledge and achieve their expertise in this subject.
• K.W.L strategy concept
• The K.W.L strategy is defined as: “one of the metacognitive strategies that is
useful in teaching reading, as it aims to activate students’ previous knowledge and
make it a starting point or focal point for relating it to new information contained
in the read text.”
• Perez (2008, P21) defined it as: “a strategy that includes brainstorming,
classification, raising questions, and guided reading, in which the student
determines what information he knows about the topic, then writes what he wants
to know about this topic, and in the end searches for answers to the questions he
set. The teacher can read the text silently or aloud, or the student reads with his
colleague. The K.W.L chart can also be used alone or with small groups.
• It is also known as: “One of the constructional learning strategies where the
student records all the previous information he has about the subject, then decides
and records what he needs in light of the information presented by the teacher,
after that he records what he has already learned, then records the most important
applications of what he has learned.” This can be done individually or in groups
organized by the teacher as the situation requires.”
• Kopp (2010, 10) defined it as: “a good strategy that teachers use to stimulate
students’ thinking about the topic of the lesson before new learning be presented.”
• One of the active learning strategies that aims to understand reading and consists
of three steps indicated by each letter in the English language as follows:
• (K): what l know? It means: What does the student know about the subject? And
“it is related to previous knowledge.”
• :(W): What do you want to learn? It means: What does the student want to know
about the topic?
• (L): What did I learn? What it means: What did the student learn about the topic?
L W K
What did you learn? What do I want to What do I know?
know?

Acquired Knowledge Intended knowledge Previous knowledge

Advantages of the meaning building strategy K W L:
• Helps develop thinking skills
• It works to increase achievement in various academic subjects
• It helps to link students’ previous experience with the new knowledge they obtain
and arrange and organize it into their cognitive structure, which makes learning
meaningful.
• It helps to determine the level of students’ achievement, determines the
correctness of their information, and corrects errors.
• Activates students’ previous experiences and makes them a starting point for
acquiring new experiences.
• It helps students set lesson objectives and plan to achieve them.
• It promotes continuous self-learning among students, as they are the focus of the
educational process.
• It links the elements of the lesson in a systematic format, which facilitates the
knowledge of information in a logical manner and its preservation in the students’
memory.

• It helps build knowledge in an integrated manner in the minds of students, and

expands their thinking process
Steps of the meaning building strategy K W L:
• Show the students a three-column KWL chart
• Divide the students into cooperative learning groups, distribute the plan on them.
• Presenting the lesson title and main ideas to the students
• By asking the students what they know about each idea in the lesson, the students
write down what they know from previous experience, in the first column (K).
• Asking students what they want to know about the lesson topic and its main
ideas, in the form of questions that are recorded in the second column (W).
• Presenting the lesson using appropriate teaching methods (discussion and
dialogue, brainstorming, cooperative learning, story telling introduction, role-
playing) that are appropriate for achieving the objectives and answering the
questions of the second column.
• Students write down what they have learned in the third column (L).
• Activity: (1): (Social Studies)
• Purpose of the task: Building and integrating the knowledge included in the
lesson “Using the strategy of what I know, what I want to know, what I have
already learned.” Dear student, copy the following table in your notebook and
then .........

What you've already What I want to know What I know

learned W K
L
.............................. .............................. ..............................
.............................. .............................. ..............................
............................ ............................ ............................
............................ ............................ ............................
.............................. .............................. ..............................
.............................. .............................. ..............................
............................ ............................ ............................
............................ ............................ ............................
.............................. .............................. ..............................
.............................. .............................. ..............................
............................ ............................ ............................
............................ ............................ ............................
............................ ............................ ............................
............................ ............................ ............................

A- Write in the first box what you know about national unity in South Sudan.
B- Write in the second box what you want to know about national unity in South
Sudan.

C- After you finish studying this lesson, write in the third box what you have
already learned about national unity in South Sudan.

• Activity: (2): (Mathematics)

• Purpose of the task: To build and integrate the knowledge involved in the study
of geometric shapes through “using the strategy of what I know, what I want to
know, what I have already learned.”

• A square is defined as a quadrilateral with four right angles and four sides of
equal length.

• Tools for implementing the activity:

- Strategy table worksheet

- Stationary tools for measuring angles + measuring lengths

• Dear student, copy the following table in your notebook, then...

What you've already What I want to know What I know

A- Write in the first column what you know about the “square”.
B- Write in the second column what you want to know about the “square”.
C- After you finish studying this lesson, write in the third column what you have
already learned about “the square.”
Activity procedures:

In cooperation with your group members, complete the following

table using a drawing triangle to determine the type of each angle of
the quadrilateral AB C D:

Angle
d c B a

Its type

A D
B C

b) What do you notice about the angles of the quadrilateral in the corresponding
figure?

c) Measure the lengths of the following sides:

Length [Ab] = ............................. Length [Ad] = ........... ....................

Length [dc] = ......................... Length [bc] = ............. .............

d) What do you notice on the sides of the quadrilateral? What do we call this
quadrilateral? Write the definition based on your observations above.

Activity:
Design an activity on one of the topics in your field of specialization according to
the steps of the K.W.L strategy

What you've already What I want to know What I know

Thinking Maps are visual learning tools, the foundations of which are derived from
the theory of brain-based learning and Ausabel theory of meaningful learning. The
English psychologist Tony Buzan is considered one of the first to use cognitive maps
and called them Mind Maps. They are used as diagrams. To represent words, ideas,
and tasks, as well as to generate ideas and solutions, organize, solve problems, and
make decisions.
The concept of thinking maps strategy:
Thinking maps represent a visual language necessary for students to learn to think
about building, arranging, organizing, and developing their ideas in their cognitive
structure. It is therefore a language for thinking, because in order for students to
prepare these maps, they use some mental processes and thinking skills, which
makes them more active during the learning process, and they are able to find...
Relationships between concepts, finding cause and effect, clarifying relationships
between whole and part, and many other mental skills

What are the thinking maps?

The scientist Hyerele designed eight forms of maps as visual tools based on the
foundations of the theories of brain-based learning and Osbel of meaning-based
learning, and they are used at all levels and academic subjects. They are based on
thinking skills, so that each form of maps is based on a basic intellectual skill, and is
integrated It includes thinking skills with content. It also helps teachers develop
their performance, plan their lessons, and present these lessons, as well as evaluate
learners’ performance and develop their thinking processes instead of traditional
written tests. Thinking maps can show the extent to which students understand the
organization of the cognitive content of the academic subject.
Thinking maps are eight visual learning tools, each of which is based on basic
thinking processes in the brain that focus on a cognitive skill basis, such as:
comparison, contrast, sequence, classification, cause and effect, description and
analogies. It is used in teaching as a strategy, as it is more than just organizational
forms, and is flexible, effective and encourages lifelong learning.
It is also known as: tools that represent a common visual language between the
teacher and the learner, that enhance learning, encourage self- and independent
learning, and are used at all educational levels. They are based on developing
mental representations of the learned concepts, linking the previous ones with the
later ones to form and build new knowledge.
It is also known as: visual thinking tools consisting of shapes, each of which is linked
to one or more patterns of thinking, and they help students organize information
and concepts, find relationships and links between them simply by looking, and
highlight their ideas and thinking through them. It is based on a deep understanding
of the material learned.

Thinking maps are also known as:

Visual tools consisting of eight organizations of line drawings that display scientific
content and reflect levels of thinking, and include maps of “circle - bubbles -
double bubbles - tree - flow - multiple flow - arch”, which represent a common
visual language used by both the teacher and the student in teaching and learning
topics. Content.

Forms of thinking maps:

There are eight types of thinking maps, which are shown in the following table:

Table (1): Forms of thinking maps and how to apply them in the classroom

Thinking skills How to use it Thinking maps

- Identify previous The basic idea that we are 1- Circle Map

knowledge about trying to understand,
the topic. identify, or define (terms,
- Identify current numbers, pictures, symbols
knowledge about that represent a thing,
the topic after person, or idea) is
providing content represented in the centre of
information. the inner circle, and any
-Definition of a - information about the thing
concept - Definition represented in a specific
of an idea. context is written or drawn in
-Collect examples - the outer circle around the
related to a specific circle.
topic.

Frame Idea
Content

* Qualitative and * You write the desired word 2- Bubble Map

generic description or thing in the central circle,
of the attributes and and we write the qualities or
characteristics of characteristics of this thing in
things. the circles surrounding the
* Expansion of central circle.
qualities and
attributes.
.
* Comparing * The two things or concepts 3- Double Bubble Map
features, ideas, to be compared are written
words, or concepts, in the two central circles, and
whether similar or outside each circle the
opposite. characteristics of each are
* Organizing written in circles. The similar
comparison of or common characteristics
are written in the circles
similarities and connected to the two central
differences of things. circles from the inside, while
the different characteristics
are placed in the outer
circles connected to the
central circle of the thing.

. * Dividing and *The main group or idea is 4- Tree Map

classifying things, specified in the main branch, Main idea
ideas, and concepts from which a number of Sub
into categories or branches branch out that
groups. include details or
* Support ideas with components, and the details
details. number of branches depends details
* Organizing titles in on the subcategories by
innovative ways. which we want to classify or
classify the ideas or concepts.

* Understanding the * The name of the thing, 5- Brace Map analysis

Subcompone
relationship topic, or concept is written Main parts
between physical on the left, and on the lines
things and their to the right, the main parts of topic
component parts. this thing are written, and on
* Identify the main the right of those main parts,
components and lines are drawn representing
sub-components. the sub-components. Main parts
Subcompone
nts
*It expresses the * The name of the event or 6- Flow Map
sequence of events. process is written outside the
* Expresses the successive rectangles that
steps for using some represent the events from
tools. beginning to end. Small sub-
* Explains the order rectangles may flow from a 1 2 3
in which some main or sub-rectangle.
natural phenomena
take place.
*Determine the
relationships
between the stages.
* Information
analysis.

. * Analyze the * The situation or event is 7- Multi Flow Map

relationships written inside a central
between cause and rectangle, the causes are
effect. written in rectangles to the
* Predicting outputs right of the event rectangle,
from previous and the results or effects are
information written in rectangles to the
*Determine the logic left of the event rectangle.
of the sequence or
sequence.
. *Identify relations * New matters or 8- Bridge Map
between different information to be learned are
things. placed at the right end of the
*Clarifying the bridge, and previously known
relationships matters that are similar to
between reality and the new information are
the abstract. placed at the left end, and
*Applying the there is a correlation
thinking process in a between the two ends of the
broad context bridge
outside the learning
framework.

- Steps of teaching according to thinking maps:

Thinking maps are used in teaching in the following three procedural
stages/steps:

1- The step of raising students’ awareness of previous knowledge: in which a set

of questions are asked to the students to determine their level of knowledge
before introducing the new knowledge.

2- The step of presenting the new knowledge: During this, the formative
evaluation is applied.

3- The step of strengthening the cognitive structure: This is a final assessment of

what was taught to the students during the lesson.

Thinking maps can be presented during the three stages, so that their presentation
is not limited to a specific stage. It may be presented in two or three stages. Each
student is also given a thinking map and is asked to implement it at home. This
ensures flexibility in dealing with thinking maps and being able to design them.

The importance of thinking maps:

The importance of using thinking maps in the teaching and learning process is
that they help to:

- Attract students’ attention and arousing their interest in the lesson topic.

- Build new ideas to grow and develop the learning process, and interact with the
content.

- Broaden the thinking by exploiting the maximum capacity of mental capacity to

perceive the overall picture as well as the details.

- Extract the internal thoughts that are processing through the learner’s mind.

- create independent thinking to organize ideas and achieve self-reliance.

- make teachers to assess their students’ thinking using the maps they draw
themselves.

- Encourage the development of concepts, creative thinking, clarity of

relationships, and continuous cognitive growth

- extend the learning process as it is open-ended and allows for diversity in

responses.

- Transfer thinking, problem-solving and decision-making processes beyond the

limitations of the classroom and school.

Activity (1):

Lesson title : Apply the thinking mapping strategy to one of the “mathematics”
topics.
Objective of the activity : median of triangle

Behavioral objectives:

At the end of this activity, the student is expected to be able to:

1- Conclude that the median length of the right-angled triangle emerging from the
vertex is equal to half the length of the hypotenuse of this triangle.

2- Draw thinking maps for the median right-angled triangle.

First: The step of raising students’ awareness of previous

knowledge:

a a a

c
figure )3 b c b c b
figure figure1
)2(

The teacher begins by preparing for the lesson and stimulating motivation to learn
the new topic by drawing a group of triangles and displaying them
- The teacher asks one of the students what type of triangle is in the form (1)?

- The student answers that shape (1) is an equilateral triangle.

- Another student: Figure (2) represents an isosceles triangle.

- Third student: Figure (3) represents a right-angled triangle.

The teacher asks about shapes (4) and shapes (5). None of the students can know
more than that this represents a right-angled triangle.

- The teacher mentions that a right-angled triangle with one of its acute angles
measuring 30 ∘ is called a 30-sixty triangle. This is represented by Figure (4).

- The teacher mentions that Figure (5) represents a right-angled, isosceles

triangle.

a a a‫أ‬

c b c b c b
)3( figure )2( figure )1( figure

Then the teacher mentions the following definitions:

Equilateral triangle: It is a triangle whose sides are equal in length and whose
angles are equal in measure, and the measure of each angle = 60 ∘.
Isosceles triangle: It is a triangle with two sides of equal length and two angles of
equal measure.

Right-angled triangle: It is a triangle with an angle whose measure is 90 ∘.

The 30-sixty triangle: It is a right-angled triangle and the measure of one of its two
acute angles is equal to 30∘, so the other angle is equal to 60∘.

A right-angled and isosceles triangle: It is a triangle in which one angle is equal to

90∘ and the measure of the other two angles is equal and the measure of each =
45∘ and it has two sides of equal length.

The teacher conducts a dialogue with the students about the concepts and
relationships that have been presented so far, then draws the following thinking
map with them and presents it.

triangle
According
to

triangle sides
IS

OR
OR

obtuse Right equian scalene Isoscel Equilat

angled gular es eral
triangl triangl
e
N BE
OR

- The teacher asks his students to complete the following thinking map, by filling
in the circles with the characteristics of the 30-sixty triangle.

- The teacher draws the following thinking map and presents it to the students
and ask them to extract all the concepts and relationships:
The segment connected between vertex of the triangle and mid-point of opposite

side middle of triangle

Activity (2):
Objective of the activity: Apply the thinking mapping strategy to one of the
“studies” topics.

Lesson title: National unity

Build a thinking map about national unity that explains your information systems
graphically:

Its symbols in
.....................................
South Sudan
.....................................

.....................................
National

.....................................
Supporting Unity
Policies in South
.....................................
Activity (3): Lesson in “Science”
Objective of the activity: Apply the thinking mapping strategy to one of the
“Science” topics.

Lesson title: “Realizing the existence of atmospheric air”

Construct a thinking map about “perceiving the presence of atmospheric air” in

which the following concepts are illustrated graphically:

-Basic concept: atmospheric air.

- General concepts: life - properties - everywhere - vacuum - atmosphere.

- Lower concepts: plants, animals, taste, movement, rotation, and the surface of
the earth.

- Special concepts: all directions.

Examples: vegetables, humans, the cavity of an empty bottle, the movement of

the wind, the weight of the air inside the ball.

- Design a concept map for the lesson (Atmospheric Air) using the previous
concepts.

- Compare the map you are designing with the map shown in the figure.
Atmospheric
air

Atmosp Living
space everywher characteris
here e tics organisms

Earth tast scent

surfa e
ce

weight motion
All
directions animal ‫ا‬plant

200 km

Activity (4):
Choose one of the eight Thinking Maps, and design an activity about one of the
topics in your specialty.

Problem – Based Learning Strategy (PBL)

The origin of the problem-based learning strategy:

Piaget pointed out that students have an innate curiosity to understand the world
around them, and this curiosity and curiosity arouse their motivation to actively
build their actual mental views about the environment in which they use their
experiences. At all stages of development, the need for students to understand
their environment arouses their motivation to investigate and build their ideas that
explain this. environment, and then the student should be exposed to situations in
which he does things himself; To see what happens as a result of experimentation,
he manipulates materials and tools manually, asks questions, searches for tools
himself, and compares his results with those of others.
Research and teachers’ experiences have proven that active learning strategies,
such as problem-based learning, can motivate bored students and raise their level
of understanding and achievement. These student-centered methods also build
students’ critical thinking and deduction skills, and enhance their creativity and
independence.
Problem-based learning focuses on the learning content; In which students
participate in solving collaborative problems; In order to learn beyond their
capabilities with a deep understanding of the educational material and develop
higher-order thinking skills.
What is problem-based learning:
Problem-based learning is: an educational method that teaches by presenting
students with a situation that leads them to a problem that they must solve. It is
not just a way to make students find the correct answer, but rather it is a method
that requires thinking about asking questions, collecting information, generating
potential solutions, and then Evaluate alternatives to find the best solution.
A student-centered learning method, based on the principle of encouraging
students to discover and cooperate.
A method of learning that consists of presenting students with meaningful and
authentic problem situations that can serve as a starting point for research and
investigation.
An educational approach that challenges students to provide solutions to real-
world or open-ended problems on their own or in groups.

An educational strategy to provide students with the necessary guidance and

resources to develop their skills to solve the problems they face. In this type of
learning, students are confronted with issues and problems, and they strive to
create effective solutions to them, unlike the traditional method that often takes
place in traditional lessons.
A student-centered instructional strategy as the focus of active learning in which
teachers select authentic problems, is characterized by the use of real-world
problems, and requires critical knowledge, problem-solving ingenuity, self-directed
learning strategies, and collaborative team skills, as the problem drives the learning
process, which helps in exploring Learn basic concepts and principles, and the role
of the main teacher is to support students with their questions.
Through the previous definitions of problem-based learning, we find that I focus
on:

1- Problem-based learning requires thinking about asking questions and gathering

information.
2- Problem-based learning requires evaluating the alternatives or solutions
presented to find the best ones.

3- Problem-based learning is student-centered and encourages discovery and

collaboration.

4- Problems in problem-based learning serve as a starting point for research and

investigation.

5- Problem-based learning helps students develop their problem-solving skills.

6- Problem-based learning focuses on the student as the axis of active learning.

7- Problem-based learning depends on real-world problems.

8- The teacher’s main role in problem-based learning is to provide assistance and

support to students.

Steps of the problem-based learning (PBL) strategy:

The problem-based learning strategy includes a set of procedural steps when used
in the teaching and learning process. These steps are:
The first step: Identify the learning task or problem and present
it to the students:
In this step, the learning problem is identified and presented to students in
the form of worksheets. The worksheets include the educational problem, and the
students later try to solve this problem in the same worksheet.
The strength of problem-based learning here is determined by the chosen
problem; Which students strive with the knowledge and information they have to
solve it.
Activity:

Think with your colleague: What are the characteristics that must be in the
problem presented to the students?
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................

There are a group of things that must be taken into consideration when
formulating a problem-based learning problem, which are:
Simplicity: The problem cannot address everything, or give students unlimited
freedom to research anything they like.

- Clarity: Teachers here must be clear about what they hope to achieve, and they
must define specific and clear goals that they hope to achieve from the problem
at hand.

- To be oriented towards the real world.

- To generate many hypotheses that help in solving.

- To be consistent and compatible with the desired learning outcomes.

- To contribute to building on previous knowledge and experiences.

- To work on developing the higher levels of sub-skills or cognitive skills.

- It should be easy for every learner to understand at the beginning of the lesson.

- It should be related to the students’ interests and related to their actual

experiences.

- Encourage students to formulate hypotheses and discuss them.

- It must contain innovative elements and there must be different levels of
solutions for it. Which can be accessed by every learner, and is well understood.

The second step: Creating interactions in the team:

In this step, learning groups and teams are formed and prepared. It is
preferable that these groups be formed so that they are not homogeneous in terms
of academic achievement. Each group consists of (4-6) students that change from
one task to another, depending on the nature of the task, or the problem presented
to the students. A name is specified for each group, distinguishing it from other
groups, and each student within the group is assigned a specific task, which he
carries out. Provided that there is a student among them who is called: the group
recorder, and he records the opinions and ideas of his colleagues, and interactions
are established between the members of each group, and the basic rules for
effective work within the team are also established and the team members adhere
to them, and foundations for effective assistance are laid among the team
members, and the roles of each are defined. From the students and the teacher, it
is emphasized that the role of the teacher is: to act as a facilitator of the learning
process and to provide help and assistance to the struggling team when necessary,
without the teacher providing a direct solution to the problem.
The third step: Problem Analysis and Learning Issues:
In this step, the students begin an attempt to find explanations for the
problem and formulate possible hypotheses by determining what they need to
understand or solve the problem. Here, within each group, the students attempt
to extract all available data from the learning task or problem; This helps them in
the process of understanding and solving the problem or task.
At this stage, the rules of work within the group must be emphasized during
the students’ brainstorming process. Through which they share opinions and find
explanations for the learning task or problem; Which are as follows:

- Boycott, opposition, or suppression of the opinions of any member within the

group is not permitted.

- Comments, whether positive or negative, are not allowed; Because both of them
are against the rules of freedom of opinion; Who needs a chance of time before
he collides with other opinions.
- Gather as many ideas and opinions as possible in each group about the learning
task or problem.

The group secretary presents the opinions and ideas he recorded to the rest of his
colleagues in the group.

- It is welcomed for any student to present similar ideas; When one student
presents ideas or reinforces the opinion of another student.

- Encourages free expression, recording all ideas; Even out of context or poor.

After the recorder in each group finishes recording the opinions and ideas of
his colleagues, each group, according to the opinions and ideas it presented,
forms a table (Knowledge, Needs, Doing), which represents (information, learning
needs, action plan).

The fourth step: Discovery, Report Writing, Synthesis, and

Application.
In this step, after the students of each group have formed the KND table, the
process of searching for information that leads to understanding and solving the
problem is carried out. Colleagues share information, discuss questions, search for
further clarifications from one person to another, and evaluate the sources of
information relied upon in the solution process in terms of their honesty and
reliability.
Here the students begin a research process to find solutions to the problem,
and here the students follow techniques that help them solve the problem. Some
of these techniques that are often used are:

- Analyzing something into its basic elements; Which involves dividing the
problem into small problems.

- Simplifying complex problem situations into simpler situations.

- Using analogy by recalling similar previous problems and applying the same
techniques to them.
In this step, he must ensure that all the topics required to be learned have
not been overlooked, and present some questions to the students to verify the
accuracy of the information.

The fifth step: Present and reflect on solutions to the problem:

In this step, students present outcomes and explanations for the problem.
Students research and interpret these different aspects, and build multiple
dimensions of the problem. Here, they must establish links between these different
dimensions of the problem, and determine which of them is most closely related
to the problem. So that they can adopt and apply it. The recorder of each group
presents the solutions that have been reached, and the teacher assigns one of the
students to write down the solutions. Which each group reached on the board, or
he himself does so, and the teacher helps his students to clarify the students’
doubts, fill the gaps, and correct misconceptions or excessive generalizations.
The sixth step: Review, integration, and assessment.
In this step, students must be encouraged to explain their ideas openly and
seriously. No teacher or student should ridicule an idea presented by his colleague,
and every student must have a full opportunity to contribute to research and clarify
ideas.
This step requires activities aimed at helping students analyze and evaluate
their thinking processes, as well as the research and mental skills they use. Teachers
- here - also ask students to reconstruct and shape their thinking and activity during
the different stages of study.
Here, the teacher participates with the students in reviewing the solutions
presented by each group, and integrating the presented ideas with each other.
Then, in agreement with the students, the teacher chooses the best solutions
presented, and summarizes the basic concepts that have been learned or reached.

The seventh step: Feedback:

The teacher - here - provides feedback to the students about the work done by
each group, and discusses with them the mistakes that each group made during the
learning process, as well as personal problems. What one of the students
encountered while learning, and the solution processes carried out by each group.
From the above it is clear that the steps of the problem-based learning strategy
go according to a certain logical sequence that the teacher must adhere to. Where
the teacher begins by identifying the learning problem and presenting it in the form
of worksheets to the students, then he divides the students into groups according
to the nature of the problem presented to them, by analyzing and interpreting the
problem to help them in forming the KND table, and after completing the formation
of the table, the students carry out the actual process of solving the problem from
During what was presented in the table, then each group presents the solutions it
reached to the teacher and to the rest of the groups within the class to be discussed
with them, and after that the teacher presents the appropriate evaluation process
to the students.

Characteristics of problem-based learning (PBL):

The most important characteristics of problem-based learning are:

1- The focus must be on the problem from the beginning of the learning process.

2- Identification and initial definition of the learning needs.

3- Teaching skills and knowledge, in accordance with the needs of students.

4- Integration of learning with students’ existing knowledge and skills.

5- Learning is accompanied by a teacher; Acts as a facilitator and leader.

6- The problems that students are directed to are used as tools to acquire
relevant knowledge and problem-solving skills.

7- Problems are incompletely constructed, and this does not mean that there is
one solution.

8- The students - here - solve problems using different approaches. There is no

specific formula through which students can solve these problems.

9- Evaluation based on students’ real and actual performance is a reliable part of

the problem-based learning process.
10- Students work in work teams to confront problems; To identify learning gaps
and develop and find effective solutions for them.

11- Students obtain new information through self-directed learning.

12- The problems presented lead to developing students’ abilities to solve realistic
problems.

13- Learning always begins with a problem, and this problem is written by the
teacher or a team of teachers. It aims to direct students towards the academic
subject.

14- Learning is based on the student. The student here bears responsibility for his
learning.

Conditions that must be met when teaching using the problem-

based learning strategy:
By determining a set of conditions that must be in teaching using the problem-
based learning strategy within the classroom; In order to achieve the goal of its
application, these conditions are summarized in:

1- The teacher must have the ability to manage groups.

2- He must have sufficient information about the level of students in the

classroom.

3- The teacher must be willing to keep pace with modern teaching methods.

4- To encourage students to work together and cooperate among themselves.

5- To accept students’ mistakes and direct them towards correcting their mistakes
themselves.

6- The teacher must have sufficient experience with the curriculum; To provide
students with timely feedback and remedial teaching.
7- Preparing records and work papers for students.

Activity:

Discuss with your colleague the characteristics of

the learning environment according to the
problem-based learning strategy.

Learning environment according to the problem-based

learning strategy:
The learning environment here must be characterized by an atmosphere of
freedom and democracy, and allow the participation of both the teacher and the
student in decision-making. It should also be an environment that challenges the
student’s mind, centered around the student and not the teacher, respecting the
abilities and interests of the students, an environment rich in various learning
resources and tools, and an environment conducive to learning. Meaningful, helps
students become independent and self-reliant, facilitates the discovery of
meaning, and makes students feel safe and accepted.

This strategy also requires a special educational environment, and the most
important features of this environment are:

1) A thought-provoking environment.

2) A student-centered environment.

3) An environment that respects the interests and abilities of students.

4) The student participates with the teacher in choosing the type of problems.

5) The main goal of learning - here - is: building understanding or meaning.

6) Students integrate into small, heterogeneous groups to solve the mathematical

problems and tasks presented.

Activity:

Through your understanding of how to apply the problem-based learning

strategy, identify the roles of both the teacher and the learner in this strategy.

The role of the teacher The roles of the student

Activity:

The cards in front of you, each represent one of the teacher’s roles:

Try to explain this role to your colleague in one phrase.

................. Design the

Mentor................................... problem.................................
........... ..............................

......................... Evaluator................................
Facilitator............................... ...............................
.......

Operator

..............................................
.................
Teacher roles according to the problem-based learning
strategy:
The teacher’s roles in problem-based learning are atypical roles that
encourage students to access information using their previous experiences in
applied situations, and deep understanding in the field of guiding students towards
applying knowledge in various problem situations, which helps adapt to the
environment of this strategy, and thus necessitates the teacher provides them with
a wide range of teaching skills; Which not only provides students with knowledge,
but also with problem-solving procedures and their applications to other similar
problems.
Teachers in problem-based learning environments have more critical teaching
abilities than in traditional teacher-centered classrooms. Teachers here, after
presenting knowledge, must integrate their students into organizing the
information and use their knowledge in the application process.
The teacher - here - plays a different role in each stage of problem-based
learning, and these roles include the following:

1- Designer of the problem: The teacher identifies the information and topics;
Which can be formulated in the form of a good problem, and the teacher here
designs the curriculum and sets the problems in two ways:

A- To prepare problems before the start of the school year.

B- When problems arise during work.

2- Mentor: The teacher takes on the role of mentor or facilitator; It creates the
atmosphere, helps students relate to the problem, and facilitates obtaining
information and the outcome or performance of work.

3- Evaluator: Throughout the problem-based learning process, the teacher plays

the role of the evaluator. As an evaluator, he monitors the effectiveness of the
problem, the quality of the students’ work, and his own success in preparing and
facilitating the problem.

4- Facilitator: Where the role of the teacher changes from just a lecturer to a
facilitator.
5- It provides the opportunity for students to participate in choosing learning
tasks.

6- Providing students with exciting experiences through appropriate selection of

learning tasks.

7- A participating member in all groups through his guidance for each group.

8- Manages and organizes discussion and dialogue among students.

Student roles according to the problem-based learning

strategy:
The problem-based learning strategy provides pupils with opportunities to
lead or manage their learning; It develops their critical thinking and evaluation skills
while analyzing real-life problems.
Students in traditional classes attend; To learn in an inappropriate way, which
leads to results that are contrary to the nature of science, while problem-based
learning environments provide students with opportunities to develop their
abilities to adopt and change their cognitive ways to achieve new situations. Here,
students have a greater opportunity to learn cognitive processes accompanied by
communication, representation, modeling, and reasoning.

Learner roles can be defined according to the problem-based learning

strategy as follows:

1) He is active in building knowledge.

2) Interactive and involved with the rest of his group.

3) Arriving at appropriate solutions and formulating them in a sound linguistic
manner.

4) Listen carefully to other groups’ opinions and solutions.

5) Negotiating with group members to reach a common meaning.

6) Modify ideas and information to maintain communication.

7) Determine the problems and tasks they will study.

8) Making meaning of the learning tasks presented through previous experiences.

9) Helping other groups interpret solutions and viewpoints.

10) Students act as professionals and confront problems with little guidance and a
little information. Here, students identify the best possible solutions to the
problem.

11) Expert or decision maker: Where the student works as an expert in some
areas while solving the problem, the student here proposes assumptions,
estimates the reliability of the information, and issues decisions regarding it.

12) Thinker, creator, and critic: He deals with problems as a creator, produces
original solutions to the problem and as a critic, analyzes the information, chooses
the appropriate solution strategy, processes the information, and evaluates it.

Activity:

By identifying the problem-based learning strategy.

Come up with your group mates to a list of the most important positives of
applying this strategy in the classroom.

Advantages of problem-based learning strategy:

The most prominent advantages of the problem-based learning strategy are
the following:

1- It works well with all students; students with different abilities can contribute
their talents in a cooperative manner to reach the solution.

2- The academic content is presented in the context of real complex problems

from real life what is considered an incentive of learning and an incentive of
integrating and organizing relevant information in a way that ensures its retrieval
and application to future problems.

3- It provides the opportunity for students to adopt theories on their own, solve
problems designed by the teacher, and present solutions in the classroom during
the lesson.

4- Developing many skills, including: problem solving, deductive thinking,

teamwork, personal skills, the ability to work independently, critical thinking,
research, evaluation, and use of appropriate learning resources.

5- Students enjoy the learning process. Some students view learning through
problem-based learning as learning for fun and enjoyment.

6- The problem-based learning strategy helps train students to make more use of
libraries and other information sources that support independent learning.

7- It helps students acquire lifelong learning skills.

8- Organizing the learning process in response to problems.

9- Emphasizing the student’s responsibility and initiative in learning.

10- Better placement of students at the starting point of learning, taking into
account individual differences in experiences and knowledge.

11- Forming more cooperative relationships between students and teachers

during the learning process.

12- This strategy is considered a modern strategy in the educational field, and it is
compatible with the nature of scientific subjects and social studies, because of the
principles, concepts, mathematical relationships, and problems this subject
contains.

Activity:

Dear teacher

The following is a problem related to the study of relationships in geometric

shapes.

Required: Use the problem-based learning strategy to encourage students to

reach the solution.

a d
The figure in front of you is a piece of fabric in the shape of a
b c
parallelogram A D

Sides A B C D In cooperation with members of your group, identify:

1- The relationship between every two successive corners in a piece of

cloth.

2- The relationship between the measurements of each two opposite

corners of a piece of cloth. B C

3- The relationship between the length of each two opposite sides of a

piece of cloth.

4- The distance between each vertex of the cloth and the point of
Activity (2):

How to teach some science topics using the problem-based learning method:

Dear teacher

The following is a problem connected with the study of “combustion

phenomena”

Required: Use the problem-based learning strategy to encourage students to

reach the solution.

• The teacher was talking about the phenomenon of combustion and

he lowered a bell over a burning candle. The students noticed that it
went out after a short while. When he asked them about the reason
for that, some of them answered that the air contains an active part,
which is oxygen, and when this part is consumed in combustion, the
candle goes out.
-Here, one of the students asked a question: What happens if the
inverted bell is raised above the burning candle a few centimeters
from the table? Does the candle go out or does it continue to burn?
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ..................................................
.................................................. ....

Activity (3):

How to teach some “Social Studies” topics using the problem-based learning
method:

Dear teacher

The following is a problem related to the study of the topic “National Unity”

Required: Use the problem-based learning strategy to encourage students to

reach the solution.

• Dear student: National unity is one of the most important

components of the success and stability of South Sudan... Despite this,
there are many tribal conflicts that threaten national unity!
What is required of you: In cooperation with members of your •
group, try to think about: What are the most important measures that
we can take to strengthen national unity in South Sudan?

Meditation

Activity

4. Write what you learned during this unit.

2- Write one thing that need more practice and explanation about.

3- What ideas can you convey to your students in the classroom in teaching?

- Types of assessment.

- Functions and importance of the assessment.

- Assessment of learning outcomes.

- Assessing the cognitive learning outcomes (Cognitive Domain).

- Assessing aspects of skill learning: Psychomotor Domain

- Assessing the emotional aspects of learning: Affective Domain.

- Learning assessment skills

- Assessing the teacher’s performance in teaching.

Learning outcomes:

By the end of this chapter, the teacher/student will be able to:

- Understand the concept of assessment.

- Distinguish the types of assessment.

- Define the functions and importance of the assessment

- Analyze and assess learning outcomes.

- The assessment of learning outcomes identifies the Cognitive
Domain

- Assess aspects of learning skills: Psychomotor Domain

- Make a tool to assess the emotional aspects of learning: Affective

Domain.

- Know learning evaluation skills

- Assess the teacher’s performance in teaching.

Initial Activity
‫نشاط استهاللي‬
Knowledge transfer station

After the exams are over

The curriculum is being deleted

Observe the two pictures in front of you!

What impressions do you get from each pictures!

What is the philosophy that each picture carries?

Is there a relationship between the two pictures?

As a teacher...to what extent do you disagree/agree with either picture?

.................................................. .................................................. ..........

........................................ .................................................. ....................

.................................................. .................................................. ..........

The skill of assessing learning outcomes

Introduction:
Assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process because it directs
the path of teaching and learning aimed at achieving positive results, by tracking
the work of learners, and helping them to develop and advance in the levels of
learning and achievement. It is a corrective measure for all components of the
teaching-learning process, and a tool for testing the value and effectiveness of what
we teach, how we teach it, and by what means this learning is carried out. In
addition to being a means to improve and direct learning in light of gaps that may
be observed, it is a procedure for making accurate and precise educational
decisions regarding the teaching and learning process.
Assessment is not only concerned with the learner’s achievement or assessment,
but rather it has gone beyond that to become a collaborative, participatory process
that contributes effectively to deepening the learners’ understanding of various
topics and making them more aware of the meaning of learning through their
positive participation in it. Assessment in this sense is an assessment of learning
and for the sake of learning, which reflects the learner’s achievements in all
aspects, whether cognitive, skill, or emotional, which are measured in real-life
situations.
Activity:

Dear teacher, discuss with your colleague the concept of evaluation... Try to
formulate the concept of evaluation.

.................................................. .................................................. ......

First: the concept of evaluation.

It is the process by which the teacher and students judge whether educational
objectives have been achieved or not.

It is also known as a diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive process, “being a

diagnostic process because it reveals areas of strength and areas of weakness,
and the reasons for each of them, and being a therapeutic process as it refers to
modifying plans, curricula, teaching methods and results, and being a preventive
process as it works to improve the educational process and avoid everything that
hinders Its movement and works to develop it to achieve the desired goals.

Evaluation is nothing but a determination of the extent of the teacher’s success

in achieving his teaching goals, so that instead of him, he should identify the
students’ learning errors and difficulties with the aim of improving the teaching
process.

The evaluation process should be expanded to include, in addition to learners’

evaluation of facts and knowledge, various concepts, attitudes, skills, and desired
values.

Activity (2)

Activity goal:

Trainees complete what they know about the three types of assessment and
determine what they want to know by applying the K.W.L strategy.

Term What I know What I want to What I learnt?

K know? L
W
Initial Evaluation
)diagnostic(
Formative
Evaluation
)constructive(

Final Evaluation
)Final(

Second: Types of assessment:

1- Diagnostic or initial assessment:

It is intended to identify the learners’ previous acquisition and provide the

necessary treatment that will enable them to follow up on new learning. The
function of this type of assessment is a directive function. That is, it directs the
teacher’s work and puts the learners on the path to new learning before starting to
implement the program, part, topic, or lesson.
Educational instructions indicate that diagnostic assessment allows the teacher
to know whether the learner is able to track and keep pace with the activities
expected to be accomplished. It also diagnoses the starting points of the teaching
process, by creating appropriate situations at the beginning of each lesson, or the
beginning of each unit of the study program, or At the beginning of the academic
year; Diagnosing and examining it by obtaining data that enables decisions to be
made about the instructions they have.
Accordingly, it aims to:

o Enable the teacher to know the learners’ qualifications and previous acquisition.

o Help him to anticipate difficulties in advance and work to avoid them.

o Help him to determine the degree and pace of learning based on the
qualifications of the learners.

On this basis, diagnostic assessment is a procedure that enables us to obtain

information and data about the previous abilities, knowledge, and attitudes of
learners, which is an essential foundation for building new learning, achieving
lesson objectives, and determining teaching principles appropriate to the nature
of the target group. It is an assessment of the individual characteristics of the
student, which can Have a positive or negative impact on his learning path.

Sometimes this type of assessment is called: assessment for distribution or

classification for placement in the appropriate place: Placement Assessment

It aims to determine the level of students, whether transferees, graduates or

those accepted into university colleges or universities, to classify them or place
them in classes or educational levels corresponding with their scientific abilities or
scientific inclinations and interests, as in language tests and computer studies.

2-Formative Evaluation:
It is based on the principle of evaluating the educational process through
(during the teaching process) and generally aims to determine the extent of
students’ progress towards the desired educational goals or the extent of their
acquisition and understanding of a specific learning subject (subject or unit of
study) for the purpose of correcting the course of the teaching process to improve
the performance of the teacher and the learner.

This type is consistent with the stages of building learning, and its purpose is, for
the teacher and learner, to be aware of the distance that separates them from
achieving the goal, and then to reveal difficulties and obstacles in order to
address them. The function of this type of assessment is corrective, helping the
teacher to control and modify his strategies; Since it is formative, it must be free
from punishment or penalty.

It is an assessment that enables students to know the extent of their progress

towards the desired goals, or the extent of their understanding of a specific topic
in order to correct and improve the course of the teaching process.

Educational instructions confirm that formative assessment aims to examine

and determine the extent of the learner’s ability to acquire and comprehend the
details of the lesson. It also allows for the discovery of areas of difficulty that
students encounter during their learning, which necessitates intervention to
bridge the gaps and prepare students to accept new learning. This type of
assessment accompanies the process of Teaching in all components of the
subject.

Accordingly; It can be said: Formative evaluation is an organized process that

takes place during the building of learning, and provides both the teacher and the
learner with the results of their performance to improve the educational process,
by identifying areas of strength to enhance them, and areas of weakness to
correct and address them, and this type is generally done based on the questions
that the teacher asks during the lesson. And the quizzes and exercises that he
presents during the class, and perhaps the decisions that accompany him
contribute to improving the educational process by improving its methods,
technique, and tools, and also concerning to the learning process through
support, guidance, and reinforcement.

The teacher can judge the program and the level of the students through his
observations, self-insight, and tests, as well as determine the extent of their
growth and progress, and thus his teaching methods can be modified, and the
appropriate activity and climate can be provided to achieve the goals he seeks,
aiming for ease of style and ease of expression.
Formative assessment tools include: the various oral questions asked by the
teacher during the lesson (or class), quizzes that do not take more than a few
minutes, classroom exercises, and observation cards for the procedural
performance of skills.

3-Summative Evaluation
The final assessment is concerned with assessing the educational process at the
end or after its completion, and thus aims to know the amount of educational
objectives that have been achieved, or to measure the educational outcomes that
occur during learning a unit of study or an entire subject.

Also in evaluating the level of students’ achievement or performance of scientific

knowledge in its various forms after completing teaching a specific scientific
subject, unit, or the course as a whole.

This assessment is conducted at the conclusion of dealing with the course or

study program to estimate its effectiveness and role in achieving the desired goals
after its implementation is completed in terms of the learner’s achievement.

The function of this type lies in getting the extent to which the desired
educational objectives have been achieved, determining the goals that have been
achieved, as well as monitoring the results of the learners to make appropriate
decisions such as promoting or granting a certificate.

In general, assessment aims to diagnose students’ achievements and their level

of cognitive and skill attainment, determine the degree of their control over their
acquisitions, experiences and learning, in addition to correcting the learning path
by overcoming the signs of stumbling and deficiency observed in their
achievements, as well as activating the processes of strengthening, supporting
and stabilizing with continuous assessment procedures
Activity

The science teacher noticed the students' weakness in writing the laws of light
in mirrors, lenses, and triangular prisms.

Although it had been studied before, the teacher wanted to verify the
information the students had, so he conducted an assessment on the students
whose results concluded that they were unable to know the symbols and
definitions of the concepts.

He reconsidered educational positions and activities and planned them to

address deficiencies and learning difficulties

Through letting the students be informed the symbols of concepts, their

definitions, and the mathematical formulas and laws necessary for this.

Which of the following types of assessment did the teacher use:

A - Pre assessment.

B- Formative assessment.

C- Readiness assessment.

D- Summative assessment.
Activity:

Through discussion with your group members:

Determine the functions and importance of the assessment process, whether for
the teacher or the student.

The importance of assessment for the The importance of assessment for the
teacher student
Tasks and importance of the assessment:
Assessment has several functions that are derived from the types of decision or
decisions taken, and these tasks can be simplified as follows:

1- Guidance task:
This task is compatible with the initial evaluation.

It means: directing the student towards specific learning activities, and this type
of assessment is carried out at the beginning of the learning; To determine the
extent to which students have mastered previous acquisitions, this evaluation can
be based on a set situation related to the competencies that they have previously
acquired, or other testing tools that are used to achieve two basic goals:

o Determine the student’s qualifications to continue new learning.

o Estimate the risks that may hinder the normal following of the student.

2- Modification task:
It means: correcting the manifestations of deficiency or stumbling that prevent
the achievement of the desired competencies.

To achieve this task, assessment is carried out during various learning activities
(regular learning and integrated learning), and the usual methods in the field of
formative assessment are used for this purpose.

The goal of this process is to diagnose students’ errors and invest them in
developing a treatment plan. In this regard, the following stages can be followed
to achieve an effective diagnosis:

o Collect information and data related to learning difficulties; That is:

classification of errors, specifically common ones.

o Analyze these types to determine their causes.

o Develop a remedial plan to correct errors.

3- Endorsement task:
The certification task is a final assessment function.

It is manifested in certifying the student’s possession of the basic learning and

his ability to integrate them in solving a problem situation. The assessment for
this function is carried out to confirm at the end of learning the learner’s success
or failure, and it relies on a situation equivalent to the situation that was adopted
to integrate the learning, provided that it is new for the students. certification
requires the need to pay attention to correct achievements (successes) only,
without considering mistakes, as the approach to competencies falls within the
frame of success.

Some tasks of the assessment process in general can be identified, whether for
the student, the teacher, or the surrounding environment, as follows:

It helps the teacher to identify the strengths and weaknesses of his learning,
improve his motivation to learn, increase the level of transmission of the learning
effect, and increase the students’ true selves, as well as providing feedback
related to the effectiveness of the teaching process.

It helps the teacher to judge the adequacy of the teaching strategies, methods,
and techniques that he practices, and to classify his students according to their
abilities, cognitive levels, tendencies, and readiness, and then make the
appropriate decisions towards improving the teaching process.

Obtaining the data and information necessary to develop the teaching system
adopted by the teacher in all its dimensions.

It helps to know students’ motivation and good guidance.

It helps in classifying educational situations.

Contributes to collecting data that shows the degree of progress of learners
towards achieving educational goals.

Making quality educational decisions.

He has a role in developing the inputs of the educational process and the
efficiency of the programs used.

It contributes to revealing the suitability of the tools and methods used to

achieve educational goals.

The evaluation process makes it possible to identify the level of achievement of

the established goals and objectives specified by the curriculum. It also helps in
highlighting the gaps in order to find solutions for them, which gives assessment
great importance in the educational process.

Third: Assessment of learning outcomes.

The learner growth, in light of which learning outcomes can be evaluated ,are
divided into three areas:

• Cognitive Domain.

• Psychomotor Domain.

• Affective Domain.

1- Assessing the cognitive learning outcomes Cognitive Domain

Evaluation of learning in the cognitive aspect is considered the most common
and most widely used type of assessment. The reason for this may be due to the
interest of teachers and educational authorities in general in learning information
and the focus of teaching in most cases on cognitive goals. Achievement tests are
among the oldest and most common types of assessment in schools and are almost
the only that learners prefer from grade to grade, and from one educational stage
to another.

Bloom and his colleagues adopted the same classification in their classification
of the class questions that was adopted in dividing the behavioral objectives,
where the class questions were classified into six levels:

Remembering or knowing: It requires the student to recall or recognize

information.

Understanding: It requires the student to rephrase the information, ie: provide a

description of it using his own words.

Application: It requires the student to apply a rule or principle or solve a specific

problem

Analysis: It requires identifying specific factual reasons, reaching at a conclusion

from the given evidence, or identifying evidence that supports a specific
conclusion.

Synthesis: It requires a high level of thinking. It requires authentic innovative

thinking, which consists of making predictions or solving problems, each of which
has more than one correct solution.

Evaluation: It relates to issuing judgments and evaluating opinions, ideas, or

things.

However, it is important for the teacher to always remember that there are
three factors that determine the level according to which a question is classified:

* Nature of the question

* Each student’s prior knowledge of the subject the teacher asks about

* The type of teaching that preceded asking this question.

A - Questions at the level of remembering:

The first and lowest level of thinking is remembering or knowing. A question of
this type requires the student to recognize or recall information. In order to
answer a question at the level of remembering or knowing, the student must
remember the facts, notes, definitions, and instructions that he learned before.

o For example: How many colors are in the flag of South Sudan?

B - Questions at the level of understanding (comprehension):

Questions at the understanding level require the student to prove that he has
sufficient understanding to organize the material mentally, and when he answers
a question at this level, he must go beyond retrieving information, and
demonstrate his mastery of it through his ability to rephrase it in his phrases and
words. He must link facts, definitions, and generalizations by discovering the
relationships between them.

o There are many examples at this level. Any question in which the teacher asks
the students to answer it in their own language includes understanding.

o Comprehension questions also often require students to interpret the material

presented to them in tables, graphs, maps, etc., and to translate its meaning.

o Also, a question at the level of understanding may require the student to

discover the relationship between two or more ideas, such as the teacher giving
the student two ideas and asking him to determine the relationship between
them,

Or he gives him one idea and one relationship, and asks him to determine the
second side of this relationship. The relationships included in the question may be
a comparative relationship, a causal relationship, a numerical relationship, or
something else.

o Examples of comprehension questions include: What is the basic idea

represented by this map or drawing?

o Describe in your own words Walt Disney's meaning in this cartoon

o Is the climate in South Sudan and Egypt similar or different?

It is important to remember the necessity of providing the necessary

information to the student, so that he can answer comprehension questions. For
example, if the student has read or listened to material that discusses the causes
of the phenomenon of climate change, and then he is asked to explain these
reasons in his own words and language, then the question in this case is at the
level of understanding. However, if the student has not previously read or
listened to a discussion or explanation of the causes of the phenomenon of
climate change, then the same question in this case will be at a higher level in
terms of thinking.

Examples of words that appear in comprehension questions include: Describe -

Compare - Interpret - Balance - Rephrase - Put the meaning into words of your
own - Explain the basic idea

C - Questions at the application level:

Application questions are essential in the educational process. On the one hand,
they provide an opportunity for students to encounter problems close to those
they may encounter in practical life. On the other hand, they are designed and
directed in order to give students actual practice of transferring the impact of
learning.

Application questions require the student to apply a rule or process in solving a

specific problem, and thus determine the correct answer to this question or
problem.

Application questions are common in mathematics, for example:

o Calculate the time required for the driver of a truck with a mass of 5000 kg and
a speed of 80 km/h to avoid colliding with a car parked 30 meters in front of him.

o If x = 2, y = 5, what is the solution to the following problem:

2x + 2y =?

o How do you determine the direction of winter wind movement in Juba?

Which keywords are commonly used in application questions?

Calculate - apply - use - use.

Application questions are considered favorite experiences for students because

of the following reasons:

o - It makes the student lively, active, and practicing.

o - It helps the student to practice an activity that differs from the routine
activities he is accustomed to.

o Transferring the impact of learning to life situations for students.

D - Questions at the level of analysis:

Analysis questions require the student to think critically and in-depth.

The distinctive characteristic of this level is that it requires solving problems on

the basis of conscious knowledge of inference processes and types.

If the focus in understanding and application is on using the educational

material to reach some conclusions, as for analysis, the student must be aware
and aware of the mental process he is performing, as well as the rules that
guarantee him reaching correct conclusions.

The student cannot answer an analysis question by repeating information that

he has previously studied, or even reorganizing and formulating it in his own
language, or even applying it to solve problems. Rather, in order to answer a
question of this type, he must analyze the information, determine the reasons,
and reach conclusions.
It is one of the most important operations that the student must perform to
answer the analysis questions.

1 - Determine the motives or causes of a specific incident or event, such as the

following questions:

Why did the Israelis choose the land of Palestine to establish their state?

Why is Juba's economy suffering from recession?

In all of these questions, students are required to identify or discover the causes
of certain facts or events using the process of analysis.

2 - Considering available information and analyzing it with the aim of arriving at a

conclusion or generalization based on it, such as:

After reading this book, how do you reach the authors’ background, trends, and
point of view?

- Look at the diagram of this new invention. What do you think is the purpose of
this invention?

This type of analysis question requires the student to reach a conclusion,

deduction, or generalization based on specific evidence.

These questions require students to analyze information in order to support a

conclusion, inference, or generalization.

Perhaps it is clear from the examples that we have provided of analysis questions,
that there are several possible answers to the question, in addition to the fact
that the process of analysis and thinking takes time, and therefore it is not
possible to answer these questions quickly and without delay. There is no doubt
that these two characteristics make analysis questions at the level of Higher than
previous levels.

However, we should know that analysis questions should not be directed to

students before preparing them for this type of question. This preparation
includes giving special information about the types of inference processes and
their rules. This teaching falls at the levels of remembering and understanding,
and the matter may need to be reorganized in content. Teaching and its method:
If we want to effectively use analysis questions, experimentation is a good
method to help prepare students for this type of question:

Among the words that are commonly used in analysis questions are:

Prove with evidence that the poles will change during the second half of the
twenty-first century.

Why didn’t the impact of the industrial revolution appear in the Arab world when
it appeared?

E- Questions at the composition level:

Composition questions require the student to have a higher level of thinking.

It requires original innovative thinking, and some teachers object to this level
because it is difficult for students and that it is above their mental level.

Composition questions are characterized by the fact that they allow students
great freedom to search for solutions to them.

Through answering the questions of the previous levels, students adhere to the
academic material and the mental processes mentioned in the question, explicitly
or implicitly, while these restrictions are at a minimum at the level of
composition.

In addition, composition questions are characterized by the fact that they

provide many approaches to the answer, and therefore they encourage the
student to use the information and mental processes that he has acquired from
his previous experiences in any field of life.

The following are examples of different types of composition questions:

o Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or magazine that addresses a serious
social issue you care about?

o Read the following short story and choose an appropriate title for it?

Teachers can use structure questions to help their students develop their
innovative thinking.

Composition questions require a deep understanding of the material, and

students should not immerse themselves in guesswork in order to answer these
questions. Rather, they should study the educational material in depth.

Answering a question about predicting any phenomenon requires taking into

account information and data related to that phenomenon before the prediction
can be sound.

It is one of the words that is commonly used in composition questions.

o How can you improve - What do you expect if - suggest - give a title -

F-Questions at the evaluation level:

The last level of classification is evaluation, which is as analysis and synthesis, is
one of the higher mental processes.

Evaluation questions do not have one correct answer, and they require the
student to judge a specific idea or solution to a problem or evaluate a work of art.

In order for the question to be considered at the level of evaluation, it must

include criteria of judgment, otherwise the question becomes at the level of
understanding or interpretation.

An individual may use objective criteria in his judgment or evaluation of an idea

or thing, and he may use personal or subjective criteria.

o For example, if the question is: Which rulers of the Ottoman Empire are more
competent?
o The answer to it may depend on personal criteria, or it may depend on objective
criteria. If you are a supporter of scientific and cultural progress and you choose a
ruler whose time is famous for them, then in both cases you have used personal
criteria, but if you choose the competent ruler on the basis of a set of indicators
that take in consideration.

Examples of evaluation questions include:

o Do you think that education in our current schools is very difficult?

o - Should young students be allowed to read any book they want to read,
regardless of the subject it covers?

o Which of these images do you prefer to others?

o - Which of these approaches provides us with the best way to address this
problem?

2- Evaluating aspects of skill learning: Psychomotor Domain

Skill learning aspects include: goals that express manual skills, motor skills, the
ability to handle and use tools and devices, and the ability to perform a specific
performance that requires psychomotor and neurological coordination.
Some assessment tools and methods are suggested to evaluate aspects of skill
learning, including the following:

1- Evaluation through observation: Observational Assessment

The teacher must observe and evaluate the student’s behavior in every learning
activity, especially those activities that include manual, performance, or motor
skills.

To achieve this, the teacher can use a special note card for the student, and set
estimates or marks for her according to the skills to be measured and evaluated.
The teacher can also provide the students with a list of the skills to be
evaluated, and ask them to evaluate themselves (self-evaluation), according to
the approved behavioral procedures and standards.

This type of evaluation requires the teacher to observe his students while they
are practicing various activities.

In order for the observation to be effective, the teacher must follow the
following:

o Use correct descriptive language to record observations,

o To determine the goal he is looking for in his observation,

o And to be objective in that,

The observation method has many benefits, the most important of which are:

o Providing the opportunity for continuous observation by the teacher of each

student,

o It is also characterized by the fact that it does not frighten students like various
exams or tests

2- Third: Practical tests

The teacher can evaluate the extent to which students have acquired the skill by
using practical tests.

It is common, for example, to find students in biological sciences moving from

one station to another in the laboratory (practical test) to learn about: tissues,
organs, or living organisms... with the help of a microscope or other means.

In other science lessons, you can find students measuring lengths, recording
temperatures, determining mass and weight, estimating density, etc.

Practical tests are divided according to their purpose into:

A-Manipulative Tests:

It tests the student's manual skills and his ability to manipulate and control
laboratory materials, tools and devices. It also tests the student's observational
abilities, scientific processes and other skills, problem-solving skills, and
laboratory practical skills and steps, such as: measurement, preparing a sample or
samples under a microscope, reading a thermometer, cutting glass, examining a
drop of water taken from a swamp, and dissection operations... etc.

B - Identification tests of unknown objects or materials: Idnufication Tests

It tests students’ ability to design practical activities or experiments, and to

use classification keys... to answer an unknown question or identify an unknown
(S), such as giving the student an unknown chemical or biological substance, or an
unknown sample, and asking him to find out its identity by designing an activity.
Experimental practical laboratory, according to the procedures followed in
conducting practical laboratory activities and experiments.

C - Problem-Solving Tests:

It tests students’ ability to perform, achieve, plan and design skills

In which students are asked, for example, to design a scientific device or a set of
tools and devices, and laboratory experimental methods to investigate some
chemical reactions,

o Or finding a solution to a problem or unknown in chemistry, biology, earth

sciences, or physics...,

o Or explain the effect of light on the process of photosynthesis,

o Or the effect of temperature on seed germination,

o Or the effect of the type of liquid on the evaporation rate...etc.

Below are a group of examples of this.

Question (1): There is a red liquid in front of you on the table. Using the materials,
tools and laboratory devices in front of you, try to find the color of this liquid with
different concentrations of (PH). Write down the laboratory steps and procedures
and the results you obtain.

Question (2): Mix 25 ml of yeast suspension with an equal amount of red liquid,
and observe what happens for five minutes. Record your observations.

Question (3): Suggest an experimental (laboratory) method to test whether your

explanations are correct or not?

Question (4): Do the results support the explanation you presented or proposed?
If the answer is no, provide another scientific explanation.

Question (5): Do you believe that the yeast that you worked with in the
laboratory is alive? Give reasons. Design an experiment to test your answer. Carry
out the experiment, record the results, and interpret them.

D- Oral presentations:

Through oral presentations, the student’s abilities are measured orally, that the
student may face shortcomings or that written tests are unable to measure.

Such as: skill aspects such as depth and logic of thinking, advocacy and
persuasion of certain ideas, explanation and interpretation, arousing enthusiasm,
understanding between the lines and beyond the lines, and negotiation and
discussion.

Advantages of oral presentations:

o It helps in making judgments about the student’s ability in discussion, dialogue,

speed of thinking, understanding, linking information and drawing conclusions
from it.
o It helps correct and modify scientific errors when they occur, trace them to their
roots, and reveal their causes and treat them in a timely manner.

o It helps the teacher distinguish between students who are close in level.

o Oral presentations provide immediate feedback to the teacher as he or she

explains; Where you can determine the level of students’ understanding.

3 - Evaluating the emotional aspects of learning: Affective Domain.

The attitude toward learning the subject consists of the student’s attitudes
toward: the teacher, the subject itself, its value, the method of teaching it, the
extent of his enjoyment in learning it, and the extent to which he feels its
usefulness.

Hence, one of the main goals of teaching any scientific subject, especially in the
first stage of primary education, is to encourage children to study this subject and
explain its beauty, importance, and role in forming habits of accuracy, sound
thinking, love of curiosity, exploration, discovery, and creativity at times.

If a child hates arithmetic, for example: then the largest part of the educational
process will have been lost.

The following are some tools and methods that a primary school teacher can
use to evaluate learning outcomes in the emotional field of teaching:

First: Endorsement Scales

These scales simply include items that include ideas with emotional and
emotional orientations.

In which the student is asked to choose the answer that describes his feelings or
inclinations, noting that the answers differ in degree of agreement, for example:
A- Attitude: I think science lessons are boring (Agree, Disagree).

B- Inclination: I like collecting plant samples (agree, disagree).

C- Self-concept: I am an honorable man (agree, disagree).

This includes various other measures of approval (validation), such as the

Likert, Thurstone, Guttman, and Strong scales.

Second: Measures of verbal contrast (semantic differentiation):

Semantic scales
The scale based on this method consists of a set of pairs of bipolar adjectives,
one positive and the other negative, such as (good - bad), (easy - difficult).

Each pair of attributes is separated by a scale consisting of seven grades.

By applying this scale, the individual is asked to place a sign such as the / sign in
the distance that expresses his position or direction regarding a topic, for each pair
of attributes, and it is necessary to indicate the topic of direction at the beginning
of the scale.
For example, if the student believes that health education is very useful, a mark
is placed in the space closest to this adjective, and a mark next to the opposite
adjective indicates negative behavior. The middle distance expresses neutral
feelings. The remaining spaces are used to indicate various degrees of positive or
negative feelings regarding the topic (health education, for example) towards
which the attitude is to be measured.

Health education

Useful --- --- --- --- --- --- --- not useful

Good --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Poor

Difficult --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Easy

value --- --- --- --- --- --- --- trivial

Third: Likert Scales
This type of scale is named like its designer name, Renis Likert, and it is
considered one of the most widely used scales in measuring trends and
tendencies.

Likert scales are relatively easy to design, apply, and correct. In addition, it is
relatively comprehensive and accurate, and therefore more stable.

When constructing Likert scales, it is preferable for the scale to include positive
and negative items related to the topic to be measured.

The student is usually asked to mark the degree of gradation of the scale, which
can be graded gradually: three, four, or five (the most common)... etc., such as:
strongly agree (5 degrees), agree (4 degrees), not sure, or neutral ( 3 marks),
disagree (2 marks), and strongly disagree (1 mark).

For the purposes of correction, the student’s grades on the scale items are
calculated by the sum of the grades he obtains on all the positive and negative
items of the scale, noting that the grades are reversed for the negative items that
measure negative attitudes or tendencies.

Example: Attitude to Science Scale

responses

Strong paragraphs
Strongly Disa Not Agre
ly
disagree gree sure e
agree
1-I am usually interested in science.

2-I work and achieve well in science.

responses

Strong paragraphs
Strongly Disa Not Agre
ly
disagree gree sure e
agree
3-The science teacher does not give
us much help.

4-Science helps me get a job when I

finish school.
5-I like to learn more about science.

6-The science teacher makes science

lively and exciting.

7-Science helps me do things more

accurately.

8-Science is not as interesting as other

branches of study.

9-The science teacher discusses the

wrong answers with us.

10-Science makes understanding the

world’s problems better.

11-I do not like reading books that

discuss science.

12-Science helps us raise our standard

of living.
responses

Strong paragraphs
Strongly Disa Not Agre
ly
disagree gree sure e
agree
13-The science teacher is usually busy,
so I don't want to ask him questions at
the end of the lesson.

14-I would like to spend more time

with science even if this results in less
time for other subjects.

15-Science is somewhat difficult.

16-Our teacher (science teacher)

enjoys teaching science.

17-Science shows us how to solve

problems.

18-I have difficulty understanding

concepts and expressions used in
science.

19- The science teacher transmits his

enthusiasm for science to us.

20-Science teaches us to raise

questions, opinions and ideas.

21-I want a job related to science.

22-The science teacher encourages us
to be more interested in science.

23-Science makes us think about what

is happening in the world.

24-I find it difficult when I am asked

to use what I have learned to solve
problems.

Activity:

Design and prepare a measure of your students’ attitude toward your specialty
subject (triple scale: agree - not sure - disagree)

responses paragraphs
Disagree Not sure Agree

- Learning assessment skills:

Every teacher who practices the teaching profession must possess a set of skills
that enable him to know the extent to which real and effective learning is
occurring among his students. The most important of these skills are:
• The skill of using oral questions to evaluate learning.

• Skill in constructing and using initial and diagnostic tests.

• Skill in preparing monthly tests.

• Skill in preparing essay tests.

• The skill of preparing objective tests of all kinds.

• The skill of preparing and using observation cards to evaluate performance.

• The skill of employing individual meetings with learners to evaluate some

aspects of their learning, such as emotional aspects.

• The skill of using performance and activity records and achievement files to
evaluate skills and emotional aspects.

• The skill of building self-evaluation tools and encouraging learners to use them.

• The skill of linking evaluation to the targeted educational outcomes.

Meditation activity:

Consider the pictures in front of

you?

What ideas can be derived?

What does this have to do with the teacher’s self-evaluation of his teaching
performance?

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Evaluating the teacher’s performance in teaching:

The goal of evaluation is the teacher recognizes the extent of his success in
achieving the goals (lesson objectives) so that it will help him to detect the errors
and learning difficulties of his students with the aim of improving the teaching
and learning process.

3 H Model This model is suitable for students... paying attention to the three
aspects of personality (the three levels of goals) as well as... the teacher’s
competence in teaching... the cognitive aspect: the emotional aspect with
students... the skill aspect in implementing activities

Evaluation is a comprehensive and continuous process. Evaluation includes all

aspects of the educational process, including objectives, content, teaching
methods, educational aids and means, explanatory, training and evaluation
activities, and students (learning outcomes). Evaluation also includes the various
stages of the teaching process (preparation, implementation, and follow-up
phase. It is also considered a process Evaluation is a continuous process
(situational evaluation, formative evaluation, diagnostic evaluation, and final or
summative evaluation. We will discuss this with some clarification, and what we
emphasize here is that the teacher must evaluate his lesson in light of his answers
to the following questions:

A- Regarding the objectives of the lesson:

• Are the goals written in a behavioral way that can be measured?

• Are the objectives appropriate to the nature of the content? And the level of
the students?
• Was it possible to achieve explanation goals at the end of the educational
situation?

• Did the teacher use appropriate methods to evaluate the extent to which the
lesson objectives were achieved (tests, problems, questions, review, interviews,
and performance observation...etc.)?

B - Mastery of the educational level:

• Has the teacher mastered the mathematical content (mathematics basics and
applications)?

• Does the teacher have the ability to analyze the content of the lesson?

• Does the teacher limit his dedication to the textbook?

• Is the content formulated in a logical manner according to the objectives?

• Does teaching change the level of students in terms of examples and

explanation?

C - Introduction to the lesson:

• Did he miss the introduction to the current lesson?

• Does the introduction fit the purpose of the lesson?

• Is the introduction appropriate to the type of educational experiences in which

the lesson is included?

• Is the introduction appropriate to the levels and abilities of the students in the
class?

D - How to manage the lesson:

• Was the teacher able to explain his lesson?

• Did the teacher use various methods and activities?

• Did the teacher rely on linking previous information to new information in his
explanation of the lesson?

• Was the teacher able to direct his discussions to the lesson?

• Was the teacher able to answer the students’ questions, reflecting his
anticipation of potential learning problems?

• Did the teacher take into account the individual differences among his
students?

• Did the teacher choose the appropriate questions for the educational situation?
Were his questions direct?

• Was it difficult? Was it clear in meaning? Was it duplicate? Have the questions
been distributed to the majority of students?

E- Applications:
• Were the applications adequate?

• Were the applications linked to the examples and exercises provided by the
teacher in his lesson?

• Were the textbook applications sufficient? Or did the student need additional
exercises?

• Is it the cognitive level of the given application (recalling information,

understanding, applying... etc.)?

• Was the teacher able to choose the appropriate questions and exercises for the
lesson and the students?

• Does the teacher give many examples and exercises and does the teacher have
all the examples and exercises on the board? Did he provide ready-made
solutions? Or present it to the students to think about solving it?
• Did the teacher provide solution ideas?

• Has the teacher analyzed the examples and exercises into their components?

• Did the teacher give his students the opportunity to think about the solution?

• Did the teacher discuss height with his students?

• Did the teacher pay attention to the steps for solving examples and exercises?

• Did the teacher help his students solve the problem themselves?

F- Educational means:
• Did the teaching aids provided by the teacher help achieve the lesson
objectives?

• Were the teaching aids provided by the teacher appropriate to the nature of the
lesson?

• Were these materials provided in a timely manner?

G - Evaluating the teacher’s use of the blackboard:

• Was the teacher’s use of the blackboard satisfactory?

• Did the teacher organize his idea and information on the board?

• Was the information written on the board clearly handwritten?

• Were the drawings clear (unclear, misleading)?

H - Evaluation of performance time:

• Did the teacher finish his lesson before the end of the lesson time?
• Do you need an extra teacher to finish his class? How many minutes do I need
for this?

• Did the teacher fit (chronologically) the structure of the lesson parts?

• Did the teacher finish his lesson before reviewing his lesson? Or before
submitting homework?

I- Homework:
• Did the homework have a purpose?

• Was the homework for review? Or to prepare for the next lesson? Or for the
calendar?

• Did the teacher correct the previously submitted homework?

• Does the homework require students a long time to complete it?

• Was the homework solved by the teacher in order to know the time required to
solve it?

• Did the homework assignments vary to take into account the nature of the
lesson and individual differences?

• Are the methods for solving homework firmly established in the minds of the
students?

• Did the teacher solve some homework exercises as models? Or indicated the
idea of solving it?

K- Evaluation ability:
• Was the teacher able to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of his students?

• Did the teacher simply measure the students’ achievement?

• Did the teacher measure his students’ understanding of mathematics?

• Did the teacher share his students’ capabilities in solving situations and
problems?

• Did the teacher measure his students’ mathematical skills?

• Is the teacher able to construct tests in mathematics?

• Does the teacher have the ability to analyze test results?

• Is the teacher kind in his evaluation methods (oral and written test questions,
discussions, performance notes, etc.)?

Meditation

Activity

5. Write what you learned during this unit.

2- Write one thing that you need more practice and explanation about.
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3- What ideas can you convey to your students in the classroom in teaching?

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