Introduction

The ancient Greeks lived in many lands around the Mediterranean Sea, from Turkey
to the south of France. They had close contacts with other peoples such as the
Egyptians, Syrians and Persians.The Greeks lived in separate city-states, but shared
the same language and religious beliefs.
Ancient Greek culture is noted for its government, art, architecture, philosophy, and
sports, all of which became foundations for modern western society.
Ancient Greek culture covers over a thousand years of history, from the earliest
civilizations in the area to the cultures that became the Ancient Greeks. Following a
Greek Dark Age, Greece once more flourished and developed into the ancient
culture that we recognize today.
Greek culture is focused on their government, art, architecture, philosophy, and
sport. Athens was intensely proud of its creation of democracy, and citizens from all
poleis (city-states) took part in civic duties. Cities commissioned artists and
architects to honour their gods and beautify their cities.
Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and thinkers are still honoured in society
today. As a religious people, the Greeks worshipped a number of gods through
sacrifices, rituals, and festivals.
The ancient Classical and Hellenistic eras of Greece are undoubtedly the most
splendid, having left behind a host of ideas, concepts, and art to provide the
foundation of what we call “western civilization”.
Much of the ancient Greek civilization has survived either directly or through
permutations to our day. The ancient Greek dialects are influential even to this day
with much Greek vocabulary embedded in the Modern Greek and English
languages. Likewise, the art and architecture of ancient Greece has remained
relevant and influential up to our time in the breadth of western society.
Greek art is all about images: images of gods, images of heroes, and images of
humans. The self-awareness of the Greeks is reflected in the ways they decided to
visualise themselves and the world, both real and imaginary, surrounding them.
Statues, reliefs, and vases are no longer considered mere objects of art, an aesthetic
delight in a museum showcase, but evidence for the ways a culture visualised and
artistically reinvented abstract philosophical ideas, political concepts, religious
beliefs, or social constructs. “Western civilization has carefully constructed itself in
the image of the Greek World”. Greek art has incorporated itself even in this
generation; we see examples of Greek art in the design of libraries, government
buildings, banks and college campuses. It’s more than just classical statues and
buildings; it uses art to talk about issues such as the difference in men and women,
and even culture and religion. "Mirrored in light and darkness, in man and woman. In
their art as their literature, the ancient Greeks addressed the tension between these
polar opposites".
The Greeks got many of their ideas from the Egyptians, but they had an interest they
didn't share that made their art different: the Greeks made pottery into a vehicle of
painted scenes. The painting's formulas were similar to the Egyptian type, but the
way the figures moved expressed more than what they were doing, they had a sense
of why they were doing it. The Greeks learnt the art of making monumental figure
sculpture from the Egyptians, but rapidly developed it. The former had harder tools
and they had a material which was much more responsive to metal tools than the
ones used by the latter. As the act was intended to speak to the gods, the sculptures
addressed themselves also to men. Formal though the sculptures were, they were
charged with human feeling and presence.

Greek Culture

Who were the ancient Greeks?

About 2,500 years ago, Greece was one of the most important places in the ancient
world. The Greeks were great thinkers, warriors, writers, actors, athletes, artists,
architects and politicians.
The Greeks called themselves Hellenes and their land was Hellas. The name
‘Greeks’ was given to the people of Greece later by the Romans. They lived in
mainland Greece and the Greek islands, but also in colonies scattered around the
Mediterranean Sea. There were Greeks in Italy, Sicily, Turkey, North Africa, and as
far west as France.

The early history of Ancient Greece

The earliest settlers mostly lived a simple hunter-gatherer or farming lifestyle.

The Minoans were the first great Greek civilisation. They lived on the nearby island
of Crete, between 2200-BC and 1450-BC.
After the Minoans came the Mycenaean civilisation, from mainland Greece. They
were fine builders and traders, but they were also great soldiers. The Mycenaean
age ended in about 1100-BC. After that, Greece entered a Dark Age. It is known as
a dark age because nobody knows much about what happened - all written language
and art disappeared.

After the Dark Age

In 800-BC, almost 300 years after the Dark Age began, Greek civilization slowly
emerged again.
The Greeks started trading more with the outside world, they held the first Olympic
Games and they fought off the invading Persian army. This period is known by
historians as the archaic period of Greek history. During this time many of the cities
in Greece were ruled by a king-like figure.

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Around 480-BC Greece entered a golden age which lasted for 200 years. The
people built fantastic temples, made scientific discoveries, wrote plays and founded
the first proper democracy. It was called Classical Greece.
The final period of Greek history is known as the Hellenistic period. This lasted from
323-BC to 30-BC, when the Romans took control of Greece. They respected the
Greeks and copied many things about their culture, including their buildings, beliefs
and clothes.

How was Greece ruled?

Greece was divided up into small city-states, like Athens, Sparta, Corinth and
Olympia. Each city-state ruled itself. They had their own governments, laws and
army. The city-states didn’t get on very well and often fought each another.
Only a very powerful ruler could control all Greece. He was Alexander the Great

Some of the cities of Ancient Greece

Delphi: Delphi was one of the holiest places in ancient Greece. People travelled from
all over the country to visit a famous priestess called the Pythia.
Corinth: Around 400-BC, Corinth was one of the largest and most important cities in
ancient Greece. It was located right at the centre of Greece, so was in a good place
for trade.
Olympia: Olympia was home to the ancient Olympic Games. Every 4 years, athletes
came from all over Greece to compete in running, wrestling, boxing, jumping,
throwing and horse racing.
Sparta: The Spartans were very serious soldiers and they spent their entire lives
training for battle.
Knossos: Knossos was the oldest city in Greece. It was located on the island of
Crete and was the centre of the Minoan civilisation.
Athens: Between 500-BC and 400-BC, Athens was the most important city in the
world. Many of ancient Greece's greatest thinkers, artists and writers lived here.

Economy

Ancient Greece relied heavily on imported goods. Agricultural trade was of great
importance because the soil in Greece was of poor quality which limited crop
production. Greece had only 20 % farmable land due to the mountain ranges running
all over it. The Greeks adapted to the land by raising animals that needed little land
to survive like sheep, goats and pigs. Bees were raised to get honey, the only source
of sugar for the Greeks. They also planted plants that need little water, such as
barley, wheat, olive trees and grapes.Greek pottery was very valued. Ancient
Greece’s position in the Mediterranean allowed them to control some crucial trade

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routes and seaports. Sea routes made trades possible to different ports all over the
world. They swapped goods with sea traders from Egypt, India, Rome and other
parts of Europe. Caravans from as far away as Mesopotamia, India, and Asia also
found their way by land to Greece’s city-states, specifically the city of Athens. They
traded for foreign goods such as leather, linen, wheat, barley from Egypt; pork,
cheese, and glass from Rome; and Ivory from Africa and India.
Therefore, the economy of Greece was based on trade. The marketplace, called the
agora, was the centre of daily life. In addition to the goods exported, peasants and
artisans often sold their own crafts, but there were merchants that were divided into
guilds. The guilds would sell fish, olive oil, and vegetables, or women in guilds would
sell perfumes and ribbons. Merchants had to pay a fee for their place in an agora
and were seen negatively by the general population.
Taxes were a part of the ancient Greek business system. They were imposed on the
movement of goods. Taxes in Ancient Greece were progressive. This means the
taxes were imposed on the wealthy who were the most able to pay them. Taxes
were, for the most part, voluntary. They were considered “liturgy”.

Most Greeks settled along the coasts of the Ionian and Aegean seas, which provided
fishing, communication and travel routes. Greek sailors found a lot of different ways
to make their living from sailing. Some of them were fishermen and some Greek
people were pearl-divers. Other Greeks were traders, who bought things at one port
and sold them at another port. Many Greek people made things for the traders to
sell: wool cloth, wine, perfume, and fancy pottery. Greek artisans made beautiful clay
jars and wool cloth. Other Greeks were soldiers for their city-state. Many Greek
sailors worked as mercenaries. But many Greek men and women were also farmers,
who spent most of their day growing food. Most Greeks were employed in agriculture
because it required a lot of work, which followed the flowing of the seasons, creating
a methodical lifestyle. Greek traders didn’t only sell things but also bought stuff to
bring back to Greece and sell there. They brought medicine, pepper and cinnamon.
Craft workers specialised in making tools and products out of wood, clay, bone,
wool, steel and metal. Iron farming eventually helped them farm more efficiently and
the population grew as a result. Greek city-states also made money with taxes on
trade. Merchants had to pay a percentage of the value of anything they brought in or
shipped out.

Goods which were traded within Greece between different city-states included:

● cereals
● wine
● olives
● figs
● pulses
● eels
● cheese

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 ● honey
● meat
● tools
● perfumes
● fine pottery, especially Attic and Corinthian wares.

The goods available at the market places (agorai) of major urban centres which were
imported from outside Greece included:

● wheat
● slaves from Egypt
● grain from the Black Sea
● salt fish from the Black Sea
● wood (especially for shipbuilding) from Macedonia and Thrace
● papyrus
● textiles
● luxury food such as spices
● glass
● metals such as iron, copper, tin, gold and silver.

What do we know about ancient Greek culture?

The Greeks built grand temples for their gods and superb sculptures of brave
heroes. They pretty much invented the theatre as well. The Greeks also celebrated
the arts with big festivals. There was always music, dancing, and feasting in honour
of their gods.

When we talk about architecture and sculpture the Greeks believed that the secret to
making a great building was maths. They carefully designed and measured their
buildings, making sure they got all their angles, shapes and sizes right.

The Greeks were really good at making statues too and to make them even more
spectacular, they added some gold, bronze and ivory jewellery - this would glint and
sparkle in the sunlight.

Religion

In the ancient Greek world, religion was personal, direct, and present in all areas of
life. With formal rituals which included animal sacrifices and libations, myths to
explain the origins of mankind and give the gods a human face, temples which
dominated the urban landscape, city festivals and national sporting and artistic
competitions.

Temples, Rituals & Priests

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The temple was the place where religion took on a more formal tone. Gods were
worshipped at sacred sites and temples in all major Greek communities in
ceremonies carried out by priests and their attendants.

The sacred area was separated from the rest of the community by a symbolic gate or
propylon, and it was believed that this area belonged to the particular deity in
question. Sacred sites also received financial donations and dedications of statues,
fountains and even buildings from the faithful, often to celebrate a great military
victory and give thanks to the gods, and larger sanctuaries also had permanent
caretakers who were responsible for the upkeep of the site.

Priests then orchestrated the religious ceremonies and delivered prayers. The
position was generally open to all and once assuming the role, particularly when
wearing the sacred headband, the body of the priest became inviolate. Priests
served a specific god but they were not necessarily religious experts. Women could
also be priests, which is perhaps surprising given their lack of any other public role in
Greek society.

Greek gods and goddesses

The Greeks believed that gods and goddesses watched over them. These gods
were a bit like humans, but they lived forever and were much more powerful. They
felt human emotions, like love, anger and jealousy, and they did not always behave
themselves. They thought the gods lived high above Mount Olympus, in a palace in
the clouds. From here, they kept an eye on life below. From time to time, they would
interfere in what was going on.

Each god and goddess had power over a different aspect of life or the world.

Zeus: Zeus was the king of the gods. Zeus had many children, including Apollo,
Artemis, Athena, Aphrodite and Ares. He threw thunderbolts to punish anyone who
disobeyed him. Zeus, in the ancient Greek religion, chief deity of the pantheon, a sky
and weather god who was identical with the Roman god. His name may be related to
that of the sky god of the ancient Hindu Rigveda. Zeus was regarded as the sender
of thunder and lightning, rain, and winds, and his traditional weapon was the
thunderbolt. He was called the father (i.e., the ruler and protector) of both gods and
men. He had many love affairs with both mortal and immortal women. In order to
achieve his amorous designs, Zeus frequently assumed animal forms.

Hades: He ruled the kingdom of the dead, known as the Underworld. People made
sacrifices to him if they wanted something terrible to happen to their enemy. Hades
was a son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, and brother of the deities Zeus, Poseidon,
Demeter, Hera, and Hestia. Ancient Greek depictions of the afterlife are far different

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from modern ideologies. While they share similarities, most Greek portrayals of the
afterlife involved a single place: the underworld. This was a place where all human
souls went after death. Contrary to popular belief, humans didn’t go to the Greek
equivalent of heaven. Hades is also most known for kidnapping and marrying
Demeter’s daughter, Persephone.

Aphrodite: Aphrodite was the most beautiful goddess; she was the Goddess of love,
fertility and beauty. She had a magical golden belt that made people fall in love with
her. Aphrodite's sacred animals were the dove and swan. She was one of Zeus's
children and was married to Herphaestus, the god of blacksmiths.

Hera: Hera was queen of the gods and the wife and sister of Zeus. She was the
goddess of marriage, birth and women. Hera's sacred animals were the peacock,
cuckoo, lion and cow.
Despite being the Goddess of Marriage, she was known to be jealous and vengeful
towards the many lovers and offspring of her husband Zeus. She was also known to
turn her anger towards mortals who crossed her as well.
Even before her marriage with Zeus, she ruled over the heavens and the Earth.
Moreover, she was the protector of women, presiding over marriages and births.

Athena: Athena was the goddess of wisdom and war. The people of Athens named
their city after her and a huge statue of Athena once stood inside the Parthenon. She
was the daughter of Zeus (she was his favourite child); no mother bore her. She
sprang from Zeus’s head, full-grown and clothed in armour. Athena was a patron of
the arts and crafts, especially when it came to spinning and weaving.

Poseidon: Poseidon was the god of the sea and he was worshipped as a fertility god.
He was known for carrying a trident, a large three-pronged fork, and could send
storms and earthquakes to shake the land. His brothers were Zeus and Hades. He is
the son of Cronus and Rhea and was swallowed by his father along with Hades,
Demeter, Hestia and Hera. It stands to reason that, because of his influence on the
waters, he was worshipped in connection with navigation.

What was it like to live in an ancient Greek family?

Most people lived by farming, fishing and trade. Others were soldiers, scholars,
scientists and artists. Most people lived in villages or in the countryside. Many
Greeks were poor and life was hard, because farmland, water and timber for building
were scarce. That's why many Greeks sailed off to find new lands to settle.

What were Greek homes like?

Ancient Greek homes were built around a courtyard or garden. The walls were often
made from wood and mud bricks. They didn't have much furniture inside. Many
homes didn’t have a bathroom. There were public baths, but most people washed

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using a small bucket or in a nearby stream. At night, Greeks slept on beds stuffed
with wool, feathers or dry grass. The only light came from flickering oil lamps and
candles.

Man: Ancient Greece was a man's world. Men were in charge of the family and the
home. A woman could not even leave the house without her husband's permission.
In wealthy homes, men were served food and entertained by slaves, while the
women and children ate in another room. Men would have to go out and earn a
living. They could work in the army, in politics, construction and trade, but most
Greek men worked on farms growing and harvesting crops.

Woman: Most Greek women didn't have a lot of freedom. Married women had to
stay at home. They spent their time spinning thread and weaving cloth. They also
looked after the children and prepared food. Rich women were only allowed to leave
the house if they were accompanied by a slave or a male companion. Only poor
women went out alone. They went shopping, fetched water and did the family
washing in a stream.

Boys: Many Greek parents wanted to have a son because they could look after them
in old age. Boys went to school at age seven. Most boys had to work hard as
farmers, sailors, fishermen and craft workers. Children played with balls made from
tied-up rags or a blown-up pig's bladder.

Girls: Most girls were between 13 and 16 years old when they married. Often their
fathers chose husbands for them. A girl's husband was usually older than she was,
sometimes in his 30s. The day before she married, a girl sacrificed her toys to the
goddess Artemis, to show she was now a grown-up. Girls might have played with
small pottery figures and dolls made of rags. Girls didn't go to school. They were
taught housework and cooking at home by their mothers.

Slaves: Owning slaves was considered a normal thing in ancient Greece, but only
rich people could afford them. Slaves could be men or women. Male slaves worked
as gardeners and took care of the horses. Women worked as nannies, cooks and
cleaners. Slaves who lived with rich families were treated well, so didn’t run away.
But slaves who worked on farms, down mines or on trading ships were often treated
badly.

What Greek festivals were there?

Athletic Games, competitions in music, and theatre were held during festivals to
honour a particular god. These events were attended by visitors from all over Greece
and the experience was perhaps more akin to a pilgrimage rather than that of a mere
sports fan.

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Every four years, Athens held the Panathenaic Games. Thousands of people
paraded through the city to worship the god Athena. There were competitions for
athletics, poetry reading, and music. The Games ended with an enormous all-night
banquet.

The city put on a drama festival called the Dionysia in honour of the god Dionysus.
He was the god of the theatre and wine. The festival was a bit like a competition.
Judges gave prizes for their favourite tragedy and comedy performances.

The Pythian Games were held in Delphi for the god Apollo. They were a bit like the
Olympic Games, but there were competitions for music, painting, acting, dancing,
and athletics.

The Greeks at war

In ancient times, Greece wasn't a single country like it is today. It was made up of
lots of smaller states. These states were always squabbling and often went to war.
Sparta and Athens fought a long war, called the Peloponnesian War, from 431 to
404-BC.

Only the threat of invasion by a foreign enemy made the Greeks forget their quarrels
and fight on the same side. Their biggest enemies were the Persians.

Fighting formation

The backbone of the Greek army was the 'hoplite'. He was a foot soldier, who fought
with a long spear and used a large round shield for protection. In battle, hoplites
fought as a team. In a formation that was known as a ‘phalanx’. It was tough to break
through once a phalanx started marching forward.

Their weapons and armours

Spear: A hoplite's main weapon was a double-ended spear called a doru. It was
three metres long and was held in the right hand. The spear was used for stabbing
rather than throwing and it had a sharp metal point at both ends.

Helmet: This often had a crest made from horsehair which stuck up to make the
soldier look taller and fiercer. These helmets had holes for the eyes and ears so
soldiers could take in more of what was happening in battle.

Shield: A Greek soldier carried a big round shield called an aspis or hoplon. This was
made from wood and covered in a layer of bronze. A hoplite's shield was usually
decorated with the symbol of his family or city.

Armour: A hoplite's body armour was called the linothorax. Rich men had metal
armour shaped to their chest. Other soldiers wore cheap armour made from

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hardened linen cloth. Underneath the armour, soldiers wore a tunic decorated in the
military colours.

Sword: A hoplite carried an iron sword called a xiphos. This was used if soldiers
needed to break rank and fight man to man.

Greaves: A hoplite wore bronze shin guards called greaves to protect his legs. The
greaves were well fitted and would wrap around the hoplite's shin.

A hoplite had to pay for his armour himself, unless his father was killed in battle.
Then he was given his father's equipment.

The Spartan soldier state

Fighting wars was what the Spartans did best. Greeks said that in battle one Spartan
was worth several other men. The Spartans believed that strict discipline and a
tough upbringing was the secret to making the best soldiers. Boys left their families
at seven to begin their 23-year-long training to become a soldier. Only those who
went through this gruelling training system were considered true Spartan citizens.

Girls were expected to be physically fit too. They weren't allowed to be soldiers, but
they did compete against the boys at sport. Spartan women also had more freedom
than other Greek women. A wife ran the family farm and gave orders to the enslaved
people.

The three most famous Greek wars

The Battle of Marathon

At the Battle of Marathon about 10,000 Greeks fought an army of 20,000 Persians
led by King Darius. The Greeks surprised their enemies by charging downhill straight
at the Persians.

Battle of Thermopylae

One of Sparta's proudest moments was the battle of Thermopylae in 480-BC. A huge
Persian army was trying to invade Greece and 300 Spartans led by King Leonidas
stood in their way. The Spartans fought bravely and held back the larger Persian
army for three whole days. In the end, Leonidas and his Spartans were defeated.
The Persians marched on to capture Athens. But soon afterwards the Greeks
defeated the Persian fleet at the sea battle of Salamis.

The Battle of Salamis

The greatest sea battle in Greek history was at Salamis. A large Persian fleet of
about 500 ships sailed into a narrow strait at Salamis. The Persian king Xerxes

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watched from a throne set up on the shore, expecting an easy victory. The Greek
ships attacked when the Persian fleet was stuck in the narrow channel and 200
Persian ships were sunk. It was a huge victory for the Greeks.

Greek History

What Are the Origins of Ancient Greece?

The Stone Age

The Stone Ages were divided into three distinct periods: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic,
Neolithic. During the Neolithic Greek Age there were new advances in architecture
and various tools used.
It was during the Early Neolithic when people developed techniques to fire vases.
The Middle Neolithic period brought with it new developments in architecture, namely
the “megaroid. The importance of the megaron structure is that it developed into the
hall for Greek palaces.

Into the Bronze Age of Greece – The Aegean Civilizations

The Greek Bronze Age is categorised by three dominant locations: Cyclades, Crete,
and the Greek Mainland. Each geographic area had different cultures; the Cycladic
civilization from Cyclades, the Minoan civilization from Crete, and the Mycenaean
civilization from Mainland Greece. The development of each civilization overlapped
with the other.

The Greek Dark Ages and the Start of Greek Civilization

The fall of the Mycenaean civilization and many others around that period is a widely
debated topic. This period is referred to as the “Late Bronze Age Collapse”, which
would eventually become what is known as the “Greek Dark Ages”.
The Geometric period occurred near the end of the Greek Dark Ages, and in the
context of style, art on pottery was depicted in geometric shapes, which gave this
period its name. It was after this period that Greece started to develop and evolve.

Greek Art

Geometric Period (c.900-700 BC)

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The Geometric period in Greek art is distinguished by a reliance on geometric
shapes to create human and animal figures as well as abstract décor. This period
also saw an artistic change, the return of human figures.

Pottery

This period is named after the geometric patterns and motifs that were prevalent on
pottery at this time. Both the shapes of vases in this period and their decoration
derive from an earlier period called the Protogeometric period. Protogeometric
decoration includes concentric circles and semicircles, checkerboard patterns, zig-
zags, wavy lines, and lozenges in the form of triangles or diamonds. One of the most
significant changes in pottery decoration during this period is new interest in
depicting the human form on vases in a perspective that combines frontal and profile
views. Greek vases became a major trade commodity, and artists spent more and
more time decorating them. Vases of the Geometric Period were covered in
geometric designs, abstract and ornamental designs with no narrative function.

Architecture

Greek life was dominated by religion and so it is not surprising that the temples of
ancient Greece were the biggest and most beautiful ones. They also had a political
purpose as they were often built to celebrate civic power and pride, or offer
thanksgiving to the patron deity of a city for success in war. Greek architecture was
the first to introduce a standardised set of architectural rules that went on to
influence Roman architecture and, as a result, architecture to this day. The Greeks
developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive
proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are:
-Doric: it is rather sturdy and its top is plain, smooth and round. It is the simplest and
most massive. Doric-style columns were typically placed close together, often
without bases, with concave curves sculpted into the shafts.
-Ionic: it is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design.
-Corinthian: it is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen in Roman temples.
Its capital is very elaborate, ornate and decorated and carved with stylized acanthus
leaves.

Painting

To produce the characteristic red and black colours found on vases, Greek
craftsmen used liquid clay as paint (termed “slip”) and perfected a complicated three-
stage firing process. The decorative motifs of the Geometric style are almost
exclusively linear. Also battlements, zigzags, and meanders are common. The
meander is used so often that it is almost the symbol of the Geometric style. For
years, Greek art did not feature many human figures, but in the Geometric Period,
people began to reappear among the geometric patterns. However, their appearance

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was largely abstract, and human figures were also composed of basic geometric
shapes.

Sculpture

Although derived from geometric shapes, the Ancient Greek sculptures of the
Geometric period show some artistic observation of nature. Small-scale sculptures,
usually made of bronze, terra cotta, or ivory, were commonly produced during this
time. These little statues were solid pieces of bronze, cast in a mould. Typically,
these statues featured two combatants, facing each other, and locked in hand-to-
hand struggle.

Archaic Period (c.700-480 BC)

The archaic period began with a massive increase in the Greek population and of
significant changes that rendered the Greek world at the end of the 8th century
entirely unrecognisable from its beginning. Greek art started to become less rigidly
stylized and more naturalistic.

Pottery

The most developed art form of the pre-Archaic period was undoubtedly Greek
pottery. Often involving large vases and other vessels, it was decorated originally
with linear designs, then more elaborate patterns of triangles, zigzags and other
similar shapes. Geometric pottery includes some of the finest Greek artworks, with
vases typically made according to a strict system of proportions. Pottery in Archaic
Greece was used for ornamental purposes as well as every day and practical uses.

Architecture

Stone was used for Greek public buildings, especially temples. Greek architecture
relied on simple post-and-lintel building techniques. The typical rectangular building
was surrounded by a line of columns on all four sides. Roofs were constructed with
timber beams overlaid with terracotta tiles. Pediments were decorated with relief
sculpture or friezes, as was the row of lintels between the roof and the tops of the
columns. Greek architects were the first to base their architectural design on the
standard of proportionality. Greek architecture continued to be highly influential on
later styles.

Painting

Since most vases and sculptures were painted, the growth of pottery and sculpture
led automatically to more work for Greek painters. In addition, the walls of many
temples, municipal buildings and tombs were decorated with fresco painting, while
their marble or wooden sculpture was coloured with tempera or encaustic paint.

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Paintings on vases evolved from geometric designs to representations of human
figures, often illustrating epic tales. More animals were painted and artists employed
decorative motifs like curves and floral patterns.

Sculpture

In sculpture, faces were animated with the characteristic “Archaic smile,” and bodies
were rendered with a growing attention to human proportion and anatomy. The three
main types of Archaic sculpture were (1) Statues; (2) Pedimental Sculptures and (3)
Reliefs. Most important Greek sculpture was of a religious character, made for
temples which were usually dedicated to a single divinity. Divine statues were
sculpted in the likeness of man, and were made in various materials and sizes. The
three most common statues were the standing nude youth (kouros, plural kouroi),
the standing draped girl (kore, plural korai), and the seated woman. While there was
realism in their portrayal, they also wanted to show strength and physical prowess in
the masculine form.

Classical Period (c.480-323 BC)

The main contribution of Greek Classicism to fine art was undoubtedly its sculpture:
in particular, the "Canon of Proportions" with its realisation of the "ideal human
body". The essential characteristic of classical Greek art is a heroic realism. Painters
and sculptors attempt to reveal the human body, in movement or repose, exactly as
it appears to the eye. The emphasis will be on people of unusual beauty, or
moments of high and noble drama.

Pottery

Practical, sharply defined, and well-proportioned shapes are another characteristic of

Greek pottery. There were three major pottery styles of this period: Corinthian, red-
figure and black-figure pottery. The Corinthian style was the most exported, with its
lively animated scenes of animals. Then, black-figure pottery replaced the Corinthian
style. It is characterised by figures painted black on the red-orange background and
the figures were illustrated in complex scenes from Greek mythology. In the red-
figure style artists began to outline the black figures with a black slip background,
leaving the figures in white. This allowed painters to achieve even more precision in
their characters, from diverse facial expressions to intricate clothing details.

Architecture

Building design reached its apogee during the Classical period, as the two main
styles of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic, came to define a timeless,
harmonious, universal standard of architectural beauty. The Doric style was more

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formal and austere while the Ionic was more relaxed and somewhat decorative. The
Ionic Order later gave rise to the more ornate Corinthian style.

The Parthenon remains the supreme example of classical Greek religious art. In its
day, it would have been embellished with numerous wall-paintings and sculptures,
yet even relatively devoid of adornment it stands as an unmistakable monument to
Greek culture.

Painting

The essential characteristic of classical Greek art is a heroic realism. Painters and
sculptors attempt to reveal the human body, in movement or repose, exactly as it
appears to the eye. The emphasis will be on people of unusual beauty, or moments
of high and noble drama.

-Panel painting: it was done in encaustic or tempera. Subjects included figurative

scenes, portraits and still-lifes, and exhibitions. Not a single Greek Classical panel
painting of any quality has survived, nor any Roman copy.
-Fresco painting: it was a common method of mural decoration in temples, public
buildings, houses and tombs but these larger artworks generally had a lower
reputation than panel paintings.

The painting of stone, terracotta and wood sculpture was another specialist
technique mastered by Greek artists. Stone sculptures were typically painted in bold
colours; though usually, only those parts of the statue which depicted clothing, or
hair were coloured, while the skin was left in the natural stone colour, but on
occasion the entire sculpture was painted.

Sculpture

In the history of sculpture, no period was more productive than this. As far as plastic
art is concerned, there may be subdivided into: Early Classical Greek Sculpture,
High Classical Greek Sculpture, and Late Classical Greek Sculpture. During the era
as a whole, there was a huge improvement in the technical ability of Greek sculptors
to depict the human body in a naturalistic rather than rigid posture. Anatomy became
more accurate and as a result statues started to look much more true-to-life. Bronze
became the main medium for free-standing works due to its ability to maintain its
shape, which permitted the sculpting of even more natural-looking poses. Stone
sculpture was carved by hand from a block of marble or a high-quality limestone,
using metal tools.

Hellenistic Period (c.323-30 BC)

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Greek art became more diverse with a wider range of subject matter, including not
only young or warrior-like males but everyday people, including animals.

Pottery

Many artistic changes took place in the Greek world during the Hellenistic period, the
most important changes in the pottery of Greece during this period involved a desire
to emulate the luxury of the new ruling class, a trend toward baroque detail, and a
contrasting tendency toward simpler decoration. The red-figure technique of vase
painting gave way to new techniques and styles, such as mould-made relief pottery.
These mould-made vessels may have been intended to imitate metal vessels used
by the elite. These vessels were often much more vibrantly colored than the older
red-figure style from which they derived. Pottery itself became more daring: applied
decorations like statuettes and other three-dimensional additions either enhanced or
replaced painting on some vases. These vessels are often found in burials and may
have been made specifically for that purpose. Hellenistic pottery is a reflection of its
time, an invaluable resource for attempting to understand ancient life.

Architecture

Temple architecture experienced a major slump. The Greek peripheral temple

(single row of pillars on all sides) lost much of its importance. All this changed during
the second century, when temple building experienced something of a revival due
partly to increased prosperity, partly to improvements made by the architect
Hermogenes of Priene to the Ionic style of architecture, and partly to the cultural
propaganda war waged (for increased influence) between the various Hellenistic
kingdoms, and between them and Rome. In Hellenistic Architecture, the Corinthian
Order became widely used on buildings. Architecture took on the role to
accommodate more people for entertainment purposes.

Paintings

Paintings and mosaics were important mediums in art. Perhaps the most striking
element of Hellenistic paintings and mosaics is the increased use of landscape.
Landscapes in these works of art are representative of familiar naturalistic figures
while also displaying mythological elements. Wall paintings began appearing more
prominently. Wall art of this period utilised two techniques: secco technique and
fresco technique. The former technique required layers of lime-rich plaster to then
decorate walls and stone supports. On the other hand, no base was necessary for
the latter technique, which used gum arabic and egg tempera to paint finalising
details on marble or other stone.

Sculpture

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During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive. On top
of anatomical realism, the Hellenistic artist seeks to represent the character of his
subject, including themes such as suffering, sleep or old age. Genre subjects of
common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable
subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the
adornment of their homes and gardens. During this period, sculptors pursued and
perfected naturalism-an artistic interest that Greek artists had been developing over
hundreds of years. In order to make their sculptures look as human as possible,
sculptors employed dynamic silhouettes and sinuous forms to suggest motion.
Hellenistic artists created sculptures inspired by real human postures.

This period eventually evolved into the rule of the Roman Empire. Greek artwork was
greatly admired and copied by the Romans. Beyond Rome, the Greek art style was
given a second breath, through the eyes and hands of Renaissance painters and
sculptors.

Conclusion

The ancient Greek civilization was one of the most sophisticated civilizations in world
history with many contributions in the field of arts, philosophy, politics, science and
technology. Most philosophers of ancient Greece have contributed ideas and
principles which paved the way for other civilizations to utilise and further enhance.
These contributions have proved its significance through the years, a lot of which
have shaped modern concepts, theories, practices, technologies, as well as ways of
living.

Furthermore, even to this day, we are still touched by the beauty and symmetry left
behind in ratios and rations of ancient Greek artefacts. While most of the Greek art
has since been lost or destroyed, it is remembered and immortalised by those who
remembered them long ago. Thus, Ancient Greek art has become almost like a
mirror of a mirror onto the past.

The Greeks made a huge impact in our current society thanks to their contributions
to philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Known for their sophisticated
architecture and sculpture, they were among the most advanced civilizations. In the
early history of civilizations, Greek culture had significant influence on the Roman
Empire and many others.

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