Summary of English language lessons

Condition Had better stem (a verb without “to”)

Example: you had better work hard to pass your final exam.
You can take my car providing that you don’t damage it.
Negative form:
(Main clause) (Subordinate clause)
Had better not +stem (a verb without “to”).
The meaning:
Example: you look tired, you had better not go to school
I will lend you my car on condition that you don't damage it. today.

Result

Verb in Future verb in present simple Expressing results we use:

Wishes
- Subject verb so adjective that the rest of
Present wish: (wish, past simple) the sentence.
Example: I wish I spoke Italian. (I don't speak Italian.) Example: copies of brand are so cheap that some
consumers don’t hesitate to buy them.
Present wish expresses an imaginary situation impossible to - Subject verb such a noun phrase that the
happen. rest of the sentence.
Example: It was such a good film that I watched it
If only wish twice.
Past wish: (wish, past perfect) We can express results using other link word:
Example: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (I ate a lot.)

Past wish expresses a regret about a situation happened in the

past.

Future wish: (wish, would stem (a verb without “to”))

Example: I wish I would stop smoking. Cause

Can could Expressing causes: we use:
(You are smoking at the moment and it is annoying me.)

Future wish expresses impatience, annoyance or - Sentence subject verb …

dissatisfaction with a present action. Example: - He succeeded in his exam because he
had worked hard.
- The audience cheered as it
was a good play.
Wish ′ verb
in past simple

′
- Sentence noun phrase.
Example: - She succeeded in his exam because of
Had better her work hard.
- I had to ask for help because of the difficult of
Had better is used to express advice the question.

Had better should ought to

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Modals Prefix & suffix

These modals express: Prefix: it comes before the word and changes its meaning.

- Strong obligation - Opposites

- Prohibition “forbidden”
Agree disagree Moral immoral
- Necessity Legal illegal Fair unfair
Direct indirect Responsible irresponsible
- Lack (absence) of obligation Suffix: it comes after the word and changes its form to an
adjective, an adverb, a noun, a verb.
- Advice Example:

- Remote possibility - The suffix “ty” is added to an adjective to form a noun.

- Possibility
Stupid Stupidity

- Probability - The suffix “y” is added to a noun to form an adjective.

- Certainty
Spice Spicy
The “ing” form:
Conditionals
• As a past of verb called participle.
We have four types of conditionals:
Examples: I’m waiting, I’m playing.
Type zero: T0
• As a noun or gerund.
If Verb in present simple, Verb in present simple.
Example: The eating of GMF’s might harmful.
Eg: If you heat water, it boils.
• As an adjective.
• T0 is used to describe a general or scientific truth.
Example: This book is more interesting than that one.
Type one: T1
Stative (state) & action verb
If Verb in present simple, verb in future (will stem)
A state verb: is a verb which describes a states (has not a
well defined beginning & the end) Eg: If she works hard, she will go to university.

Examples: like, agree, believe, dislike, deserve, love, enjoy, • The situation in T1 is possible to happen.
prefer, hate, dread, and mind.
Type two: T2
• A state verb is usually use in the present form
• A state verb can’t be progressive (Continuous form If Verb in past simple, would stem
(“ing” form)). Eg: If I were you, I would buy a car.
An action verb: is a verb which describes an action or an
• The situation in T2 is impossible to happen (an
event (has a specific beginning & the end). imaginary situation).
Examples: go, stop, come, start, achieve, write, win,
Describe, Search, and Replace.

• An action verb can be used in simple and continuous

form (“ing” form) (progressive)
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Type three: T3 Content & structure (function) words

If Verb in past perfect, would have past participle Sentences contain two kind of word:

Eg: If I had read the question well, I would have taken the Content words: are necessary and contain the meaning.
best mark.
- Main verb (play, go, work…). - Nouns.
• The situation in T3 is a regret about an event that had - Adjectives (serious, nice…).
happened in the past Quantifiers - Adverbs (carefully, quickly…).
- Demonstratives pronouns (this, that…).
- for countable nouns. - Negative auxiliaries (wasn’t, couldn’t…). - Yes,
No (auxiliary) questions. - Wh questions.
- for uncountable nouns.
Structure (function) words: they make the sentences correct
- for countable & uncountable nouns(both). grammatically.

(It’s the right quantity). - Pronouns (I, he, they…).

- Prepositions (on, the, at, to, under…). - Articles (a,
(It isn’t the right quantity). an, the).
- Conjunctions (but, and, because…).
The excessive and the insufficient of something:
- Auxiliary verbs (is, are, do, have, can…).

An excessive amount:

An insufficient amount: Comparatives & superlatives

Comparatives
Used for & Used to
We must have two elements to compare.
are verbs used to describe purpose and function
of objects - Superiority

Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable

• Used to stem (a verb without “to”)
Eg: It’s used to cut wood. Adj er than (Eg: she is taller than me.)
• Used for verb ing (gerund)
Eg: It’s used for cutting wood. Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables

More adj than (Eg: meat is more expensive than

How …? chicken.)
How: is a word question used for ask about dimension and
- Equality
size of objects.
As adj as (she is as intelligent as her brother.) -
- How tall…? Height
- How long…? Height Inferiority:
- How high…? Height
- How far…? Distance Less adj than (he is less intelligent than me.)
- How fast…? Speed
- How deep…? Depth - How Not as adj as (our garden is not as large as yours).
wide…? Width
- How much…? Weight Not so adj as

Superlatives:
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We compare one element to a group or a whole. Unless = If … not

- Superiority: Unless + an affirmative verb

Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable Unless + verb present, Future (will + stem).

The + Adj + est. (Eg: Uranus is the biggest planet in the (Will not = won’t)
solar system.)
Example: Unless you revise your lessons, you won’t pass
Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables your exam.
The most + adj. (Eg: English is the most important language
The real meaning: If you don’t revise your lessons, you
in the world.)
won’t pass your exam.
- Inferiority:
Articles
The least + adj. (Eg: the cat is the least dangerous animal.)
Adjectives ⟼ Comparatives ⟼ Superlatives Indefinite articles:
Well/good ⟼ Better ⟼ The best
a: is used before consonants (sound).
Bad ⟼ Worse ⟼ The worst
Far ⟼ Farther ⟼ The farthest an: is used before vowels (sound).
Many ⟼ More ⟼ The most
Much ⟼ More ⟼ The most - We use it before countable nouns that are unknown:
Little ⟼ Less ⟼ The least
Similarity & difference Eg: a table, a car, a house.

Expressing Similarity: - We use it before names of profession (jobs).

We use these expressions: like, the same as, such as, both, Eg: a doctor, a painter.
similar to, too.
- We use it before measurement.
Examples:
Eg: a liter, an hour.
- She is intelligent like her brother. Definite articles: (the)
- Both she and her brother are intelligent.
- She is intelligent the same as (such as) her brother. - We use it before adjectives to specify the category
- She is similar to her brother, they are intelligent. - of people.
She is intelligent, her brother too.
Eg: the homeless, the poor, the jobless, the rich.
Expressing difference:
- We use it before an object that is the only one.
We use these expressions: unlike, whereas, while, but,
different from, in contrast to. Eg: the moon, the earth, the pyramids.

Examples: - When we talk about institutions.

- Unlike Algeria, U.S.A is a developed country. Eg: the radio, the bank, the television.
- Algeria is different from U.S.A. - When we refer to a class of animals.
- U.S.A is a developed country but (while, whereas)
Algeria is not. Eg: the tiger is a dangerous animal.
- U.S.A is a developed country in contrast to Algeria.

Zero articles: ( ) no article is used.

Unless
Unless: expresses warning.
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- Before uncountable nouns. (money, oil …) - Before We can express concession using a number of conjunctional
abstract nouns. (Peace, happiness…) - Before phrases: although, even though, though, despite, in spite of.
names of people & places. - Before plural nouns.

Purpose (goal)
- Subject verb …
Expressing purpose:
Examples: Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
We can express purpose using a number of conjunctional
phrases: to, so as to, in order to, so that, in order that.
- A Noun phrase or a Gerund.

Examples:
- Subject stem.
In spite of being ill, she went to school.
Examples:
Despite her illness, she went to school.
John went to the station to meet his parents. Note:
I study in order to succeed.

There are also negative forms: Subject verb…

Examples: we enjoyed our holiday despite the fact that it

- Subject stem. rained a lot.

Examples: Formation of plural

The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers. - The plural of the most nouns is formed by ending “s”

Boy Boys
- Subject verb (model). Girl Girls
Example: Book books -
Nouns ending in “s, ch, sh, x, z” we add
I leave the window open so that the cat can get out. “es”

Note: Brush brushes

Kiss kisses
- The Present purpose: we use these models Match matches
- Most nouns ending in “o” also form their plural by
adding “es” to the singular.
Subject stem.
Hero heroes
- The past purpose: Potato potatoes
Volcano volcanoes
- Note that a few nouns ending in “o” merely add “s”.

Subject stem. Dynamo dynamos

Piano pianos Photo
Example: photos
Logo logos
We took an umbrella so that we wouldn’t get wet. Kilo kilos

Concession
- Nouns ending in a consonant “y”:
Expressing concession:
• Before “y” a consonant, we change “y” into “ies”
 Summary of English language lessons

Lady ladies Word formation

City cities
• Before “y” a vowel, we add “s” We can form verbs by adding the suffix “en” to some
adjectives.
boy boys
- Nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, we form their plural by - Wide en widen.
changing “f” or “fe” into “ves”. - Bright en brighten. - Short en
shorten.
Wife wives
Leaf leaves The prefix “self” is added to some adjectives
Half halves
Except some nouns like:

Chief Chiefs
Gulf Gulfs Safe Safes Self refer to:
Proof Proofs
Invariable nouns ending in “s” or “es”: News,

Series, species, Billiards, Dominoes Some

Example: He is a self-educated person.
nouns form their plural by mutation:
He is educated himself.
Foot feet
Tooth teeth Expressing like & dislike:
Goose geese
Man men
Ox oxen
Child children - Gerund (verb “ing”).

Silent letter
A silent letter is a letter which is written and not pronounced. - Gerund or to stem
(infinitive).
- k before n at the beginning. Knife - It is better to stem.
- p before s at the beginning. Psychology
- Would rather stem (a verb without “to”).
- b before t at the end. Dept
- b after m at the end. Lamb
Each other & one another
- l before d Should
- l before f Half Compound pronoun, they express reciprocity.
- l before k Walk
- s before l Island Each other: is used to refer to two persons only.
- w before r at the beginning Write
- t in the middle of some words Castle Eg: Women kiss each other.
- d in the middle of some words Wednesday
- g before n at the end Foreign One another: is used to refer to more than two (a group)
- n after m at the end Autumn
Eg: players hug one another when they score.
- h at the beginning Honest
- gh High Type of questions We have two types of
- r before consonant Bird
- h before the sounds Ask him questions:

- Reference question: is a direct question.

- Inference question: is a indirect question, you
have to read between the lines to find the answer.
 Summary of English language lessons

Stress
Definition:

Stress is an extra force used when pronouncing a

particular word or syllable.

- A prefix is not stressed

- A suffix in not stressed . Word ending in “ ” are all stressed on the rd

syllable from the end.

- ə schwa is never stressed
. A word of one syllable has stress on the first letter.
Eg: competence, identical, democracy.
Eg: hot, teach, got, take.

. A word of two syllables:

- A noun has stress on the .
f. Word with prefix “ ” are stressed on the
root.
Eg: teacher, actor, English.

- An adjective has stress on the .

Eg: happy, sunny, stupid. Eg: impossible, disagree, mislead, irregular, illegal.

- A adverb has stress on the . g. Word with suffixes like: ee, eer, ese are stressed on the
suffix itself.
Eg: under, over, always, never, after.
Eg: trainee, engineer, Japanese.
nd
- A verb has stress on the syllable.
h. Word with the following suffixes are stressed on the
syllable before them.
Eg: correct, present. - Ish - Ive - Ian
- Ity - Ia - Ient
. Most word of three syllables words: nouns, verbs,
- Aty - Ial - Ious
adjectives, adverbs are stressed on st syllable.

Eg: difficult, consider, photograph. Eg: university, society, expensive.

But: remember, together, advisor.

- Nouns ending by “ion” are stressed on the syllable

before the last.

Eg: addition, solution.

. Words ending in “ic” are stressed on the nd

syllable from
the end.

Eg: graphic, sympathetic.

 Summary of English language lessons

Phonetics Examples:

The final “s”: Simple Present: Rita writes a letter.

The final “s” is pronounced in different ways, - A letter is written by Rita.

according the “Sound” before:
Simple Past: Rita wrote a letter.
- “s” is pronounced after: - A letter was written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced after:
- “s” is pronounced after: Present Perfect: Rita has written a letter.
• Vowels: goes.
- A letter has been written by Rita.
• Nasals sounds: cleans.
• Voiced sounds: drives. Future simple: Rita will write a letter.

The final “ed”: - A letter will be written by Rita.

The final “ed” is pronounced in different ways, Modals: Rita can write a letter.
according the “Sound” before:
- A letter can be written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced after:
Present Progressive (Continuous): Rita is writing a letter.
- “s” is pronounced after:
- A letter is being written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced after: Vowels: prayed.
• Nasals sounds: cleaned. Past Progressive (Continuous): Rita was writing a letter.
• Voiced sounds: traveled.
- A letter was being written by Rita.
Active & Passive Voice
Past Perfect: Rita had written a letter.
Use of Passive:
- A letter had been written by Rita.
- Passive voice is used when the focus is on the
action. It is not important or not known, however, Future perfect: Rita will have written a letter.
who or what is performing the action.
- Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite - A letter will have been written by Rita.
than active voice
Conditional simple: Rita would write a letter.
Form of Passive:
- A letter would be written by Rita.
Subject (the Object in active) finite form of to be + Past
Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Object (the Conditional perfect: Rita would have written a letter.
Subject in active).
- A letter would have been written by Rita.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the
following: Pronouns
- I - Me
• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject - She - Her - He - His
of the passive sentence - It - It
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past - You - You
participle) - We - Us
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object - They - Them
of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
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Direct & reported speech

Other changes:
When we report we a statement, we use one of these main
verbs: say, tell, announce, declare, order, ask, and wanted to Modals:
know. Direct Reported

• Rule one: - Will - Would

- Can - Could
When the main verb is in the present tense, the future or - Must - Had to
present perfect: - May - Might
- Should - Should
We can report without any change of tense. - Ought to - Ought to
Time and place reference:
Eg: Paul says: “I am trying to get a taxi.”
Direct Reported
⟼ Paul says that he is trying to get taxi.
- Now. - Then.
• Rule two: - Today. - That day.
- Tonight. - That night.
When the main verb is in the past: - Here. - There.
- This. - That.
We have to change the tense of the verbs used in the - These. - Those.
statement. - This week. - That week.
- Tomorrow. - The day after.
Present simple: “I play football”. To Simple - Tomorrow. - - The next (following) day.
Next week. - The week after.
Past: He said that he played football - Next week. - The following week.
- Yesterday. - The day before.
Past simple: “I played football”. - Yesterday. - The previous day.
- Last week. - The week before.
To Past Perfect: He said that he had played football - Last week. - The previous week.
- 2 week ago. - 2 week before.
Present Perfect: “I have played football”. To Past
Reporting question:
Perfect: He said that he had played football Present
When we report a question we use: asked, questioned,
Continuous: “I am playing football”. To Past wanted to know.

Continuous: He said that he was playing football Past

There is no question mark “?”
Continuous: “I was playing football”.
- “Wh” question:
To Past perfect continuous: He said that he had been playing
football. “Wh” question are reported with the question word.

Past Perfect: “I had played football”. The verb has the form of normal statement.

To Past Perfect: He said that he had played football. Note: we do not use: do, does, did in the reported.

Present perfect continuous: “I have been playing football.” Eg: “Where are you going?”

To Past perfect continuous: He said that he had been playing ⟼ I asked her where she was going.
football.

- Auxiliary question (Yes No): Apologize: subject apologized for verb ing (gerund).
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When we report an auxiliary question we use: If. Eg: “I am sorry for being late.”

We omit (delete): do, does, did. I apologized for being late.

The verb has the form of normal statement. Congratulation: subject congratulated on verb ing.

Eg: “Do you like hamburgers?” Eg: “well done, you’ve passed your exam.”

He asked me if I like hamburgers. She congratulated her on passing her exam.

Reported other forms of speech: Denying: subject denied verb ing.

Commands or request: Eg: Alice said: “No, I didn’t take it! I was there.”

Alice denied taking it.

Subject Inviting: subject invited to stem.

Eg: “stop writing” he told them to stop writing. Eg: “would you like to come to the cinema, Jane?”

“Please wait” I asked her to wait. .

Offering: subject offered to stem.

Advice: when we find in direct
speech:
Eg: “Shall I carry your case, Pam?”

The reported: are: subject advised to stem.

Promising: subject promised to stem.

Eg: “I wouldn’t buy that car if I were you.”

Eg: “I’ll be at home by eight.”
I advised him not to buy that car.
promised to be at home by eight.

Suggestion: when we find in direct speech: Summary of commends statement

-
Told to stem.
- Ordered to stem.
The reported: are: subject suggested - Asked to stem.
- Advised to stem.
- Apologized for verb ing.
Eg: “Let’s go to the theatre.” - Congratulated on verb ing.
- Denied verb ing.
He suggested going to the theatre. - Suggested verb ing.
- Suggested to stem.
Agreement: subject agreed to stem. - Agreed to stem.
- Invited to stem.
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Eg: “Ok, I’ll give you a lift.” - Offered to stem.

- Promised to stem.
He agreed to give me a lift.

How to ask a question - Why: Cause (reason).

a) They move to new house because the first
“Wh” question: one is too old.
b) Why do they move to new house?
Wh Auxiliary Subject Verb?
- What … for: purpose, goal (to, in order to,
If the auxiliary exist we don’t change the tense of so as to). a) They are working hard to succeed
the verb. If the auxiliary doesn’t exist we use the b) What are they working hard for?
infinitive of the verb.

Example:

The lion eats the meats. (Subject, verb, object) - Whose: possession

- What eats the meats? (subject) (we replace the subject Whose noun aux subject verb?
by “Wh”)
- What does the lion do? (verb) a) The pen is mine.
- What does the lion eat? (Object) b) Whose pen is it?

WH Question Words: - Which: choice

- Who: subject person. Which noun aux subject verb?

a) His mother prepares the lunch.
b) Who prepares the lunch? a) They took the blue Jacket.
b) Which jacket did they take?

- How: manner
- a) She feels better now.
a) The lion eats the meats. b) How does she feel now?
b) What does the lion eat?
How often: (Always, Usually, Often,
- Whom: Object person. Sometimes, Never).
a) She phoned to her friend. a) He sometimes visits his friend.
b) Whom did she phone to? b) How often does he visit his friend?

- When: Time (Last, next, yesterday, tomorrow). a) How long: period of time (duration).
She will have an exam next week. a) The exam lasted two hours.
b) When will she have an exam? b) How long did the exam last?

How many: countable nouns (numbers).

- Where: Place.
a) Three pupils got a good mark.
a) She is leaving to Paris.
b) How many pupils got a good mark?
b) Where is she leaving?
a) They will visit four towns in the country.
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b) How many towns will they visit?

How much: uncountable nouns (quantity).

a) He put some sugar in the cup.
b) How much sugar did he put in the cup?