TYPES OF PRONOUNS
1. Reflexive Pronouns
o Used when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same person or thing.
o Ends in -self (singular) or -selves (plural).
o Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves.
o Example Sentence: "She prepared herself for the presentation."
2. Interrogative Pronouns
o Used to ask questions.
o Examples: who, whom, whose, which, what.
o Example Sentence: "Who is coming to the meeting?"
3. Relative Pronouns
o Introduce relative clauses and connect clauses to nouns.
o Examples: who, whom, whose, which, that.
o Example Sentence: "The book that I borrowed was fascinating."
4. Possessive Pronouns
o Show ownership or possession.
o Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
o Example Sentence: "The red car is mine."
5. Personal Pronouns
o Refer to specific people or things.
o Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them.
o Example Sentence: "She loves reading novels."
6. Demonstrative Pronouns
o Point to specific things or people.
o Examples: this, that, these, those.
o Example Sentence: "This is my favorite book."
7. Intensive Pronouns
o Emphasize the subject.
o Same form as reflexive pronouns but function differently.
o Example Sentence: "I myself will handle the situation."
8. Indefinite Pronouns
o Refer to nonspecific persons or things.
o Examples: someone, anyone, everyone, nobody, each, few, many, all, some.
o Example Sentence: "Someone left their phone on the table."
PARTS OF SPEECH
1. Noun - Names a person, place, thing, or idea.
2. Pronoun - Replaces a noun.
3. Verb - Expresses an action or state of being.
4. Adjective - Describes a noun or pronoun.
5. Adverb - Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
6. Preposition - Links nouns, pronouns, and adverbs to other words.
7. Conjunction - Connects words, phrases, or clauses.
8. Interjection - Expresses strong emotion.
WORD FORMATION
1. Derivation - Adding a prefix or suffix to an existing word.
o Example: happiness (happy + -ness), redo (re- + do)
2. Back Formation - Forming new words by removing an actual or supposed affix.
o Example: babysit (from babysitter), sculpt (from sculptor)
3. Compounding - Joining two or more words to create a new word.
o Example: toothpaste, bedroom
4. Repurposing - Using a word in a different context.
o Example: "mouse" (computer device from animal name)
5. Conversion - Changing a word’s class (e.g., noun to verb).
o Example: email (noun) → to email (verb)
6. Eponyms - Words derived from people’s names.
o Example: sandwich (from the Earl of Sandwich)
7. Abbreviations
o Clipping - Shortening a word.
Back-clipping: gym (from gymnasium)
Fore-clipping: phone (from telephone)
Middle-clipping: flu (from influenza)
o Acronyms - Initial letters pronounced as a word.
Example: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
o Initialism - Initial letters pronounced separately.
Example: FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)
8. Loanwords - Borrowed from other languages.
o Example: ballet (French), sushi (Japanese)
9. Onomatopoeia - Words imitating sounds.
o Example: buzz, splash
10. Reduplication - Repeating or nearly repeating words or sounds.
Example: chit-chat, flip-flop
11. Nonce Words - Invented words with no established origin.
Example: "googol" (large number, invented)
12. Error - Words formed due to mistakes in spelling, hearing, or pronunciation.
Example: "bridegroom" (from misinterpretation of "bride-goom")
13. Blending - Combining parts of two or more words.
Example: smog (smoke + fog), motel (motor + hotel)
MORPHEMES
1. Free Morpheme - A morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
o Example: cat, run, happy
2. Bound Morpheme - A morpheme that must be attached to another word.
o Example: un-, -ed, -ing
TYPES OF BOUND MORPHEMES
Inflectional - Added to a word without changing its meaning or class.
o Example: walks (-s), played (-ed), running (-ing)
Derivational - Alters the meaning or class of a word.
o Example: happiness (from happy), unclear (from clear)
