World War I

World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the
[b]

Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the
Central Powers. Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East, as well as in parts
of Africa and the Asia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare; the
widespread use of artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the
introductions of tanks and aircraft. World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history,
resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded, plus
some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide. The movement of large
numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic.

The causes of World War I included the rise of

Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire,
which disturbed the long-standing balance of
power in Europe, and rising economic
competition between nations driven by
industrialisation and imperialism. Growing
tensions between the great powers and in the
Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June
1914, when a Bosnian Serb assassinated the
heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-
Hungary blamed Serbia, and declared war on
28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's
defence, Germany declared war on Russia
and France, who had an alliance. The United
Kingdom entered after Germany invaded
Belgium, and the Ottomans joined the Central
Powers in November. Germany's strategy in
1914 was to quickly defeat France then
transfer its forces to the east, but its advance
was halted in September, and by the end of
the year the Western Front consisted of a
near-continuous line of trenches from the
English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern
Front was more dynamic, but neither side
gained a decisive advantage, despite costly
offensives. Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece
World War I
and others joined in from 1915 onward.

Major battles, including at Verdun, the

Somme, and Passchendaele, failed to break
the stalemate on the Western Front. In April
1917, the United States joined the Allies after
Germany resumed unrestricted submarine
warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that
year, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in
the October Revolution; Soviet Russia signed
an armistice with the Central Powers in
December, followed by a separate peace in
March 1918. That month, Germany launched a
spring offensive in the west, which despite From top to bottom, left to right:
initial successes left the German Army French attack from a trench at the Battle of
·
Verdun, 1916 British artillery in action at
exhausted and demoralised. The Allied
·
the Battle of the Somme, 1916 U.S. troops
Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August and Renault FT tanks during the Hundred
1918 caused a collapse of the German front ·
Days Offensive, 1918 British Vickers
line. By early November, Bulgaria, the machine gun crew wearing gas masks

Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had during the Battle of the Somme, 1916 ·
Ottoman Arab camel corps leaving for the
each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving
Middle Eastern front, 1916 · Aftermath of
Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at the Russian siege of Przemyśl in Austria-
home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 Hungary, 1915
November, and the war ended with the
Armistice of 11 November 1918.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920

imposed settlements on the defeated powers,
most notably the Treaty of Versailles, by which
Germany lost significant territories, was
disarmed, and was required to pay large war
reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the
Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and
Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries
and resulted in the creation of new
independent states, including Poland, Finland,
the Baltic states, Czechoslovakia, and Date 28 July 1914 – 11
Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was November 1918
established to maintain world peace, but its (4 years, 3 months and

failure to manage instability during the 14 days)

interwar period contributed to the outbreak of

Location Europe · Middle East ·
World War II in 1939. Africa · Pacific · Atlantic ·
Mediterranean and
Names Adriatic

Before World War II, the events of 1914–1918

Result Allied Powers victory (see

were generally known as the Great War or Aftermath of World War I)

simply the World War. [1]

In August 1914, the Territorial Partition of the Ottoman
magazine The Independent wrote "This is the changes Empire, dissolution of
Great War. It names itself".[2] In October 1914, Austria-Hungary,

the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly transfer of German

colonies and territories
wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is
to other countries
the Great War."[3] Contemporary Europeans
also referred to it as "the war to end war" and Formation of new

it was also described as "the war to end all countries in Europe and
the Middle East, such as
wars" due to their perception of its
Poland, Yugoslavia,
unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of
Weimar Germany,
life.[4] The first recorded use of the term First
Soviet Russia and Soviet
World War was in September 1914 by German Union, Lithuania,
biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who Estonia, Latvia, Austria,
stated, "There is no doubt that the course and Hungary,
character of the feared 'European War' ... will Czechoslovakia, Turkey,
become the first world war in the full sense of Hejaz, and Yemen

the word."[5]
Belligerents
Allied Powers: Central Powers:
France Germany
United Kingdom Austria-
and Empire: [show] Hungary
Russia[a] Ottoman Empire
Italy (from 1915) Bulgaria (from
1915)
 United States and others ...
Background (from 1917)
Japan

Political and military alliances and others ...

Commanders and leaders

See Main Allied See Main Central
leaders leaders

Casualties and losses

Rival military coalitions in 1914:[c] Military dead: Military dead:
Triple Entente Over 5,525,000 Over 4,386,000
Triple Alliance Civilian dead: Civilian dead:
Over 4,000,000 Over 3,700,000
For much of the 19th century, the major
European powers maintained a tenuous
Total dead: Total dead:
Over 9,000,000 Over 8,000,000
balance of power, known as the Concert of
...further details ...further details
Europe.[6] After 1848, this was challenged by
Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid
isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under
Otto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to
consolidate a German Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this
defeat,[7] but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of the French colonial
empire.[8]

In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, which included Austria-
Hungary, Russia, and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, the League was
dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans, an
area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then
formed the 1879 Dual Alliance, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882.[9]
For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three
empires resolved any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the
Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if
either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary.[10]
 World empires and colonies c. 1914

For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy, but in 1890, he
was forced to retire by Wilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance
Treaty by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi.[11] This gave France an opening to agree to the
Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with
Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. While not
formal alliances, by settling longstanding colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support
for France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility.[12] This was accentuated by
British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis.[13]

Arms race

SMS Rheinland, a Nassau-class

battleship, Germany's first
response to the British
Dreadnought, 1910

German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by
Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German
Navy, that could compete with the British Royal Navy.[14] This policy was based on the work of
US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of a blue-water navy was
vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm
made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel.[15]

However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for
the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere
in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to
a change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began.[16] Despite the vast sums
spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological
advantage.[14] Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large
enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann
Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point',
when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army.[17]

This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over
Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent 1905
Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways
and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.[18] Since Germany
and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority
compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than
competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops
in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar
measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by
the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to
differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects
like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from
1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in
real terms.[19]

Conflicts in the Balkans

Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910.

Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed in 1908.
 Sarajevo citizens reading a poster
with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908

The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers
sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia
considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically
vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an
ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its
clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian
policy-makers and added to regional instability.[20]

Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their
Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began
when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had
occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from
the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but
accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this
as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the
Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy.[21]

Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness
and led to the formation of the Balkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro,
and Greece.[22] The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans
during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.[23] The
Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21
November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia. The Russian government
decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war.[24]

The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913 Treaty of London, which had
created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro
and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War,
when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of
Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania.[25] The result was that
even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt
cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference
with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.[26] This complex mix of
resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became
known as the "powder keg of Europe".[27][28][29][30]

Prelude

Sarajevo assassination

Traditionally thought to show the

arrest of Gavrilo Princip (right), this
photo is now believed by historians
to depict an innocent bystander,
Ferdinand Behr on 28 June
1914.[31][32]

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to Emperor Franz
Joseph I of Austria, visited Sarajevo, the capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso
Čubrilović (Bosnian Serbs) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community),[33]
from the movement known as Young Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's
motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian
Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian
rule.[34]

Čabrinović threw a grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other
assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the
injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was
standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie.[35]

According to historian Zbyněk Zeman, in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any
impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as
if nothing had happened."[36] Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne
was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a
terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in
Vienna".[37]

Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Crowds on the streets in the

aftermath of the anti-Serb riots in
Sarajevo, 29 June 1914

Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.[38][39]

Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in
Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-
Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent
Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A
predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established, and carried
out the persecution of Serbs.[40][41][42][43]
July Crisis

Cheering crowds in London and

Paris on the day war was declared.

The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between
Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence
helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to
end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.[44] However,
the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement.[45] On 23 July, Austria
delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to
provide an excuse for starting hostilities.[46]

Serbia ordered general mobilisation on 25 July, but accepted all the terms, except for those
empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and
take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.[47][48] Claiming
this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial
mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling
Belgrade. Russia ordered general mobilisation in support of Serbia on 30 July.[49]

Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as the
aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war
preparations until 31 July.[50] That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note
requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12
hours.[51] A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered
general mobilisation but delayed declaring war.[52] The German General Staff had long
assumed they faced a war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the
army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly,
mobilisation orders were issued that afternoon.[53] Once the German ultimatum to Russia
expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war.

At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium
under the 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military
force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already
committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was
strongly in favour of intervention.[54] On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France,
asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not
reply.[55] Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief
Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a
move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a
German invasion.[56] Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind
the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg
and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on
3 August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which
was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium
called for assistance under the Treaty of London.[57][58] Britain sent Germany an ultimatum
demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response,
the two empires were at war.[59]

Progress of the war

Opening hostilities
Confusion among the Central Powers
Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of
what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914,
but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany
would cover its northern flank against Russia.[60]
Serbian campaign

Serbian Army Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915

Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and
Kolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a
result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts
against Russia.[61] Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been
called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.[62] In 1915, the campaign saw
the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air
fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army.[63][64]

German offensive in Belgium and France

German soldiers on the way to the

front in 1914; at this stage, all sides
expected the conflict to be a short
one.

Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan, 80% of the German Army was
located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East.
Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep
through the Netherlands and Belgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the
French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen, head of the
German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which
the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians.[65]

The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger.
Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the
remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to
lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine, which was the
strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII.[65] However, Moltke grew concerned that the French
might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to
1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.[66] He also
considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the
Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.[67]
Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong
enough to achieve decisive success.[68]

French bayonet charge during the

Battle of the Frontiers; by the end
of August, French casualties
exceeded 260,000, including
75,000 dead.

The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied
left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat, and the French
offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.[69]
German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders
considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to
disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.[70] The
French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-
attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted
that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope
of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority.

In 1911, the Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of
mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian
armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support
elements.[71]

By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled
the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost
itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost
Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary
objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.[72] As was apparent to several German leaders,
this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne, Crown Prince
Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it
is already."[73]

Asia and the Pacific

Japanese soldiers occupy a

captured German trench during the
Siege of Tsingtao, 1914

On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa). On 11 September,
the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain, then
part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the
Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before
seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate, as well as
German Treaty ports on the Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao. After Vienna refused to
withdraw its cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-
Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.[74] Within a few months, Allied forces had
seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few
holdouts in New Guinea.[75][76]

African campaigns

British artillery in Kamerun, 1915.

Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in
Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of
Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South
Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial
forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla
warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in
Europe.[77]

Indian support for the Allies

British Indian Army infantry

divisions in France; these troops
were withdrawn in December 1915,
and served in the Mesopotamian
campaign.

Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its
advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India, while the
Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central
Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a
reduction in nationalist activity.[78][79] Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other
groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule, a promise
allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India.[80]

In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and
1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the
Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the
Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.[81] The suffering engendered by the war,
as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward,
bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma
Gandhi.[82]
Western Front
Trench warfare begins

British Indian soldiers digging

trenches in Laventie, France, 1915

Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved
obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed
the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances,
such as barbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery, which
dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult.[83] Both sides
struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In
time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and
the tank.[84]

After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces
unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the "Race
to the Sea". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an
uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border.[85] Since the
Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground,
while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English
were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the
German defences.[86] Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and
technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans
(violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front.
Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a
decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered
horrors of the war.[87][88]

Continuation of trench warfare

German casualties at the Somme,

1916

In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun,
lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled
heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000[89] to 975,000[90] casualties between the two
combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice.[91]

The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The
opening day on 1 July 1916, was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army,
which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive
led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000
Germans.[92] The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The
living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot, lice, typhus, trench fever,
and the 'Spanish flu'.[93]

Naval war

Battleships of the Hochseeflotte,

1917

At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across the globe, some of which were
subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. These were systematically hunted
down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most
successful was the SMS Emden, part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at
Qingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer.
Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at
the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the
Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the
Battle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned.[94]

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. This proved
effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.[95] Britain
also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral
ships.[96] Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar
response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.[97]

The Battle of Jutland[d] in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during
the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans
inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the German High Seas Fleet
was confined to port.[98]

U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge

in London, after the 1918 Armistice

German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.[99]
The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the
crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.[99][100] The United States launched a
protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger
ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain
armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules", which
demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats
did not meet).[101] Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine
warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.[99][102] Germany sought to
strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but,
after initial successes, eventually failed to do so.[99]
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys,
escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which
significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced,
destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the
flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an
extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines
and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.[103] The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied
ships, at the cost of 199 submarines.[104]

World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching
Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as
well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.[105]

Southern theatres
War in the Balkans

Refugee transport from Serbia

in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914

Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to
attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,
Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from
the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of
its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by
persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.[106] The Austro-Hungarian provinces of
Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself
with Serbia.[107]
 Bulgarian soldiers in a trench,
preparing to fire against an
incoming aeroplane

Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915, and joined in the attack by the Austro-
Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was
conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in
600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat,
retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo.
Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac
on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving
Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.[108] After the conquest, Serbia was divided
between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.[109]

In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to
pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-
German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos
before the Allied expeditionary force arrived.[110]

The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited
areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916, following the costly Monastir
offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front.[111]

Austro-Hungarian troops executing

captured Serbians, 1917. Serbia lost
about 850,000 people during the
war, a quarter of its pre-war
population.[112]
Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar
offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The
Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and
French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed.
Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.[113] The German high command
responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-
establish a front.[114]

The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was
now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and
operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after
the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.[115]

Ottoman Empire

Australian troops charging near a

Turkish trench during the Gallipoli
campaign

The Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with
India via the Suez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers'
preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the Armenian,
Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations—the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and
Assyrian genocide respectively.[116][117][118]

The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian
campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French,
and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after
the defeat of the British defenders in the siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915–1916), British
Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in
Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish
and Turcoman tribes.[119]
The Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a
German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted
Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian
Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in
the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the
Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.[120]

Russian forest trench at the Battle

of Sarikamish, 1914–1915

Russian armies generally had success in the Caucasus campaign. Enver Pasha, supreme
commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas
that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.[121] He
launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000
troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost
86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.[122] General Yudenich, the Russian commander
from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus.[122]

Kaiser Wilhelm II and Prince

Leopold of Bavaria inspecting
Turkish troops of the 15th Corps in
East Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now
Poland).

The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914
to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku.[123] Persia,
ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and
Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major
Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian
forces. The Persian campaign lasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their
allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian
forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to
fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.[124]

The Arab Revolt, instigated by the British Foreign Office, started in June 1916 with the Battle of
Mecca, led by Sharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz
and, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the
Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted
for more than 21⁄2 years during the siege of Medina before surrendering in January 1919.[125]

The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the
Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to
dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally
crushed in mid-1916.[126]

Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman
casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded.[127]

Italian Front

Isonzo Offensives 1915–1917

Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was
so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only
made public in 1915.[128] This arose from nationalist designs on Austro-Hungarian territory in
Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Rijeka and Dalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders
established in 1866.[129] In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if
the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance.[130]

When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not
obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers
increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in 1911 Italy had occupied
Ottoman possessions in Libya and the Dodecanese islands.[131] To secure Italian neutrality, the
Central Powers offered them Tunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the
Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.[132]
Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915 Treaty
of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-
Hungary,[133] followed by Germany fifteen months later.

Austro-Hungarian trench at 3,850

metres in the Ortler Alps, one of the
most challenging fronts of the war

The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern
weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still
unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.[134] The advantage of
superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in the
Alps and Dolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops
supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies
and tactics.[135] Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, undertook a
series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by
the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000.[136]

In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in Asiago in the Strafexpedition,

but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.[137] Although Italy
occupied southern Albania in May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after the
capture of Gorizia in August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined
Austro-German force won a major victory at Caporetto, Cadorna was replaced by Armando
Diaz who retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along the Piave
River.[138] A second Austrian offensive was repulsed in June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz
launched the Battle of Vittorio Veneto and initially met stubborn resistance,[139] but with
Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.[140]
When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians
taking over 300,000 prisoners.[141] On 3 November, the Armistice of Villa Giusti ended
hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupied Trieste and areas along the
Adriatic Sea awarded to it in 1915.[142]

Eastern Front
Initial actions

Tsar Nicholas II and Grand Duke

Nikolaevich following the Russian
capture of Przemyśl, the longest
siege of the war.

As previously agreed with French president Raymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of
the war were to simultaneously advance into Austrian Galicia and East Prussia as soon as
possible. Although their attack on Galicia was largely successful, and the invasions achieved
their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of
mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions.
These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in
August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy
losses.[143][144] By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915
Gorlice–Tarnów offensive allowed the Central Powers to invade Russian-occupied
Poland.[145]

Despite the successful June 1916 Brusilov offensive against the Austrians in eastern
Galicia,[146] shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the
Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant
offensives of the war, diverting German resources from Verdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian
pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on
27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive
capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that
ultimately led to the Russian revolutions.[147]
Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia as Tsar Nicholas II remained at the front, with the home
front controlled by Empress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages
in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite, Grigori Rasputin, at
the end of 1916.[148]

Romanian participation
Cluj Chișinău
Hungary
(Transylvani (Moldova)
a)

Oituz
Timișoara Mărășești
(Banat)
Constanța
Bucharest (Dobruja)

Bulgaria
Romania key locations 1916–1918 (using
2025 borders)

Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found
itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and
the status of ethnic Romanian communities in Hungarian-controlled Transylvania,[149] which
comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.[150] With the ruling elite split
into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,[151] Romania remained neutral for two years while
allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian
territory.[152]

In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories

including Transylvania and Banat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,[150] and
Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916 Treaty of
Bucharest.[152] Under the strategic plan known as Hypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned
an offensive into Transylvania, while defending Southern Dobruja and Giurgiu against a
possible Bulgarian counterattack.[153] On 27 August 1916, they attacked Transylvania and
occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formed
German 9th Army, led by former Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn.[154] A combined
German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the
Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated to Bucharest, which
surrendered to the Central Powers on 6 December 1916.[155]

In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of
August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles of Oituz,
Mărăști and Mărășești where up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles
lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious
advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to
transfer troops to the Italian Front.[156] Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself
alone on the Eastern Front and signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, which
recognised Romanian sovereignty over Bessarabia in return for ceding control of passes in
the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although
approved by Parliament, King Ferdinand I refused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the
west.[157] Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918, on the side of the Allies and the
Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918.[158][e]

Central Powers peace overtures

On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful
offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.[160]
However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a "duplicitous war ruse".[160]

"They shall not pass", a phrase

typically associated with the
defence of Verdun

US president Woodrow Wilson attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides
to state their demands. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy
to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took
Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war
against Germany following the "submarine outrages". While the Allies debated a response to
Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views".
Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands
in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of
occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the
principle of nationalities.[161] The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future
wars.[162] The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the
grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals.[160]

Final years of the war

Russian Revolution and withdrawal

Territory lost by Russia under the

1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured,
with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar
Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes in Petrograd but the troops refused
to fire on the crowds.[163] Revolutionaries set up the Petrograd Soviet and fearing a left-wing
takeover, the State Duma forced Nicholas to abdicate and established the Russian Provisional
Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the
Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creating competing power centres and causing
confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised.[164]

Following the tsar's abdication, Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—
was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of
the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin,
which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in
December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the
German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they
acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories,
including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central
Powers.[165]

With the Russian Empire out of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and
signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the
treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to
Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union of
Bessarabia with Romania.[166][157]

United States enters the war

President Wilson asking Congress

to declare war on Germany, 2 April
1917

The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in
1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.[167] The most significant factor in creating the
support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American
lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea.[168]

On 6 April 1917, Congress declared war on Germany as an "Associated Power" of the

Allies.[169] The US Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join the Grand Fleet, and
provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, the US Army had fewer than 300,000 men, including
National Guard units, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million
respectively. The Selective Service Act of 1917 drafted 2.8 million men, though training and
equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000
members of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were transported to France, a figure
which reached 2 million by the end of November.[170]

Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US
played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate
military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.[171]
He was strongly supported by AEF commander General John J. Pershing, a proponent of
pre-1914 "open warfare" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery
misguided and incompatible with American "offensive spirit".[172] Much to the frustration of his
Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American
troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent
units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was the Meuse–Argonne offensive in
late September 1918.[173]

Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917)

Canadian Corps troops at the Battle

of Vimy Ridge, 1917

In December 1916, Robert Nivelle replaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the
Western Front and began planning a spring attack in Champagne, part of a joint Franco-
British operation.[174] Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics
and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made
substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong
defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the
French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the
first two days.[175]

Concurrent British attacks at Arras were more successful, though ultimately of little strategic
value.[176] Operating as a separate unit for the first time, the Canadian Corps' capture of Vimy
Ridge is viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national
identity.[177][178] Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the 21st Division, which had
been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle,
initiating the French Army mutinies; within days, "collective indiscipline" had spread to 54
divisions, while over 20,000 deserted.[179]
Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918)

British artillery battery on Mount

Scopus in the Battle of Jerusalem,
1917.

In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces
stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at
the Battle of Romani.[180][181] At the end of October 1917, the Sinai and Palestine campaign
resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps
won the Battle of Beersheba.[182] Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the
Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem had been captured following
another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem.[183][184][185] About this time, Friedrich
Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander,
replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in
Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.[186][187]

In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the
First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attacks by British Empire forces in March and
April 1918.[188]

German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918)

Between April and November 1918,

the Allies increased their front-line
rifle strength while German strength
fell by half.[189]

In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large
numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new
American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The
Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for
success in a final quick offensive.[190] Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the
1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an
attack on British forces near Saint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented
advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).[191] The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting,
however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were
unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by
increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable
to traffic.[192] Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel
ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army
to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris.
Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to
encircle Reims. The resulting counter-attack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive on 8
August,[193] led to a marked collapse in German morale.[194][195][196]

Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line

American soldiers firing on German

entrenched positions during the
Meuse-Argonne offensive, 1918

By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies had advanced
to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. German forces launched numerous
counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone
taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army
Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.[197]

The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne offensive, launched
by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and
British attacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the
line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through in
Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge ( 3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the
commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.[198] On 8 October, the
Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British
Armies at the Second Battle of Cambrai.[199]

Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918)

Bulgarian major Ivanov with white

flag surrendering to Serbian 7th
Danube regiment near Kumanovo

Allied forces started the Vardar offensive on 15 September at two key points: Dobro Pole and
near Dojran Lake. In the Battle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success
after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a
breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front
was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reached Skopje at 29 September,
after which Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 30 September.[200][201]

Armistices and capitulations

Italian troops reach Trento during

the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, 1918

The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice,
the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918.[202] Wilhelm II, in a telegram to Tsar
Ferdinand I of Bulgaria described the situation thus: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the
war!".[203][204] On the same day, the German Supreme Army Command informed Wilhelm II
and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation facing
Germany was hopeless.[205]

On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of
Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-
Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of
independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial
authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento,
Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce and accepted the
Armistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary
signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy. In the
following days, the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol, with over 20,000
soldiers.[206]

On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros.[202]

German government surrenders

Ferdinand Foch (second

from right) pictured outside
the carriage in Compiègne
after agreeing to the
armistice that ended the war
there.[207]

With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the kaiser, Germany
moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on 3 October as
Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope
that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a
constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military.[208]

The German Revolution of 1918–1919 began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German
Navy refused to set sail for a large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as
lost. The sailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel,
spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on
9 November 1918, shortly thereafter to the abdication of Wilhelm II, and German
surrender.[209][210][211][212][213]

Aftermath

In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires
disappeared.[f] Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were
created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the
Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with
1.4 million soldiers dead,[214] not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly
affected.[215]

Formal end of the war

The signing of the Treaty of

Versailles in the Hall of
Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June
1919, by Sir William Orpen

A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the
signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify
the treaty despite public support for it,[216][217] and did not formally end its involvement in the
war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G.
Harding.[218] For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the
Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 concerning:

Germany on 10 January 1920.[219]

Austria on 16 July 1920.[220]

Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.[221]

 Hungary on 26 July 1921.[222]

Turkey on 6 August 1924.[223]

Greek prime minister Eleftherios

Venizelos signing the Treaty of
Sèvres

Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed
in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by
contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11
November 1918.[224]

Peace treaties and national boundaries

Map of territorial changes in Europe after

World War I (as of 1923)

The Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers
officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on
Wilson's 14th point, established the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.[225][226]

The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which
the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a
consequence of the war imposed upon them by" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles,
this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the "War Guilt Clause", as the
majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.[227] The Germans felt they had been
unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles". German historian Hagen
Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power,
economically ruined, and politically humiliated."[228] Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele
emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German
politics in the 1920s and 1930s:

Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both

reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made
widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic.
The legend of the "stab in the back" and the wish to revise the "Versailles
diktat", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination
of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a
man of peace such as [Gustav] Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt.
As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and
international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation
into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to
redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies.[229]

Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of
wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours.[230]

Dissolution of Austria-Hungary after war

Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along
ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and
Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and
autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details
were contained in the treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Trianon. As a result, Hungary
lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing 31% (3.3
out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic Hungarians.[231] According to the 1910 census, speakers of the
Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of the Kingdom of
Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1% Romanians,
10.5% Slovaks, 10.4% Germans, 2.5% Ruthenians, 2.5% Serbs and 8% others.[232] Between
1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania,
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.[233]

The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of
Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of
Bessarabia in April 1918.[234]

National identities
After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and
its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the most casualties per
capita,[235][236][237] became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of
Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania would unite
all Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading to Greater Romania.[238]

In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations'
"Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought,
and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects
of the British Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold. Anzac
Day, named after the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), commemorates this
defining moment.[239][240]

In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa
Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two
countries under the Treaty of Lausanne.[241] According to various sources,[242] several
hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek
genocide.[243]
Casualties

Men transporting a wounded

Ottoman soldier at Sirkeci

The total number of military and civilian casualties in World War I was about 40 million:
estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deaths[244] and about 23 million wounded
military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number
of deaths includes between 9 and 11 million military personnel, with an estimated civilian
death toll of about 6 to 13 million.[244][245]

Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an
estimated 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were
seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost
17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.[246] France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died
and 3.2 million were injured.[247] Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome
facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called the gueules
cassées (broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime,
due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance.
These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of
1919 when the blockade was still in effect.[248] Starvation caused by famine killed
approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon.[249]

Emergency military hospital during

the Spanish flu pandemic in Camp
Funston, Kansas, 1918
Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic
typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia.[250] Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known
as Spanish flu spread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of
soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The
Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,[251][252] including an estimated 2.64 million
Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.[253] Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of
encephalitis lethargica affected nearly 5 million people worldwide.[254][255]

Eight million equines mostly horses, donkeys and mules died, three-quarters of them from the
extreme conditions they worked in.[256]

War crimes
Chemical weapons in warfare

French soldiers making a gas and

flame attack on German trenches
in Flanders

The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second
Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction of Fritz Haber at
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute developed a method to weaponise chlorine.[g][258] The use of
chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High Command to force Allied
soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal
conventional weapons.[258] Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents
throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were
fatal.[258] The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the 1899 Hague
Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land
Warfare, which prohibited their use.[259][260]
Genocides by the Ottoman Empire

Armenians killed during the

Armenian genocide. Image taken
from Ambassador Morgenthau's
Story, written by Henry Morgenthau
Sr. and published in 1918.[261]

The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass
deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered
genocide.[262] The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the
Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian
resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.[263] In early 1915,
several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used
this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorised the
deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and
1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by
Ottoman brigands.[264] While the exact number of deaths is unknown, the International
Association of Genocide Scholars estimates around 1.5 million.[262][265] The government of
Turkey continues to deny the genocide to the present day, arguing that those who died were
victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are
rejected by most historians.[266]

Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period,
including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the
same policy of extermination.[267][268][269] At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of
the population, and 350,000–750,000 Anatolian and Pontic Greeks were killed between 1915
and 1922.[270]
Prisoners of war

British prisoners guarded by

Ottoman forces after the First Battle
of Gaza in 1917

About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations
pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the
survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front.[271]

Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed)
were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany
9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including
Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about
3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians.[272]

Soldiers' experiences

Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.[215]
British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasingly conscripted. Surviving
veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among
themselves, so formed "veterans' associations" or "Legions".
Conscription

U.S. Army recruiting poster

with Uncle Sam, 1917

Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in

English-speaking countries,[273] It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—
especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,[274] Australia,[275][276] and the French Catholics in
Canada.[277][278]

In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of
opposition in isolated rural areas.[279] The administration decided to rely primarily on
conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000
volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war.[280]

Military attachés and war correspondents

Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the
war.[281] Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern
"embedded" positions within the opposing land and naval forces.[282][283]

Economic effects

Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by
the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women
were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry
needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for
women.[284]
 Poster showing women workers,
1915

In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany
and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain
cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily
from Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but
allowed a great increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded
repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that,
in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931
and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion[h] of World
War I debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015.[285]

Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from
traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Kitson were called on to
find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important
new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.[286]

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) stated Germany
accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated
Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed
upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies."[287] It was worded as such to lay a
legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and
Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.[288] In 1921, the
total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that
Germany could not pay" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the
third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical" and its "primary function was to mislead
public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.' "[289] Thus, 50 billion gold
marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to
pay" and "therefore ... represented the total German reparations" figure that had to be
paid.[289]

This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the
territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were
other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.[290] By 1929, the Great
Depression caused political chaos throughout the world.[291] In 1932 the payment of
reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid
only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.[292] With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and
loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.
David Andelman notes "Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds,
the agreement, still exist." Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference
in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010,
Germany made the final payment on these bonds.[i]

The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, David Lloyd
George, "You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope
even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation
commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies."
Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia
had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest
and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947.[297]
Support and opposition for the war

Support

Poster urging women to join

the British war effort,
published by the Young
Women's Christian
Association, 1915

In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the
war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and
the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was
formed in Paris on 30 April 1915, but shortly moved its office to London.[298] In April 1918, the
Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish,
Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-
determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.[299]

In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of
Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a
pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle
East to achieve independence.[300]

In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the
British in the Somaliland campaign.[301] Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said,
"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians
home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size." The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of
entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at the Battle
of Segale due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy.[302]

Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps First

Contingent in Bermuda, winter
1914–1915, before joining 1
Lincolnshire Regiment in France in
June 1915. The dozen remaining
after Guedecourt on 25 September
1916, merged with a Second
Contingent. The two contingents
suffered 75% casualties.

Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.[299] But
European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical
socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for the
war.[303] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists
followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war.[304]

Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported
by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist
supporters of the war was Gabriele D'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped
sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.[305] The Italian Liberal Party, under
the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and
used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.[306] Italian socialists were
divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war,
including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati.[307] However, the Italian Socialist Party
decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general
strike called Red Week.[308] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist
members, including Mussolini.[308] Mussolini formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia
and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International
Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in 1919,
the origin of fascism.[309] Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an
armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and
revolutionaries to support the war.[310]

Patriotic funds
On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and
those injured. The Nail Men were a German example. Around the British Empire, there were
many patriotic funds, including the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation, Canadian Patriotic Fund,
Queensland Patriotic Fund and, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.[311] At the start
of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as
overlapping, wasteful and abused,[312] but 11 were still functioning in 2002.[313]

Opposition
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs
in the US and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act
of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements
deemed "disloyal". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from
circulation by postal censors,[314] and many served long prison sentences for statements of
fact deemed unpatriotic.

Sackville Street (now O'Connell

Street) after the 1916 Easter Rising
in Dublin

Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were
hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914
and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists had staunchly opposed taking part.[315] The
war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914
there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and
Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916,
with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.[316] The British
government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, though once
the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions
to nationalist feeling.[317] However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland,
resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.

Other opposition came from conscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who

had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.[318]
Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, refused both
military and alternative service.[319] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary
confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked "No
conscientious objectors need to apply".[320]

On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and after them, the
workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under
banners reading "Down with the war!" and "all power to the Soviets!". The mass
demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Russian Provisional Government.[321] In Milan, in
May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the
war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.[322] The Italian
army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and
anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost
50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested.[322]

Technology

Royal Air Force Sopwith Camel. In

April 1917, the average life
expectancy of a British pilot on the
Western Front was 93 flying
hours.[323]

World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the
inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had
modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication,[324] armoured cars,
tanks (especially with the advent of the prototype tank, Little Willie), and aircraft.[325]
 Captain Marcel Courmes, pilot of
the French 2nd Bombardment,
Group GB 2, in August 1915

Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and
fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even
machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably,
aircraft and the field telephone.[326]

Fixed-wing aircraft were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down
enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were
created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well.[327]
Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious
launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tønder in 1918.[328]

Diplomacy

1917 political cartoon about the

Zimmermann Telegram

The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed
to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part,
wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining
the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy,
Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory;
and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central
Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals
were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very
far.[329][330][331]

Legacy and memory

Memorials

The Italian Redipuglia War

Memorial, which contains the
remains of 100,187 soldiers

Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in
improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of
organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle
Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français.
Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as
the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the
Somme.[332][333]

In 1915, John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute
to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and
Memorial Day.[334][335]

A typical village war memorial to

soldiers killed in World War I
National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated
to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1
November 1921.[336]

The British government budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war
during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum.[337] On 3 August
2014, French President François Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together
marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a
memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German
soldiers killed in the war.[338] As part of commemorations for the centenary of the 1918
Armistice, French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited
the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to
reconciliation.[339]

Historiography
... "Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn."
"None," said the other, "Save the undone years"...

— Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting, 1918[340]

The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began
during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching
World War I has presented special challenges. When compared with World War II, the First
World War is often thought to be "a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons"; it lacks the
metanarrative of good versus evil that characterises retellings of the Second World War.
Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplified
tropes that obscure the complexity of the conflict.[341]

Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by a cultural
turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military
occupation, radicalisation of politics, race, medical science, gender and mental health.
Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include: Why
the war began; why the Allies won; whether generals were responsible for high casualty rates;
how soldiers endured the poor conditions of trench warfare; and to what extent the civilian
home front accepted and endorsed the war effort.[342][343]
Unexploded ordnance
As late as 2007, unexploded ordnance at battlefield sites like Verdun and Somme continued
to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded
munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not
recovered from the effects of the war.[341]

See also

Lists of World War I topics

List of military engagements of World War I

Outline of World War I

World war

World War II

Freemasonry during World War I

List of wars by death toll

Footnotes

a. The Russian Empire during 1914–1917, the Russian Republic during 1917. The Bolshevik
government signed a separate peace with the Central Powers shortly after their armed
seizure of power, resulting in a Central Powers victory on the Eastern Front of the war,
and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic's defeat. However, this peace treaty
was nullified by an Allied Powers victory on the Western Front, and the end of the war.

b. Often abbreviated as WWI or WW1

c. Only the Triple Alliance was a formal "alliance"; the others listed were informal patterns of
support.

d. German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak"

e. Bessarabia remained part of Romania until 1940, when it was annexed by Joseph Stalin
as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic;[159] following the dissolution of the USSR in
1991, it became the independent Republic of Moldova

f. Unlike the others, the successor state to the Russian Empire, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, retained similar external borders, via retaining or quickly recovering lost
 territories.

g. A German attempt to use chemical weapons on the Russian front in January 1915 failed
to cause casualties.[257]

h. 109 in this context – see Long and short scales

i. World War I officially ended when Germany paid off the final amount of reparations
imposed on it by the Allies.[293][294][295][296]

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External links

Archival materials
Links to other WWI Sites (https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Links_to_Other_WWI_Sites)
from World War I Document Archive

The World War One Document Archive (https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/) , from Brigham Young
University

International Encyclopedia of the First World War (http://www.1914-1918-online.net/#:~:text

=International%20Encyclopedia%20of%20the%20First%20World%20War%20%E2%80%9
D,authors%2C%20editors%2C%20and%20partners%20from%20over%20fifty%20countrie
s.)

Records on the outbreak of World War I (https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/t

ransformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/the-outbreak-of-the-first-world-
 war/) from the UK Parliamentary Collections

The Heritage of the Great War: First World War (http://www.greatwar.nl/) – A website
created in 1994, with graphic colour photos, pictures and music related to WWI

European Newspapers from the start of the First World War (https://www.theeuropeanlibrar
y.org/tel4/newspapers/search?query=&decade=1910-1919&month=7&year=1914&&count=
50) and the end of the war (https://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/newspapers/searc
h?query=&decade=1910-1919&month=11&year=1918&count=50) from The European
Library

WWI Films (http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914/multilingual%3A1) on

the European Film Gateway

The British Pathé WW1 Film Archive (http://www.britishpathe.com/workspaces/page/ww1-t

he-definitive-collection) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190324234810/http://
www.britishpathe.com/workspaces/page/ww1-the-definitive-collection) 24 March 2019
at the Wayback Machine

World War I British press photograph collection (https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/wwi

photo) – A sampling of images distributed by the British government during the war to
diplomats overseas, from the University of British Columbia Library Digital Collections

Personal accounts of American World War I veterans (http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/se

arch?query=&field=all&war=worldwari) , Veterans History Project, Library of Congress

WWI Pamphlets 1913-1920 (https://archive.org/details/butlerlibrarywwipamphlets) —A

collection of WWI Pamphlets 1913-1920 contributed by Columbia University Libraries,
available online on Internet Archive

World War I manuscript collection (https://digital.shsmo.org/digital/collection/wwi) from

The State Historical Society of Missouri Digitised Collections

Library guides
National Library of New Zealand (https://natlib.govt.nz/researchers/guides/first-world-wa
r)
The Alexander Turnbull Library and the National Library of New Zealand have significant
collections relating to all aspects of New Zealand and New Zealanders during the First
World War

World War I and Australia (https://guides.sl.nsw.gov.au/wwi-and-australia) from State

Library of New South Wales
World War I: A Resource Guide (https://guides.loc.gov/wwi) from US Library of Congress
The Library’s collections contain a wide variety of materials related to the First World War
(1914-18). This guide provides access to the Library’s digital collections, external websites,
and a selected print bibliography related to the Great War.

Indiana University Bloomington (http://libraries.iub.edu/guide-world-war-i-resources)

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150605065400/http://libraries.iub.edu/guide-worl
d-war-i-resources) 5 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine

New York University (http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=568692) Archived (https://w

eb.archive.org/web/20150405020007/http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=568692) 5
April 2015 at the Wayback Machine

University of Alberta (archived 2014) (https://web.archive.org/web/20141020223852/http://

guides.library.ualberta.ca/worldwar1914)

California State Library, California History Room. Collection: California. State Council of
Defense. California War History Committee. Records of Californians who served in World
War I, 1918–1922. (https://oac.cdlib.org/search?style=oac4;Institution=California%20Stat
e%20Library::California%20History%20Room;idT=AEK-6409)