Psy

chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

PSYCHOLOGYOFLEARNI
NGANDI
NSTRUCTI
ON(
EPY1201)

LECTURE1:
INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
scour
sepaperPsy
chol
ogyofLear
ningandI
nst
ruct
iondeal
swi
tht
hei
mpor
tance
andcont
ri
but
ionofeducat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyont
het
heor
yandpr
act
iceofeducat
ion.A
t
eacheri
sconf
ront
edwi
tht
hepr
obl
em ofi
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencei
nthecl
assr
oom.I
tis
t
her
efor
evi
talf
orust
ounder
standt
heconceptofeducat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyi
nter
msof
i
tsmeani
ngandnat
urebef
orepr
oceedi
ngt
olookatl
ear
ning,t
heor
iesofl
ear
ning,
mot
ivat
ionandl
ear
ning,
memor
yandf
orget
ti
ngandcl
assr
oom management
.

Meani
nganddef
ini
ti
onofEducat
ional
Psy
chol
ogy

Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogy consi
sts oft
wo wor
ds Psy
chol
ogy and Educat
ion.Whi
l
e
Gener
alPsy
chol
ogyi
sapur
esci
ence,educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyi
sit
sappl
i
cat
ioni
nthe
f
iel
dofeducat
ionwi
tht
heai
m ofsoci
ali
zi
ngmanandmodi
fyi
nghi
sbehav
ior
.Ski
nner
def
ineseducat
ionalPsy
chol
ogyast
hatbr
anchofpsy
chol
ogywhi
chdeal
swi
tht
eachi
ng
andl
ear
ning.

Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyi
soneoft
hebr
anchesofappl
i
edpsy
chol
ogyconcer
nedwi
th
t
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
hepr
inci
ples,t
echni
quesandot
herr
esour
ceofpsy
chol
ogyt
othe
sol
uti
onoft
hepr
obl
emsconf
ront
ingt
het
eacherat
tempt
ingt
odi
rectt
hegr
owt
hof
chi
l
dren t
owar
d def
ined obj
ect
ives.Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyi
s concer
ned wi
th an
under
standi
ngof
:

a)Thechi
l
d,hi
sdev
elopment
,hi
sneedandhi
spot
ent
ial
i
ties.

b)Thel
ear
ningsi
tuat
ioni
ncl
udi
nggr
oupdy
nami
csast
heyaf
fectl
ear
ning.

c)Thel
ear
ningpr
ocess,
itsnat
ureandt
heway
stomakei
tef
fect
ive.

Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ningi
sconcer
nedwi
thsuchpr
obl
emsas:How dochi
l
drenacqui
re
ski
l
ls?Wheni
slear
ningmor
eef
fect
ive?Whatar
ethef
act
orst
hathel
pthel
ear
ning
pr
ocess?How do we measur
ethe amountofl
ear
ning?Ar
ether
e anyeconomi
c
met
hodsofmemor
izi
ng?Whydowef
orget
?Canmemor
ybei
mpr
oved?How cana
t
eachermai
ntai
nandsust
ainl
ear
ner
s’mot
ivat
ion?Howcanat
eachermanageacl
ass?

1
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Psy
chol
ogyhel
pst
het
eachert
ogetanswer
stot
hesequest
ions.I
ttel
l
sust
hatl
ear
ning
becomes mor
e ef
fect
ivei
ffact
orsl
i
ke mot
ivat
ion and i
nter
estar
etaken i
nto
consi
der
ati
onbyev
eryt
eacher
.Theknowl
edgeofpsy
chol
ogyhashel
pedt
het
eacheri
n
modi
fyi
ngappr
oachest
othet
eachi
ngl
ear
ningpr
ocess.

Nat
ureofEducat
ional
Psy
chol
ogy

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
csofeducat
ional
psy
chol
ogy
:

a)I
tisanappl
i
edbr
anchoff
undament
alpsy
chol
ogy

b)I
tcombi
nest
wof
iel
dsi
.e.educat
ionandpsy
chol
ogy

c)I
tisconcer
nedwi
thf
act
ors,
pri
nci
plesandt
echni
queswhi
chr
elat
etot
hev
ari
ous
aspect
sofchi
l
d’sgr
owt
handdev
elopment

d)I
tisconcer
nedwi
thl
ear
ningsi
tuat
ionandpr
ocessbywhi
chl
ear
ningcanbemor
e
ef
fi
cientandef
fect
ive.

e)Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyi
snotasexactasnat
uralsci
encessi
ncet
hehuman
behav
iorcannotbepr
edi
ctedexact
lybecausei
tisdy
nmi
c.

f
) Whi
l
e psy
chol
ogy deal
s wi
tht
he behav
ior of al
lindi
vi
dual
s,educat
ional
psy
chol
ogy l
i
mit
sit
s deal
i
ng wi
tht
he behav
ioroft
he pupi
linr
elat
ion t
o
educat
ional
env
ironment
.

ScopeofEducat
ional
Psy
chol
ogy

Fi
vemaj
orar
eascov
eredbyeducat
ional
psy
chol
ogyar
e:

The Lear
ner
:Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyacquai
nts us wi
tht
he need ofknowi
ng t
he
l
ear
ner
sanddeal
swi
tht
het
echni
quesofknowi
nghi
m wel
l
.Iti
ncl
udesknowi
ngt
he
i
nnat
eabi
l
iti
esandcapabi
l
iti
esofi
ndi
vi
duall
ear
ner
s,char
act
eri
sti
csofgr
owt
hand
dev
elopmentateach st
age r
ightf
rom chi
l
dhood t
o adul
thood and gener
all
ythe
behav
ioroft
hel
ear
ner
.

TheLear
ningPr
ocess:I
tdeal
swi
tht
henat
ureofl
ear
ningandhow i
ttakespl
aceand

2
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

cont
ainst
opi
cssuchas,l
aws,pr
inci
plesandt
heor
iesofl
ear
ning,r
emember
ingand
f
orget
ti
ng,per
cei
vi
ng,conceptf
ormat
ion,t
hinki
ng,r
easoni
ngpr
ocess,pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng,
t
ransf
erofl
ear
ningandmeansofef
fect
ivel
ear
ningamongot
her
s.

Lear
ningSi
tuat
ion:I
tdeal
swi
tht
heenv
ironment
alf
act
orsandf
act
orswhi
chcome
mi
dwaybet
weent
hel
ear
nerandt
het
eacher
.Aspect
sli
kecl
assr
oom cl
i
mat
eandgr
oup
dy
nami
cs,
aidswhi
chf
aci
l
itat
esl
ear
ning,
eval
uat
iont
echni
quesandpr
act
ices,
gui
dance
andcounsel
i
ngamongot
her
s,whi
chhel
pint
hesmoot
hfunct
ioni
ngoft
het
eachi
ng
l
ear
ningpr
ocess.

Teachi
ngSi
tuat
ion:I
tsuggest
sthet
echni
quesoft
eachi
ng.I
tal
sohel
psi
ndeci
ding
whatl
ear
ningsi
tuat
ionshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedbyt
het
eachert
othel
ear
ner
saccor
dingt
o
t
hei
rment
alandphy
sical
age,
prev
iousknowl
edgeandi
nter
estl
evel
.

Ev
aluat
ionofl
ear
ningper
for
mance:Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogysuggest
svar
ioust
ool
sand
t
echni
quesf
orassessmentandev
aluat
ionsuchasper
for
mancet
est
,or
alt
estand
wr
it
tent
est
.Exami
nat
iont
echni
quesandl
ear
ningst
ylesar
eal
soanal
yzedsoast
ohel
p
t
hel
ear
ner
stoov
ercomedi
ff
icul
ti
es.

Thet
eacher
:Educat
ionalpsy
chol
ogyemphasi
zest
heneedf
orknowi
ngt
hesel
ffort
he
t
eachert
opl
ayhi
srol
epr
oper
lyi
nthepr
ocessofeducat
ion.I
tthr
owsl
i
ghtont
he
essent
ialper
sonal
i
tyt
rai
ts,i
nter
est
s,apt
it
udesand t
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofef
fect
ive
t
eachi
ng.

LEARNI
NG

Lear
ningi
sapr
ocesst
hatdependsonexper
ienceandl
eadst
olong-
ter
m changesi
n
behav
iorpot
ent
ial
.Behav
iorpot
ent
ialdesi
gnat
est
hepossi
blebehav
iorofani
ndi
vi
dual
,
notact
ualbehav
ior
.Themai
nassumpt
ionbehi
ndal
llear
ningpsy
chol
ogyi
sthatt
he
ef
fect
soft
heenv
ironment
,condi
ti
oni
ng,
rei
nfor
cement
,et
c.pr
ovi
depsy
chol
ogi
stswi
th
t
hebesti
nfor
mat
ionf
rom whi
cht
ounder
standhumanbehav
ior
.Mostofwhatwedoor
donotdoi
sinf
luencedbywhatwel
ear
nandhowwehav
elear
nti
t.

Lear
ningi
sar
elat
ivel
yper
manentchangei
nbehav
iort
hati
sther
esul
tofexper
ience.
Thi
sther
efor
emeanst
hatanyt
empor
arychangesi
nbehav
iorcannotbeaf
orm of

3
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

l
ear
ning.I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatl
ear
ningr
equi
resr
einf
orcedpr
act
icet
ri
alst
o
enhanceper
for
manceoft
henew behav
ior
.Asopposedt
o shor
tter
m changesi
n
behav
iorpot
ent
ial(
causede.
g.byf
ati
gue)l
ear
ningi
mpl
i
esl
ongt
erm changes.As
opposedt
olongt
erm changescausedbyagi
nganddev
elopment
,lear
ningi
mpl
i
es
changesr
elat
eddi
rect
lyt
oexper
ience.Exper
iencei
sfoundt
opl
ayadomi
nantr
olei
n
mol
dingandshapi
ngt
hebehav
iorofani
ndi
vi
dual
.

Ther
efor
e,apr
operandgener
all
yaccept
eddef
ini
ti
onofl
ear
ningmayr
unasbel
ow:

Lear
ningi
sapr
ocesswhi
chbr
ingsr
elat
ivel
yper
manentchangesi
nthebehav
iorofa
l
ear
nert
hroughexper
ienceorpr
act
ice.

Lear
ning t
heor
iest
ryt
o bet
terunder
stand how t
hel
ear
ning pr
ocesswor
ks.Maj
or
r
esear
ch t
radi
ti
ons ar
e behav
ior
ism,cogni
ti
ve and sel
f-
regul
ated l
ear
ning.Medi
a
psy
chol
ogyi
saneweraddi
ti
onamongt
hel
ear
ningt
heor
iesbecauset
her
eissomuch
t
echnol
ogynow i
ncl
udedi
nthev
ari
oust
ypesofl
ear
ningexper
iences.Neur
osci
ences
hav
e pr
ovi
ded i
mpor
tanti
nsi
ght
sint
olear
ning ev
en when usi
ng much si
mpl
er
or
gani
smst
han humans.Di
stancel
ear
ning,e-
Lear
ning,onl
i
nel
ear
ning,and medi
a
psy
chol
ogyar
eemer
gingdi
mensi
onsoft
hef
iel
d.

Per
for
mance

Thi
sref
erst
otheaccompl
i
shmentofagi
vent
askmeasur
edagai
nstpr
esetknown
st
andar
dsofaccur
acy
,compl
eteness,cost
,andspeed.I
nacont
ract
,per
for
mancei
s
deemedt
obet
hef
ulf
il
lmentofanobl
i
gat
ion,i
namannert
hatr
eleasest
heper
for
mer
f
rom al
ll
iabi
l
iti
esundert
hecont
ract
.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofl
ear
ning

1.Lear
ningi
sapr
ocessandnotapr
oduct
.

2.Changei
nani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sbehav
iori
scausedbyexper
iencesandt
rai
nings.

3.Lear
ningpr
epar
esani
ndi
vi
dual
fort
henecessar
yadj
ust
mentandadapt
ati
on.

4.Al
ll
ear
ningi
spur
posef
ulandgoal
ori
ent
ed.

5.Lear
ning i
sa compr
ehensi
vepr
ocesswhi
ch cov
ersnear
lyal
lthedomai
ns-

4
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

knowl
edge,
aff
ect
iveandpsy
chomot
orofhumanbehav
ior
.

6.Learni
ngisuni
ver
salandcont
inuousmeani
ngthati
tisnotl
i
mit
edt
oanyage,
sex,
raceorcul
tur
eanditi
snever–endingpr
ocess.

7.I
nter
estandl
ear
ningar
eposi
ti
vel
yrel
ated.

8.Lear
ningdependsonmat
urat
ionandmot
ivat
ion.

Rat
ional
efort
eachi
ngpsy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning

 I
tequi
pst
hepr
ospect
ivet
eacherwi
tht
heoper
ati
onsandappr
oachest
olear
ning
t
hroughdev
elopi
ngbet
tert
eachi
ngst
rat
egi
es.

 I
tenabl
est
het
eachert
ocausedesi
rabl
echangesi
nthebehav
iorofl
ear
ner
s
t
hrought
hepr
ocessofl
ear
ning.

 I
tenabl
est
het
eachert
ounder
standt
hei
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesi
nlear
ningamong
l
ear
ner
ssoast
oadopthi
sorhert
eachi
ngaccor
dingt
other
equi
rement
sby
usi
ngdi
ff
erentt
eachi
ngmet
hods.

 Byst
udy
ingmot
ivat
ion,t
het
eachermayunder
standt
heneedsandmot
ivesof
l
ear
ner
satdi
ff
erentagel
evel
sandt
husbeabl
etoef
fect
ivel
ydev
elopst
rat
egi
es
ofmot
ivat
ingt
hem t
olear
n.

 I
tenabl
est
het
eachert
oknow t
hepr
ocessofr
emember
ingandf
orget
ti
ngand
t
hus be abl
eto ut
il
ize appr
opr
iat
e and ef
fi
cientmet
hods t
o mi
nimi
ze t
he
per
cent
ageoff
orget
ti
ng.

 I
tequi
pst
het
eacherwi
tht
heknowl
edgeonhowt
oimpr
oveont
hesoci
alcl
i
mat
e
f
orl
ear
ningbypr
ovi
dingaconduci
vel
ear
ningenv
ironment
.

 Theknowl
edgeofpsy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ningandi
nst
ruct
ionenabl
est
het
eachert
o
hel
pthel
ear
ner
stot
ransf
erski
l
lsandi
nfor
mat
iongai
nedi
nthecl
assr
oom i
nto
t
her
eal
li
fesi
tuat
ion.

 Theknowl
edgeandski
l
lsacqui
redbyt
hepr
ospect
ivet
eacherwoul
denabl
ehi
m
orhert
odi
agnosespeci
aldi
ff
icul
ti
esofl
ear
ner
sandbeabl
etohel
pthem

5
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

i
ndi
vi
dual
l
ytoov
ercomet
hesedi
ff
icul
ti
es.

Ty
pesofl
ear
ning

Obser
vat
ionall
ear
ning-Lear
ningwhi
choccur
swhenweobser
vewhatot
her
sar
edoi
ng
andwei
ntur
nal
sodoi
t.Wedol
ear
nal
otbyseei
nganddoi
ngwhatwehav
eseen.Thi
s
meanst
hatwedosomet
hingwhi
chwehav
eobser
vedandgotsat
isf
iedandt
huswe
endupi
mit
ati
ng.

I
nsi
ghtl
ear
ning;
-lear
ningt
hatoccur
swhent
heor
gani
sm r
eal
i
zeshowt
hev
ari
ouspar
ts
ofapr
obl
em r
elat
etoeachot
herandsuddenl
yseest
hesol
uti
ont
othepr
obl
em.

Vi
car
iousl
ear
ning;
-Lear
ningt
hatoccur
swhenwel
ear
nsomet
hingbecauset
her
eis
someki
ndofr
ewar
dtober
ecei
ved.Peopl
ear
erewar
dedf
orwhatt
heydoandassuch
ot
her
sar
emot
ivat
edt
odoso.

Tr
ialand er
rorl
ear
ning;-Lear
ning i
n whi
ch a l
ear
nerat
tempt
sto do somet
hing
r
epeat
edl
yonandoni
nor
dert
ogetbet
terr
esul
ts.I
t’
sapr
obl
em sol
vi
ngl
ear
ningandi
ts
obj
ect
ivei
stoel
i
minat
eunsuccessf
ult
ri
alsandst
rengt
hent
hesuccessf
ulones.

Cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng-Lear
ningt
hatoccur
sasar
esul
tofassoci
ati
ngast
imul
usanda
r
esponse.I
tdescr
ibeshowapr
evi
ousl
yneut
ralst
imul
uscanacqui
ret
hepowert
oel
i
cit
si
gni
fi
cantr
esponsesi
nlear
ner
s.

Rot
elear
ning/
memor
izat
ion.I
tisaspeci
alki
ndofl
ear
ningwhi
chi
nvol
vesr
emember
ing
byhear
t.

Lat
entl
ear
ning(
inci
dent
al)
.At
ypeofl
ear
ningwhi
chi
sexper
iencedunconsci
ousl
y.

Psy
chomot
or/
manuall
ear
ning-
aty
peofl
ear
ningwhi
chi
nvol
vesl
ear
ningt
ooper
ate
adapt
ivet
echnol
ogyf
orexampl
edev
elopmentofski
l
ls.

Cogni
ti
vel
ear
ning-at
ypeofl
ear
ningwhi
chi
nvol
vesacqui
sit
ionofment
alski
l
lssuchas
r
ecal
lofi
nfor
mat
ion.

S-
RLear
ning-al
soknownasoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng.Thi
sref
erst
otheabi
l
ityt
olear
nto
per
for
m a par
ti
cul
ar behav
ior when a cer
tai
n st
imul
us i
s pr
esent
.Iti
nvol
ves

6
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

est
abl
i
shmentofconnect
ionsbet
weensensor
ysy
stemsandmot
orsy
stems.

Tr
aini
ng-
iti
sapr
act
ical
act
ivi
tyai
medatdev
elopi
ngaski
l
lbyf
oll
owi
nggi
ven
i
nst
ruct
ions.

Howdoesl
ear
ningt
akepl
ace?

Knowl
edgecannotbel
ocal
i
zedi
nanysi
ngl
epar
toft
hebr
ain.I
nfor
mat
ioni
sdi
str
ibut
ed
acr
ossneur
ons.I
nfor
mat
ioni
saccessedwhenani
nputt
ri
gger
saser
iesofneur
ons
t
ransmi
tt
ingsi
gnal
stooneanot
her
.Neur
onsar
ethei
nst
rument
sofcommuni
cat
ion
whi
chr
ecei
ve,i
ntegr
ateandsendsi
gnal
s.Theyar
ethebasi
cel
ement
soft
hebr
ain.
Neur
onsandt
hei
rmodusoper
andi
areessent
ial
l
ythesamei
nal
lner
voussy
stems.

Lear
ning hi
ngesonourneur
onspr
ocessi
ng i
nput
s.Asourbr
ainr
ecei
vesi
nput
s,i
t
dev
elopsar
ecur
rentnet
wor
kpat
hway
sthatsust
ainar
udi
ment
aryf
orm ofshor
t-
ter
m
memor
y.Asi
nput
sofanyki
ndcont
inuet
otr
iggerapar
ti
cul
arser
iesofact
ivat
ioni
nour
br
ain,sy
napt
icconnect
ionsar
est
rengt
henedgi
vi
ngusbet
teraccesst
oski
l
lsand
i
nfor
mat
ion.Asy
napsei
sasmal
lgapatt
heendofaneur
ont
hatal
l
owsi
nfor
mat
iont
o
passf
rom oneneur
ont
otheot
her
.

Lear
ningt
her
efor
edependsont
hei
nput
sourbr
ainr
ecei
veswhi
char
erepr
esent
edby
t
hest
rengt
heni
ngofsy
napt
icconnect
ions.Sy
napsesar
efoundwher
ener
vecel
l
sas
wel
laswher
ener
vecel
l
sconnectwi
thmuscl
esandgl
ands.

Fact
orswhi
chaf
fectl
ear
ning

 Mot
ivat
ioni
satt
hehear
tofl
ear
ning.I
tar
ouses,
sust
ains,
dir
ect
sanddet
ermi
nes
t
hei
ntensi
tyofl
ear
ningef
for
t.

 Mat
urat
ioni
sanot
herf
act
orwhi
chmakesspeedyl
ear
ningpossi
ble.Lear
nerwho
i
sphy
sical
l
yandment
all
ymat
urel
ear
nsasubj
ectataf
ast
err
ate.

 Thephy
sicalandment
aldev
elopmentoft
hel
ear
neraf
fect
slear
ning.Thel
ear
ner
whoi
sphy
sical
l
yandment
all
ynotdev
elopedl
ear
nsatasl
owerr
ate.

 Readi
nessal
soaf
fect
slear
ningandt
hisr
efer
stot
hel
ear
ner
sdesi
ret
oper
for
m

7
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

anact
ivi
tyandmaker
api
dpr
ogr
essonceheorshest
art
s.

 Thel
ear
nerandt
eacher
sat
ti
tudet
owar
dsl
ear
ningi
sanot
herf
act
or.

 Thenat
ureoft
hel
ear
ningt
askaf
fect
slear
ning.Meani
ngf
ulnessoft
hesubj
ect
-
mat
termakesl
ear
ningeasi
er.

 Thet
eacher
s’l
evelofmast
eryoft
hesubj
ect
-mat
teranduseoft
eachi
ngski
l
ls
af
fect
slear
ning.

 Thet
eacher
s’per
sonal
i
tyaf
fect
slear
ning.

 Themet
hodsusedbyt
het
eacheraf
fectl
ear
ning.

 Thehomecondi
ti
onsandschool
env
ironmentaf
fectl
ear
ning.

 Thet
eacher
s’pr
esent
ati
onanddel
i
ver
yoft
hesubj
ectmat
ter

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityanduseofi
nst
ruct
ional
mat
eri
als.

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
fact
ors

Readi
ness,
i
nter
est
,i
ntel
l
igence,
mot
ivat
ion,
att
it
ude,
feel
i
ngs,
fr
ust
rat
ion,
ment
alheal
th,f
earof
f
ail
ure,
abi
l
ity
.

Teachi
ng/
inst
ruct
ional
fact
ors
Teacher
’spersonal
it
y,l
earni
ngstr
ategy
,assessmentand eval
uat
ion,
gui
danceand
counsel
i
ng,learni
ngmet hodol
ogy,cur
ricul
um,teachi
ngai
ds.

TOPI
C2:
THEORI
ESOFLEARNI
NG

At
heor
yref
erst
oasetofi
nter
act
ingpr
inci
plesdesi
gnedt
oaccountf
orawi
der
angeof
obser
vat
ionoff
act
s.Theyar
easer
iesofassumpt
ionswhi
char
ethent
est
ed by
exper
iment
s.Thef
ormul
ati
onofat
heor
ypl
ayst
woi
mpor
tantr
olesi
.e.i
tgi
vesdet
ail
ed
sy
stemat
izedi
nfor
mat
ionofanar
eaofknowl
edgewhi
chser
vesasagui
del
i
net
o

8
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

conductf
urt
herr
esear
chesi
nthatpar
ti
cul
arar
ea.Secondl
y,i
tisusedt
osummar
izeor
t
o descr
ibeorexpl
aint
hecauseandef
fectr
elat
ionshi
pinv
olv
edi
nat
heor
y.The
t
heor
iesofl
ear
ningat
temptt
oexpl
aint
hemechani
smsofbehav
iori
nvol
vedi
n t
he
l
ear
ningpr
ocess.

J.
BWat
son’
sTheor
yofLear
ning

Behav
ior
ism wast
heschooloft
houghti
npsy
chol
ogyt
hatsoughtt
omeasur
eonl
y
obser
vabl
ebehav
ior
s.FoundedbyJohnB.Wat
sonandout
li
nedi
nhi
ssemi
nal1913
paperPsy
chol
ogyast
he Behav
ior
istVi
ew I
t,t
he behav
ior
istst
andpoi
nthel
dthat
psy
chol
ogy was an ex
per
iment
aland obj
ect
ive sci
ence and t
hati
nter
nalment
al
pr
ocessesshoul
dnotbeconsi
der
edbecauset
heycoul
dnotbedi
rect
lyobser
vedand
measur
ed.Accor
dingt
ohi
m al
lbehav
iori
slear
ned.Hei
nsi
stedt
hathumanbehav
ior
wasr
eal
,obj
ect
iveandpr
act
ical
.Heconduct
edexper
iment
sonhumansandpr
ovedt
hat
emot
ionsar
econdi
ti
onedr
esponses.Wat
sonst
udi
edhow emot
ionalr
esponsesget
est
abl
i
shedi
nchi
l
dren.Hedi
scov
eredt
hatt
hroughcl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng,di
ff
erent
f
eel
i
ngs(
fear
,rageandl
ove)becomeassoci
atedwi
thav
ari
etyofst
imul
i
.

Wat
son’
sexper
iment

Het
rai
nedLi
tt
leAl
ber
ttof
earwhi
ter
ats.Hef
ir
stshowedAl
ber
tawhi
ter
att
opr
ovet
hat
t
hechi
l
dwasnotaf
rai
dofi
t.Thenhebangedt
wor
odst
oget
herbehi
ndAl
ber
t’
sheadt
o
showt
hatt
hechi
l
dwasaf
rai
dofl
oudnoi
se.Theboyshowedsi
gnsoff
earandpani
c
whenev
eranywhi
ter
atorobj
ectwasshownt
ohi
m(Gener
ali
zat
ion)
.heconcl
udedt
hat
al
louremot
ional
li
fei
sdev
elopedt
hroughcondi
ti
oni
ngofast
imul
ust
oar
esponse.

Hepr
oposedt
wopr
inci
plesofl
ear
ning

1.Thel
awoff
requencywhi
chemphasi
zest
hei
mpor
tanceoff
requencyorexer
cisei
n
l
ear
ning.

2.Thel
awofr
ecencywhi
chst
atest
hatt
hemostr
ecentr
esponsei
sst
rengt
henedmor
e
byi
tsf
requentoccur
rencet
hani
sanear
li
err
esponse.

Cl
assr
oom i
mpl
i
cat
ionsofWat
son’
stheor
y

9
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

 I
tremi
ndst
het
eachert
hatl
ear
ningi
semot
ional
l
yacqui
redt
hroughcondi
ti
oni
ng
andt
hatf
eel
i
ngsofl
ove,
rageandf
earar
econdi
ti
oned.

 Thet
eachershoul
dcondi
ti
onl
ear
ner
stohat
edoi
ngbadt
hingsf
orex
ampl
e
spel
l
ingmi
stakes,
badhandwr
it
ing,
lat
ecomi
nget
c.

 Thet
eachershoul
dcondi
ti
ont
hel
ear
ner
stol
i
kel
ear
ningt
hesubj
ect
sinor
derf
or
t
hem t
ounder
standt
hosesubj
ect
s.

 Thet
eachershoul
dpr
ovi
deaconduci
vel
ear
ningenv
ironmentf
orl
ear
ningt
otake
pl
ace because our behav
ior i
slear
ned by i
nter
act
ing wi
tht
he ex
ter
nal
env
ironment
.

 Thet
eachershoul
dpr
ovi
desuf
fi
cientpr
act
iceandexer
ciset
olear
ner
ssucht
hat
t
hebondagebet
weenst
imul
usandr
esponsear
est
rengt
hened.

CLASSI
CALCONDI
TIONI
NGTHEORY

Cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngi
sal
ear
ningpr
ocessi
nwhi
chanassoci
ati
oni
smadebet
weena
pr
evi
ousl
yneut
ralst
imul
usandast
imul
ust
hatnat
ural
l
yev
okesar
esponse.I
not
her
wor
dscl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngi
saf
orm ofl
ear
ningi
nwhi
cht
wost
imul
iar
epr
esent
ed
t
oget
herandt
her
esponseor
igi
nal
l
yel
i
cit
edbyoneoft
hem comest
obeacqui
redby
t
heot
her
.Forexampl
e,i
nPav
lov
'scl
assi
cex
per
iment
,thesmel
loff
oodwast
he
nat
ural
l
yoccur
ri
ngst
imul
ust
hatwaspai
redwi
tht
hepr
evi
ousl
yneut
ralr
ingi
ngoft
he
bel
l
.Onceanassoci
ati
onhadbeenmadebet
weent
het
wo,t
hesoundoft
hebel
lal
one
coul
dleadt
oar
esponse.

Oneoft
hebest
-knownaspect
sofbehav
ior
all
ear
ningt
heor
yiscl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng.
Di
scov
eredbyRussi
anphy
siol
ogi
stI
vanPav
lov
,cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngi
sal
ear
ning
pr
ocesst
hatoccur
sthr
oughassoci
ati
onsbet
weenanenv
ironment
alst
imul
usanda
nat
ural
l
yoccur
ri
ngst
imul
us.

Pav
lov
’sexper
iment

Pav
lovdev
elopedt
het
heor
yofcl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngasar
esul
tofobser
vingt
he

10
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

gast
ri
csecr
eti
oni
ndogs.Whenhebeganconduct
inghi
sexper
iment
sondogs,hewas
notst
udy
ingbehav
iorbuti
nvest
igat
inghow di
gest
ionoccur
sindogs.Hedi
dthi
sby
put
ti
ngmeatpowderi
nthedog’
smout
h.Hecoul
del
i
citsal
i
vat
ionandhecol
l
ect
ed
sal
i
vai
nat
ube.

Henot
edt
hatt
hedogsal
i
vat
ednotonl
yduet
othepr
esenceoff
ood(
meatpowder
)in
t
hemout
hbutal
sot
othesi
ghtoff
ood,t
hesoundoft
hef
oodt
ray
sandev
ent
he
appr
oachoft
heexper
iment
er.Pav
lovi
ntr
oducedanot
herst
imul
usofsoundi
ngt
hebel
l
.
I
nit
ial
l
y,t
hedogr
espondedt
othebel
lbyper
kingi
tsear
sandshowi
ngsi
gnsofat
tent
ion
andhear
ing.Pav
lovt
heni
nject
edf
ood(
meatpowder
)int
hedog’
smout
handsounded
t
hebel
lsi
mul
taneousl
y.Af
terpai
ri
ngt
hebel
landt
hemeatpowdersev
eral
times,
Pav
lov
not
edt
hatt
hedogbegant
osal
i
vat
eassoonasi
thear
dthebel
lev
eni
fnotf
oll
owedby
f
ood.Thedog’
sbehav
iorchangedduet
otheexper
iencei
thadacqui
redsi
ncet
he
soundi
ngoft
hebel
lsi
gnal
edt
heappear
anceoff
ood.I
nor
dert
ounder
standmor
e
abouthow cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngwor
ks,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
obef
ami
l
iarwi
tht
hebasi
c
pr
inci
plesoft
hepr
ocess.

TheUncondi
ti
onedSt
imul
us(
UCS)

I
tisanev
entt
hatel
i
cit
sanaut
omat
icr
esponsef
rom anor
gani
sm bef
orel
ear
ning
(
condi
ti
oni
ng)f
orexampl
emeatpowder
.

TheUncondi
ti
onedResponse(
UCR)

The uncondi
ti
oned r
esponse i
sthe unl
ear
ned r
esponse t
hatoccur
s nat
ural
l
yin
r
esponset
otheuncondi
ti
onedst
imul
usf
orexampl
esal
i
vat
ion.

TheCondi
ti
onedSt
imul
us(
CS)

Thi
sref
erst
oaneut
ralst
imul
ust
hataccompani
est
heuncondi
ti
onedst
imul
usdur
ing
cl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng.

TheCondi
ti
onedResponse(
CR)

Thecondi
ti
onedr
esponsei
sthel
ear
nedr
esponset
othepr
evi
ousl
yneut
ral
sti
mul
us.

11
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Themodel
ofcl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng

1.Food(
UCS)
…………………………Sal
i
vat
ion(
UCR)

2.Bel
l(Neut
ral
Sti
mul
us)
………………Nosal
i
vat
ion

3.Bel
l+Food………………………….
.Sal
i
vat
ion(
UCR)

4.Bel
l(CS)
………………………………Sal
i
vat
ion(
CR)

Pr
inci
plesofCl
assi
cal
Condi
ti
oni
ng

Behav
ior
ist
shav
edescr
ibedanumberofdi
ff
erentphenomenaassoci
atedwi
thcl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng.Someoft
heseel
ement
sinv
olv
ethei
nit
ialest
abl
i
shmentoft
her
esponse,
whi
l
eot
her
sdescr
ibet
hedi
sappear
anceofar
esponse.Theseel
ement
sar
eimpor
tant
i
nunder
standi
ngt
hecl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngpr
ocess.

Acqui
sit
ion

Acqui
sit
ioni
sthei
nit
ialst
ageofl
ear
ningwhenar
esponsei
sfi
rstest
abl
i
shedand
gr
adual
l
y st
rengt
hened.Thi
s pr
inci
ple st
ates t
hat
,the r
epeat
ed f
oll
owi
ng oft
he
condi
ti
onedst
imul
us(
bel
l
)byt
heuncondi
ti
onedst
imul
us(
food)l
eadst
othel
ear
ned
behav
ior
.Forexampl
e,i
magi
net
haty
ouar
econdi
ti
oni
ngadogt
osal
i
vat
einr
esponse
t
othesoundofabel
l
.Your
epeat
edl
ypai
rthepr
esent
ati
onoff
oodwi
tht
hesoundoft
he
bel
l
.Youcansayt
her
esponsehasbeenacqui
redassoonast
hedogbegi
nst
osal
i
vat
e
i
nresponset
othebel
ltone.Oncet
her
esponsehasbeenacqui
red,y
oucangr
adual
l
y
r
einf
orcet
hesal
i
vat
ionr
esponset
omakesur
ethebehav
iori
swel
ll
ear
ned.

Ext
inct
ion

Ext
inct
ioni
swhent
heoccur
rencesofacondi
ti
onedr
esponsedecr
easeordi
sappear
.In
cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng,t
hishappenswhenacondi
ti
onedst
imul
usi
snol
ongerpai
red
wi
thanuncondi
ti
onedst
imul
us.

Spont
aneousRecov
ery

Spont
aneousRecov
eryi
sther
eappear
anceoft
hecondi
ti
onedr
esponseaf
terar
est

12
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

per
iodorper
iodofl
essenedr
esponse.I
fthecondi
ti
onedst
imul
usanduncondi
ti
oned
st
imul
usar
enol
ongerassoci
ated,
ext
inct
ionwi
l
loccurv
eryr
api
dlyaf
teraspont
aneous
r
ecov
ery
.

St
imul
usGener
ali
zat
ion

St
imul
usGener
ali
zat
ioni
sthet
endencyf
ort
hecondi
ti
onedst
imul
ust
oev
okesi
mil
ar
r
esponsesaf
tert
her
esponsehasbeencondi
ti
oned.Forexampl
e,i
fachi
l
dhasbeen
condi
ti
onedt
ofearast
uff
edwhi
ter
abbi
t,t
hechi
l
dwi
l
lexhi
bitf
earofobj
ect
ssi
mil
art
o
t
hecondi
ti
onedst
imul
us.

Di
scr
imi
nat
ion

Di
scr
imi
nat
ioni
stheabi
l
ityt
odi
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenacondi
ti
onedst
imul
usandot
her
st
imul
ithathav
enotbeenpai
redwi
thanuncondi
ti
onedst
imul
us.Forexampl
e,i
fabel
l
t
onewer
ethecondi
ti
onedst
imul
us,di
scr
imi
nat
ionwoul
dinv
olv
ebei
ngabl
etot
ellt
he
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hebel
ltoneandot
hersi
mil
arsounds.

Cl
assr
oom i
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
hecl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngt
heor
y

 Anor
gani
sm l
ear
nswhati
tdoesandt
oachi
evegoodhabi
tpat
ter
ns,at
eacher
shoul
dnotmakecl
assr
oom wor
kbur
densomeorunpl
easant
.Thet
eachershoul
d
t
hus encour
age appl
i
cat
ion,i
ndust
ry and st
eadi
ness whi
ch br
ing genui
ne
sat
isf
act
ioni
nal
ear
ner
.

 I
tcanbeusedf
ordev
elopi
nggoodhabi
tsandbr
eaki
ngofbadhabi
tspl
us
el
i
minat
ionofcondi
ti
onedf
ear
.

 Repet
it
ioni
sofgr
eatv
aluei
nlear
ning.I
tconsol
i
dat
esknowl
edgepr
evi
ousl
y
l
ear
ntt
o pr
eventext
inct
ion.Repet
it
ion i
ncl
udes r
evi
ew whi
ch shoul
d be
mot
ivat
ing,
meani
ngf
ul,
var
iedandper
iodi
c.

 I
tcanbeusedt
odev
elopgoodhabi
tssuchaspunct
ual
i
tyandt
obr
eakbadones.

 I
thel
pst
het
eachert
obeawar
eofcompet
ingandconf
li
cti
ngst
imul
iwhen

13
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

t
eachi
ngandhowt
oov
ercomei
t.

 I
tisusef
uli
nthet
eachi
ngoff
undament
alpr
inci
plessuchasal
phabet
sbyusi
ng
someconcr
etemat
eri
als.

 Cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng has been used i
n psy
chot
her
apy i
n de-
condi
ti
oni
ng
emot
ional
fear
s.

 Al
sousedi
ndev
elopi
ngposi
ti
veat
ti
tudes.

GUTHRI
E’STHEORYOFLEARNI
NG

E.
RGut
hri
eofWashi
ngt
onUni
ver
sit
ywast
hemostl
eadi
ngadv
ocat
eoft
heSt
imul
us-
Responset
heor
yofassoci
ati
onbycont
igui
ty.Hedef
inedcont
igui
typr
inci
ple(
Law of
associ
ati
on)asacombi
nat
ionofst
imul
iwhi
chhasaccompani
edamov
ementwi
l
lon
i
tsr
ecur
rencet
endt
obef
oll
owedbyt
hatmov
ement
.Inot
herwor
dsast
imul
ust
hati
s
f
oll
owedbyar
esponseoncewi
l
lbef
oll
owedbyt
hatr
esponseagai
nwhenev
eri
toccur
s.
Accor
ding t
o Gut
hri
e,al
llear
ning was a consequence ofassoci
ati
on bet
ween a
par
ti
cul
arst
imul
usandr
esponse.Lear
ner
sal
way
slear
nandr
etai
nasahabi
tthel
ast
act
iont
heyhav
etaken.

Gut
hri
efur
therar
guest
hatast
imul
uspat
ter
ngai
nsi
tsf
ullassoci
ati
onst
rengt
hont
he
occasi
onofi
tspai
ri
ngwi
thar
esponse.Hef
urt
hersai
dthatl
ear
ningoccur
scompl
etel
y
i
nonet
ri
al.Theor
gani
sm r
espondst
ovar
iousst
imul
ibycont
ract
ionofmuscl
esandor
secr
eti
onofgl
ands.Theser
esponsesar
ecal
l
edmov
ement
s.

Accor
dingt
oGut
hri
e,r
epet
it
ioni
snecessar
ynott
oconsol
i
dat
easki
l
lbutt
ogi
ve
di
ff
erentmov
ement
sinaski
l
lmor
echancesofassoci
ati
on.Anyonemov
ementmaybe
l
ear
nedi
nonet
ri
alandt
her
efor
etol
ear
nthet
otalski
l
lforexampl
ereadi
ngwi
l
lrequi
re

14
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

manyt
ri
als.Gut
hri
eal
sosai
dthatachi
l
dlear
nswhati
tdoesandt
her
efor
emot
ivat
ioni
s
notv
eryi
mpor
tant
.Hear
guest
hatwhatt
heani
maldoesi
smor
eimpor
tantt
hanwhat
i
tsmot
ivat
ionalst
atehappenst
o be.Mot
ivesar
eonl
yimpor
tanti
npr
ovi
dingand
mai
ntai
ningst
imul
ithati
skeepi
ngt
heor
gani
sm act
iveunt
ilagoal
isachi
eved.

Cont
igui
tyt
heor
ysuggest
sthatf
orget
ti
ngi
sduet
oint
erf
erencer
athert
hant
hepassage
oft
ime.

Cl
assr
oom i
mpl
i
cat
ionsofGut
hri
e’
stheor
y

 Thet
eacherneedst
obr
eakdownt
hel
ear
ningmat
eri
alsi
ntoi
tsf
ineuni
tst
o
f
aci
l
itat
eeasyunder
standi
ngbyt
hel
ear
ner
s.

 Thet
eachershoul
dnev
eral
l
ow al
ear
nert
oleav
eal
ear
ningsi
tuat
ionwi
tha
wr
onganswer
.Lett
hel
astr
esponset
hatoccur
sbecor
rect
.

 Thet
eachershoul
dnott
eachacl
assal
readyengagedi
nanot
heract
ivi
tyor
act
ivi
ti
es.Thet
eachershoul
dst
artt
oteachwhenhehasbr
oughtor
deri
na
cl
assr
oom.

 Thet
eachershoul
dmakeuseofi
nst
ruct
ional
mat
eri
alswhi
l
eteachi
ng.

 Thet
eachershoul
dact
ivel
yinv
olv
ethel
ear
ner
sint
het
eachi
ng-
lear
ningpr
ocess.

 Thet
eachershoul
dav
ail
thel
ear
ner
swi
thv
eryspeci
fi
ctaskst
oper
for
m.

 Thel
astr
esponsei
nal
ear
ningsi
tuat
ionshoul
dbecor
rectsi
ncei
tist
heonet
hat
wi
l
lbeassoci
ated.

15
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

E.
LTHORNDI
KE’
STHEORYOFLEARNI
NG

Hewast
hef
ir
stAmer
icanpsy
chol
ogi
sti
nst
imul
us-
Responset
heor
ieswhoconduct
eda
ser
iesofexper
iment
sonl
ear
ningwi
thani
mal
s.Hedev
isedacl
assi
cexper
imenti
n
whi
chheusedapuzzl
eboxt
oempi
ri
cal
l
ytestt
hel
awsofl
ear
ning.Hei
ntr
oducedt
he
conceptofr
ewar
dinl
ear
ningandhei
sconsi
der
edunderr
einf
orcementt
heor
ist
s.
Accor
ding t
o Thor
ndi
ke,al
llear
ning occur
sasa r
esul
toff
ormat
ion ofbondsor
connect
ionsbet
weenst
imul
usandr
esponse.Thepr
ocessoff
ormi
ngconnect
ions
dependsonanumberoff
act
orswhi
choper
atei
ntheenv
ironmentandt
heor
gani
sm.

Thepuzzl
eboxexper
iment

Ahungr
ycatwasconf
inedi
napuzzl
eboxandout
sidet
heboxadi
shoff
ishwaskept
.
Thecathadt
opul
last
ri
ngt
ocomeoutoft
hebox.Thecati
ntheboxmadesev
eral
r
andom mov
ement
sofj
umpi
ng,dashi
ngandr
unni
ngt
ogetoutoft
hebox.Thecatat

16
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

l
astsucceededi
npul
l
ingt
hest
ri
ngwhi
chopenedt
hedooroft
hepuzzl
ebox.Thecat
cameoutandat
ethef
ood.Hepr
ompt
lyputt
hecati
ntheboxf
ort
henextt
ri
al.Thecat
agai
ngav
eal
otoff
rant
icbehav
iorbuti
tsoonsucceededi
npul
l
ingt
hest
ri
ng.Ov
era
ser
iesofsuccessi
vet
ri
als,t
hecatbecamei
ncr
easi
ngl
yef
fi
cienti
nget
ti
ngoutoft
he
box.Thenumberoft
ri
alsdecr
easedsl
owl
yonsubsequentt
ri
als.Fr
om t
hisexper
iment
,
i
tisconcl
udedt
hatl
ear
ningi
sapr
ocessofdev
elopi
ng/f
ormi
ngdi
rectconnect
ions
bet
weenst
imul
usandr
esponse.

Fr
om t
heabov
eexper
iment
,Thor
ndi
kef
ormul
atedt
hreepr
inci
plesorl
awsofl
ear
ning
i
.e.t
hel
awofef
fect
,thel
awofexer
ciseandt
hel
awofr
eadi
ness.

TheLawofEf
fect

Thi
slawst
atest
hatwhenamodi
fi
abl
econnect
ionbet
weenst
imul
usandr
esponsehas
beenmade,i
twasst
rengt
henedi
fitr
esul
tedi
nsat
isf
act
ionandwasweakenedi
fitl
ed
t
oannoy
ance.Hel
atermodi
fi
edhi
slawofef
fectt
ost
ateas“
sat
isf
act
ionst
rengt
hens
t
hebondbutannoy
ancedoesnotweakeni
t”
.Hegoesaheadt
osayt
hatl
ear
ningt
akes
pl
aceonl
yifar
esponsehasanef
fectt
hati
swhyhecal
l
edi
tthel
awofef
fect
.

TheLawofExer
cise

Thi
slawst
atest
hat
,themor
efr
equent
lyaconnect
ionbet
weenast
imul
usandr
esponse
i
smade,t
hest
rongert
heconnect
ionwi
l
lbeandi
ftheconnect
ioni
snotmadeov
era
per
iodoft
ime,t
hest
rengt
hoft
hatconnect
ioni
sweakened.Thi
smeanswel
ear
nby
doi
ngandf
orgetbynotdoi
ng.Theuseofpr
act
iceshoul
dinv
olv
econt
inuedr
ewar
ds.

TheLawofReadi
ness

Thi
slawst
atest
hatwhenamodi
fi
abl
econnect
ioni
sreadyt
oact
,todosoi
ssat
isf
ying
and wheni
tisnotr
eady
,to do so i
sunsat
isf
ying.Readi
nessi
sdependentupon
mat
urat
ionandexper
ienceoft
hel
ear
ner
.

17
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Cl
assr
oom i
mpl
i
cat
ionsofThor
ndi
ke’
sTheor
yofl
ear
ning

 Thecl
assr
oom ex
per
iencesshoul
dbesat
isf
act
oryandpl
easantandt
het
eacher
mustenj
oyhi
s/hert
eachi
ngwor
k.

 Thet
eachershoul
drewar
dlear
ner
saf
tert
heappr
opr
iat
ebehav
ioroccur
sandt
he
r
ewar
dshoul
dbei
mmedi
ate.

 Pr
act
icei
sthemai
nfeat
ureoft
ri
alander
rormet
hodbecausei
thel
psi
nreduci
ng
t
heer
ror
scommi
tt
edbyt
hel
ear
ner
sinl
ear
ninganyconcept
.Forexampl
e,t
he
t
eachershoul
demphasi
zeor
aldr
il
lwor
kwhi
l
eteachi
ng.

 Habi
tsar
efor
medasar
esul
tofr
epet
it
ion.Ther
efor
e,t
hewr
onghabi
tsoft
he
l
ear
nercanbemodi
fi
edandt
hegoodhabi
tsst
rengt
hened.

 The l
ear
ning ex
per
iences and ot
heract
ivi
ti
es shoul
d be meani
ngf
uland
under
standabl
eint
ermsoft
heper
sonal
li
feoft
hel
ear
ner
s.

 Thet
eachershoul
dgi
vet
hel
ear
ner
smor
eandmor
eoppor
tuni
ti
est
ouseand
r
epeatt
heknowl
edget
heygeti
ncl
ass.

 Thet
eachershoul
dmakeuseofr
evi
ewoft
hel
ear
nedmat
eri
alandt
hisshoul
dbe
accompani
edbyr
ewar
ds.

 Thet
eachermustwai
tti
l
llear
ner
sar
ereadyt
olear
nandshoul
dgi
vet
hose
exper
ienceswhi
chhel
ptoenhancer
eadi
ness.

 Thet
eachershoul
dgi
vemor
edr
il
lsandapt
it
udet
est
stot
hel
ear
ner
sbecausei
t
st
rengt
henst
hebondagebet
weenst
imul
usandr
esponseandal
sodet
ermi
nes
t
het
hor
oughnessofl
ear
ner
s.

 Thet
eachershoul
dmot
ivat
ethel
ear
ner
stopar
ti
cipat
eint
het
eachi
ng–l
ear
ning
pr
ocesst
hroughgui
dance,
prai
seandencour
agement
.

 Thet
eachershoul
dspacet
hest
epsi
nlear
ningsot
hatundesi
rabl
eresponsesdo
notbenef
itf
rom subsequentr
ewar
ds.

18
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

 Thet
eachershoul
dli
nkwhati
staughti
ncl
asswi
tht
hepastexper
iencesi
nthe
pr
ocessofl
ear
ning.

 Lear
ner
sshoul
dbeencour
agedt
odot
asksi
ndependent
lyandl
ear
ner
sshoul
dbe
car
eful
nott
owast
ethei
rti
meandener
gybyr
epeat
ingmi
stakesandpr
oceedi
ng
bl
i
ndl
y.

 Thet
eachershoul
dst
artf
rom si
mpl
etocompl
exwhi
l
edel
i
ver
ingt
hesubj
ect
mat
tersoast
obenef
itt
heweakandbackwar
dlear
ner
sint
hecl
assr
oom.

 Tr
ansf
erofl
ear
ningoccur
sbecauseofpr
evi
ousl
yencount
eredsi
tuat
ions.

OPERANTCONDI
TIONI
NGTHEORY

Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng i
sal
ear
ning pr
ocess i
n whi
ch t
he pr
obabi
l
ity ofr
esponse
occur
ri
ngi
sincr
easedordecr
easedduet
orei
nfor
cementorpuni
shment
.Fi
rstst
udi
ed
byEdwar
dThor
ndi
keandl
aterbyB.
F.Ski
nner
,theunder
lyi
ngi
deabehi
ndoper
ant
condi
ti
oni
ngi
sthatt
heconsequencesofouract
ionsshapev
olunt
arybehav
ior
.Oper
ant
condi
ti
oni
ng (
somet
imesr
efer
red t
o asi
nst
rument
alcondi
ti
oni
ng)i
sa met
hod of
l
ear
ningt
hatoccur
sthr
oughr
ewar
dsandpuni
shment
sforbehav
ior
.Thr
oughoper
ant
condi
ti
oni
ng,anassoci
ati
oni
smadebet
weenabehav
iorandaconsequencef
ort
hat
behav
ior
.

Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ngwascoi
nedbybehav
ior
istB.
F.Ski
nner
,whi
chi
swhyy
oumay
occasi
onal
l
yheari
tref
err
edt
oasSki
nner
iancondi
ti
oni
ng.Asabehav
ior
ist
,Ski
nner
bel
i
evedt
hati
nter
nalt
hought
sandmot
ivat
ionscoul
dnotbeusedt
oexpl
ainbehav
ior
.
I
nst
ead,
hesuggest
ed,
weshoul
dlookonl
yatt
heext
ernal
,obser
vabl
ecausesofhuman
behav
ior
.

Ski
nnerusedt
het
erm oper
antt
oref
ert
oany"
act
ivebehav
iort
hatoper
atesupont
he
env
ironmentt
o gener
ate consequences"(
1953)
.In ot
herwor
ds,Ski
nner
'st
heor
y
expl
ainedhowweacqui
ret
her
angeofl
ear
nedbehav
ior
sweexhi
biteachandev
eryday
.
Ther
efor
e,l
ear
ning f
rom t
he consequences of our behav
ior i
s cal
l
ed oper
ant
condi
ti
oni
ng.

19
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ngi
saf
orm ofl
ear
ningi
nwhi
cht
heconsequencesofbehav
iorl
ead
t
ochangesi
nthepr
obabi
l
ityofi
tsoccur
rence.Oper
anti
sat
erm usedt
omeant
he
behav
iort
hatbecomesmor
eli
kel
ybecauseofr
einf
orcement
.

Oper
ant
sar
eint
ent
ionalact
ionst
hathav
eanef
fectont
hesur
roundi
ngenv
ironment
.
Accor
ding t
o Ski
nner
,behav
iorwhi
ch i
srei
nfor
ced t
ends t
o be r
epeat
ed (
i.
e.
st
rengt
hened)
;behav
iorwhi
chi
snotr
einf
orcedt
endst
odi
eoutorbeext
ingui
shed(
i.
e.
weakened)
.

B.
FSki
nner
’sExper
iment

Ski
nnerusedaf
orm ofpuzzl
eboxknownasSki
nnerbox.Thi
swasdesi
gnedf
orar
ator
pi
geont
odot
hingsr
athert
hanescapef
rom.Theboxhadal
everunderwhi
chwasa
f
oodt
ray
.Wheni
nthebox,
ther
athadt
omakesi
mpl
eresponseofpr
essi
ngt
hel
evert
o
whi
chr
einf
orcement(
food)wasobt
ainedt
huspr
ovi
dingt
otalcont
roloft
heani
mal
’
s
env
ironment
.Themov
ementoft
her
atwasel
ect
ri
cal
l
yrecor
dedandacumul
ati
ve
r
ecor
doft
hisbehav
iorwasobt
ained.

Accor
dingt
oski
nner
sver
sionoft
hel
awofef
fect
,behav
iori
sshapedandmai
ntai
nedby
i
tsconsequences.

Ski
nner
’sl
awofoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng

Thi
slaw st
atest
hati
ftheoccur
renceofanoper
anti
sfol
l
owedbypr
esent
ati
onofa
r
einf
orci
ngst
imul
us,
itsst
rengt
hisi
ncr
eased.

Somekeyconcept
sinoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng

Rei
nfor
cementi
sanyev
entt
hatst
rengt
hensori
ncr
easest
hebehav
iori
tfol
l
ows.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,i
tref
erst
othest
imul
ust
hati
ncr
easest
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofabehav
ior
.Ther
e
ar
etwoki
ndsofr
einf
orcer
s;-

Posi
ti
ver
einf
orcer
sar
efav
orabl
eev
ent
sorout
comest
hatar
epr
esent
edaf
tert
he
behav
ior
.Thesear
est
imul
ust
hati
ncr
easest
hel
i
kel
i
hood ofabehav
iorbybei
ng
i
ntr
oducedoradded.I
nsi
tuat
ionst
hatr
efl
ectposi
ti
ver
einf
orcement
,ar
esponseor
behav
iori
sst
rengt
henedbyt
headdi
ti
onofsomet
hing,
suchaspr
aiseoradi
rectr
ewar
d.

20
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Negat
iver
einf
orcer
s-i
nvol
vet
her
emov
alofanunf
avor
abl
eev
ent
sorout
comesaf
ter
t
hedi
spl
ayofabehav
ior
.Thesear
est
imul
ust
hati
ncr
easest
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofabehav
ior
bybei
ngr
emov
edort
akenawayf
rom asi
tuat
ion.I
nthesesi
tuat
ions,ar
esponsei
s
st
rengt
henedbyt
her
emov
alofsomet
hingconsi
der
edunpl
easant
.

I
nbot
hoft
hesecasesofr
einf
orcement
,thebehav
iori
ncr
eases.

Puni
shment
,ont
heot
herhand,
ist
hepr
esent
ati
onofanadv
erseev
entorout
comet
hat
causesadecr
easei
nthebehav
iori
tfol
l
ows.I
not
herwor
ds,i
tref
erst
othest
imul
us
t
hatdecr
easest
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofabehav
iorbybei
ngi
ntr
oducedoraddedt
oasi
tuat
ion.
Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofpuni
shment
:

Posi
ti
vepuni
shmentsomet
imesr
efer
redt
oaspuni
shmentbyappl
i
cat
ion,i
nvol
vest
he
pr
esent
ati
onofanunf
avor
abl
eev
entorout
comei
nor
dert
oweakent
her
esponsei
t
f
oll
ows.

Negat
ivepuni
shment
,al
soknownaspuni
shmentbyr
emov
al,occur
swhenunf
avor
abl
e
ev
entorout
comei
sremov
ed af
terabehav
ioroccur
s.I
nbot
hoft
hesecasesof
puni
shment
,thebehav
iordecr
eases.

Ther
ear
eanumberofpr
obl
emswi
thusi
ngpuni
shmentsuchas:

 I
tmaycausei
ncr
easedaggr
essi
on.

 Puni
shedbehav
iori
snotf
orgot
tenandmayr
etur
nwhenpuni
shmenti
snol
onger
pr
esent
.

 I
tcr
eat
esf
earwhi
chcanl
eadt
oundesi
rabl
ebehav
ior
.

 Puni
shmentdoesnott
elly
ouwhatt
odot
husi
tisnotnecessar
il
yagui
det
o
desi
rabl
ebehav
ior
.

21
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

Schedul
esofRei
nfor
cement

I
noper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng,
schedul
esofr
einf
orcementar
eani
mpor
tantcomponentoft
he
l
ear
ningpr
ocess.Whenandhow of
tenwer
einf
orceabehav
iorcanhav
eadr
amat
ic
i
mpactont
hest
rengt
handr
ateoft
her
esponse.

Aschedul
eofr
einf
orcementi
sbasi
cal
l
yar
ulest
ati
ngwhi
chi
nst
ancesofabehav
iorwi
l
l
ber
einf
orced.I
nsomecase,abehav
iormi
ghtber
einf
orcedev
eryt
imei
toccur
s.
Somet
imes,abehav
iormi
ghtnotber
einf
orcedatal
l
.Ei
therposi
ti
ver
einf
orcementor
negat
iver
einf
orcementmi
ghtbeused,dependi
ngont
hesi
tuat
ion.I
nbot
hcases,t
he
goalofr
einf
orcementi
sal
way
stost
rengt
hent
hebehav
iorandi
ncr
easet
hel
i
kel
i
hood
t
hati
twi
l
loccuragai
nint
hef
utur
e.

Cer
tai
nschedul
esofr
einf
orcementmaybemor
eef
fect
ivei
nspeci
fi
csi
tuat
ions.Ther
e
ar
etwot
ypesofr
einf
orcementschedul
es:

1.Cont
inuousRei
nfor
cement

I
ncont
inuousr
einf
orcement
,thedesi
redbehav
iori
srei
nfor
cedev
erysi
ngl
eti
mei
t
occur
s.Thi
sref
erst
orei
nfor
cementt
hatoccur
seacht
imet
hatanoper
antbehav
ior
occur
s.Gener
all
y,t
hisschedul
eisbestuseddur
ingt
hei
nit
ialst
agesofl
ear
ningi
nor
der
t
o cr
eat
east
rong associ
ati
on bet
ween t
hebehav
iorand t
her
esponse.Oncet
he
r
esponsei
ffi
rml
yat
tached,
rei
nfor
cementi
susual
l
yswi
tchedt
oapar
ti
alr
einf
orcement
schedul
e.

2.Par
ti
al/i
nter
mit
tentRei
nfor
cement

I
npar
ti
alr
einf
orcement
,ther
esponsei
srei
nfor
cedonl
ypar
toft
het
imebutnotonev
ery
occasi
on.Lear
nedbehav
ior
sar
eacqui
redmor
esl
owl
ywi
thpar
ti
alr
einf
orcement
,but
t
her
esponsei
smor
eresi
stantt
oext
inct
ion.

Ther
ear
efourschedul
esofpar
ti
alr
einf
orcement
:

Fi
xed-
rat
ior
einf
orcementar
ethosewher
eabehav
iori
srei
nfor
cedonl
yaf
teraspeci
fi
ed

22
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

numberoft
imes.Thi
sschedul
epr
oducesahi
gh,st
eadyr
ateofr
espondi
ngwi
thonl
ya
br
iefpauseaf
tert
hedel
i
ver
yoft
her
einf
orcer
.

Var
iabl
e-r
ati
orei
nfor
cementoccur
swhenabehav
iori
srei
nfor
cedaf
teranunpr
edi
ctabl
e
orv
ary
ingnumberofr
esponseshav
ebeenmade.Thi
sschedul
ecr
eat
esahi
ghst
eady
r
ateofr
espondi
ng.Gambl
i
ngandl
ott
erygamesar
egoodexampl
esofar
ewar
dbased
onav
ari
abl
erat
ioschedul
e.

Fi
xed-
int
erv
alr
einf
orcementar
ethosewher
ethef
ir
stbehav
iori
srewar
dedonl
yaf
tera
speci
fi
ed amountoft
ime has el
apsed.Thi
s schedul
e causes hi
gh amount
s of
r
espondi
ngneart
heendoft
hei
nter
val
,butmuchsl
owerr
espondi
ngi
mmedi
atel
yaf
ter
t
hedel
i
ver
yoft
her
einf
orcer
.

Var
iabl
e-i
nter
val r
einf
orcement occur when a behav
ior i
s r
ewar
ded af
ter an
unpr
edi
ctabl
eamountoft
imehaspassed.Thi
sschedul
epr
oducesasl
ow,st
eadyr
ate
ofr
esponse.

Choosi
ngaSchedul
e

Deci
dingwhent
orei
nfor
ceabehav
iorcandependuponanumberoff
act
ors.I
ncases
wher
eyouar
especi
fi
cal
l
ytr
yingt
oteachanewbehav
ior
,acont
inuousschedul
eisof
ten
agoodchoi
ce.Oncet
hebehav
iorhasbeenl
ear
ned,swi
tchi
ngt
oapar
ti
alschedul
eis
of
tenpr
efer
abl
e.

Real
i
sti
cal
l
y,r
einf
orci
ngabehav
iorev
erysi
ngl
eti
mei
toccur
scanbedi
ff
icul
tand
r
equi
resagr
eatdealofat
tent
ionandr
esour
ces.Par
ti
alschedul
esnotonl
ytendt
olead
t
obehav
ior
sthatar
emor
eresi
stantt
oext
inct
ion,t
heyal
sor
educet
her
iskt
hatt
he
subj
ectwi
l
lbecomesat
iat
ed.I
fther
einf
orcerbei
ng used i
sno l
ongerdesi
red or
r
ewar
ding,
thesubj
ectmayst
opper
for
mingt
hedesi
redbehav
ior
.

Puni
shment

The consequences t
hatl
ead t
othe suppr
essi
on/
decr
ease i
n behav
iorar
e cal
l
ed
puni
shment
.Puni
shmenti
s nott
he same as negat
iver
einf
orcement
.In negat
ive
r
einf
orcementt
her
esponsei
sst
rengt
henedbyt
her
emov
alofunpl
easantst
imul
us.I
n

23
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

puni
shment
,ther
esponsei
sweakenedbyt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofunpl
easantst
imul
us.
Ski
nnerbel
i
evest
hatpuni
shmentdoesnotr
eal
l
yel
i
minat
ear
esponset
hathasf
ormer
ly
beenr
ewar
dedbuti
nst
eadt
her
esponsei
ssi
mpl
ysuppr
essedandassoonast
he
puni
shmentst
ops,t
her
esponsewi
l
lber
esumed.A much mor
eef
fect
ivewayof
el
i
minat
inganundesi
rabl
eresponsei
stost
opi
stost
opr
einf
orci
ngi
tsot
hatt
he
r
esponsei
sext
ingui
shed.

Cl
assr
oom i
mpl
i
cat
ionsofoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng

 Eachst
epi
nthel
ear
ningpr
ocessshoul
dbeshor
tandshoul
dgr
ow outof
pr
evi
ousl
ylear
nedbehav
ior
.

 I
ntheear
lyst
agesl
ear
ning shoul
d ber
egul
arl
yrewar
ded and atal
lst
ages
car
eful
l
ycont
rol
l
edbyaschedul
eofcont
inuousr
einf
orcement
.

 Rewar
ds shoul
dfol
l
ow qui
ckl
y when t
he cor
rectr
esponse appear
s si
nce
mot
ivat
ioni
senhancedwhenwear
erewar
dedf
orourpr
ogr
ess.

 Theel
ementoff
earcanbeel
i
minat
edf
rom t
heschoolat
mospher
ebyusi
ng
posi
ti
ver
einf
orcement
.

 Thet
eachershoul
dinv
olv
ethel
ear
ner
sint
het
eachi
ng–l
ear
ningpr
ocesssot
hat
l
ear
ner
’si
nter
estmaybesust
ainedandmai
ntai
ned.

 Thet
eachershoul
dmakeuseofi
nst
ruct
ionalmat
eri
alssucht
hatsmal
lamount
s
ofwr
it
teni
nfor
mat
ionar
epr
esent
edt
othel
ear
ner
ssoast
oal
l
ow t
hem t
o
pr
ogr
essatt
hei
rownpace.

 Thel
ear
ner
sshoul
dbegi
venanoppor
tuni
tyt
odi
scov
erst
imul
usdi
scr
imi
nat
ion
f
ort
hei
rmostl
i
kel
ypat
htosuccess.

 Thepr
inci
pleofoper
antcondi
ti
oni
ngmaybesuccessf
ull
yappl
i
edi
nthet
askof
behav
iormodi
fi
cat
iont
hroughr
ewar
dingt
hei
ndi
vi
dualwhosebehav
iorwewi
sh
t
omodi
fy.

 Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ngcanbeusedt
oshapet
heper
sonal
i
tyofl
ear
ner
sbecause

24
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

whatwecal
lper
sonal
i
tyi
snot
hingmor
ethanconsi
stentbehav
iorpat
ter
nst
hat
summar
izeourr
einf
orcementhi
stor
y.

 The t
eachershoul
d av
oid usi
ng puni
shmentf
orunl
ear
ning t
he undesi
rabl
e
behav
iorand f
orshapi
ng t
he desi
rabl
e behav
iorand i
nst
ead make use of
appr
opr
iat
eal
ter
nat
ivesi
nthef
orm ofr
ewar
dingappr
opr
iat
ebehav
ior
.

COGNI
TIVETHEORI
ESOFLEARNI
NG

Thecogni
ti
vef
iel
dtheor
ist
sbel
i
evet
hatt
her
ear
emor
ethanobser
vabl
eresponsesi
n
l
ear
ning.Tot
hem l
ear
ningi
nvol
vest
hinki
ngandr
easoni
ngandt
hathumanact
ionsar
e
mar
kedbyt
hequal
i
tyofi
ntel
l
igenceandcapaci
tyt
ounder
standr
elat
ionshi
ps.Lear
ning
i
sar
esul
tofdev
elopi
nganunder
standi
ngori
nsi
ghti
nthel
ear
ner
.Iti
stheor
gani
zat
ion
ofper
cept
ionsi
nmeani
ngf
ulwhol
es.Lear
ningi
sfaci
l
itat
edbyf
act
orswi
thi
naper
son’
s
phy
siol
ogi
calandment
alst
ateofmi
nd.Whatwel
ear
ndependsonwhatweal
ready
know andhow weper
cei
veasi
tuat
ionandt
hati
tisbasedonpastexper
iences.The
maj
orcogni
ti
vet
heor
ies i
ncl
ude;-Gest
alt
,Di
scov
ery and i
nfor
mat
ion pr
ocessi
ng
t
heor
ies.

GESTALT(
INSI
GHT)THEORYOFLEARNI
NG

I
nsi
ghtl
ear
ning r
epr
esent
sav
iew ofl
ear
ning as pur
ely cogni
ti
ve.The Gest
alt
psy
chol
ogi
stsar
ebestknownf
ort
hei
rwor
konper
cept
ionandt
hei
rvi
ewofl
ear
ningi
s

25
Psy
chol
ogyofl
ear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ion
 Psy
chol
ogyofLear
ning&I
nst
ruct
ionbyMr
.KamongesWahabAsad

di
rect
lyl
i
nkedt
othei
rvi
ewofper
cept
ion.I
nsi
ghtl
ear
ningoccur
swhent
her
eisasudden
cogni
ti
vechanget
hati
nvol
vesr
ecogni
ti
onofpr
evi
ousl
yunseenr
elat
ionshi
psf
ormi
nga
meani
ngf
ulwhol
e.Themostpr
omi
nentoft
heGest
altpsy
chol
ogi
stsar
eKohl
er,
Kof
fka
and Wei
thei
mer
.TheGest
altaccountofl
ear
ning r
est
slar
gel
yon t
heobser
vat
ions
car
ri
edoutbyKohl
eront
hebehav
iorofChi
mpanzeewhi
chheobser
veddur
ingt
he
i
mpr
isonmentper
iod i
nthe Canar
yIsl
and i
nthe At
lant
ic Ocean.Some oft
he
exper
iment
sconduct
edbyKohl
eroni
nsi
ghtl
ear
ningi
ncl
ude;
-