(eBook PDF) The Great Conversation: A Historical

Introduction to Philosophy 8th Edition instant

download

https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-great-conversation-
a-historical-introduction-to-philosophy-8th-edition/

Download more ebook from https://ebooksecure.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooksecure.com
to discover even more!

(Original PDF) Living Philosophy A Historical

Introduction to Philosophical Ideas

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-living-philosophy-a-
historical-introduction-to-philosophical-ideas/

Living Philosophy: A Historical Introduction to

Philosophical Ideas 2nd Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/living-philosophy-a-historical-
introduction-to-philosophical-ideas-2nd-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Cengage Advantage Series: Voyage of

Discovery: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy 4th
Edition,

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-cengage-advantage-
series-voyage-of-discovery-a-historical-introduction-to-
philosophy-4th-edition/

The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy -

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/the-big-questions-a-short-
introduction-to-philosophy-ebook-pdf/
Philosophy: A Historical Survey with Essential Readings
9th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/philosophy-a-historical-survey-
with-essential-readings-9th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) The New Testament: A Historical

Introduction to the Early Christian Writings 7th
Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-new-testament-a-
historical-introduction-to-the-early-christian-writings-7th-
edition-2/

(eBook PDF) The New Testament: A Historical

Introduction to the Early Christian Writings 7th
Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-new-testament-a-
historical-introduction-to-the-early-christian-writings-7th-
edition/

(eBook PDF) The New Testament A Historical Introduction

to the Early Christian Writings 6th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-new-testament-a-
historical-introduction-to-the-early-christian-writings-6th-
edition/

(eBook PDF) The Christian Tradition: A Historical and

Theological Introduction

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-christian-tradition-
a-historical-and-theological-introduction/
 Contents   vii
The World 192 The Stoics 241
nature 193 Profile: Marcus Aurelius 244
the four “becauses” 194 The Skeptics 246
is there purpose in nature? 195
teleology 196 12. JEWS AND CHRISTIANS:
First Philosophy 197 SIN, SALVATION, AND LOVE 253
not plato’s forms 198
what of mathematics? 199 Background 253
substance and form 199 Jesus 255
pure actualities 201 The Meaning of Jesus 259
god 201
The Soul 203 13. AUGUSTINE: GOD AND
levels of soul 204 THE SOUL 261
soul and body 205
Wisdom, Happiness, and God 267
nous 206
God and the World 270
The Good Life 208
the great chain of being 270
happiness 208
Sketch: Hypatia of Alexandria 273
virtue or excellence (areté) 212
evil 273
the role of reason 213
time 274
responsibility 216
Human Nature and Its Corruption 277
the highest good 217
Human Nature and Its Restoration 282
10. CONFUCIUS, MENCIUS, AND Augustine on Relativism 284
XUNZI: VIRTUE IN ANCIENT The Two Cities 285
CHINA 220 Augustine and the Philosophers 287
reason and authority 288
Confucius 220 intellect and will 288
the way of confucius 221 epicureans and stoics 289
ritual propriety 223
good government 224
Mencius 226 14. PHILOSOPHY IN THE
differentiated love 226 ISLAMIC WORLD: THE GREAT
human nature is good 228 CONVERSATION SPREADS
Xunzi 230 OUT 292
The Confucians’ Legacy 233 A Sea Change in the Mediterranean Basin 292
Al-Kindī, the “Philosopher of the Arabs” 294
11. EPICUREANS, STOICS, AND
Al-Fārābi, the “Second Master” 297
SKEPTICS: HAPPINESS FOR THE
religion as subordinate to
MANY 235
philosophy 297
The Epicureans 236 emanation and the active intellect 298
viii   Contents

Sketch: The Celestial Spheres 299 17. RENÉ DESCARTES:

certitude, absolute certitude, and DOUBTING OUR WAY TO
opinion 299 CERTAINTY 360
Avicenna, the “Preeminent Master” 300
The Method 362
existence and essence 301
Meditations on First Philosophy 364
the necessary existent, god 302
meditation i 366
the soul and its faculties 304
Commentary and Questions 368
Al-Ghazālī 306
meditation ii 369
Sketch: Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon) 309
Commentary and Questions 372
The Great Conversation in the Islamic World 309
meditation iii 375
Commentary and Questions 381
15. ANSELM AND AQUINAS: meditation iv 384
EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE IN Commentary and Questions 387
GOD AND THE WORLD 311 meditation v 388
Anselm: On That, Than Which No Greater Can Commentary and Questions 391
Be Conceived 311 meditation vi 392
The Transfer of Learning 315 Commentary and Questions 398
Thomas Aquinas: Rethinking Aristotle 316 What Has Descartes Done? 400
Sketch: Averroës, the Commentator 317 a new ideal for knowledge 400
philosophy and theology 318 a new vision of reality 401
from creation to god 319 problems 401
the nature of god 324 the preeminence of epistemology 402
humans: their souls 326
humans: their knowledge 328
18. HOBBES, LOCKE, AND
humans: their good 330
BERKELEY: MATERIALISM
Ockham and Skeptical Doubts—Again 335
AND THE BEGINNINGS OF
EMPIRICISM 404
16. FROM MEDIEVAL TO
Thomas Hobbes: Catching Persons in the Net of
MODERN EUROPE 340
the New Science 404
The World God Made for Us 340 method 405
Reforming the Church   344 minds and motives 406
Revolutions 348 Sketch: Margaret Cavendish 407
humanism 348 Sketch: Francis Bacon 412
skeptical thoughts revived 350 the natural foundation of
copernicus to kepler to galileo: moral rules 413
the great triple play 353 John Locke: Looking to Experience 416
The Counter-Reformation 358 origin of ideas 417
 Contents   ix
idea of the soul 419 Sketch: Baruch Spinoza 477
idea of personal identity 419 Sketch: Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 478
language and essence 420 Reasoning and the Ideas of Metaphysics:
the extent of knowledge 422 God, World, and Soul 479
of representative government 424 the soul 481
of toleration 426 the world and the free will 482
George Berkeley: Ideas into Things 427 god 483
abstract ideas 428 the ontological argument 484
ideas and things 430 Reason and Morality 485
god 434 the good will 486
the moral law 488
19. DAVID HUME: UNMASKING Sketch: Jean-Jacques Rousseau 490
THE PRETENSIONS OF autonomy 491
REASON 438 freedom 492
How Newton Did It 439
Profile: Émilie du Châtelet 440 21. GEORG WILHELM
To Be the Newton of Human Nature 441 FRIEDRICH HEGEL: TAKING
The Theory of Ideas 443 HISTORY SERIOUSLY 496
The Association of Ideas 444 Historical and Intellectual Context 497
Causation: The Very Idea 445 the french revolution 497
The Disappearing Self 451 the romantics 498
Rescuing Human Freedom 453 Epistemology Internalized 498
Is It Reasonable to Believe in God? 455 Sketch: Arthur Schopenhauer 501
Understanding Morality 458 Self and Others 504
reason is not a motivator 458 Stoic and Skeptical Consciousness 507
the origins of moral judgment 460 Hegel’s Analysis of Christianity 508
Is Hume a Skeptic? 462 Reason and Reality: The Theory of Idealism 509
Spirit Made Objective: The Social Character
20. IMMANUEL KANT: of Ethics 511
REHABILITATING REASON History and Freedom 516
(WITHIN STRICT LIMITS) 465
22. KIERKEGAARD AND MARX:
Critique 467
TWO WAYS TO “CORRECT”
Judgments 468
HEGEL 521
Geometry, Mathematics, Space, and Time 470
Common Sense, Science, and the A Priori Kierkegaard: On Individual Existence 521
Categories 473 the aesthetic 522
Phenomena and Noumena 476 the ethical 525
x   Contents

the religious 528 Sketch: William James 609

the individual 535 nature and natural science 610
Marx: Beyond Alienation and Exploitation 537 value naturalized 612
alienation, exploitation, and private
property 539 26. LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN:
communism 542 LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS AND
ORDINARY LANGUAGE 617
23. MORAL AND POLITICAL
Language and Its Logic 617
REFORMERS: THE HAPPINESS OF
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 619
ALL, INCLUDING WOMEN 545
Sketch: Bertrand Russell 620
The Classic Utilitarians 545 picturing 622
Profile: Peter Singer 553 thought and language 624
The Rights of Women 555 logical truth 626
saying and showing 627
24. FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE: THE setting the limit to thought 628
VALUE OF EXISTENCE 562 value and the self 629
Pessimism and Tragedy 563 good and evil, happiness and
Goodbye Real World 567 unhappiness 631
The Death of God 570 the unsayable 633
Revaluation of Values 573 Profile: The Logical Positivists 634
master morality/slave morality 574 Philosophical Investigations 636
Profile: Iris Murdoch 575 philosophical illusion 637
our morality 578 language-games 639
The Overman 581 naming and meaning 640
Affirming Eternal Recurrence 589 family resemblances 641
The Continuity of Wittgenstein’s
Thought 643
25. THE PRAGMATISTS:
Our Groundless Certainty 645
THOUGHT AND ACTION 593
Profile: Zen 646
Charles Sanders Peirce 593
fixing belief 594
27. MARTIN HEIDEGGER:
belief and doubt 596
THE MEANING OF BEING 651
truth and reality 597
meaning 601 What Is the Question? 652
signs 604 The Clue 653
John Dewey 606 Phenomenology 655
the impact of darwin 606 Being-in-the-World 657
naturalized epistemology 608 The “Who” of Dasein 662
 Contents   xi
Modes of Disclosure 664 Liberal Irony: Richard Rorty 712
attunement 665 contingency, truth, and
understanding 667 antiessentialism 713
discourse 669 liberalism and the hope of
Falling-Away 670 solidarity 716
idle talk 671 relativism 719
curiosity 671
ambiguity 672
30. PHYSICAL REALISM AND
Care 672
THE MIND: QUINE, DENNETT,
Death 673
SEARLE, NAGEL, JACKSON, AND
Conscience, Guilt, and Resoluteness 674
CHALMERS 722
Temporality as the Meaning of Care 677
Science, Common Sense, and Metaphysics:
28. SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR: Willard van Orman Quine 723
EXISTENTIALIST, FEMINIST 680 holism 724
ontological commitment 728
Ambiguity 680
natural knowing 729
Profile: Jean-Paul Sartre 684
The Matter of Minds 733
Ethics 686
intentionality 734
Woman 691
intentional systems: daniel dennett 735
the chinese room: john searle 738
29. POSTMODERNISM: DERRIDA,
consciousness: nagel, jackson,
FOUCAULT, AND RORTY 698
chalmers 739
Deconstruction: Jacques Derrida 699
writing, iterability, différance 701 Afterword........................................... A-1
deconstructing a text 705 Appendix:Writing a Philosophy Paper....... App-1
Knowledge and Power: Michel Foucault 706 Glossary.. ........................................... G-1
archaeology of knowledge 708 Credits.............................................. C-1
genealogy 709 Index................................................. I-1
 A W O R D T O IN S TRU CTO RS

P New to This Edition

hilosophy is both argument and innovation.
We try in this introductory text to provide
students with excellent examples of both in A number of new features will be found in this
the ongoing story of a basic part of our intellectual edition. Throughout, the text has been tight-
life. We aim to teach students how to think by ap- ened up and minor sections were deleted to make
prenticing them to a succession of the best thinkers room for new material. In addition, several larger
humanity has produced, mainly but not exclu- changes have been made. These changes include the
sively in the Western tradition, thereby drawing following:
them into this ongoing conversation. So we see • Three new chapters introduce students to the
how Aristotle builds on and criticizes his teacher, beginnings of philosophical conversations in
Plato, how Augustine creatively melds traditions India and China, with one chapter on ancient
stemming from Athens and Jerusalem, how Kant Indian philosophy and two chapters on ancient
tries to solve “Hume’s problem,” and why Witt- Chinese philosophy.
genstein thought most previous philosophy was • A new chapter is devoted entirely to philosophy
meaningless. in the Islamic world.
This eighth edition continues to represent the • A section on Hildegaard of Bingen in a chapter
major philosophers through extensive quotations on medieval thought and new sketches of Hypa-
set in a fairly rich cultural and historical context. tia and Margaret Cavendish, and a profile of
The large number of cross-references and footnotes Émilie du Châtelet.
continue to make the conversation metaphor more Again, for this edition, a student web page is avail-
than mere fancy. And the four complete works— able at www.oup.com/us/melchert. Here students
Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, and ­ Meditations—are will find essential points, vocabulary flashcards,
retained. sample multiple-choice questions, and further web

xiii
xiv   A Word to Instructors

resources for each chapter. The latter consist mainly, contains too much material for a single semester, it
though not exclusively, of original philosophical provides a rich menu of choices for instructors who
texts. This means that if you want to assign students do not wish to restrict themselves to the earlier or
to read, say, Hume’s Enquiry or parts of Plato’s Re- later periods.
public, these texts are easy for them to find. An In- In this era, when even the educated have such
structor’s Manual is available at the same site. a thin sense of history, teaching philosophy in this
The text is again available both as a single hard- conversational, cumulative, back- and forward-
back edition and as two paperback volumes, so it looking way can be a service not just to philo-
can be used economically in either a whole-year or sophical understanding, but also to the culture as
a single-semester course. Although the entire book a whole.
 A W O R D T O S TU DE N TS

W
e all have opinions—we can’t help happen to know or where you were brought
it. Having opinions is as natural to us up. You want to believe for good reasons. That’s
as breathing. Opinions, moreover, the right question, isn’t it? Which of these many
are a dime a dozen. They’re floating all around ­opinions has the best reasons behind it? You want
us and they’re so different from each other. One to live your life as wisely as possible.
person believes this, another that. You believe Fortunately, we have a long tradition of really
in God, your buddy doesn’t. John thinks there’s smart people who have been thinking about
nothing wrong with keeping a found wallet, you issues such as these, and we can go to them for
are horrified. Some of us say, “Everybody’s got help. They’re called “philosophers”—lovers of
their own values”; others are sure that some things wisdom—and they have been trying to straighten
are just plain wrong—wrong for everybody. Some out all these issues. They are in the business of
delay gratification for the sake of long-term goals; asking which opinions or views or beliefs there is
others indulge in whatever pleasures happen to good reason to accept.
be at hand. What kind of world do we live in? Unfortunately, these philosophers don’t all
Jane studies science to find out, Jack turns to the agree either. So you might ask, If these really
occult. Is death the end for us?—Some say yes, smart philosophers can’t agree on what wisdom
some say no. says, why should I pay them any attention? The
What’s a person to do? answer is—because it’s the best shot you’ve got.
If you seriously want to improve your opinions,
there’s nothing better you can do than engage in a
Study Philosophy! “conversation” with the best minds our history has
You don’t want simply to be at the mercy of ac- produced.
cident in your opinions—for your views to be One of the authors of this book had a teacher—
decided by irrelevant matters such as whom you a short, white-haired, elderly gentleman with a

xv
xvi   A Word to Students

thick German accent—who used to say, “Whether has been. We have taken the metaphor of a conver-
you will philosophize or won’t philosophize, you sation seriously. These folks are all talking to each
must philosophize.” By this, he meant that we can’t other, arguing with each other, trying to convince
help making decisions about these crucial matters. each other—and that makes the story of philoso-
We make them either well or badly, conscious phy a dramatic one. Aristotle learns a lot from his
of what we are doing or just stumbling along. As teacher, Plato, but argues that Plato makes one
Kierkegaard would say, we express such decisions big mistake—and that colors everything else he
in the way we live, whether or not we have ever says. Aquinas appreciates what Aristotle has done
given them a moment’s thought. In a sense, then, but claims that Aristotle neglects a basic feature of
you are already a philosopher, already engaged in reality—and that makes all the difference. In the
the business philosophers have committed them- seventeenth century, Descartes looks back on his
selves to. So you shouldn’t have any problem in predecessors with despair, noting that virtually no
making a connection with what they write. agreement has been reached on any topic; he re-
Does it help to think about such matters? You solves to wipe the slate clean and make a new start.
might as well ask whether it helps to think about Beginning with an analysis of what it is to believe
the recipe before you start to cook. Socrates says anything at all, C. S. Peirce argues that what Des-
that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” cartes wants to do is impossible. And so it goes.
And that’s what philosophy is: an examination of Not all the philosophers in this book have
­opinions—and also of our lives, shaped by these been involved in the same conversation, however.
opinions. In thinking philosophically, we try to While this book focuses mainly on the Western
sort our opinions into two baskets: the good-views tradition—the philosophical conversation that
basket and the trash. began in ancient Greece—other cultures have had
We want to think about these matters as clearly their own philosophical conversations. Philosophy
and rationally as we can. Thinking is a kind of craft. arose independently in India and China as well, and
Like any other craft, we can do it well or poorly, the conversations in South and East Asia have been
with shoddy workmanship or with care, and we as rich as those in the West. This book cannot hope
improve with practice. It is common for people to convey those conversations in their entirety, but
who want to learn a craft—cabinetmaking, for it will introduce you to some key ideas in each of
example—to apprentice themselves for a time
­ them. Examining early Indian and Chinese philoso-
to a master, doing what the master does until the phy alongside Western philosophy helps illuminate
time comes when they are skillful enough to set up both the commonalities among those traditions—
shop on their own. You can think of reading this the questions that human beings have wrestled
book as a kind of apprenticeship in thinking, with with all over the globe—and the differences be-
Socrates, Plato, Kant, and the rest as the masters. tween them.
By thinking along with them, noting their insights To emphasize the conversational and interac-
and arguments, following their examinations of tive aspect of philosophy, the footnotes in this book
each other’s opinions, you should improve that all- provide numerous cross-references, mainly within
important skill of your own. Western philosophy but also between Western
and non-Western thinkers. Your understanding of
an issue will be substantially enriched if you follow
This Book up on these. To appreciate the line one thinker is
This book is organized historically because that’s pushing, it is important to see what he is arguing
how philosophy has developed. It’s not just a re- against, where he thinks that others have made
cital of this following that, however. It is also in- mistakes, and how other thinkers have approached
tensively interactive because that’s what philosophy the same problems. No philosopher simply makes
 A Word to Students   xvii
pronouncements in the dark. There is always 2. 
Epistemology, the theory of knowledge. We
something that bugs each thinker, something she want to think not only about what there is,
thinks is terribly wrong, something that needs cor- but also about how we know what there is—
rection. This irritant may be something current in or, maybe, whether we can know anything at
the culture, or it may be what other philosophers all! So we reflectively ask, What is it to know
have been saying. Using the cross-­references to something anyway? How does that differ from
understand that background will help you to make just believing it? How is knowing something
sense of what is going on—and why. The index of related to its being true? What is truth? How
names and terms at the back of this book will also far can our knowledge reach? Are some things
help you. simply unknowable?
Philosophers are noted for introducing novel 3. 
Ethics, the theory of right and wrong, good
terms or using familiar words in novel ways. They and bad. We aren’t just knowers and believ-
are not alone in this, of course; poets and scientists ers. We are doers. The question then arises of
do the same. There is no reason to expect that our what wisdom might say about how best to live
everyday language will be suited, just as it is, to our lives. Does the fact that something gives
express the truth of things, so you will have some us pleasure make it the right thing to do? Do
vocabulary to master. You will find key words in we need to think about how our actions affect
boldface and a list of them at the end of each chapter. others? If so, in what way? Are there really
Use this list to help you review important concepts goods and bads, or does thinking so make it so?
and arguments. Many of these boldfaced terms are Do we have duties? If so, where do they come
defined in the Glossary at the back of the book. from? What is virtue and vice? What is justice?
Is justice important?
4. 
Human nature—Socrates took as his motto a
The Issues slogan that was inscribed in the temple of Apollo
in Delphi: know thyself. But that has proved
The search for wisdom—that is, philosophy— none too easy to do. What are we, anyway? Are
ranges far and wide. Who can say ahead of time we simply bits of matter caught up in the uni-
what might be relevant to that search? Still, there versal mechanism of the world, or do we have
are certain central problems that especially con- minds that escape this deterministic machine?
cern philosophers. In your study of this text, you What is it to have a mind? Is mind separate from
can expect to find extensive discussions of these body? How is it related to the brain? Do we have
four issues in particular: a free will? How important to my self-identity is
my relationship to others? To what degree can I
1. 
Metaphysics, the theory of reality. In our own
be responsible for the creation of myself?
day, Willard Quine has said that the basic ques-
tion of metaphysics is very simple: What is Running through these issues is a fifth one that
there? The metaphysical question, of course, is perhaps deserves special mention. It centers on the
not like, “Are there echidnas in Australia?” but idea of relativism. The question is whether there is a
“What kinds of things are there fundamentally?” way to get beyond the prejudices and assumptions
Is the world through and through made of mate- peculiar to ourselves or our culture—or whether
rial stuff, or are there souls as well as bodies? Is that’s all there is. Are there just opinions, with no
there a God? If so, of what sort? Are there uni- one opinion ultimately any better than any other?
versal features to reality, or is everything just Are all views relative to time and place, to culture
the particular thing that it is? Does everything and position? Is there no truth—or, anyway, no truth
happen necessarily or are fresh starts possible? that we can know to be true?
xviii   A Word to Students

This problem, which entered all the great con- conclusion. Usually philosophers do not set out
versations early, has persisted to this day. Most of their arguments in a formal way, with premises
the Western philosophical tradition can be thought listed first and the conclusion last. The argument
of as a series of attempts to kill such skepticism and will be embedded in the text, and you need to sniff
relativism, but this phoenix will not die. Our own it out. This is usually not so hard, but it does take
age has the distinction, perhaps, of being the first careful attention.
age ever in which the basic assumptions of most Occasionally, especially if the argument is
people, certainly of most educated people, are complex or obscure, we give you some help
relativistic, so this theme will have a particular poi- and list the premises and conclusion in a more
gnancy for us. We will want to understand how we formal way. You might right now want to look
came to this point and what it means to be here. at a few examples. Socrates in prison argues that
We will also want to ask ourselves how adequate it would be wrong for him to escape; that is the
this relativistic outlook is. conclusion, and we set out his argument for it on
What we are is what we have become, and p. 144. Plato argues that being happy and being
what we have become has been shaped by our hist- moral are the same thing; see an outline of his
ory. In this book, we look at that history, hoping argument on p. 176. Anselm gives us a complex
to understand ourselves better and, thereby, gain argument for the existence of God; see our sum-
some wisdom for living our lives. mary on p. 314. And Descartes argues that we
have souls that are distinct from and indepen-
dent of our bodies; see p. 319.
Reading Philosophy Often, however, you will need to identify the
Reading philosophy is not like reading a novel, nor argument buried in the prose for yourself. What
is it like reading a research report in biology or a is it that the philosopher is trying to get you to
history of the American South. Philosophers have believe? And why does he think you should be-
their own aims and ways of proceeding, and it will lieve that? It will be helpful, and a test of your
pay to take note of them at the beginning. Philoso- understanding, if you try to set the argument out
phers aim at the truth about fundamental matters, for yourself in a more or less formal way; keep a
and in doing so they offer arguments. small notebook, and list the main arguments chap-
If you want to believe for good reasons, what ter by chapter.
you seek is an argument. An argument in philoso- Your first aim should be to understand the argu-
phy is not a quarrel or a disagreement, but simply ment. But that is not the only thing, because you
this business of offering reasons to believe. Every will also want to discover how good the argument
argument, in this sense, has a certain structure. is. These very smart philosophers, to tell the truth,
There is some proposition the philosopher wants have given us lots of poor arguments; they’re only
you to believe—or thinks every rational person human, after all. So you need to try to evaluate the
ought to believe—and this is called the conclu- arguments. In evaluating an argument, there are
sion. And there are the reasons he or she offers to two things to look at: the truth or acceptability of
convince you of that conclusion; these are called the premises and whether the premises actually do
the premises. support the conclusion.
In reading philosophy, there are many things For an argument to be a good one, the reasons
to look for—central concepts, presuppositions, given in support of the conclusion have to at least
overall view of things—but the main things to be plausible. Ideally the premises should be known
look for are the arguments. And the first thing to to be true, but that is a hard standard to meet. If the
identify is the conclusion of the argument: What reasons are either false or implausible, they can’t
is it that the philosopher wants you to believe? lend truth or plausibility to the conclusion. If there
Once you have identified the conclusion, you need are good reasons to doubt the premises, then the
to look for the reasons given for believing that argument should not convince you.
 A Word to Students   xix
It may be, however, that all the premises are understanding while texting with your friends.
true, or at least plausible, and yet the argument is You need to concentrate, focus, and be actively
a poor one. This can happen when the premises engaged in the process. Here are a few general
do not have the right kind of relation to the con- rules:
clusion. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of
1. Have an open mind as you read. Don’t decide
arguments: deductive and inductive. A good
after the first few paragraphs that what a philos-
deductive argument is one in which the premises—
opher is saying is absurd or silly. Follow the ar-
if true—guarantee the truth of the conclusion. In
gument, and you may change your mind about
other words, the conclusion couldn’t possibly be
things of some importance.
false if the premises are true. When this condition
2. Write out brief answers to the questions em-
is satisfied, we say that the argument is valid. Note
bedded in the chapters as you go along; check
that an argument may have validity even though the
back in the text to see that you have got it
premises are not in fact true; it is enough that if the
right.
premises were true, then the conclusion would have
3. Use the key words to check your understanding
to be true. When a deductive argument is both valid
of basic concepts.
and has true premises, we say it is sound.
4. Try to see how the arguments of the philoso-
Inductive arguments have a looser relation be-
phers bear on your own current views of things.
tween premises and conclusion. Here the premises
Bring them home; apply them to the way you
give some support to the conclusion—the more
now think of the world and your place in it.
support the better—but they fall short of guaran-
teeing the truth of the conclusion. Typically phi- Reading philosophy is not the easiest thing in
losophers aim to give sound deductive arguments, the world, but it’s not impossible either. If you
and the methods of evaluating these arguments will make a good effort, you may find that it is even
be those of the preceding two paragraphs. rather fun.
You will get some help in evaluating argu-
ments because you will see philosophers evalu-
ating the arguments of other philosophers. (Of Web Resources
course, these evaluative arguments themselves
A website for this book is available at www.oup.
may be either good or bad.) This is what makes the
com/us/melchert. Here you will find, for each
story of philosophy so dramatic. Here are a few
chapter, the following aids:
examples. Aristotle argues that Plato’s arguments
for eternal, unchanging realities (which Plato calls Essential Points (a brief list of crucial concepts
Forms) are completely unsound; see pp. 198– and ideas)
199. Augustine tries to undercut the arguments of Flashcards (definitions of basic concepts)
the skeptics on pp. 267–268. And Hume criticizes Multiple-Choice Questions (practice tests)
the design argument for the existence of God on Web Resources (mostly original works
pp. 456-458. that are discussed in this text—e.g.,
Sometimes you will see a philosopher criti- Plato’s Meno or Nietzsche’s Beyond Good
cizing another philosopher’s presuppositions (as and Evil—but also some secondary
Peirce criticizes Descartes’ views about doubt, pp. treatments)
596–597) or directly disputing another’s conclu-
The web also has some general resources that
sion (as Hegel does with respect to Kant’s claim
you might find helpful:
that there is a single basic principle of morality, pp.
512–513). But even here, it is argument that is the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://
heart of the matter. plato.stanford.edu
In reading philosophy you can’t just be a pas- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://
sive observer. It’s no good trying to read for www.iep.utm.edu
xx   A Word to Students

Both these encyclopedias contain whose philosophical voices and

reliable in-depth discussions of contributions are being recovered
the philosophers and topics we and recognized by historians of
will be studying. philosophy.
Philosophy Pages: http://www. YouTube contains numerous short
philosophypages.com interviews with and about philosophers,
A source containing a variety such as those at https://youtube/
of things, most notably a nG0EWNezFl4 and https://youtube/
Philosophical Dictionary. B2fLyvsHHaQ, as well as various series
Project Vox: http://www.projectvox.org of short videos about philosophical
A source containing information about concepts, such as those by Wireless
selected women philosophers Philosophy at https://www.youtube.
of the early modern period, com/user/WirelessPhilosophy
 A C KN O W L E D GM E N TS

W
e want to thank those readers of the Community College; Nancy Shaffer, California
seventh edition who thoughtfully University of Pennsylvania; Georgia Van Dam,
provided us with ideas for improve- Monterey Peninsula College; and Bryan William
ment. We are grateful to Peter Adamson, Ludwig Van Norden, Yale-NUS College.
Maximilian University of Munich; Eric Boynton, We are also grateful to the specialists in non-
Allegheny College; David Buchta, Brown Uni- Western and Islamic philosophy who provided
versity; Amit Chaturvedi, University of Hawai’i valuable feedback on the new chapters in this edi-
at Mānoa; Douglas Howie, North Lake College; tion, including Peter Adamson, David Buchta,
Manyul Im, University of Bridgeport; Jon Mc- Amit Chaturvedi, Manyul Im, Jon McGinnis, and
Ginnis, University of Missouri, St. Louis; Susan Hagop Sarkissian. All errors remain our own.
Finally, we would like to thank the editorial team
M. Mullican, University of Southern Mississippi
at Oxford University Press, including Robert Miller,
– Gulf Coast Campus; Danny Muñoz-Hutchinson, Alyssa Palazzo, Sydney Keen, and Marianne Paul.
St. Olaf College; Hagop Sarkissian, The City Uni- Comments relating to this new edition
versity of New York, Baruch College and Gradu- may be sent to us at norm.mel@verizon.net or
ate Center; Stephanie Semler, Northern Virginia dmorrow2@gmu.edu.

xxi
I was aware that the reading of all good books is indeed like a
conversation with the noblest men of past centuries who were
the authors of them, nay a carefully studied conversation, in
which they reveal to us none but the best of their thoughts.
—René Descartes

We—mankind—are a conversation.
—Martin Heidegger

In truth, there is no divorce between philosophy and life.

—Simone de Beauvoir
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 CHAPTER XV
INDUSTRIAL ARGENTINA—
RAILWAYS AND MINOR
ENTERPRISES
Undoubtedly at the present time the main interest of Argentina is
industrial. The wonderful rapidity of her expansion is perhaps the
most remarkable phenomenon of this generation, and can only be
realised by a visit to the country. No nation has more thoroughly
appreciated this fact than France, which hails with triumph the rapid
progress of a Latin race as a counterbalancing force to industrial
degeneration in Europe. If able and eloquent essays and elaborate
statistics, written with great literary power to call the attention of
French capital and enterprise to the River Plate, were sufficient for
the purpose, France would have a very prominent industrial part in
that region. But, generally speaking, France is enough for the
French, and that country only contributes 10 per cent. of the
Argentine imports, and is thus only slightly ahead of Italy. The rulers
of the United States have also grasped the importance of this new
force, and the Bulletin of the International Bureau of the American
Republics, for fulness and clearness of information, puts to shame all
English efforts in the same direction. Yet, in spite of all their
exertions, the United States do not possess a single bank in
Argentina (possibly not in the whole of South America), and England
sends to the River Plate two and a half times as much merchandise.
Germany also spares no effort, although Brazil attracts still more
attention. If gratuitous advertising could command success,
Germany would be first without a rival. For some mysterious reason
every Englishman, whether at home or abroad, considers it
necessary to boom German goods and German enterprise, and a
suggestion that the Teuton has left a little trade to the Anglo-Saxon
is received with polite incredulity. In their enthusiasm our
countrymen are a little forgetful of facts and proportion, and they
somehow manage to persuade themselves that Germany is an
absolutely irresistible industrial force. In the Argentine her share of
the import trade is somewhat less than half that of England.

FREIGHT TRAIN FOR ENTRE RIOS CROSSING NEW BRIDGE.

It is certainly true that our country has very little system in placing
information before our traders. The Consular Reports are valuable,
but each refers to a comparatively small district, and, apart from the
fact that very few steps seem to be taken to bring them to the
notice of traders, there is great inconvenience in collecting
information piecemeal, nor is the form, in any case, sufficiently
stimulating. We ought to take a lesson from the handsomely
illustrated publications of the States, and the scientific and literary
ability with which the French expound their theme. Our work
hitherto has been fruit-bearing, but not light-giving. One of the
commonest exclamations of an Englishman when he has spent a few
days in Buenos Aires is: "Well! I wish the people at home knew
about this." Few people read statistics, fewer still remember them,
and fewest of all understand them; and consequently the signs of
industrial prosperity are almost stupefying. Still, as railway
companies seem to find photographs the most effective
advertisements, it can hardly be doubted that well-illustrated
pamphlets setting forth the industrial promise of Argentina would
make many people in England realise the true state of affairs.
Certainly, the Argentine Government does all in its power by
exhibitions and the dissemination of intelligence to attract capital
and settlers.
Perhaps, as a prelude to this subject, a word may be said about the
British capital invested in the country, for this is one of the most
striking features.
Englishmen have from the beginning taken the lead in developing
the resources of the country, and this fact is fully appreciated by the
people of Argentina, who owe no less their pre-eminent position in
South America to the stream of English capital, which has been
pouring in for generations, than to their fine climate and immense
natural wealth. In the old Spanish days England had a leading share
in the contraband trade, and during the Napoleonic war her
merchants were almost as welcome guests as her armies and fleets
were unwelcome. The English were the pioneers in railway
construction, and still own the most important lines; they have
founded banks and freezing establishments, lighted the streets, laid
down tramways, and built harbours.
Up to May 31, 1908, the amount of English capital invested in
Argentina was as follows:—
Railways £137,845,000
Banks 8,580,000
Tramways 8,010,986
Sundry enterprises 20,910,580
Total £175,346,566
France comes second. Her investments are chiefly in railways and
harbours, and amount to about £21,621,000. German capital,
principally in banks and tramways, stands at £12,000,000. Belgium
has £4,000,000 of capital invested in the Republic.
Among the many marvellous industrial features of Argentina the
railways[92] may claim the first position, for they hold in the Plate
country the same place as in the United States: they are the arteries
which bring life-blood to the system. The travellers of two or three
generations ago all remarked upon the wealth of the Pampas and
lamented the impossibility of utilising it owing to the absence of
transport, and the same lament is made by those who now visit
Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela. But now Argentina has a
splendid railway system, which is being developed with unflagging
enterprise. Its mileage is greater than that of Mexico.[93]
The first line was laid down in 1857, but progress was very slow, for
Argentina shared the bad reputation of all South American Republics,
and there seemed reason to believe that the next quarter of a
century would be as barren as the last, for foreign and civil wars
appeared to be insuperable barriers to progress. But in the booming
times of the eighties construction went on apace, and no temporary
checks to the general prosperity availed to circumscribe the growing
network of railways. Taken as a whole, they are one of the most
brilliant examples of English enterprise in a foreign land.[94]
The oldest of the Argentine railways is the Buenos Aires Western,
which in 1857 made a modest beginning with a 6-mile track to
Flores. Its early days were full of trouble, and before long it fell into
the hands of the State. It was sold to an English company in 1890,
and since that time has flourished exceedingly. Although the smallest
of the broad-gauge lines, it is a very wealthy concern, and has 1,305
miles of track. Up to Mercedes it competes with the Buenos Aires
and Pacific, but thence it bears southward, to Banderalo in one
direction and Toay in another, and finally joins the Bahia Blanca and
North-Western Railway at Bahia Blanca itself. It serves a very fertile
district, and grain forms 60 per cent. of its goods traffic. The lines
are well laid, the rolling stock excellent, the management of the
best, and it has long paid a dividend of 7 per cent. upon its ordinary
stock. Altogether it is a highly meritorious concern, and though it
has less scope for development than some of its rivals its future can
hardly fail to be one of continuous prosperity.

LOCOMOTIVE, BUENOS AIRES GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

The largest of all the railways is the Buenos Aires Great Southern.
Formed in 1862 to take over a Buenos Aires State line of 71 miles,
which was opened in 1865, it has gradually extended over the
Province and beyond, and now has 2,745 miles of line and is also
the richest railway company in the country. The capital is about forty
million sterling, and for ten years interest at the rate of 7 per cent.
has been paid upon the ordinary stock. It has the great advantage
over all competitors in serving nothing but rich country, and
practically all its points are within 200 miles of the ports of Buenos
Aires or Bahia Blanca. The policy of the Great Southern, while
financially sound, has been one of remarkable enterprise, and the
distant future has always been kept in view. Money has been spent
lavishly with the object of obtaining all strategical points and access
into promising country. At Bahia Blanca a large steel mole and grain
wharf have been constructed, with the best machinery for loading
and unloading, and accommodation for fourteen ocean steamers.
Control has also been obtained of a dock company at La Plata, as
well as an important interest in the Buenos Aires Southern Dock
Company, where accommodation is provided for twenty steamers.
Nothing has been left undone in the way of providing docking
facilities, and the rolling stock is in excellent condition and great
abundance. This is necessary for grain-carrying lines, because their
goods traffic comes with a rush at one time. Congress has
sanctioned the construction of additional lines of 1,176 miles, chiefly
in the region of the Rios Colorado and Negro. As the irrigation
schemes will make this a rich grain district, the railway may look for
large traffic increases. In the future there will be strong competition
in the Province of Buenos Aires from several French and State lines,
but the history of Argentine railway development has been largely
the record of the absorption by a great line of its smaller
competitors, and the position of the Great Southern is now so strong
and its extensions have been so judiciously planned, that its
continued prosperity may be confidently predicted. It works the
Buenos Aires Midland and the Buenos Aires, Ensenada, and South
Coast.
The Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway looms more largely in the view
of the world than its neighbours, and its history presents so many
features of interest that it deserves to be described in somewhat
fuller detail. Although its present mileage (2,712) is very nearly as
large as that of the Great Southern, it is not an old line. The
Company was formed in 1882 to construct a broad-gauge line from
Mercedes to Villa Mercedes, and this was soon extended to the City
of Buenos Aires, which became the headquarters. This, however,
was insufficient scope for the enterprising Company, and in 1904
control was obtained over the Bahia Blanca and North-Western
Railway, which now has a length of 665 miles, and thus an immense
step in advance was taken by securing a terminus at a town which
will probably be the chief grain port in South America. Four years
earlier a similar, though less important, step was taken to compete
with another rival by taking over the Villa Maria and Rufino Railway.
This was a short section from the town of Villa Maria between
Cordoba and Rosario to Rufino on its own main line, and thus the
Buenos Aires Pacific was in a position to make terms with its
northern rivals. But a still more important extension than either of
the above was to follow. The Argentine Great Western ran from Villa
Mercedes to Mendoza, and had also branches to San Rafael, San
Juan, and other small places. Thus it had a monopoly of the wine
traffic, which is very valuable in itself and doubly so because it
comes on at a season in the year when it does not interfere with
other traffic. This line has a mileage of 500 miles, and gross receipts
of about a million sterling. For a long time the Argentine Great
Western stood out, but was in 1907 induced to give way on
somewhat extravagant terms, and thus the enterprising Company
was not far from its goal of being a real Pacific Railway. In fact, there
was included in this deal an arrangement which practically assured
this result, for the Great Western had already taken over the
Argentine Transandine, which thus became a part of the Buenos
Aires Pacific system. This is a small line of 111 miles of metre gauge,
which runs from Mendoza to the Chilian frontier, where it joins the
Chilian lines at Las Cuevas. Here a great tunnel has been completed
under the Andes, and it will be open for traffic by the time this book
is published. The magnificent system is the admiration of the whole
world. The Buenos Aires and Pacific is the only line in South America
which has established through communication between the Atlantic
and Pacific, and up to Mendoza the line is well laid, and it carries
passengers speedily and with all possible comfort. But it has had to
pay for its footing and the expense of acquiring sections, which are
valuable rather as rounding off its own system and preventing
encroachments by other companies, has been enormous, and it has
been obliged to make repeated applications for capital in the London
market. The traffic with Valparaiso, although the extension is a
showy scheme, is not likely to pay for many years, and the difficulty
of running trains through winter blizzards and snowdrifts will be
considerable. The heavy expenditure has had a temporary effect,
and the stock has experienced a heavy fall during the last few
months. But the Company has placed itself in a position where it has
little to fear from competition and where it can secure the full
advantages from the future development of Argentina. This railway
may be considered one of the most magnificent commercial
enterprises in South America.

RAILWAY STATION, BUENOS AIRES GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

The Central Argentine is one of the most prosperous of railways. It

has the largest gross receipts and makes the most profit per mile
and it is also of very long standing. It began in 1864 with a line from
Rosario to Cordoba and for a long time met with severe competition
from the Buenos Aires and Rosario line, which worked practically the
same districts, but in 1902 an amalgamation was effected. But the
Mitre Law has been unfavourable to it, and for some years the
Government insisted that the two lines should continue to be worked
separately, and it was only last year that their complete union was
sanctioned. Rosario is the centre of the system, and here the
Company owns extensive dockyards, and lines run both to Tucuman
and Cordoba. A port, Villa Constitucion, within 32 miles of Rosario, is
also being developed, but competition is feared from Santa Fé,
where very large extensions are being made, and although the
Central Argentine has access to that port, a French company is in a
better position for taking advantage of the facilities. In fact, the line
is exposed to very severe competition from two French companies,
the Cordoba Central, the Buenos Aires Central, and the Rosario and
Western, a light railway, but it is large and wealthy and should have
little to fear. It has an enormous grain traffic, but it serves the older
and more settled districts, and therefore cannot hope to increase its
traffic in the immediate future as rapidly as some of the pioneer
railways. However, it has been pointed out in another chapter that
the development of the Gran Chaco and extensions into Paraguay
and Brazil must ultimately vastly add to the wealth and importance
of Rosario and hence to that of the Central Argentine. But this is a
matter of the distant future. The Central Argentine pursues a
conservative policy in finance and has for many years paid 6 per
cent. on the ordinary stock. It is in a very sound position, a most
comfortable line, and the management is highly efficient. The length
of line is 2,392 miles.
There are two competing lines which serve the eastern river district
adjacent to Uruguay, namely, the Entre Rios and the Argentine
North-Eastern. Both have a gauge of 4 feet 8½ inches. The Entre
Rios is a short line of only 656 miles, but it is of some importance on
account of its ferry service which connects Zarate with Ibicuy on the
left bank of the Parana. The railway then runs north to the important
town of Parana, which is the headquarters. No dividend has yet been
paid on the ordinary stock, and the cumulative preference is
somewhat in arrears, for the district is mainly pastoral and that part
of the line which was taken over from the Provincial Government in
1891 is badly laid, but when Entre Rios becomes a large grain-
producing region the prospects of the Company will improve, and
already it does a good trade in supplying Buenos Aires with fruit and
vegetables, while the management is economical. Of its traffic some
17 per cent. is live stock, 15 wheat, and 11 linseed.
The North-Eastern, which has 510 miles of railway, should be
assured of a prosperous future, for Posadas, the northern
headquarters, is now connected with Asuncion by the Paraguay
Central Railway and will get much benefit from the development of
that hitherto secluded country. It is still a pioneer line running
through swamps and forests and country which is to a great extent
unpopulated, and the goods which it carries consist chiefly of cattle
and their products. The swampy nature of the country entails
considerable expense in construction, but the Company pays a strict
regard to economy, and the capitalisation per mile is only £8,680.
Since June 30, 1907, the working expenses have been cut down
from 65.10 to 57.17 per cent. Although the prospects of this line are
fair they would undoubtedly be better if an amalgamation could be
effected with the Entre Rios, for the district does not yet possess
sufficient traffic for two competing lines. The scheme has long been
under consideration, and as the policy of amalgamation has been
carried on so extensively in recent years it may be that it will
eventually be accomplished.
A small railway of 167 miles, under Argentine management, should
here be mentioned. It runs westward from the capital to Rojas, and
there is also a very important branch of 27 miles which runs to
Zarate and connects with the Entre Rios system by a train ferry. In
1906 this Company took over the Tramway Rural à Vapor from
Messrs. Lacroze Bros. The line has a gauge of 4 feet 8½ inches. The
Company owns valuable property in Buenos Aires and has a terminal
station at the suburb of Chacarita, and it serves a profitable district
and is also a link with the Argentine Mesopotamia, but it has been
obliged to make heavy outlays upon the permanent way. The line
was originally a light railway and therefore in indifferent condition for
heavy traffic. The ordinary share capital of the Company, which is
exclusively held in Argentina, has been increased to over a million
sterling. There were issued also in 1907 £600,000 4½ per cent. First
Mortgage Debentures to extend the line from Salto to Rojas. This
was subscribed in London. It is a good property.
 RAILWAY CARRIAGE, BUENOS AIRES CENTRAL RAILWAY.

Of the remaining lines the most important are a group of northern

railways. The Cordoba Central Railway is metre gauge and is divided
into two sections. The "Original Line" is 128½ miles long and was
formed in 1887 to connect Cordoba with San Francisco. The latter is
an important town half-way between Cordoba and Santa Fé. Shortly
afterwards the Company bought the Central Northern Railway from
the Argentine Government at a cost of £3,174,603, and also spent
about a million sterling on improving the line which runs from
Cordoba to Tucuman and has a length of 550 miles. In 1899 the
purchase was effected of the North-Western Argentine Railway, a
loop-line from Tucuman to La Madrid, length 87 miles. The "Original
Line," after leaving Cordoba, passes through a poor and sparsely
inhabited country, and this section could be of little value but for the
terminus at San Francisco. However, it is economically managed and
shows a profit of £800 per mile. The longer section also, between
Cordoba and Tucuman, runs through a poor country, but in
compensation it has the valuable sugar traffic of the latter city. Sugar
forms a quarter and timber nearly two-fifths of its goods traffic.
Closely connected with it is the Cordoba and Rosario Railway, which
is also metre gauge and connects Rosario with Frontera on the
"Original Line." There is also a branch line to Rafaela, which links up
with the Central Argentine and the French lines. In 1895 the capital
had to be reorganised, and there can be no doubt that it has not yet
seen its best days, for it will have to wait for the development of the
auxiliary lines which form the connecting links between Tucuman
and the capital. But in any case they have to face very severe
competition from the Argentine Central and the French lines. It is
open to doubt whether the connection with Buenos Aires itself is
necessary, for there are already a bewildering number of lines
serving the district between Buenos Aires and Rosario, and at
harvest-time there is immense congestion at the former place. In
fact, the trend of commerce seems to be rather towards the
diversion of bulky exports from the capital and the directing of them
to Rosario and Bahia Blanca. This criticism receives point from the
position of the newly opened Cordoba Central Buenos Aires
Extension Railway, upon which the up-country allied lines largely
depend for their success. This cumbrously named Company was
formed in 1905 to acquire a concession granted by Government to
the Cordoba Central Railway to build a metre-gauge line of 187
miles. It runs parallel with the Central Argentine system between
Buenos Aires and Rosario, and it was only recently opened. Its
district is, of course, one of the very richest in the country, consisting
of fine agricultural and grazing land in the zone of black soil. But, as
already stated, there is strong competition, and this not only from
the other lines, but also from the river, which follows it from end to
end. Now the dock of this Company at the capital will not be finished
till the end of 1910, and the Company is at present renting
accommodation and therefore suffering considerable inconvenience.
The work of reclaiming land and dock building is being done by the
Buenos Aires and Pacific, and the cost will be about a million
sterling. The office of the Company also is to cost £225,000, but a
large part of this will be let off. Every large company naturally wishes
to have its headquarters in Buenos Aires, but in this case the
question arises as to whether the game is worth the candle. Few
lines have had to pay more heavily for obtaining their extension
privileges; the ordinary stock has been watered to a considerable
degree and bonds of the value of three and a half million sterling
have been issued. To meet the interest upon these bonds alone its
profits will have to be £175,000, and thus a profit of £935 per mile is
postulated. To obtain such a profit under economical management
the gross receipts will have to be £389,000, or nearly £2,100 per
mile, and no broad-gauge line in Argentina has yet reached this
figure. In 1909 its gross receipts were only £1,613, its net £654 per
mile, but as the line is only in its infancy these figures must not be
taken as a criterion. However, the payment of a large dividend on
the ordinary stock appears to be a remote eventuality.

VIEW OF MARSHY COUNTRY, BUENOS AIRES CENTRAL RAILWAY.

Numerous small lines, chiefly Government or French, have been

incidentally mentioned, but they do not require detailed description.
[95]

No account of the railways would be complete without a reference to

the important Mitre Law, which was introduced some two years ago.
Some of the railway concessions were expiring, and several
provincial Governments (which are not always as enlightened as the
Federal) were believed to be planning increased taxation. Legislation
was accordingly introduced to put matters upon a proper footing.
Such companies as accept the Law are granted exception from all
kinds of taxation and allowed free importation of all materials till
1947. In return the companies must pay a tax of 3 per cent. upon
net receipts, which, however, will be applied by the Government in
constructing and maintaining bridges and roads which give access to
the lines. Certain rights of tariff revision are given to the
Government, and no watered capital is recognised. The Law is most
valuable to the railways, and the expenditure on roads and bridges
will be highly beneficial. The effect will be to limit working expenses,
for when the gross earnings for three consecutive years exceed 17
per cent. of the recognised share and debenture capital, the
Government has a right to revise the tariffs. The Law has been
accepted by all the English companies except the Entre Rios and the
Argentine North-Eastern.
The above account will show that competition is very severe. This
tends to bring down profits, and the cost of labour and coal and
materials also makes the working expenses high. The extensions of
the broad-gauge companies are, it is estimated, to cost £9,000 per
mile for track and stations alone. Another fact which adds to the
expenses is the necessity of keeping a very large rolling stock for
use during harvest-times. This must, in part, stand idle for the rest
of the year, and as a corollary to this the great bulk of the traffic is
to the sea, and thus many wagons have to return inland empty.
Passenger traffic, again, is light, owing to the sparse population. The
Government naturally encourages competition; but its attitude has
also a very favourable side, for it puts no obstacles in the way of
construction, and does not attempt to bleed the companies. Of this
the Mitre Law is an example. On the whole, it may be said that the
great ability which has hitherto been shown in railway policy will
have to be maintained at the highest point if profits and dividends
are to be kept up.
On the other hand, it must be remembered that the volume of traffic
steadily increases, and that wheat alone will be exported on a scale
greater than anything which has yet been seen in any country in the
world. The area of cultivation expands yearly, and when a more
intensive scheme of tillage is adopted the yield will increase and with
it the goods traffic. Pasturage is being driven further afield by the
husbandmen, and as more farmers settle within the railway area the
import trade will expand in sympathy with their growing wants and
purchasing power. There is no reason to doubt that the railways will
continue to share in the increasing prosperity of the country, and will
be enabled to take advantage of the vast scope for development
both north and south.
Manufacturers in Argentina are heavily protected, but they have as
yet made no great progress. Writers who deal with the business side
of Argentine life usually treat them in a very cursory manner and
devote themselves to the vast pastoral and agricultural production
and other characteristic industries, but the question of manufactures
is worth consideration, for it is a sign of the times that every nation
is anxious to supply itself with home-made goods and is straining
every nerve to encourage home production. A large proportion,
indeed, of the Argentine factories are merely auxiliary to the
production of raw material, being creameries, butter factories,
freezing establishments, cheese-making factories, and the like.
Brewing and distilling are both important, and there are said to be
130 distilleries and 32 breweries in Argentina. The sugar factories of
Tucuman turn out a great quantity of rum. As sugar-planting is being
successfully pursued in the Territories of Misiones, Chaco, and
Formosa, the manufacture of that article is naturally increasing. The
cost of planting one hectare with cane is about £10. It was
estimated that the Republic produced about 120,000 tons of sugar
annually, and this amount is not quite sufficient for domestic needs,
but when the Gran Chaco is opened up there can be no doubt that
not only will enough be produced to supply the increasing population
but that there will also be a large export.
In 1907 there were 303 flour-mills turning out 699,000 tons of flour.
There are also 77 tobacco factories producing an output valued at
about 2½ millions sterling. All kinds of textiles are produced, but
there are only two cotton-spinning mills and 62 weaving factories.
There are also numbers of miscellaneous industries, the most
important of which perhaps are paper, matches, glass-ware, tanning,
clothing, and building material. In general the factories are fitted up
with the very best English machinery, and there is a determination to
leave nothing undone to secure success. That they will continue to
prosper cannot be doubted, for they have still a much larger home
market than they are capable of supplying. A considerable number
of the manufacturing industries, notably the sugar factories of
Tucuman, are in English hands, and an enterprising Scotch firm has
forsaken the United Kingdom and is engaged in manufacturing
cheap shoes of imported hemp, which are exported largely to Japan.
The high tariff wall is a luxury much appreciated by manufacturers,
but not to-day or to-morrow will Argentina compete with Manchester
or Bradford in the world's markets. Want of coal is a capital
hindrance, and that very protection which confers local prosperity
helps to make the establishment and upkeep of factories very costly.
In this respect Argentina is but a beginner, and no one can say what
her manufacturing future will be.
 CHAPTER XVI
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRIES OF
ARGENTINA
This is, on the whole, the most striking of the many very remarkable
industrial features of Argentina. To begin with, some figures should
be given. No doubt they are dry bones, but a body cannot be made
without bones, and for the understanding of industrial phenomena it
is necessary to have a skeleton map in the form of figures to guide
us. If we keep a few round figures before us, we can form an idea of
the progress of a country in industrial matters and its position in
regard to other nations. It is impossible indeed to carry long tables
of statistics in the head, but a few essential figures can be
remembered, and along with them the increases and decreases
(though of decreases we seldom hear in Argentina) as compared
with a period of ten years ago and also the relative production or
export of Argentine staples as compared with the figures of other
countries in those articles.
 ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE, SANTA MARIA, ENTRE RIOS.

Allusion has already been made to the benefit which the Spaniards
conferred upon South America by setting down horses and cattle,
and how abundantly they increased and multiplied in an
astonishingly short time. It has been seen also that in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the exportation of hides was a
most progressive industry. Later, when the tyranny of Rosas was
overpast, the production of cattle made giant strides and has by no
means approached its limit.
 CATTLE DRINKING.

The following figures represent the number of animals in the

Argentine Republic:—

Cattle 29,116,625
Sheep 67,211,754
Horses 7,531,376
Goats 3,245,086
Hogs 1,403,591
Mules 465,037
Donkeys 285,088

Their total value is 645,000,000 dollars gold.[96] The United States

has more cattle (71,267,000), but considerably fewer sheep and
goats. Australia has more sheep (87,780,819), but far fewer horses
and cattle. Chile, although looked upon as a wool-growing country, is
insignificant in comparison with Argentina, possessing probably
hardly more than two million sheep. Argentina has fewer hogs,
mules, and donkeys than Spain, but, on the whole, it may be said
that she equals, if she does not surpass, any other nation in the
number and variety of her live stock.

BULLOCK-BREAKING IN JUJUY.

It is of course, to the Camp that the country owes all its wealth.
People in Buenos Aires use the term just as people in Calcutta speak
of the Mofussil. Without the Camp, or plain, the great Buenos Aires
would have no existence. The Camp is covered with estancias which
are held by estancieros, or squatters. Immense fortunes have been
made by those who have been skilled in the art of getting together
the best stock and managing their estates, and probably there are
still excellent chances of making a fortune for the competent. The
life of the estanciero is free and healthy; it approaches to that of the
receding Gaucho, it is a life of boot and saddle, of early rising and
long days in the crisp, sunny air. It is also much more comfortable
than the ranching life in most countries; good houses, billiard-tables,
plenty of company, and a number of the amenities of civilised life are
not unusual, and the splendid railways will swiftly transport the
estanciero to Buenos Aires when he desires a change.[97] Still, it is
obvious that these luxuries are the result and not the cause of
success; and it must not be supposed that an estanciero grows rich
by living in fine houses and amusing himself; as is the case
everywhere else, the desirable things of wealth are won by hard
work and business ability.

CAMP TRAVEL.

In 1864 cattle amounted to 10,215,000, in 1884 to 14,171,000, in

1895 to 21,701,526. It will be seen that the rate of advance has
been tolerably rapid. As the country became more settled after the
middle of the last century, the increase of pastoral industries was
somewhat checked by the realisation of the enormous possibilities of
agriculture. In 1857 cattle formed 25 per cent. of the wealth of the
country, but in 1884 only 18 per cent.[98] But with the fall in the
value of wheat and the increasing demand for meat and wool, and
the wonderful ingenuity of the methods of freezing and preserving,
the pastoral industry has held its own.
Cattle and sheep are raised all over the Pampas and far to the north
and south; but, generally speaking, cattle keep to the eastern side
and sheep to the west, while Patagonia is almost exclusively devoted
to sheep. The cattle industry is very different from what it was in the
memory of men still living. In the old days animals were killed for
their hides and the carcase was left to rot on the ground; their flesh
was eaten only by those who tended them. In 1873 the export of
meat was under 1,500,000 dollars, and little of this found its way to
Europe. In 1907 the exports of beef and mutton amounted to
222,273 tons. The prosperity of the meat industry, however, is due
not only to improved methods of transport, packing, and preserving,
but also to the wisdom of the estancieros in importing valuable bulls.
It is said that even the smallest among them are convinced of the
value of good blood and insist upon having it. Between 1899 and
1903 Argentina imported 3,005 bulls, principally from England, and
in 1907 the value of live animals imported was over 2,000,000
dollars. We have seen the huge prices that rich Argentines give for
the best stallions, but, relatively, breeders are quite as eager for the
best bovine sires. Uruguay is better known to the world than
Argentina as a seat of the meat industry, but, as a matter of fact,
the latter has infinitely more stock of every description. However, in
1908, the Uruguayan beef-salting factories slaughtered three times
as many cattle as the Argentine.
 BULL CALF.

A great many estancias are in English hands; all over the Pampas
are great numbers of young Englishmen managing the estates. A
warning note has lately been sounded to the effect that Beef Trusts
and other United States Trusts are attempting to acquire land and
meat factories and to control the supply of meat. It is needless to
say that if these organisations make headway, neither the
estancieros, nor our traders, nor the meat consumer, will have any
reason to congratulate themselves, and it is to be hoped that the
Argentine Government will take energetic measures to keep the
country out of the grip of the octopus.
The sheep industry has not maintained its old relative importance. In
1830 Argentina had 2,500,000 sheep and exported 6,000,000 lbs. of
wool; in 1883 the figures were 69,000,000 sheep (somewhat more
than now) and 261,000,000 lbs. of wool. In 1908 the shipments
were 175,538 tons, and Argentina is of great importance in the
world's markets, but the conditions of the industry have changed
considerably within recent years. In the old days Spain prohibited
the export of her valuable merino sheep to foreign countries, but the
colonies were fortunate enough not to be included in the prohibition,
and in 1550 the first merinos appeared in Tucuman from Peru.[99]
Professor Clapham, in his valuable work, "The Woollen and Worsted
Industries," says: "There, together with an inferior, long-wooled
breed, also of Spanish extraction, they ran wild and deteriorated for
over two hundred years; so that eventually the Argentine flocks
were as sorely in need of new blood as were those of France,
Germany, or Russia, which, until the middle of the eighteenth
century, had never had the benefit of a cross with the old Spanish
strain. Between 1760 and 1840, thanks to a change in the
commercial policy of Spain, such crossing took place in almost every
country of Europe and in many European colonies." About the
beginning of the nineteenth century pure-bred Spanish rams were
brought to Argentina, and others from France and Saxony. By 1846
the wool had so greatly improved that it was exported to England.
Forty years ago the exports consisted almost entirely of merino
wool, but now seven-eighths is cross-bred. For this change there are
two reasons—firstly, the rich, loamy soil does not suit merinos, which
are apt to deteriorate in rank pastures, and, secondly, the trade in
frozen meat has made such enormous strides that estancieros are
anxious to obtain mutton breeds, especially Lincolns. The
Lincolnshire breeders drive a flourishing trade with Buenos Aires,
and as much as 1,000 guineas is often given for a ram. There used
to be a prejudice in Bradford against Argentine wool,[100] but it is
disappearing, although the Australian product still fetches a
somewhat higher price.
 LINCOLN CHAMPION. EXHIBITED BY MR. M. J. COBO.

The improvements which of late years have been introduced into

sheep-breeding and sheep-farming are very remarkable, and they
are partly due to the efforts of immigrants from New Zealand who
have introduced effective cures for foot-rot and other diseases.
During the last ten years of the nineteenth century breeders pinned
their faith almost entirely to Lincolns, and the importations were very
large. Up to 1890 the majority of Argentine sheep were weak cross-
breds, and such good blood as remained had been weakened by
over-crossing. The hardy Lincoln brought health and energy to the
enfeebled mass, and breeders made it their business to rear hardy
sheep and obtain a good average without going to extremes in their
preference for any particular stock. The breeding of sheep has been
greatly benefited by the fact that the estancias have been largely in
English hands[101] and the proprietors have thus introduced hardy
English breeds and good methods.
All over Argentina the intelligent selection of breeds is receiving
great attention. It is now recognised that in an alfafa district a stock-
master should keep cattle rather than flocks, and that such sheep as
he has should be producers of mutton rather than wool. Again, in
the southern districts where the grass is rich and tender, the Lincoln
breed is unsuitable and crossings are favoured with the Romney
Marsh, which counteracts the tendency towards coarseness, and
gives silkiness, closeness, and, to some extent, fineness to the wool.
Thus in Tierra del Fuego the hardy Romney Marsh, imported from
the Falkland Islands, is being bred, and in this inhospitable climate
the sheep keep fat all the year round, even when the snow lies a
foot deep on the ground, for the sheep have learned to scrape the
snow away with their hoofs and find the grass.

AN ESTANCIERO'S HOUSE.

M. Bernandez, to whose valuable work this chapter is indebted,

concludes this subject with the following words: "Thus the moral to
be learned from all this would be, that there is no reason why either
the coarse or fine wools now produced should be abandoned to any
great extent. The coarse can afford to give over a large proportion of
its flock to the evolution, because they are in an immense majority;
but it would not be prudent to go to the other extreme in this
reaction, as the coarse long wool will always have its use, not only in
rough goods but also in the warp of fine cloths, which in the great
mechanical looms has to be extremely strong—a reason that has
prevented the decadence of French wools. The merino, on its side,
has its strongest defence in the singular fact that our woollen
factories import their fine wools in the form of yarn. As soon as
spinning-mills are established in the country, and the customs tariff
combines the interests of the wool-grower with that of the
manufacturer, there will be, in this country alone, more than half a
million sterling at hand for the purchase of the wool produced by our
Rambouillet flocks. It can thus be seen that there is a field for stock-
breeding and industrial art that will cause the development on a
colossal scale of all the breeds comprised in our flocks, and that the
times are singularly propitious for it, as we have at hand in
enormous quantity all the elements tending to good results that can
be offered to capital and to the vigorous enterprise of mankind, with
greater certainty and more favourable auspices than can be obtained
in any other class of business, or in any other part of the world."
[102]
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about testbank and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebooksecure.com