This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: D8269 − 21

Standard Guide for the

Use of Geocells in Geotechnical and Roadway Projects1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D8269; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 1.7 This international standard was developed in accor-

1.1 This guide is intended to cover basic considerations for dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
the use of geocells in various geotechnical and roadway ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
projects to bring a unified understanding of efficient and Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
appropriate ways to utilize this type of ground improvement mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
technology for a variety of geotechnical-related applications, Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
including but not limited to: load support for pavements,
subgrade improvement, slope stability, retaining walls, earth 2. Referenced Documents
retention, and slope and channel protection. Engineers and 2.1 ASTM Standards:2
owners interested in using this manufactured product can refer D1693 Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of
to the information in this guide to learn about key design Ethylene Plastics
principles, properties, mechanisms, and methodologies for
D3895 Test Method for Oxidative-Induction Time of Poly-
applicable geotechnical applications. Geotechnical designs that
olefins by Differential Scanning Calorimetry
incorporate geocells should take into consideration the specific
D4355/D4355M Test Method for Deterioration of Geotex-
attributes of each product. The engineer is encouraged to
utilize design methodologies based on reliable test results and tiles by Exposure to Light, Moisture, and Heat in a Xenon
research. Arc-Type Apparatus
D4439 Terminology for Geosynthetics
1.2 This guide offers a collection of information and does D4595 Test Method for Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by
not recommend a course of action. This guide cannot replace the Wide-Width Strip Method
education or experience, and should be used in conjunction D5199 Test Method for Measuring the Nominal Thickness
with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may of Geosynthetics
be applicable in all circumstances. D5262 Test Method for Determining the Unconfined Ten-
1.3 This guide is not intended to represent or replace the sion Creep and Creep Rupture Behavior of Planar Geo-
standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional synthetics Used for Reinforcement Purposes
service must be judged, nor should this guide be applied D5397 Test Method for Evaluation of Stress Crack Resis-
without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. tance of Polyolefin Geomembranes Using Notched Con-
stant Tensile Load Test
1.4 The word “standard” in the title of this guide means only
that this guide has been approved through the ASTM Interna- D5721 Practice for Air-Oven Aging of Polyolefin Geomem-
tional consensus process. branes
D5885/D5885M Test Method for Oxidative Induction Time
1.5 The values given in SI units are to be regarded as of Polyolefin Geosynthetics by High-Pressure Differential
standard. Values in parentheses are for information only. Scanning Calorimetry
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the D5994/D5994M Test Method for Measuring Core Thickness
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the of Textured Geomembranes
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- D6392 Test Method for Determining the Integrity of Nonre-
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter- inforced Geomembrane Seams Produced Using Thermo-
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Fusion Methods

1 2
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D35 on Geosynthetics For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D35.01 on Mechanical Properties. contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Current edition approved July 15, 2021. Published August 2021. DOI: 10.1520/ Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
D8269-21. the ASTM website.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

1
 D8269 − 21
D6992 Test Method for Accelerated Tensile Creep and 5. Significance and Use
Creep-Rupture of Geosynthetic Materials Based on Time- 5.1 This guide covers applications, support mechanisms,
Temperature Superposition Using the Stepped Isothermal and design principles associated with geocells to help designers
Method and engineers determine when and how to appropriately use
D7238 Test Method for Effect of Exposure of Unreinforced this technology.
Polyolefin Geomembrane Using Fluorescent UV Conden-
sation Apparatus 5.2 A better understanding of the key design principles,
E2254 Test Method for Storage Modulus Calibration of material properties, mechanisms of improvement, and method-
Dynamic Mechanical Analyzers ologies will help engineers and owners interested in using
geocells understand the most efficient and appropriate ways to
2.2 ISO Standards:3 utilize this type of ground improvement for a variety of
ISO 6721-1 Plastics—Determination of Dynamic Mechani- geotechnical-related applications.
cal Properties—Part 1: General Principles
ISO 10319 Geosynthetics—Wide-Width Tensile Test 5.3 This guide does not preclude the judgment and practice
ISO 13426-1 Geotextiles and Geotextile-Related Products— of those competent in geotechnical design.
Strength of Internal Structural Junctions—Part 1: Geocells
6. Overview of the Geocell Technology and Basic
2.3 GRI Standards:4 Construction Considerations
GRI GS13 Guide for Geomembrane-Related Geocell Seam
6.1 Geocells are supplied as a group of connected strips
Strength and Its Efficiency with Respect to the Perforated
(referred to as a “panel” or “section”) that, when opened, form
Sheet Strength
a network of open cells (see Fig. 1). Individual geocell sections
GRI GS15 Specification for Test Methods, Test Properties
can be connected using suitable, manufacturer-approved con-
and Testing Frequency for Geocells Made from High
nection devices that provide sufficient strength to prevent panel
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Strips
separation during installation and throughout the entire design
life. Geocells may differ in terms of their basic physical and
3. Terminology material characteristics, including but not limited to: open
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of common geosynthetics cell/section dimensions, number of cells per unit area (cell
terms used in this guide, refer to Terminology D4439. density), cell depth (height), or presence/absence of perfora-
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: tions or texture. Geocells have been used successfully in
3.2.1 geocell, n—a three-dimensional, compartmentalized, practice since the 1980s. Selection of a geocell product should
polymeric structure having discrete cells that are formed by be based on a detailed evaluation of project-specific needs and
expanding the structure, that is subsequently filled with soil, circumstances as performed by a geotechnical engineer or
aggregate, concrete, pulverized debris, recycled asphalt other qualified professional, and geocell use should be consis-
pavement, or other infill material for geotechnical applications tent with the manufacturer’s recommendations that are based
such as: (1) load support for unpaved and paved roads, on reliable test results and research (1, 2).5
railways, ports, heavy-duty pavements, container yards, and 6.2 Individual cells consist of two strips that are connected
basal embankment stabilization; (2) retaining structures, free- together on either end, and held open prior to filling through
standing structures, and fascia walls; and (3) slope, channel, lateral forces applied to the cell walls from the adjacent sets of
and geomembrane protection. cell walls that are connected to them. In application, two types
of hoops are present in any configuration that involves the
4. Summary of Guide installation of multiple adjoining geocell panels. These include
factory-welded hoops, and mechanically joined hoops using
4.1 This guide covers some of the major considerations
manufacturer-recommended methods (refer to 6.5). Located
associated with the design of geotechnical projects where the
within the body of individual geocell panels, factory-welded
soil, aggregate, concrete, or other infill materials may be
hoops consist of the cell wall material and the seams on either
improved through the three-dimensional mechanical stabiliza-
end. Located around the perimeter of the individual geocell
tion of geocells.
panels, mechanically joined hoops are formed in the field
4.2 Common geocell applications include: (1) load support during connection of adjoining panels. The primary mecha-
for unpaved and paved roads, railways, ports, heavy-duty nism by which geocells provide benefit is through lateral
pavements, container yards, and basal embankment stabiliza- confinement of the infill; therefore, it is necessary that the
tion; (2) retaining structures, free-standing structures, and entire hoop of material that makes up each individual cell and
fascia walls; and (3) slope, channel, and geomembrane protec- the connection devices remains intact during construction and
tion. throughout the life of the structure. The entire hoop, including
the seams, must remain intact and be sufficiently strong to
carry the applied hoop stresses without breaking, deforming
3
Available from International Organization for Standardization (ISO), ISO excessively, relaxing, or degrading during construction and for
Central Secretariat, Chemin de Blandonnet 8, CP 401, 1214 Vernier, Geneva,
Switzerland, https://www.iso.org.
4 5
Available from Geosynthetic Institute (GSI), 475 Kedron Ave, Folsom, PA The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of
19033, https://www.geosynthetic-institute.org. this standard.

2
 D8269 − 21

FIG. 1 Plan View and 3D View of Geocells

(layout of perforations in 3D view may vary between different manufacturers)

the entire design life of the structure. Any of these failure system is similarly influenced by these factors, along with the
modes in either the cell wall, seams, or connectors will allow geometry of the machine-welded geocells (which are not
the infill to expand laterally, rendering individual cells or the exactly circular shaped, as shown in Fig. 1); the number of
entire geocell layer ineffective. adjacent geocells acting in response to an applied load; and the
6.3 Lateral restraint (or confinement) of the infill material is stiffness of system components. In general, with increasing
provided by the hoop of material that forms the cell wall, and numbers of adjacent cells (cell density) surrounding the loca-
the improved lateral support of adjacent cells (that is, the tion of an applied load, the resulting horizontal pressure is
slab/mattress effect), as reported in Refs (3-6). The suitability distributed over a wider area. Emersleben and Meyer (7)
of the geocell in specific design cases and the magnitude of observed that the horizontal pressure in a single cell was
confinement provided by the geocell are directly dependent on distributed to the 24 closest surrounding cells, exemplifying
the key material properties outlined in 6.8, the geometry of the the mattress effect of the composite behavior. Individual cells
individual cells, and the position of the geocell layer within the limit lateral movement of the infill, which reduces vertical
geotechnical structure. settlement and increases stiffness within the reinforced layer.
As these individual cells work in concert with other adjacent
6.4 The mattress effect mentioned in 6.3 relies on the cells (that is, the mattress effect), applied loads are more widely
composite behavior of an integrated infill-geocell system in spread, resulting in a more uniform distribution of applied
which lateral earth pressures are mobilized and transferred
stresses as well as a reduction in the magnitude of these
across a three-dimensional network of interconnected cells. In
stresses to underlying layers, the result of which is a decrease
this regard, the properties of the infill material (that is, particle
in the overall settlement and a reduction in differential settle-
size/distribution, angle of internal friction, relative density,
ment.
etc.) act in conjunction with the discrete elements/
characteristics of the geocell material (comprised of cell walls, 6.5 A single group of geocells has a finite length and width
seams/joints, connection devices, perforations/texture, and in depending on how it was manufactured. As mentioned in 6.1,
some cases, earth anchoring devices) to facilitate the desired a larger continuous area can be covered by attaching single
ground improvement effect. The infill materials, along with groups of geocells to one another from end to end, side to side,
each of the above-referenced discrete elements of the geocell or both. Common methods of attachment include stapling and
system, will each impart some level of influence over system locking devices, as well as the use of specialized manufacturer-
performance. Accordingly, the behavior of the composite specific connection devices. Manufacturer’s recommendations

3
 D8269 − 21
for attachment should be followed as long as they are durable hoop of material forming the cellular structure must remain
and provide sufficient connection strength, pullout/separation intact to ensure adequate performance throughout the design
resistance, resistance to lateral and vertical movement, and life, including both factory-welded hoops and hoops formed as
resistance to node rotation between subsequent geocell groups. a result of connections between adjacent panels.
6.6 Geocell section opening size in the field is determined 6.9 Consideration should be given to the environmental
by the distance that the geocell is stretched from side to side. conditions associated with the design. These conditions include
For typical load support projects, geocells are temporarily held temperature, chemical or environmental contamination, sub-
open by staking the edges in a manner that ensures that all merged conditions, prolonged exposure to sunlight, seismic
geocell openings can be filled. Stakes can be left in place or
activity, etc. The material properties of the geocell should be
removed and reused as the construction advances. Slope and
evaluated under the expected conditions to ensure proper
channel protection applications typically require that perma-
performance throughout the design life. Tests are available to
nent stakes, tendons, or both, be installed to hold the geocells
evaluate environmental stress cracking resistance (ESCR),
in place. Temporary staking, bent frames, or both are typically
used to hold geocells open for retaining wall applications. corrosion resistance (particularly for staples or other types of
metal connectors), and resistance to ultraviolet and oxidation
6.7 The bulk of the background and research information degradation.
used to develop this guide is based on geocells made of
extruded plastic strips. Geocells are also made of nonwoven 6.10 Infill material can include most types of non-plastic
geotextiles (as shown in Fig. 2) and, where appropriate, soils and sand, granular fills, concrete, and recycled materials.
specific guidelines for these materials are also included in the In pavement and retaining wall applications a free-draining
guide. It is important to note that geocells made from different granular fill is typically used, having a wide range of quality,
types of materials, sizes, strengths, etc. may behave or perform including uniformly graded aggregates and recycled materials.
differently from one another; therefore, it is important to Reinforced slope applications may require a graded, free-
understand and utilize proper material properties that relate to draining granular fill. Topsoil can be used in the outer cell if a
its performance for each of the applications outlined below. vegetated fascia is desired. Topsoil, aggregate, and concrete
Manufacturer’s recommendations for each material type can be used as infill for channel protection. The type of infill
should be based on reliable test results and research for their should be based on the slope angle and channel hydraulic
specific material. conditions. Vegetated topsoil is often used in slope protection
6.8 The polymeric properties of the geocell are directly applications. Generally, geocells provide higher benefit when
related to its performance throughout the entire project design lower quality infill is used because the level of improvement
life (3). These properties include tensile strength, tensile compared to fill alone is greater. Nevertheless, the use of
stiffness, resistance to plastic deformation or creep, hoop geocells with high-quality granular layers (in particular for
strength, and environmental durability (as outlined in 6.9). surface transportation applications) may also lead to significant
Because geocells act cooperatively due to the proximity of improvement of surface support with lower deflections, ex-
surrounding cells (that is, mattress effect, see 6.4), it is also tended life in terms of increased traffic, or both. Greater
important to assess the performance benefits imparted to the load-carrying capacity, reduced thicknesses of the structural
entire layer in which the geocell is employed. Accelerated layers, extended life, or combinations thereof can be realized in
methods are available to evaluate and verify long-term perfor- roadway applications through the use of geocells with a wide
mance of the geocell system itself and as part of a complete range of infill quality including inferior materials, which may
solution (for example, rolling wheel load tests, cyclic plate load reduce overall project cost and reduce construction time (5).
tests, and full-scale laboratory test sections) (7-9). Triaxial tests
have also been used to evaluate and understand the strength 6.11 Filling should be done without driving directly on the
properties of the composite geocell-soil system (10). The entire unfilled geocells to avoid damage. Construction equipment can
advance onto the geocells once the infill material is deep
enough to prevent equipment from directly contacting the top
of the geocell. The drop height of infill material into the cells
should be limited to prevent panel distortion. Overfill material
thickness should be determined based on the design or
experience, or both, and should be compacted together with
geocell infill material.
6.12 Compaction should be done in a manner that prevents
damage to the geocell but thoroughly densifies the infill
material with sufficient energy to ensure that further densifica-
tion during the life of the structure is minimized and that hoop
stresses in the geocell walls are engaged. Vibratory compaction
is generally preferred in load support applications to ensure the
geocell infill is adequately densified. Sheepsfoot rollers should
FIG. 2 Nonwoven Geotextile-Based Geocell not be used to compact materials within the geocell-stabilized

4
 D8269 − 21
layer. Compaction requirements may vary depending on the concern. In this case, restricting the accumulated permanent strain in the
specific application, and manufacturer’s instructions should be geocell will ensure that the geocell layer limits settlement, which will
minimize distortion and maintain acceptable performance of the stabilized
consulted. system throughout the design life.
6.13 The primary benefit of geocells used in load support 6.15 Whether or not geocells are used, depending on the
and roadway projects is through increased stiffness of the gradation of the support materials beneath the granular/geocell
stabilized layer achieved by a reduction in volumetric changes layer, it may be necessary to include a geosynthetic separation
of the infill during loading by means of lateral confinement layer to prevent the migration of fines into the stabilized layer
provided by the geocell. The geocell-enhanced layers are or punching of the infill material into softer layers beneath, or
improved through the addition of tensile strength at low strain both.
levels provided by the geocell hoop. The cellular structure
6.16 Geocells made of extruded plastic strips are typically
limits the vertical settlements of the stabilized infill by laterally
perforated and textured, while geocells made from geotextiles
restricting movement of the individual particles (that is, lateral
are oftentimes not perforated. Water flow through geocells
confinement). The ability to maintain low permanent deforma-
made from nonwoven materials depends on their permittivity.
tion levels from applied loads and provide long-term, stable
The configuration of perforations or hole diameters, or combi-
(that is, elastic) confinement of the infill material is directly
nations thereof, in the geocell should ensure adequate confine-
dependent on the ability of the geocell to retain its key material
ment of the infill. Having a distribution of perforations en-
properties (refer to 6.8) and dimensions throughout the design
hances the friction and interlocking of the infill soil and
life. The mattress effect (described in 6.4) allows for improved
reduces stress concentrations, leading to better confinement
load transfer and distribution to underlying layers. The ability
and improved effectiveness of lateral drainage.
of the reinforced layer to maintain low permanent deformation
levels from applied loads and provide long-term, stable (that is, 7. Design Applications
elastic) confinement of the infill material is also dependent on 7.1 Geocells Used as Load Support for Unpaved and Paved
the ability of the composite system to effectively translate Roads, Railways, Ports, Heavy-Duty Pavements, and Basal
applied loads into lateral earth pressures, which are then Embankment Stabilization:
distributed across a three-dimensional network of intercon- 7.1.1 Geocells used in this application are commonly de-
nected cells. An elastic response of the improved layer can be ployed on a horizontal surface using one or more layers to
achieved by limiting loads in the cell walls or seams (or both) strengthen, stabilize, or enhance the load-carrying capability of
below a predetermined threshold, because excessive permanent the trafficked surface, or to enable the use of inferior infill
plastic deformation over the design life or rupture of the seams materials (typically granular and non-plastic materials such as
or cell walls, or both, will limit the benefit of the geocell or sand, poorly graded aggregates, local weak and marginal
cause the structure to fail. non-plastic soils, recycled asphalt pavement, and other waste
6.14 The volume of infill material that can be accommo- products including pond ash, etc.) (12). Load support improve-
dated within individual cells is directly related to the length of ment is provided through a three-dimensional matrix of inter-
hoop of material that forms the cell wall (that is, the cell size) connected cell walls that provide tensile strength (pseudo-
and its height. Changes in the height of the geocell are cohesion) to unbound materials used as infill, resulting in a
negligible, so settlement of the infill over time is primarily a stiffer stabilized layer. Other key improvements provided by
factor of the length of the wall perimeter or geocell hoop. the geocell are the reduction of vertical settlements,
Performance of the geocell depends on the ability of individual deformation, or both by limiting volumetric changes within the
hoops (formed either by mechanical welding or mechanical infill material and added flexural strength of the geocell/infill
joining) to remain intact and to resist stretching during con- composite system (7).
struction and throughout the life of the structure. Limiting 7.1.2 The primary support mechanism of geocells in load
strain in the geocell hoop is the primary mechanism that support applications (for example, roads, railroads, port load-
restrains particle movement within each cell in the lateral ing platforms, etc.) is accomplished through durable lateral
direction (that is, lateral confinement), and results in a direct restraint of soil particles submitted to vertical loads from
reduction of the vertical displacement of the infill (11), as vehicles, as described in 6.3, 6.4, and 6.13. This support
explained in Note 1. A second and important mechanism that mechanism provides a reduction in vertical stress transfer to
helps restrict lateral movements within the geocell layer is the layers beneath and increased support to layers above through-
increased lateral support provided by adjacent cells (that is, the out the entire design life of the structure.
slab/mattress effect), as reported in Refs (3-6) and further 7.1.2.1 In this application, the cell wall perimeter should be
discussed in 6.4. designed to limit the permanent (that is, plastic) hoop strain
over the entire design life in order to limit vertical settlement
NOTE 1—The vertical strain of the reinforced layer is directly related to
the strain in the geocell hoop. Considering a single cell opening, the
(3). It is necessary to evaluate the resistance to accumulated
relationship between the vertical settlement of the infill (or vertical strain, permanent deformation of the entire width of the cell wall (or
εv) and the expansion of the geocell hoop (or hoop strain, εh) is as follows: a representative sample of the entire structural configuration
including perforations, if any) in order to characterize its
ε v 5 ~ 1 1 ε h! 2 2 1 (1)
which results in vertical settlements that are approximately double the long-term behavioral properties.
hoop strain. This concept is especially important for load-bearing appli- 7.1.2.2 The geometry of the individual cells should provide
cations where reduction of settlement or vertical strain is of primary sufficient confinement of the infill material. The primary

5
 D8269 − 21
geometric attributes that affect its ability to provide mechanical 7.1.3.5 Greater Zone of Vertical Influence in the Improved
stability are cell height and the effective diameter of the cell Layer—The zone of influence of the geocell is extended above
opening (13). and below the geocell system where the stabilization mecha-
7.1.3 Design of load support (for example, roads, railways, nism is active. The extent of the zone of influence should be
load platforms) modified by geocells depends on many factors evaluated to quantify its effect on the design.
that should be evaluated through performance testing. 7.1.3.6 Improved Infill Shear Resistance—Improved con-
7.1.3.1 Improved Stiffness—Geocells used directly above a finement increases the shear resistance of infill through transfer
weak subgrade/surface primarily provide benefit by improving of applied vertical loads into geocell hoop stresses.
the stiffness/strength of the soils within the geocell layer, which 7.1.3.7 Reduced Particle Abrasion—Aggregate movement
more widely distributes the applied load, thereby protecting and particle abrasion are minimized through lateral confine-
soils subject to high deformation levels (14). Geocells used in ment and the improved lateral support from adjacent cells due
the subbase and base layers primarily improve the modulus of to the improvement of the infill materials within adjacent cells
the infill material (15). The magnitude of this improvement is (that is, the slab/mattress effect).
dependent on the properties of the geocell material, its 7.1.4 Optional solutions may include the use of geotextiles
dimensions, the strength and depth of the infill, and the strength or geogrids together with a geocell to provide enhanced load
of underlying support layers. For all locations, the geocell support capabilities in areas with expansive soils or very weak
material should maintain its key material properties for signifi- ground (17).
cantly low levels of accumulated permanent deformation for
the entire design life when subjected to the applied design load 7.2 Geocells Used in Retaining Structures, Free-Standing
(see Note 1). Structures, and Fascia Walls:
7.1.3.2 Limited Permanent Deformation—Refer to 6.2, 6.8, 7.2.1 Geocells used in this application are commonly de-
and 6.14. ployed on a horizontal surface using two or more layers in
7.1.3.3 Decreased Vertical Stresses to Lower Layers— order to create a stabilized earthen mass or retaining structure.
Vertical stresses to the subgrade are reduced through increased The four general types of earthen structures using geocells are:
load spread angle of applied traffic loads (16). The increased (1) retaining structures such as gravity walls or steep slopes
magnitude and maintenance of this angle under working loads (geocell stabilization only, Fig. 3(a)); (2) reinforced slopes
is dependent on the stiffness of the material making up the (geocells used in combination with geogrids or geotextiles or
geocell hoop, and the maintenance of this angle is dependent both, Fig. 3(b)); (3) free-standing structures such as acoustic
upon the ability of the geocell to resist accumulated permanent barriers, dams, or levees; and (4) fascia walls (a relatively
deformation over the design life. narrow band of geocells used to protect the slope face or enable
7.1.3.4 Increased Confinement—Lateral confinement of the vegetation, or both). Layers are built directly on top of one
infill materials limits lateral movement and, therefore, limits another and can be positioned to establish a nearly vertical
vertical deformations and settlements. In general, the magni- exposed facing angle. Vegetative infill materials can be used in
tude of confinement increases as cell density increases (that is, the exposed cells on the outside of the finished structure to
smaller cell diameters) (3). Manufacturers’ recommendations, establish face vegetation.
based on reliable test results and research, should be followed 7.2.2 The primary support mechanism of geocells in un-
to ensure confinement. stable slopes is accomplished through durable, multi-layer,

FIG. 3 General Types of Earthen Retaining Structures Using Geocells—(a) Gravity Structure; (b) Geocell-Faced Reinforced
Soil Structure

6
 D8269 − 21
mechanical soil stabilization. The geocell creates a stable mass order to ensure the stability of vegetative, granular, or concrete
of soil that resists active earth pressure, surcharge loads, and infill, or to resist erosive tractive forces from flowing water, or
seismic forces. Constant stresses are realized in the geocell both. The geocell is typically deployed by anchoring the upper
layers due to the vertical soil pressure of the layers above. The portion and extending the material downslope. The upper
geocells resist these constant loads through tensile forces portion of the geocell can be embedded in the upper embank-
developed in the material forming the geocell hoops. The ment to better protect the subsoil beneath the geocell from
stabilization mechanism is outlined in 6.2. The material attri- undermining. An anchoring system along the crest and along
butes directly related to performance in this application are the slope (stakes, tendons, or both, depending on the specific
outlined in 6.8. Consideration should also be given to the application) is typically used to hold the geocell in place for the
environmental conditions associated with the design, as out- entire design life. The contribution of the anchoring system to
lined in 6.9. the overall factor of safety against panel movement is an
7.2.2.1 The ability of the geocell to provide long-term important consideration. Stakes should not be used when
stabilization of earthen retaining structures directly depends on geocells are used directly above a membrane. Geocells made of
its ability to resist accumulated permanent deformation over extruded plastic strips are perforated to provide lateral
time (that is, creep resistance). Each individual geocell hoop drainage, to improve the interaction of infill materials with the
should provide adequate resistance to long-term strain accu- cell wall, and to allow root establishment between adjacent
mulation over the entire design life in order to maintain cells.
sufficient stability, which is highly important in engineered 7.3.2 The primary mechanism of geocells used as erosion
structures such as retaining walls. It is necessary to evaluate the control and channel protection is accomplished by providing a
resistance to long-term deformation of the entire width of the durable, mechanical, three-dimensional barrier to hold the infill
material forming the geocell hoop (or a representative sample in place against sliding down the slope or to resist water
of the entire structural configuration including perforations), as tractive forces on the infill and the entire geocell protection
well as the anticipated hoop loads, in order to characterize its system for the entire design life, or both (24). The geocell is
behavioral properties. Accelerated methods are available to continuously loaded in tension due to infill sliding forces, and
evaluate long-term performance (18-20). can also experience tractive forces (parallel to the direction of
7.2.2.2 The geometry of the individual cells should provide flow) in the case of water flow in channels. It is important to
sufficient confinement of the infill material. The primary note that the anchoring systems are a designed element used to
geometric attributes necessary to ensure adequate mechanical hold the geocell in place to resist downslope sliding forces or
stability for this application are outlined in 6.14 and 6.16. tractive water forces due to flowing water, or both.
7.2.3 Design of retaining structures using geocells depends 7.3.3 Downslope infill retention against movement is ac-
on several factors that should be evaluated through perfor- complished through tensile hoop strength provided by the cell
mance testing and common engineering methods. Typically, walls and seams and properly designed anchoring and connec-
the minimum width of a geocell wall should include at least tion systems. The suitability of the geocell in a specific design
three cells, depending on the wall height (21). The actual width case is directly dependent on the key attributes of the geocell
of the retaining structure is determined from the design. as outlined in 6.8 and the geometry of the individual cells.
7.2.3.1 When properly designed, gravity retaining walls Consideration should also be given to the environmental
made from geocell-stabilized layers are typically suitable for conditions associated with the design, as outlined in 6.9.
several feet (meters) of slope height (based on design and 7.3.3.1 The dynamic tensile properties of the polymer used
economic considerations) when no additional reinforcement to form the geocell hoop (cell wall and welds) are primarily
elements are used. The stabilized soil mass will retain its used to ensure adequate fatigue resistance for applications
stability if it is properly compacted and the creep resistance of involving water flow. Adequate tensile modulus also ensures
the geocell wall material is limited to low strains. The that elastic deformations downslope are limited.
deformation properties of the entire system of geocell-
enhanced layers should be evaluated to ensure long-term 7.3.3.2 The ability of the geocell to provide long-term
stability of the structure. Biaxial and uniaxial geogrids and stabilization in this application directly depends on its ability to
geotextiles can be used to further reinforce geocell retaining resist accumulated permanent deformation. Geocells that
walls to achieve greater heights based on design and economic expand, distort, or experience seam failures over time may lose
considerations. The length and strength of each planar geosyn- their ability to provide adequate erosion control by allowing
thetic layer should be selected to accommodate the magnitude the stabilized soil layer to move down the slope (that is,
of the active pressure applied at specific elevations. erosion). Settlement and erosion of the infill also exposes the
geocell, which can be aesthetically displeasing, and subjects it
7.2.3.2 Direct sliding, overturning, rotational failures, bear-
to additional environmental degradation. The cell walls should
ing capacity, and seismic stability need to be evaluated to
limit the accumulated permanent strain over the entire design
ensure global and internal stability of the stabilized earth mass
life in order to maintain proper cell dimensions and keep infill
(22, 23).
material stationary. It is necessary to evaluate its tensile
7.3 Geocells Used as Erosion Control and Channel Protec- properties and its resistance to long-term strain accumulation
tion: for the entire width of the geocell wall (or a representative
7.3.1 Geocells used in this application are commonly de- sample of the entire structural configuration including
ployed on horizontal or sloped surfaces using a single layer in perforations, if any) in order to properly characterize its

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behavioral properties. Verification of the anchoring system’s 8.1.5 Length and width of section.
ability to resist movement and distortion of the geocell 8.1.6 Number of cells per unit area.
throughout the life of the structure is also necessary to ensure 8.1.7 Perforations.
long-term stability. It is also necessary to ensure the seams and 8.1.7.1 Perforation pattern.
mechanical connections used to connect the panels together are 8.1.7.2 Perforation diameter.
stable over time and have sufficient strength to withstand the 8.1.7.3 Perforation spacing.
applied forces.
7.3.3.3 The geometry of the individual cells should provide 8.2 Key Design Properties—(Relevant test methods are
sufficient infill retention along the slope face and durable referenced below. Modifications to test methods listed below
resistance to tractive forces from water flow. The primary are mainly to accommodate specific attributes of geocells.)
geometric attributes that affect its ability to provide mechanical 8.2.1 Elastic/dynamic tensile properties of the polymeric
stability are the cell height and the effective diameter of the cell material (ISO 6721-1, Test Method E2254).
opening. The configuration, size, and number of perforations 8.2.2 Tensile strength of the cell wall with and without
on the geocell walls are important for lateral drainage and to perforations, if any (ISO 10319, modified; Test Method D4595,
enhance interlocking with the infill material, as outlined in modified)
6.16. 8.2.3 Resistance to accumulated permanent deformation or
7.3.3.4 Because the geocell system is located directly below creep (Test Method D6992; Test Method D5262, modified)
the surface in these applications, the design should consider 8.3 Quality Control and Quality Assurance Testing—
provisions for other temperature-related effects such as flowing (Relevant test methods are referenced below. Modifications to
debris, frost and ice formation, ice transport, etc. test methods listed below are mainly to accommodate specific
7.3.4 Design of erosion control using geocells depends on attributes of geocells.)
several factors that should be evaluated through performance 8.3.1 Geocells undergo both manufacturing quality control
testing, and common engineering methods. (MQC) and manufacturing quality assurance (MQA) testing.
7.3.4.1 Geocells are typically used as a cover protection MQC is a planned system of inspections that is used to directly
system for inclined slopes. The geocell structure resists monitor and control the manufacture of a material that is
downslope sliding forces that are caused by infill weight factory originated. MQC is normally performed by the
through friction of the geocell/infill composite on the slope manufacturer, and is necessary to ensure that the material is
face and an array of anchors or tendons, or combinations manufactured within specified statistical process control limits.
thereof, anchored along the crest of the slope or berms along In contrast, MQA is a planned system of activities that provides
the slope. The configuration of the geocell and the required assurance that the materials were made as specified in the
anchoring method to the slope should ensure a sufficient factor certification documents and contract specifications. MQA in-
of safety against downslope sliding (22). cludes manufacturing facility inspections, verifications, audits,
7.3.4.2 Geocells filled with concrete are typically used as and evaluation of the raw materials (resins and additives) and
erosion control and slope protection for inclined slopes and geosynthetic products to assess the quality of the manufactured
beds associated with waterway channels subjected to hydraulic materials. Within this context, it is important to ensure that the
flows and tractive forces. The geocell structure creates a geocells are resistant to environmental degradation and manu-
durable protective cover to resist the erosive tractive forces factured for long-term durability. Examples of typical tests
caused by water flow. The configuration of the geocell and the include density, polymer density, environmental stress cracking
required anchoring method to the side slopes and bed of the resistance (ESCR), carbon black content, carbon black
channel should ensure a sufficient factor of safety against dispersion, oxidative induction time by differential scanning
downslope sliding and hydraulic tractive forces. Anchoring calorimetry, molecular weight, and coefficient of thermal
components and panel connection devices should be suitable expansion (GRI GS15).
for high-pH environments present during concrete curing. 8.3.2 Seam connection strength at an opening angle repre-
7.3.4.3 The ability of the geocell to provide long-term, sentative of the installed angle, based on the manufacturer’s
stable confinement of the infill material and therefore, adequate recommended opening cell size (Part C of ISO 13426-1), to
protection of the slope or channel, depends on the ability of the ensure adequate seam strength during construction and under
geocell hoop to resist changes in dimensional stability over the working loads.
life of the structure as well as a stable anchoring and connec- 8.3.3 Stress cracking resistance by Test Method D5397 for
tion system. geocells made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and poly-
propylene (PP).
8. Material Properties and Testing 8.3.4 Resistance of geocells to environmental stress crack-
8.1 Geometric Properties: ing of ethylene plastics by Test Method D1693.
8.1.1 Cell height. 8.3.5 Seam peel strength (GRI GS13; Test Method D6392,
8.1.2 Nominal sheet thickness before texturing (Test modified).
Method D5199). 8.4 Environmental Durability—(Relevant test methods are
8.1.3 Nominal sheet thickness after texturing (Test Method referenced below.)
D5994/D5994M). 8.4.1 Resistance to ultraviolet degradation (Test Method
8.1.4 Distance between connection seams. D7238 or Practice D5721) and oxidation degradation (Test

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 D8269 − 21
Method D3895 or D5885/D5885M) by accelerated methods for geotechnical engineering; ground improvement; mechanically
geocells made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and poly- stabilized earth; modulus improvement; pavements; ports;
propylene (PP). railways; reinforced slopes; retaining wall; roadways; slope
8.4.2 Resistance to ultraviolet degradation (Test Method protection; stabilization; three-dimensional mechanical stabili-
D4355/D4355M), and carboxyl end group and molecular zation
weight limits for geocells made of polyester (PET).
9. Keywords
9.1 bearing capacity improvement; cellular confinement;
channel protection; erosion control; geocell; geosynthetic;

REFERENCES

(1) Hegde, A., and Sitharam, T. G., “Three-Dimensional Numerical Geocell-Reinforced Pavements,” International Journal of Geotech-
Analysis of Geocell-Reinforced Soft Clay Beds by Considering the nical Engineering, Vol 13, No. 3, 2019, pp. 277–286.
Actual Geometry of Geocell Pockets,” Canadian Geotechnical (14) Zhang, L., Zhao, M., Shi, C., and Zhao, H., “Bearing Capacity of
Journal, Vol 52, No. 9, 2015, pp. 1396–1407. Geocell Reinforcement in Embankment Engineering,” Geotextiles
(2) Yang, X., “An Assessment of the Geometry Effect of Geosynthetics and Geomembranes, Vol 28, No. 5, 2010, pp. 475–482.
for Base Course Reinforcements,” International Journal of Transpor- (15) Rajagopal, K., Chandramouli, S., Parayil, A., and Iniyan K., “Studies
tation Science and Technology, Vol 1, No. 3, 2012, pp. 247–257. on Geosynthetic-Reinforced Road Pavement Structures,” Interna-
(3) Hegde, A., “Geocell Reinforced Foundation Beds—Past Findings, tional Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol 8, No. 3, 2014, pp.
Present Trends and Future Prospects: A State-of-the-Art Review,” 287–298.
Construction and Building Materials, Vol 154, 2017, pp. 658–674. (16) Leshchinsky, B., Ling H., “Effects of Geocell Confinement on
(4) Tang, X. and Yang, M., “Investigation of Flexural Behavior of Geocell Strength and Deformation Behavior of Gravel,” Journal of Geotech-
Reinforcement Using Three-Layered Beam Model Testing,” Geotech- nical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol 139, No. 2, 2013, pp.
nical and Geological Engineering, Vol 31, No. 2, 2013, pp. 753–765. 340–352.
(5) Han, J., Pokharel, S. K., Yang, X., and Thakur, J., “Unpaved Roads: (17) Dash, S. K., Sireesh, S., and Sitharam, T. G., “Model Studies on
Tough Cell—Geosynthetic Reinforcement Shows Strong Promise,” Circular Footing Supported on Geocell Reinforced Sand Underlain
Roads and Bridges, Vol 49, No. 7, 2011, pp. 40–43. by Soft Clay,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol 21, No. 4, 2003,
(6) Dash, S. K., Rajagopal, K., and Krishnaswamy, N. R., “Behaviour of pp. 197–219.
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Geotechnical Journal, Vol 44, No. 7, 2007, pp. 905–916. Geosynthetics,” Geosynthetic Institute, GSI White Paper #29, July
(7) Emersleben, A. and Meyer, M., “Interaction Between Hoop Stresses 26, 2014.
and Passive Earth Resistance in Single and Multiple Geocell (19) Thornton, J. S., Paulson, J. N., and Sandri, D., “Conventional and
Structures,” GIGSA GeoAfrica 2009 Conference, Cape Town, South Stepped Isothermal Methods for Characterizing Long Term Creep
Africa, September 2–5, 2009. Strength of Polyester Geogrids,” Proceedings of the Sixth Interna-
(8) Han, J., Thakur, J. K., Parsons, R. L., Pokharel, S. K., Leshchinsky, tional Conference on Geosynthetics, IFAI, Atlanta, 1998, pp.
D., and Yang, X., “A Summary of Research on Geocell-Reinforced 691–698.
Base Courses,” Proceedings of Design and Practice of Geosynthetic- (20) Thornton, J. S., Allen, S. R., Thomas, R. W., and Sandri, D., “The
Reinforced Soil Structures, Eds. Ling, H., Gottardi, G., Cazzuffi, D, Stepped Isothermal Method for Time-Temperature Superposition
Han, J., and Tatsuoka, F., Bologna, Italy, October 14–16, 2013, pp. and Its Application to Creep Data on Polyester Yarn,” Proceedings of
351–358. the Sixth International Conference on Geosynthetics, IFAI, Atlanta,
(9) Pokharel, S. K., Han, J., Manandhar, C., Yang, X. M., Leshchinsky, 1998, pp. 699–706.
D., Halahmi, I., and Parsons, R. L., “Accelerated Pavement Testing of (21) Ling, H. I., Leshchinsky, D., Wang, J. P., Mohri, Y., Rosen, A.,
Geocell-Reinforced Unpaved Roads Over Weak Subgrade,” Trans- “Seismic Response of Geocell Retaining Walls: Experimental
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(10) Bathurst, R. J. and Karpurapu, R., “Large-Scale Triaxial Compres- Engineering, Vol 135, No. 4, 2009, pp. 515–524.
sion Testing of Geocell-Reinforced Granular Soils,” Geotechnical (22) Mehdipour, I., Ghazavi, M., and Ziaie Moayed, R., “Stability
Testing Journal, Vol 16, No. 3, 1993, pp. 296–303. Analysis of Geocell-Reinforced Slopes Using the Limit Equilibrium
(11) Hegde, A. and Sitharam, T. G., “Joint Strength and Wall Deformation Horizontal Slice Method,” International Journal of Geomechanics,
Characteristics of a Single-Cell Geocell Subjected to Uniaxial Vol 17, No. 9, 2017.
Compression,” International Journal of Geomechanics, Vol 15, No. (23) Leshchinsky, D., “Research and Innovation: Seismic Performance of
5, 2015. Various Geocell Earth-Retention Systems,” Geosynthetics, Vol 27,
(12) Han, J., Pokharel, S. K., Parsons, R. L., Leshchinsky, D., and No. 4, 2009, pp. 46–52.
Halahmi I., “Effect of Infill Material on the Performance of Geocell- (24) Han, J. and Guo, J., “Geosynthetic-Stabilized Vegetated Earth
Reinforced Bases,” 9th International Conference on Geosynthetics, Surfaces for Environmental Sustainability in Civil Engineering,”
ICG 2010, Brazil, May 23–27, 2010. Innovative Materials and Design for Sustainable Transportation
(13) Mamatha, K. H. and Dinesh, S. V., “Performance Evaluation of Infrastructure, 2015.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

The references listed below provide additional information on the use of geocells in geotechnical projects and performance evaluations
conducted by research laboratories.

(1) Al-Qadi, I. L. and Hughes, J. J., “Field Evaluation of Geocell Use in (17) Oliaei, M., Kouzegaran, S., “Efficiency of Cellular Geosynthetics for
Flexible Pavements,” Transportation Research Record: Journal of Foundation Reinforcement,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol
Transportation Research Board, Vol 1709, 2000, pp. 26–35. 45, No. 2, 2017, pp. 11–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/
(2) Chowdhury, S. and Shakti, S., “A Review of Studies on Geocell- j.geotexmem.2016.11.001.
Reinforced Foundations,” Research Journal of Recent Sciences, Vol (18) Palese, J. W., Zarembski, A. M., Thompson, H., Pagano, W., and
4, 2015, pp. 24–30. Ling, H. I., “Life Cycle Benefits of Subgrade Reinforcement Us-
(3) Emersleben, A. and Meyer, N., “The Use of Geocells in Road ing Geocell on a Highspeed Railway—A Case Study,” AREMA
Constructions Over Soft Soil: Vertical Stress and Falling Weight Conference Proceedings, American Railway Engineering and
Deflectometer Measurements,” EuroGeo4 Paper No. 132, 2008, 8 Maintenance-of-Way Association, Indianapolis, IN, USA, Septem-
pp. ber 2017.
(4) Futai, M. M., Bueno, B. S., and Avesani Neto, J. O., “Evaluation of (19) Pokharel, S. K., “Experimental Study on Geocell-Reinforced
a Calculation Method for Embankments Reinforced with Geocells Bases under Static and Dynamic Loading,” PhD dissertation, Uni-
Over Soft Soils Using Finite-Element Analysis,” Geosynthetics versity of Kansas, Dept. of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural
International, Vol 22, No. 6, 2015, pp. 439–451, https://doi.org/ Engineering, 2010.
10.1680/gein.15.00024. (20) Pokharel, S. K., Martin, I., Norouzi, M., and Breault, M., “Sus-
(5) Han, J., Thakur, J. K, Corey, R., Christopher, B. R., Khatri, D., tainable Road Construction for Heavy Traffic Using High Strength
and Acharya, B., “Assessment of QC/QA Technologies for Evalu- Polymeric Geocells,” Resilient Infrastructure Conference
ating Properties and Performance of Geosynthetics in Roadway Proceedings, London, 2016, pp. 118-1 to 9.
Systems,” GeoCongress 2012: State of the Art and Practice in (21) Saride, S., George, A. M. V., Vinay K., and Puppala, A. J., “Ex-
Geotechnical Engineering, GSP 225, 2012. perimental and Numerical Evaluation of Reinforcement Mecha-
(6) Han, J., Acharya, B., Thakur, J. K, Parsons, R. “Onsite Use of nism of Geocells,” Transportation Research Board 96th Annual
Recycled Asphalt Pavement Materials and Geocells to Reconstruct Meeting, Washington, DC, USA, 2017.
Pavements Damaged by Heavy Trucks,” Mid-America Transporta- (22) Saride, S., Rayabharapu, V. L. and Suraj, V., “Evaluation of Rutting
tion Center Report 462, 2012. Behaviour of Geocell Reinforced Sand Subgrades Under Repeated
(7) Henry, K. S., Olson, J. P., Farrington, S. P., and Lens, J., “Im- Loading,” Indian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 45, No. 4, 2015,
proved Performance of Unpaved Roads During Spring Thaw,” https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-014-0120-8.
USACE ERDC/CRREL TR-05-1, Engineer Research and Develop- (23) Tafreshi, S. N. M., Shaghaghi, T., Mehrjardi, G. T., Dawson, A. R.,
ment Center, Cold Region Research and Engineering Laboratory, and Ghadrdan, M., “A Simplified Method for Predicting the Settle-
Hanover, NH, 2005. ment of Circular Footings on Multi-Layered Geocell-Reinforced
(8) Kief, O., “Hybrid Geosynthetic Solution for Rail Track on Expan- Non-Cohesive Soils,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol 43, No.
sive Clay,” Geosynthetics 2015 Conference Proceedings, Portland, 4, 2015, pp. 332–344, https://doi.org/10.1016/
OR, February 2015. j.geotexmem.2015.04.006.
(9) Kief, O., “Structural Pavement Design with Geocells Made of (24) Thakur, J. K., Han, J., Pokharel, S. K., and Parsons, R. L.,
Novel Polymeric Alloy,” Geosynthetics 2015 Conference “Performance of Geocell-Reinforced Recycled Asphalt Pavement
Proceedings, Portland, OR, February 2015. (RAP) Bases Over Weak Subgrade Under Cyclic Plate Loading,”
(10) Mengelt, M. J., Edil, T. B., and Benson, C. H., “Reinforcement of Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol 35, 2012, pp. 14–24, https://
Flexible Pavements Using Geocells,” Geo Engineering Report No. doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2012.06.004.
00-04, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 2000. (25) Vega, E., van Gurp, C., Kwast, E., “Geokunststoffen als Funder-
(11) Mengelt, M. J., Edil, T. B., and Benson, C. H., “Resilient Modulus ingswapening in Ongebonden Funderingslagen (Geosynthetics for
and Plastic Deformation of Soil Confined in a Geocell,” Geosynthet- Reinforcement of Unbound Base and Subbase Pavement Layers),”
ics International, Vol 13, No. 5, 2006, pp. 195–205. SBRCURnet (CROW), Netherlands, 2018 (written in Dutch).
(12) Mhaiskar, S. Y. and Mandal, J. N., “Comparison of Geocell and (26) Webster, S. L., “Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability En-
Horizontal Inclusion for Paved Road Structure,” Earth Reinforce- hancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Rein-
ment Practice, Ochiai, Hayashi and Otani, Balkema, Rotterdam, forcement Concepts—Report 1, Sand Test Sections 1 and 2,”
1992. Technical Report GL-79-20, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army
(13) Mhaiskar, S. Y. and Mandal, J. N., “Subgrade Stabilization Using Corps of Engineers Waterways Experimentation Station,
Geocells,” ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, Vol 2, No. 30, Vicksburg, MS, 1979.
1992, pp. 1092–1103. (27) Webster, S. L., “Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability En-
(14) Mhaiskar, S. Y., and Mandal, J. N., “Three Dimensional Geocell hancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Rein-
Structure: Performance Under Repetitive Loads,” 5th International forcement Concepts—Report 2, Sand Test Sections 3 and 4,”
Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes, and Related Products, Technical Report GL-79-20, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army
Singapore, 1994, pp. 155–158. Corps of Engineers Waterways Experimentation Station,
(15) Mhaiskar, S. Y. and Mandal, J. N., “Investigation on Soft Clay Vicksburg, MS, 1979.
Subgrade Strengthening Using Geocells,” Construction and Building (28) White, D., Vennapusa, P. Han, J., Christopher, B., Gieselman, H.,
Materials, Vol 10, No. 4, 1996, pp. 281–286. Wang, S., Rilko, W., Becker, P., Horhota, D., Pokharel, S., Thakur,
(16) Mitchell, J. K., Kao, T. C., and Kavazanjian, E., “Analysis of Grid J., “Geotechnical Solutions for Soil Improvement, Rapid Embank-
Cell Reinforced Pavement Bases,” Report GL-79-8, Geotechnical ment Construction, and Stabilization of the Pavement Working
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