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ISSN: 2995-8067 Journal Ethnomedicine | Ecosystem Resilience | Ethology | TOPIC(S)

Article Information Review Article

Submitted: November 27, 2023
Approved: December 20, 2023 Indigenous Environmental
Published: December 21, 2023

How to cite this article: Machiridza LH. Indigenous

Resilience: Decoding Ancient
Rozvi Wisdom on Mountain
Environmental Resilience: Decoding Ancient Rozvi
Wisdom on Mountain Ecosystems as Disaster
Management Solutions. IgMin Res. Dec 21, 2023; 1(2):
143-153. IgMin ID: igmin130; DOI: 10.61927/igmin130; Ecosystems as Disaster
Available at:
www.igminresearch.com/articles/pdf/igmin130.pdf
Management Solutions
Copyright license: © 2023 Machiridza LH. This is an
Lesley Hatipone Machiridza1,2*
open access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted Alexander von Humboldt Post-Doctoral Fellow, Institute of African Studies and
1

use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, Egyptology, University of Cologne Albertus-Magnus-Platz, D – 50923, Cologne,
Germany
provided the original work is properly cited.
Senior Lecturer, Department of Development Studies, History and Archaeology,
2

Keywords: Rozvi; IKS; Climate change; Mountains; Simon Muzenda School of Arts, Culture and Heritage Great Zimbabwe University,
Chirumhanzu Road, Mashava, Zimbabwe
Disaster solutions
*Correspondence: Lesley Hatipone Machiridza, Alexander von Humboldt Post-
Doctoral Fellow, Institute of African Studies and Egyptology, University of Cologne
Albertus-Magnus-Platz, D – 50923, Cologne, Germany, Senior Lecturer,
Department of Development Studies, History and Archaeology, Simon Muzenda
School of Arts, Culture and Heritage Great Zimbabwe University, Chirumhanzu
Road, Mashava, Zimbabwe, Email: lesley.machiridza@gmail;
lmachiri@uni-koeln.de, lmachiridza@gzu.ac.zw

Abstract
Since time immemorial, Indigenous communities have always perceived the landscape as a complex web of living, physical, and spiritual things.
These communities have always relied on their Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), emphasizing ancestral burial grounds, mountains, caves, rivers,
pools, forests, monuments, and other cultural diacritics as symbols of place identity. In addition, myriad metaphors like taboos, legends, tales, folklore,
myths, proverbs, stories, and practices, also constituted an integral part of Indigenous cultural and nature connections. This heritage was constantly
imagined and configured to cement human-nature relations. However, the advent of colonialism severely violated this status quo, thereby causing
deep environmental, political, and social crises. Through imposing a hegemonic scientific paradigm, knowledge compartmentalization, and capitalist
aggrandizing practices, the original harmonious human-nature praxis premised on IKS was disrupted. To this day, the exclusionary colonial legacy
and poisoned ‘sense of place’ remains our greatest threat to climate and environmental stability. Thus, this paper advocates for the recentralization of
IKS as a valid way of knowing with already inbuilt human and natural disaster management solutions. By pivoting Rozvi narratives premised on five
mountains, namely; Manyanga in Bubi district, Mavangwe, MunwewaMwari and Bepe in Buhera district, and Mutikwiri in Maungwe near Rusape town,
all situated in former Butua/Guruuswa regions of Zimbabwe as case studies, the power of ancient wisdom as a holistic epistemic approach towards
sustainable human-nature relations is explicated.

Introduction capacities. Against this background, calls for concerted global

action to counter climate change have been amplified, though
The rising global temperatures, warming oceans, melting the colonial legacy remains our biggest stumbling block [1,3,4].
northern Hemisphere snow cover, decreasing sea ice cover, rising Nonetheless, global discourses on climate change are crystalizing
seawater and ocean acidification levels, and myriad extreme into two epistemological dichotomies, which, though different,
weather conditions all attest to dramatic climate change patterns weld great potential if integrated. Respectively, on one extreme
[1,2]. Implicitly, these environmental shifts negatively affect end, is the futuristic Western ‘modern’ scientific and technological
farming and hunting patterns, food and water availability, forest approach premised on strict statistical or numerical measurements,
conservation, animal habitats and biodiversity, infrastructure observations, and monitoring systems of the global environment
development, human health, and life itself. Regrettably, the worst [3-5]. On the other hand, Indigenous narratives are yearning to
affected lives and livelihoods are those of the poor and marginalized return to a pre-modern past as a strategy to enhance community
communities with limited human and natural disaster response self-determination against local climate change [5,6]. While the

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former epistemology places great emphasis on facts, objectivity,

place-less-ness, and universality, the latter downplays a focus on
facts in favor of a comprehensive appreciation of local languages,
beliefs, meanings, values, and geographical contexts [4,7,8].

More so, while the scientific approach pays particular attention

to the physical environmental realities for predictive modeling
purposes, IKS tends to prioritize both the visible and invisible
aspects of society and nature. Hence, this implies that IKS is
premised on a conscious awareness of past, present, and future
realities. Instead of respectfully engaging with both epistemological
paradigms in attempts to find lasting solutions to climate change
and associated impacts, scientists and policy-makers have tended
to privilege their own worldview to their detriment [5]. IKS are
not necessarily ‘alternative knowledge’ but critical knowledge
at par with the Western academy, whose resilience transcends
generations of balanced human-nature relations. Since traditional
knowledge systems are naturally tied to the natural environment,
they are already positively disposed towards ensuring human
resilience mechanisms [2,6]. If truth be told, climate change and
its associated impacts have largely been aggravated by the spread
of colonial ideologies and capitalism, not Indigenous communities Figure 1: Butua/Guruuswa regions are cited in narratives as Rozvi ancestral lands.
[7]. To make matters worse, Indigenous communities that
have had very little to do with this rapid environmental damage Colonial violence, geography and climate change
continue to face marginalization at global climate change forums
[1,9]. This regrettable state of affairs can only be meaningfully Before the advent of colonialism, the relationship between
redressed by closely engaging with Indigenous people and focusing humankind and nature was in equilibrium. The secret behind this
on understanding IKS as an equally valid community archive with environmental stability lay in the original state of IKS. By advocating
immense potential to slow down climate change and reduce its for sustained interconnectedness and balance between all aspects
impacts [2]. This paper attempts to do just that by adopting a of life and creation, this knowledge ensured the endurance of
decolonial paradigm towards revitalizing Indigenous knowledge community ties to the land, biodiversity, and cosmology. Such
for local community and global environmental benefit. knowledge also guaranteed a sustainable vibrant relationship
between people, their ecosystems, ‘other beings’, and spirits
Therefore, the scheduled discussion begins by critically sharing the same lands [11,14]. As Cameron, et al. [7] elaborate,
exploring the numerous biases inherent in the colonial library among Indigenous communities, the earth is always alive, imbued
about Indigenous philosophies and worldviews. Colonial research with spirit, and it forever remains a special borrowed gift from
and education were not only rude to Indigenous communities but future generations. Owing to this intergenerational mentality and
disruptive, misinformed, and worthless to their socio-cultural deep sense of environmental responsibility, about 370 million
practices and development [10-12]. Smith [12] further argues Indigenous people occupying 24% of the global land account for
that from an Indigenous perspective, the word ‘research’ remains 80% of the world’s biodiversity [9]. In view of this reality, it now
one of the dirtiest terms in their vocabulary. Under this colonial suffices to also affirm that colonialism and capitalism deserve full
hegemonic framework, the scientist often behaved like a ‘spectator’ condemnation as lead causes for climate change [2,4,6-8]. Indeed,
who observed, interviewed, and described Indigenous people with colonialism severely disrupted Indigenous people’s sense of
total disregard for their cultural meanings and values [3,13]. Often, identity, spirituality, and resilience premised on intimate nature,
these scientists imposed their own preconceived imaginations that culture, and ecosystem interactions. Furthermore, in attempts
contradicted Indigenous reality. Such colonial mischief towards to claim space and create ‘new places’ from usurped territories,
IKS deserves outright condemnation, especially considering that imperial and colonial agents often blatantly denied, ignored, and
Indigenous people had always relied on their knowledge systems
erased all forms of Indigenous knowing and pre-existence [12].
for millennia to feed themselves and live in perfect harmony
with nature [9]. With special reference to Rozvi narratives woven Until today, the agents of colonialism stand accused of
around their ancestral Butua/Guruuswa regions (Figure 1), five manufacturing enduring falsehoods like Indigenous people
mountains including Manyanga in Bubi district, Mavangwe, lacked landscape knowledge, memory, and connection. Thus, they
MunwewaMwari and Bepe in Buhera district, and Mutikwiri in dismissed and ignored Indigenous people’s history as mere gossip
Maungwe near Rusape town, Zimbabwe; the power of ancient [12,15-17]. More so, the historically colonized and marginalized
wisdom in maintaining human-nature relations is explored. Rozvi were forced to reject their own culture and heritage in order
narratives are critiqued as parallel scientific tools that variably to fully embrace Euro-western worldviews. In this respect, the
described, monitored, and documented the environment, and also colonial administration and its associates manipulated systems of
regulated community behavior to safeguard the climate and avoid education to condemn everything Indigenous while simultaneously
both human and natural disasters. reifying their own culture. This way, academia was weaponized

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to institutionalize, legitimize, and disseminate the hegemonic new worldview meant the beginning of radical shifts in traditional
ideologies of colonialists [18]. As a common practice, Indigenous ways of viewing ecosystems [6]. Even today, the colonial legacy
cultures were defined as inferior, backward, and barbaric, while continues to threaten the environment through extensive forest
their knowledge systems were compartmentalized and treated as fires and clearances for commercial purposes, mineral exploitation,
unscientific, illogical, anti-developmental and ungodly [11,19] No industrial production, and the alteration of hydrological cycles,
doubt, the collective memory of imperialism sought to present among other challenges [2,4,7]. The dramatic impact of these
Indigenous forms of knowing as localized, traditional, peasant, factors on the environment continues to worsen, so humanity
folk, irrational, backward, and obsolete knowledge [10,12,20]. needs to respond urgently by imagining creative solutions. In
Respectively, colonial forces not only succeeded in separating line with this goal, this paper adopts a decolonial Indigenizing
Indigenous people from each other but also in disconnecting them epistemological and methodological approach that centralizes
from their culture and nature relations, factors, which gradually narratives as the most powerful environmental management and
degenerated into a deep environmental crisis. Of late, many are protection tools.
beginning to realize and accept the view that one of the greatest
colonial atrocities that continues to haunt us is the separation of
Restoring the broken threads: An indigenous decolo-
culture from nature.
nial paradigm

As part of dispossessing Indigenous people, claiming their land,

Closely aligned to these colonial shenanigans was the
and assimilating them, imperialists launched a barrage of attacks
entrenchment of superficial Western ‘superiority’ complexes
on their backbone of survivance, namely knowledge systems [8,12].
through the development and usage of dubious classification
Although colonial scholars largely misunderstood IKS, they still
systems, binary oppositions, and hierarchical ordering of
had the power to entrench epistemic violence against what they
knowledge systems [12,16,21]. Several scholars remain trapped
poorly knew [5]. In particular, these academics and many others
in these colonial constructions and struggle to find a possible way
alike assumed that Indigenous narratives literally communicated
out [5]. For instance, Shizha [10,11] informs us that all knowledge
‘facts’ about the physical world, yet they metaphorically expressed
systems are scientific and started as Indigenous, but the dominant
‘values and beliefs’ through local languages [1,3,5,15]. Hershey, et al.
forces reified their own as more scientifically sophisticated.
[23] further add that the Indigenous body of knowledge is complex
Although academic discipline boundaries are good, sometimes
because it contrasts with the Western body of knowledge about what
they create unnecessary knowledge compartments and barriers
counts as reality, reliability, and results. For instance, Indigenous
that scholars and the public often struggle to navigate and reconcile.
and Western ideas about space and time are contradictory. The
It, therefore, goes without saying that the Western academy
former views these as relational and dynamic, meaning, narratives
remains elitist and way out of reach for the majority of Indigenous
can be flattened, wrung out, and simplified [23,26]. In contrast,
communities. Watson and Huntington [5] further hazards that the
Western thought adopts a linear view of space and time, meaning
constant contrast of Western science with Indigenous knowledge
these can be well-defined, organized, and fixed [12,15,23]. Perhaps
is problematic because it perpetuates epistemic violence. For
the general failure to reconcile the two knowledge bodies owing to
generations, these knowledge systems have had much in common
these fundamental differences resulted in the misplaced criticism
through mutual knowledge exchange, but those who consider
of narratives as senseless, nativist discourse, naïve, contradictory,
themselves intellectually superior barely acknowledge this reality
and illogical [11,12,19]. Against this background, narratives as part
[5,18,22,23]. On the flip side, the perceived ‘great divide’ between
of IKS continue to be misjudged as meaningless and useless, a
these knowledge systems continues to hinder research progress
gross error that needs urgent redressing.
on climate change [3]. However, these artificial knowledge
distinctions are best conceptualized as mere fallacies aimed at The quest to resist, reverse, reclaim, restore, and develop the once
silencing the voices of Indigenous communities. marginalized epistemologies and ontologies has crystalized under
the banner of decolonization [14,18,20,22]. Hence, decolonization
Colonialism has also been condemned for creating an is a process of doing research in a manner that is respectful,
environmental crisis through forced removals of people, separating sensitive, and highly beneficial to the Indigenous communities that
them from each other, and their relations to culture and the natural have suffered prolonged colonial abuse, neglect, and oppression.
world [7]. Yi [24] further states that colonialism exiled Indigenous Theoretically, such kinds of protest studies fall within what has
people from their landscapes and radically transformed those been variably termed post-colonial, anti-colonial, post-modernist,
spaces to nullify all forms of past imaginations. This was quite deconstructionist research practices and Afrocentricity [14,26].
unfortunate because it disrupted Indigenous knowledge, which Under these emerging theoretical and methodological parameters,
formed the basis of a holistic environmental conservation strategy Indigenous knowledge is made central to knowledge production
and sustainable use of resources. A point that Relph [25] echoes processes. Through such processes, our appreciation of what
by stipulating that pre-modern places had always rested in fine constitutes Indigenous knowledge and its associated nature and
balance with nature because of Indigenous people’s strong ‘sense values has increased. In this respect, the word Indigenous means
of place’. This sense of place extols whatever is ‘old’, or ‘traditional’ natural generational ties and a strong sense of identity within
and decries anything ‘new’ [25]. Regrettably, the geographic geographical localities [10,14]. As past generations interacted
violence of imperialism introduced a new worldview and values with their local environments, they gradually gained valuable
that severely undermined the already tried and tested Indigenous environmental experience and information, which they, in turn,
geographical identity [6,17,24]. Furthermore, the inception of a used daily, creatively packaged for every community member, and

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later passed on to future generations as cultural heritage. Thus, Given the views proffered, thus far, it is quite apparent that
IKS can be broadly defined as intergenerational native ideas, IKS constitutes the very heart of Indigenous people’s lives and
beliefs, and practices relating to all aspects of life that are generally livelihoods, belief systems, and values as summed up in Table 1
derived from a specific environmental context and passed on to below. The following section zeroes in on selected Rozvi narratives
others in various modes as cultural heritage [10,11,14,19]. tied to five mountain ecosystems to illustrate ancient wisdom’s
power in ensuring sustainable human-nature relations.
An Indigenous worldview naturally promotes a community’s
self-determination and generational bond with surrounding Rozvi narratives, mountain ecosystems, and ancient
environments [7,18,22]. In this respect, discourses of self- wisdom
determination, sense of place, traditional ecological knowledge,
and peoplehood all emphasize that colonial atrocities perpetuated This section focuses explicitly on the Rozvi 1685-1830 a
against Indigenous people and their relations to nature can only dynamic historical formation that dramatically rose to prominence
be reversed by renewing or revitalizing Indigenous cultural ties in north-eastern Zimbabwe around the Mutapa state 1450-1900
to the land [1,4,7,8]. This follows the general realization that before migrating south-westwards of the Zimbabwean plateau
an Indigenous worldview is very good at melding history with (Figure 2) to conquer the Torwa state 1400-1644 [32]. Although
geography and conflating place with group identity. Therefore, this their political power was relatively short-lived, owing to Nguni’s
knowledge system is rapidly reclaiming space within the Western incessant attacks suffered between the 1820s and 1866, Rozvi
academy as a decolonizing methodology, which empowers identities had already been inscribed across extensive landscapes,
Indigenous communities to understand themselves through their which makes their past quite intriguing. The Rozvi past is revisited
assumptions and perspectives [18,22,26]. Along with such trends, to illustrate the intimate relations between people, language,
Indigenous narratives, stories, naming patterns, poetry, music, art, history, culture, and nature. By exploiting historical and cultural
dance, myths, tales, folklore, proverbs, taboos, idioms, legends, practices, the Rozvi systematically imbued their imagined identities
and cultural practices, among other modes of communication, are on the land, thereby transforming it into a ‘metaphorical historical
rapidly regaining space in research processes [19,23,24,27-29]. textbook’. In particular, the land was gradually transformed into
This is not merely coincidental or political, rather this follows the Rozvi landscapes through the creative manipulation of language,
realization that narratives provide a deep insight into the intimate
relationship and meaning(s) between humanity and nature Table 1: Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) as part of Ancient Rozvi wisdom.
Promote a community’s self-determination and generational
[16,27,29]. Relph [30] neatly captures all this as follows:
bond with the environment.
Empower Indigenous people to understand local environments
Each place is a territory of significance, distinguished
and themselves through their own assumptions and
from larger or smaller areas by its name, its particular perspectives.
environmental qualities, the stories and shared memories Provide a deep insight into the intimate relationship and
connected to it, and the intensity of meanings people give to meaning(s) between humanity and nature.
or derive from it. Promote Indigenous people’s sense of place, identity, spirituality
and resilience.
Thus, contrary to colonial writings, IKS is neither fossilized in Meld history with geography and conflate people with place
identity.
time nor static. Instead, they are very dynamic owing to internal
Provide a holistic environmental conservation strategy and
and external knowledge influencing adaptational needs and the Advantages sustainable use of local resources.
constant quest to resolve pressing community problems [10,31]. Dynamic, adaptable, relevant, and valuable generationally
Most importantly, IKS is holistic because it acknowledges the acquired environmental knowledge and experience.
interconnectedness of all living things, which range from person to Simplified, palatable, and creatively packaged knowledge that
is accessible and useful to every community member on a daily
person, humanity to nature, ‘other beings’ or the spirit world, and basis.
the broader universe [14,19,20]. As such, IKS constitutes a unique Specific or contextual environmental knowledge that exists in
brand of flexible, fluid, and adaptive intergenerational wisdom that various modes as cultural heritage.
is constantly evolving through sustaining crucial relationships with Contain inbuilt intergenerational thinking, ethics, and values that
the land and local people’s histories [6]. Furthermore, Indigenous are widely shared by the local community.
Inherently posses the key principles of relationality and
knowledge naturally promotes intergenerational thinking, ethics
stewardship, which enforce individual and community
and values that keep the entire community fully engaged in caring accountability and responsibility.
for and protecting nature as an extension of their own identities Treat space and time as relational and dynamic, hence they are
[7]. The other key principle of relationality and stewardship often misjudged as meaningless and useless.
is creatively embedded in narratives about ‘living things’ and Cannot be applied universally or globally because they are
context-specific.
spirituality, which cultivates a crucial sense of accountability and
Associated narratives and modes of communication are
responsibility among the living to forgone ancestral spirits and always metaphorical and too deep for community outsiders'
future generations [6,7]. Palone [28] further echoes the power of comprehension.
Disadvantages
Indigenous culture in environmental care and management in the Barely centralized facts constituting the core of scientific
following manner: reasoning, which makes it hard to integrate them with the Euro-
American academy.
Largely marginalized, hence barely understood and appreciated
What we understand or believe about our environment has
in strict scientific discourses.
very real impacts on our use of resources and our valuation of Becoming very difficult to reconstruct and access among
functional ecological systems and ecosystem services. outsiders because Indigenous people now mistrust researchers.

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Figure 2: Distribution Map of the Rozvi and other mentioned precolonial states.

Figure 3: Locational Map of core Rozvi territories and associated expansions.

which generated multiple metaphors connected to a wide range
of natural features. Thus, it is crucial to improve our reading and in their comprehensive understanding of the holistic ties between
understanding of landscape grammar, meaning(s), and metaphors;
people, culture, language, and nature, as explained below.
otherwise, failure to do so is always to our detriment [28]. Suffice
it to say, Rozvi’s history presented below is not a digression The Rozvi simply rode on the power of ancient wisdom to
from the climate change discussion, instead, it only reinforces a construct, imbue, and objectify their identities in space. Hence, in
contextual setting for Indigenous ontologies. It is anticipated no time, their claims over anything natural or supernatural were
that as one reads through Rozvi origins, expansion, and systems barely challenged by their contemporaries [16,34,35]. For instance,
of governance premised on naming patterns, dwelling, and they were wise enough to quickly exploit the land as a repository
storytelling, an appreciation of narratives as Indigenous ‘mental of memory and weapons to express authority over others. Hence,
mapping tools’ and environmental protection wisdom will come to they often projected their emerging identities as generationally
the fore [23,24,29,33]. grounded in the land [34,38]. They effectively premised their
For starters, one must appreciate that Rozvi’s origins political authority on the land, exemplified by their famous
trace back to a great military leader called Changamire tradition of instructing newly appointed Rozvi chiefs to hold a
Dombolakonachimwango, or simply Dombo, who was once a handful of soil during the installation ceremony. This cultural
provincial governor of the Mutapa state. Prior to Changamire practice symbolized that the new chief would be fully responsible
Dombo’s rebellion from the Mutapa state, the name Rozvi nor for all land affairs, including ‘living things’ found on it, on behalf of
people bearing that name were simply nonexistent, meaning the ancestors, the living, and those yet to be born [34]. During my
this identity was historically constructed. It was the numerous ethnographic surveys around the district of Bikita in south-eastern
military campaigns waged by this great warrior and his immediate Zimbabwe Machiridza [34], I encountered one elderly informant
followers between the 1680s and 1690s that eventually culminated who recited a fascinating poem associated with Rozvi investiture
in the famous military nickname varozvi, meaning the destroyers ceremonies in the following manner:
[16,32,34,35]. This point is worth noting because from around
the mid-18th century onwards, several ordinary Indigenous Hodza and Fortune [39] also highlight another version of the
people scattered across the Zimbabwean plateau and beyond Nhasi takugadze Ushe; Today we install you as Chief;
initially defined as ordinary Karanga and Kalanga people, among Hwekubata ivhu raBambo vako! To guard the soil of your Fathers!
other minority groupings, suddenly claimed to be part of the Muvhu mune zvakawanda, The soil has a lot of things,
‘imagined’ Rozvi community [35-37]. Once Changamire Dombo Zvirema, mapofu, mhuka, The crippled, the blind, animals,
nyoka, zvese nemakudo; snakes, and even unruly elements;
was fully established in south-western Zimbabwe, Rozvi identities
Zvese zviri muvhu nhasi All that is in the soil today belongs to
significantly expanded across landscapes (Figure 3), thereby
ndezvako! you!
creating immense scholarly confusion about their ‘true’ political
Unobata vanhu nezviri muvhu You rule your people and all in the soil,
stature until today [32,34,35]. For long, scholars have been zvakasikwa naMwari; which was created by God;
struggling to reconstruct their past due to their subjective ties Saka tinokubatisa iri ivhu, We give you this handful of soil,
with several geographical localities [34,35]. This points towards a We pour on you this traditional beer,
very sophisticated historical formation that quickly transformed Tichipendera nezvinobva
which comes from the soil as we thank
muvhu!
in space through time. Perhaps the secret to this dynamism lies the soil!

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same Rozvi poem focusing on the tradition of installing chiefs as and occupied by the Rozvi. According to Posselt [40], this hill was
well as the associated symbolic ties to the land as follows: physically built by Nerwande a Rozvi royal, who used elephant
tusks to make steps rising to the hilltop, so the name Manyanga
Ndini MuRozvi ndimire pano; I am the Rozvi who stand here; literally refers to elephant tusks used to mysteriously ‘construct’
Uri pamberi pavanhu, ndinoti, As you stand before the people, this sacred Rozvi state capital [40]. It is also interesting to note
Wave’she nhasi; I call you Chief today;
that access to this ancient monument is partly sanctioned by the
Ndakuturika chiremba I place on you before the people
chechiremekedzo pamberi pavanhu; the symbol of honor; resident spirit medium who prefers to keep site enviros untouched
I take off from you your own as a sign of respect for the local spirits.
Takuturura chidawo chako nhasi;
praise name today;
Another interesting case is the Mavangwe range in Buhera,
Ndinopedzisa ndichiti, Heyi tsiva Finally, I say, here is a handful of
yevhu, ipfumbate maoko ako ose; soil, hold it in both hands;
which is one of the last pre-colonial Rozvi battlegrounds during
Izvi zvinoratidza nokuonesa kuti That shows you will rule the land the 1850s to 1866 that still hosts the grave of the last Rozvi king
uchatonga nokudya pasi. and eat its fruit.

Perhaps, before proceeding to narrow down the discussion to

Rozvi mountain narratives, it suffices to also draw our attention
towards yet another interesting quotation highlighting the
complex bond between Indigenous people, the land, and associated
ecosystems [29]:
…, if the land bears ‘something’, that ‘something’ will be
found in everything growing on that land, trees, grasses,
and anything associated with it, like rocks and soil. Natural
features like hills, mountains, rivers, and plains, and cultural
heritage are a single entity that can only be understood when
considered together.
Figure 4: View of Manyanga Hill and Monument (Source: Author).
Considering the discussion above, it is no surprise that the land
eventually became an agent of Rozvi identities. Through diverse
place-making practices like naming, dwelling, and storytelling, TOHWECHIPI MONUMENT PROPOSED NEW BOUNDARY
the Rozvi justified themselves as God’s first creation with a divine

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mandate over nature and the supernatural world [16,32,34,35].

Therefore, it was natural that mountains, trees, forests, sacred
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pools, monumental architecture, and diverse objects became
extensions of Rozvi identities through space and time. Although it
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would have been proper to explore Rozvi narratives woven around !.
F C
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all these landscape features, space constraints forbid me to do so. H G
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existing peg
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Furthermore, although several Rozvi mountains are now known, #*Xk §¨¦ §
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only five are targeted for illustrative purposes. Respectively, !=v

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the chosen sample comprises Manyanga Hill, Mavangwe range, !.")") ku"k
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MunwewaMwari Hill, Bepe Hill, and Tikwiri Mountain. !(
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As Alderman [33] explains, naming is a powerful vehicle for G E !. P
!( !O
promoting identification with the past and locating oneself within E k
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!. !. jk
networks of memory, so the Rozvi prioritized this cultural practice !. N !.
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to fix their identities in places. Usually, when dominant groups

name or rename something, they create a material and symbolic
!.
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order that allows them to impose their meanings. Yi [24] further

explains that naming entails taking possession, it is a powerful
method of remapping Indigenous geography. Thus, names are 373000.000000 373500.000000 374000.000000 374500.000000 375000.000000
Author:
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never passive elements of speech because naming place is part

Legend

O
E apostolic sect place kj Zimbabwe type stone wall

of claiming space. So, when a place is named, it becomes a trace 2

% free standing stone wall ! slag

!O tunnel v® settlement remains

of the people who named it, and it forever remembers its namers !. grinding grooves F
G rock paintings

#0 brick moulding pit !. peg

[24,27]. Armed with such wisdom, the Rozvi simply developed

pottery scattter
") cattle water trophies

!( complete pot #* grinding stones

their narratives and inscribed them across the Butua/Guruuswa _^ stone cain
u
"
") hutfloor

X
Grain bins

!(
stone granary base
DAM SITE

landscapes through naming. It is also important to note that most '

k
smelting furnace remains

collapsed stone wall ' dhaka lumps

Rozvi mountains cited above are not ordinary. They were carefully
Proposed boundary extention
!= stone linings
2,000
§
¨¦ decorated pottery

G Meters
selected through tradition and renamed as part of Rozvi symbols. rock shelter burial

For instance, Manyanga (Figure 4), situated in Bubi district, with Figure 5: Map showing cultural finds around Mavangwe, MunwewaMwari and
remains of an ancient archaeological monument was both named Bepe Hills [45].

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called Tohwechipi/Chibhamubhamu (Figures 6,7). Besides disrupting local cultural heritage and ecosystems (Tohwechipi
this historical grave, recent archaeological surveys around this Chibhamubhamu Foundation File Report 06/12/23). Currently,
mountain uncovered diverse cultural finds, possibly relating to the the local traditional leadership is up in arms against this company,
terminal Rozvi era of Ndebele resistance (Figure 5). Along the same but without relevant government support, the outcome of such
mountain range is another hill with a huge boulder pointing to the disputes is anyone’s guess. Thus, by protecting mountains, the
sky like a finger, so it was named MunwewaMwari meaning (the Rozvi safeguarded precious resources and ecosystems stretching
finger of God). Local tradition has it that the last Rozvi king buried far beyond for centuries.
within this mountain range used to climb to the top of this huge
boulder with great ease (Rukuni 2023 pers.comm.). Of course, one In addition to manipulating naming patterns, the Rozvi also
must appreciate that these mountain narratives were only part exploited ‘dwelling’ as part of place-making processes [16].
of claiming space and protecting associated ecosystems through According to Henry [15], people transform space into place through
attaching memory, beliefs, and values, proving mountains bear dwelling, Dasein (signifying human beings as ‘there-beings’).
much more than our eyes can see. The Rozvi fully appreciated that This does not necessarily mean that those claiming space have to
mountains were defense fortresses and cultural safes that hid ‘rare physically construct something in place to connect with it. Rather
and precious things’ from society, which needed protection through they just need to care and cherish the place as an extension of their
Indigenous conservation practices that emphasized notions of identities [15,28]. Furthermore, those intending to claim space
sacredness. Thus, Rozvi mountains continue to be widely perceived should be prepared to invest their time there, socially or through
as spiritual hubs and ancestral resting places loaded with immense erecting permanent structures. Thus, dwelling entails intimately
‘sacred blessings’ for obedient local communities. Recently, connecting with place through multiple agencies of myth,
massive lithium deposits were discovered in the Buhera district, prayer, honoring ancestors, music, dance, art, and other cultural
including the sacred Bepe (Bhebhe) hill, named after a great former performances that bond people and place [8,15,28]. Although these
Rozvi army General (Tumbare Bhebhe). Unfortunately, in no time, cultural practices might appear simple, traditionally Indigenous
a Chinese-owned Sabi Star Mining company armed with lithium communities have used their power to transform space into place.
mining rights started blasting operations around this hill thereby No doubt, the Rozvi were masters of this cultural game because
they successfully claimed mountains without having to prove
their actual role in their ‘creation’. Therefore, Rozvi’s cultural
activities around Manyanga, Mavangwe, MunwewaMwari, and
Bepe (Figures 8,9) attest to this power of dwelling in place-making
processes. It is also important to caution that not every Rozvi
mountain had evidence of ancestral burials, cultural objects, or
monumental architecture. Be that as it may, dwelling permanently
puts such concerns to rest because finding physical evidence of
past existence in a place is not necessarily the only way to validate
Indigenous claims of place ownership.

To claim space and imbue their identities, memories, meanings,

beliefs, and values, the Rozvi also took advantage of storytelling
practices. Usually, manifestations of different modes of Indigenous
communication in the form of myths, legends, tales, folklore,
proverbs, taboos, poetry, and metaphors, among other narratives,
Figure 6: Grave of Tohwechipi/Chibhamubhamu in Mavangwe range (Source: demonstrate that the land, through storytelling, is an active agent
Author).
of identity and cultural knowledge [24,27,29]. Therefore, stories

Figure 7: A sectional view of the Mavangwe range in the horizon (Source: Author). Figure 8: MunwewaMwari hill with its peculiar ‘finger of God’ (Source: Author).

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Figure 9: Bepe hill with sacred cultural material and huge lithium deposits (Source:
Author). Figure 10: The famous Mutikwiri, ‘Makono, Ndarikure’ mountain (Source: Author).

constitute an important method widely exploited by Indigenous large army. It was he who told his men of war that he desired
people to possess and reclaim lost territory and assert their them to prepare ladders that should reach up to heaven so
existence, history, and intimate connections with the place [27]. that they could catch the moon in order that the king might
Sinamai [29] further argues that Indigenous narratives and stories make it his ‘Ndoro’ (a round white shell ornament) with which
about place contain intricate knowledge about human-nature to adorn himself. So, the whole army began to cut trees and
interactions, although such information is often concealed in to make ladders, and they built and they built, going towards
metaphorical expressions. Hershey, et al. [23] also take strains to heaven, for two to three years. By and by the ladders began
explain that the Indigenous body of knowledge is highly symbolic to rot. There were many people building and climbing up the
and different from Western-centric evidence. Hence, to derive
ladders with trees and bark rope, and the ladders broke, and
meaning from Indigenous narratives, one must first understand
a great multitude fell down and were killed... By and by King
‘the rules of the game’ being played by the participants in the oral
Munyepere died and his son Togwa was chosen to be king. It
transmission [23]. Perhaps it is high time that we shifted focus
is King Togwa who, people think built Zimbabgwe and tried
towards yet another prominent, but controversial Rozvi narrative
on mount Mutikwiri (Figure 10) near the town of Rusape. A well- to dig up Mt. Mutikwiri and Mahwesimike. On the death of
advanced Rozvi chief, Mbava (over 100 years old), recalled his Togwa, Chiduku was made king... [41].
memories of Mount Mutikwiri as reported below:
Yet again, Fortune [42] presents another interesting version of
Chief Mbava thinks the great chief of the Warozwi, called the same Mutikwiri mountain in the following manner:
Togwa, was the one who built Zimbagbwe. He said the
...while living at the court they tried to pile up poles saying:
word means Palace of the Kings (Dzimbahwe)... Togwa was
a very great chief indeed, and all the chiefs went to him in “We will take the moon to make a platter for the Mambo.”
Zimbagbwe to pay homage. It was from this place that his They were killing oxen for making thongs to bind the ladder
messengers were sent to choose the lesser chiefs-Makoni, steps. They spent a year doing these things but afterward, the
Umtasa, Makombi, Zimunya, Marange, Mutema, Nyashanu, logs unexpectedly rotted and fell down, and all the people in
Sweswe, Nyandoro, Mashayamombe, and all the chiefs of the the sky died… Now it was that after they were wasted in that
country... King Togwa did not build Zimbabgwe only; there way, they said: “We go and take the big rock called Makono
are many other places like Zimbabgwe which have never yet so that it may be sat on by Mambo.” And they dug it putting
been seen by white men... Besides all these places built by the logs underneath to prise up that huge rock and so it fell and
Warozwi, King Togwa sent a great army of people to bring crushed them, and they all died. They left the place saying:
him the great hill Mutikwiri. This hill is in the country of “The rock worsted us; let us go to Ndarikure.” Having gone
Mawungwe (near Rusape), and he sent his people to bring it to dig again so that they might take it to the court so that it
and place it near the Palace of the King (Zimbabgwe). Now, might go and be sat on by Mambo, it thereupon fell again and
therefore, this great army of King Togwa surrounded the hill crushed them and all died.
and dug around it, but failed to move it... [41].
In the context of the discussion above, it is quite apparent that
Later on, the same author provides another refined version of
narratives are both educational and moral lessons about living in
Chief Mbava’s narrative on the same mountain as follows:
harmony with one another, nature and a whole lot of lifetime solutions
He said the first king was Tumbare. He built his royal town to daily problems and challenges [1,4,7,8,11,14,19,20,22,29,31]. In
near ‘The Nameless Tree’, near Marandellas. When he died, his a way, the Rozvi myths highlighted above also symbolize memories
son Munyepere was made king... King Munyepere had a very of the ancient ‘paradisial’ days when the earth was much closer

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or connected to heaven, and when humankind was at peace with spirituality, and the land. This wave of cultural revitalization is also
nature [43]. Often, this ancient wisdom is embedded within sweeping across Native American communities such as the Pueblo
metaphors, which are usually quite inaccessible to the scientific of Western Apache, the Anishinaabe, Ngurrara, and Delgamuukw
community [29]. The next section attempts to unpack this wisdom of Canada as well as the Kuranda people of Australia among others
further as part of climate change solutions at both local and global [7,8,15,17,23,24].
scales.
Even in the Lawachara National Park of north-eastern
‘Looking back, looking forward’: A snapshot on climate change Bangladesh, Indigenous knowledge of the Khasia, Tripura,
and disaster solutions and Garo people has significantly enhanced their resilience
against climate change impacts [44]. It is quite regrettable that
As already argued, ecosystems are culturally encoded in the
colonialism severely eradicated original forms of Indigenous sense
words and grammars of Indigenous languages, which confirms
of place and communalism by imposing external principles of
that Indigenous knowledge constitutes a comprehensive method
of recording, monitoring, communicating, and learning about universalism, essentialism, and individualism. Hence, prolonged
relationships among people, plants, animals, landscape features decades of political, economic, social, and technological assault on
and the entire universe [4]. Thus, as the global community Indigenous communities caused permanent cultural damage and
frantically searches for answers to combat climate change and institutionalized knowledge that cannot be easily reversed by mere
its associated impacts, emerging ideas are slowly coalescing calls for Indigenous cultural revitalization. The colonial legacy is a
around three main epistemological paradigms that are inspired by stubborn reality that continues to profoundly disrupt all forms of
reflections on either the past or future. Respectively, the Rozvi case Indigenous ties to nature through culture [8,25]. Implicitly, those
falls within the sustainable self-determination and peoplehood convinced that changes brought forth by decades of imperialism,
models, which yearns for a return to or revival of past cultural colonialism, capitalism, and technological advancements can
traditions [7,8]. These decolonial models emphasize that most pre- no longer be reversed have resorted to searching for climate
modern or Indigenous communities already have generationally change solutions by focusing on the future. Scientists sharing this
acquired valid knowledge that is well-crafted into local cultural vision fall within the modern logic paradigm, which stipulates
practices to strengthen climate action. Local cultures, including that society and culture are progressive. Hence, climate change
Indigenous languages, technologies, histories, ritual practices, solutions should be sought from creative imaginations premised
and belief systems are already attuned to maintain a fine balance on future aspirations [2,25]. However, this strict Western
between humanity and nature. Through a deep spiritual awareness scientific and technological approach has tended to silence the
of the interconnectedness of the visible and invisible ‘things’ of
voices of Indigenous communities [5]. Unlike the decolonial
this world, every community member is subjectively empowered
paradigms prioritized in this paper, this model thrives towards
through beliefs to think intergenerationally [7]. To further break
realigning traditional and commercial production processes with
this down, since foregone ancestors responsibly interacted
environmentally friendly or ‘clean’ technologies. It emphasizes
with their environments and passed on their wisdom to direct
descendants as heritage knowledge, even current generations are afforestation, reduction in the use of petrochemical technology,
indebted to future generations in the same manner to perpetuate and increased technological advancements towards clean and
the ideology of ‘being good ancestors’. Hence, the pre-modern logic renewable energy sources as universal climate change and disaster
emphasizes revitalization, revival, and reclamation of traditional management solutions [2,4]. However, a post-modern logic
practices for self-determination and environmental sustainability. advocating for a decolonial balanced treatment of Indigenous and
Western worldviews when dealing with climate change issues has
Put differently, in order to effectively promote human also emerged in recent years.
adaption to climate change and avert associated human and
natural disasters, there is urgent need for vulnerable Indigenous This model adopts a middle-ground approach premised on the
communities to cultivate and revitalize their past IKS and practices quest for a genuine epistemological marriage. As Keane, et al. [31]
to enhance ‘good earth guardianship’ [7]. Fortunately, IKS are argue, knowledge and cultural manifestations change, but we still
already inclined towards doing just that, especially considering need to recognize those underlying beliefs, meanings, and values
their inbuilt desirable principles of relationality and stewardship within ancient wisdom to be able to re-express them creatively in
that emphasize the interconnectedness of all living and physical the 21st century. Dei [14] also raises the critical point that rather
things [6,31]. In line with this, Relph [25] further argues that places than continue to rank and treat different knowledge systems as
of persistent appeal, nostalgia, and personal experience often opposing, we should strive for knowledge synthesis because the
signify enduring ties between humanity, nature, and the cosmos.
past influences the present and vice versa. In this respect, IKS is
Therefore, reviving a sense of place is always key to environmental
perceived as an equally valid knowledge base capable of addressing
sustainability. Traditionally, this sense of place has consistently
various socio-economic and environmental problems [1,7,8,28,19].
promoted the concordance of social values, technologies, and
In like manner, even though Western science and technology has
environmental relations [25]. Therefore, looking back into the
past to decolonize or renew ‘indigeneity’ or Indigenous cultural much to offer, it also has its fair share of limitations, mainly when
practices tied to the land is widely seen as one of the best solutions applied to Indigenous contexts [4,14,18,19,22,23]. Against this
for climate change adaptation [1,4,6,7,8,25]. In this respect, current background, a decolonial integrated approach (that respectfully
Rozvi identity revitalization programs that are slowly gathering engages and exploits both worldviews) in the management of
momentum in pockets of Zimbabwe are welcome developments ‘environmental commons’ is seen as one of the best ways to deal
that restore broken connections between traditional knowledge, with climate change and associated human and natural disasters.

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Despite having this exciting epistemological and methodological cement sustainable connections between humankind and nature.
option at their disposal, many scholars are still struggling to break Through narratives, ordinary people, their daily lives, leaders,
free from their ‘boxed mentality’ [1,3,4,5]. In particular, those hopes, beliefs, aspirations, emotions, morals, ethics and goals,
operating within the highly compartmentalized Western academy production processes, technology, history, the land and resources,
struggle to make sense of the nature of IKS and vice versa. This and the universe are neatly packaged into a dynamic, usable mental
explains why disputes between international companies intending map and community library. In short, Indigenous narratives
to exploit local mineral resources and Indigenous communities communicate essential environmental knowledge, lessons about
remain rampant. Given the scenarios above, the following poser life, risks, and dangers, and general wisdom pertaining to life
remains critical but tricky for many to answer: In what ways can challenges and solutions. Hence, the human disasters portrayed
innovative, collaborative, and multi-disciplinary forms of scholarly in Rozvi’s narratives highlight the dangers that come along with
engagement promote climate action and disaster resilience at local bad community leadership and poor environmental policies. So,
and global scales? one key takeaway from the Rozvi narratives is that community
leaders should always strive to protect nature, their people, and
Conclusion everything else associated with it. Such an approach to power and
Indeed, the reality of a climatic crisis in the form of pronounced life is good for all humankind. Finally, we should never forget that
global warming patterns stemming from increasing greenhouse there are multiple worldviews, and no worldview is better than the
gases and associated environmental effects ranging from loss other. Implicitly, instead of promoting exclusionary tendencies,
of biodiversity, decreasing snow and ice sheet covers, rising we should strive towards embracing diversity. Perhaps, this way,
ocean/sea water and acidification levels, perennial weather we might eventually succeed in strengthening climate action and
hazards, infrastructural damage, loss of human life, health stress, disaster resilience someday in the future.
increasing forest fires and a host of other problems exacerbating
Author contributions
‘climatic refugees’ are manifest for all to see. Given this unsettling
global reality, humanity urgently needs to fully understand the Conceptualization, L.H.M.; writing—original draft preparation,
context of this crisis before adopting appropriate climate action, L.H.M.; writing—review and editing. The author has read and
which is already long overdue. As argued in this paper, climate agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
change and its associated impacts are an extension of the colonial
experience, that continues to cause untold suffering for the poor Funding
and marginalized communities of this world as illustrated by
references to Indigenous communities in Zimbabwe, Canada, This research has been made possible through financial support
Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh and parts of South America. received from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and the
Of course, decolonization remains our best epistemological and Firebird Foundation.
methodological approach to counter the legacy of colonialism
and associated human and natural disasters. Prior to the advent
Acknowledgment
of imperialism and colonialism, most indigenous communities The author acknowledges the Alexander von Humboldt
across the world lived in perfect harmony with their environments, Foundation, the Firebird Foundation, and the Institute of
thanks to their well-integrated IKS that ensured a sustainable African Studies and Egyptology at the University of Cologne for
relationship between humankind and nature for generations. financial and research support. The Tohwechipi/Chibhamubhamu
Trouble only started when their communal or responsibility- Foundation, Dr. Peniah Mabaso-Shamano, and several Rozvi
based approach to the environment was disrupted and replaced descendants scattered across Zimbabwe who participated in
by an abstract, individualistic, essentialist, universal, and rights- numerous ethnohistorical studies are much appreciated.
based environmental approach, which sought to exploit natural
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How to cite this article: Machiridza LH. Indigenous Environmental Resilience: Decoding Ancient Rozvi Wisdom on Mountain Ecosystems as Disaster Management
Solutions. IgMin Res. Dec 21, 2023; 1(2): 143-153. IgMin ID: igmin130; DOI: 10.61927/igmin130; Available at: www.igminresearch.com/articles/pdf/igmin130.pdf

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