Вопросы по Лексикологии

1. A Word as the Unit of Language and as the Unit of Speech

As a Unit of Language: A word is a fundamental unit of language, representing a
stable set of sounds or symbols associated with a specific meaning. It exists as a
part of the linguistic system (vocabulary) and is stored in the mental lexicon.

As a Unit of Speech: In speech, a word is an active, functional unit used in

communication. Its meaning and role depend on the context in which it is used,
and it may vary in pronunciation, stress, or intonation.

2. Concept and Meaning

- Concept: Refers to a mental representation or general idea of an object, action, or
quality. It is universal and not tied to a specific language.
- Meaning: The linguistic realization of a concept, expressed through a specific
word or phrase.

3.Synchronic and Diachronic Approaches to the Study of Language

- Synchronic Approach: Examines a language at a specific point in time (e.g.,
modern English). It focuses on the current structure and usage of language without
considering its historical development.
- Diachronic Approach: Studies the evolution and historical development of
language over time. It explores changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation,
and meaning.

4. Words of Native Origin and Their Characteristics

Native English words come from the original Anglo-Saxon vocabulary and are
characterized by:
- Short, simple structure (e.g., "house," "man").
- Common usage in everyday life.
- Monosyllabic or easily derived forms.
- High productivity in forming compounds and derivatives.
- Strong emotional and cultural associations (e.g., family terms like "mother,"
nature terms like "sun").

5. Foreign Elements in Modern English

English has borrowed extensively from other languages, resulting in a diverse
vocabulary. These borrowings come from:
- Latin: Academic, religious, and scientific terms (e.g., "formula," "alumni").
- French: Legal, political, and cultural terms (e.g., "court," "ballet").
- Germanic: Early vocabulary shared with related languages.
- Greek: Scientific and philosophical terms (e.g., "biology," "philosophy").
- Other languages: Contributions from Arabic, Spanish, Italian, and beyond.
6. Etymological Doublets and Hybrids
Etymological Doublets: Words with the same origin but different forms and
meanings in modern language, often due to borrowing at different times or from
different sources (e.g., "shirt" and "skirt").

Hybrids:Words formed by combining elements from different languages (e.g.,

"television," with Greek *tele-* and Latin *vision*).

7. Assimilation of Borrowings
The process by which borrowed words adapt to the linguistic system of English.
Assimilation can occur in:
- Phonetics: Adjusting pronunciation to match English sounds.
- Grammar: Conforming to English rules of inflection or syntax.
- Spelling: Changing to align with English orthography (e.g., "colour" to "color").
- Semantics: Shifting or narrowing meaning.

8. Morphological Structure of a Word

A word consists of smaller units called morphemes. which are the smallest
meaningful parts of language. Types of morphemes include:
- Root: The core meaning (e.g., *write* in "writer").
- Affixes. Bound morphemes added to roots, such as:
- Prefixes: Before the root (e.g., *un-* in "undo").
- Suffixes: After the root (e.g., *-er* in "writer").
- Inflections: Morphemes showing grammatical relationships (e.g., *-ed* in
"walked").
- Free Morphemes: Stand-alone words (e.g., "book").
- Bound Morpheme: Cannot exist independently (e.g., *-ness* in "kindness").

9. Structural Types of Words.

In linguistics, words can be classified according to their structure and how they are
built. The structural types of words primarily refer to how words are formed by
combining smaller meaningful units, called morphemes. Morphemes are the
smallest units of meaning in language.
Here are the main structural types of words:
1. Simple Words
A simple word is a word that consists of only one morpheme. These words cannot
be broken down into smaller meaningful units.
* Example:
* Cat (one morpheme)
* Book (one morpheme)
2. Derived Words
A derived word is formed by adding a prefix, suffix, or both to a base or root word.
This process changes the meaning or the part of speech of the original word.
* Example:
 * Happiness (from happy + -ness)
* Unhappy (from un- + happy)
Derived words involve one or more derivational morphemes, which create new
words from existing ones.
3. Compound Words
A compound word is formed by combining two or more simple words (or
morphemes) to create a new word with a unique meaning.
* Example:
* Toothbrush (from tooth + brush)
* Sunflower (from sun + flower)
Compound words can be written as one word (closed compounds), two words
(open compounds), or hyphenated (hyphenated compounds).
4. Complex Words
A complex word contains more than one morpheme, usually combining both a root
and affixes (prefixes or suffixes). A complex word might be a combination of
derived and compound elements.
* Example:
* Unhappiness (from un- + happy + -ness)
* Misunderstanding (from mis- + understand + -ing)
Complex words involve more intricate structures that combine multiple
morphemes.
5. Blended Words
A blended word is created by merging parts of two words (usually the beginning of
one word and the end of another) to form a new word.
* Example:
* Brunch (from breakfast + lunch)
* Smog (from smoke + fog)
Blending often results in shorter, more casual terms used in everyday language.

10. Productive Ways of Word-Formation.

1. Affixation
Adding a prefix or suffix to a word to change its meaning.
- Prefix: Adding at the start (e.g., un+ happy= unhappy).
- Suffix: Adding at the end (e.g., teach + -er = teacher).

2. Compounding
Combining two or more words to make a new one.
- Closed Compound: One word (e.g., toothpaste).
- Open Compound: Two words together (e.g., post office).
- Hyphenated Compound: Words with a hyphen (e.g., mother-in-law).

3. Blending
Merging parts of two words to create a new one.
- Example: brunch (from breakfast+ lunch).
4. Clipping
Shortening a word by cutting off parts of it.
- Example: phone (from telephone).

5. Acronyms and Initialisms

Creating new words from the first letters of a phrase.
- Acronym (e.g., NASA from **National Aeronautics and Space
Administration**).
- Initialism (e.g., FBI from Federal Bureau of Investigation).

6. Conversion (Zero Derivation)

Changing a word's part of speech without adding anything.
- Example: email (noun) → to email (verb).

7. Backformation
Making a new word by removing part of an existing word.
- Example: editor (noun) → edit (verb).

8. Onomatopoeia
Words that sound like what they describe.
- Example: buzz (sound of a bee).

9. Borrowing
Taking words from other languages.
- Example: taco (from Spanish).

11.Non-productive ways of Word-formation.

1. InflectionChanging a word’s form to express things like tense or number, but it
doesn’t create new words.
* Example:Walk → Walks (third-person singular)Child → Children (plural)
2. Derivation with Rare AffixesAdding old prefixes or suffixes to form new words,
but some affixes are no longer commonly used.
* Example:-dom (as in kingdom)-ship (as in friendship)
3. ReduplicationRepeating a word or part of a word, but it’s no longer commonly
used to create new words.
* Example:Hodgepodge (mixture)Chit-chat (light conversation)
4. EponymyUsing a person’s name to create a word, but it doesn’t happen as often
today.
* Example:Sandwich (from Earl of Sandwich)Dynamite (from Alfred Nobel)
5. Loan Translation (Calque)Translating a foreign word directly into English, but
borrowing words is more common now.
* Example:Skyscraper (from French gratte-ciel)Flea market (from French marché
aux puces)
6. Older Forms of ConversionChanging a word’s part of speech without adding
anything, but some older forms are no longer used.
* Example:Meat (noun) → to meat (verb, now uncommon)Lazy (adjective) →
laziness (noun)

12. New Tendencies in Present-Day English Word-Formation.

New Trends in English Word Formation

Modern English is constantly evolving, with new word-formation trends reflecting
changes in technology, culture, and social behavior. Here’s a simple breakdown of
these new tendencies:

1. Tech and Digital WordsAs technology grows, new words are created to describe
gadgets, online activities, and digital trends.
* Examples:
* Tweet (message on Twitter)
* Blog (short for web log)
* Google (to search online)
* Selfie (a photo of yourself)
These words come from blending, compounding, or conversion (like Google
becoming a verb).

2. Shortened FormsWith texting and social media, we shorten words and phrases to
make communication faster.
* Examples:
* LOL (Laugh Out Loud)
* BRB (Be Right Back)
* OMG (Oh My God)
* TMI (Too Much Information)
Clipping and acronyms are very common now.

3. New Suffixes and PrefixesNew affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are being added to
describe modern ideas, especially in business and technology.
* Examples:
* -preneur (entrepreneur, solopreneur)
* -fication (gamification, reification)
* -ish (teenish, like a teen)
These new suffixes help describe social behavior, business, and tech.

4. Noun-to-Verb ConversionMore nouns are turning into verbs, especially related

to technology.
* Examples:
* Google (to search online)
* Text (to send a message)
* Impact (to affect)
* Email (to send an email)
5. Gender-Neutral LanguageThere’s a shift toward using words that are not
specific to one gender, making language more inclusive.
* Examples:
* They (used for a single person of unknown gender)
* Firefighter (instead of fireman)
* Police officer (instead of policeman)
* Partner (instead of husband/wife)

6. Blending Foreign WordsWith globalization, English blends more words from

other languages, creating hybrid terms.
* Examples:
* Bromance (brother + romance)
* FOMO (Fear of Missing Out)
* Motel (motor + hotel)

7. Hashtags and Viral TermsSocial media gives rise to new words, often formed
from hashtags or viral phrases.
* Examples:
* #ThrowbackThursday
* #NoFilter
* #Inspo (short for inspiration)

8. Eco and Sustainability TermsAs people become more environmentally

conscious, new words related to sustainability are emerging.
* Examples:
* Eco-friendly (good for the environment)
* Greenwashing (misleading environmental claims)
* Carbon footprint (how much carbon a person or company produces)

13. Referential and Functional Approaches to the study of Word meaning.

The referential and functional approaches are two ways to understand word
meaning:
1. Referential Approach: This approach sees words as labels for real-world things
or ideas. Meaning is based on what a word refers to in reality. For example, "dog"
refers to a specific type of animal. Critics say it doesn't explain abstract words (like
"justice") or words with different meanings in different contexts.
2. Functional Approach: This approach focuses on how words work in sentences
and communication. It looks at how words are used in context, based on their role
in a sentence. For example, "dog" can be a subject ("The dog barked") or an object
("I bought a dog"). Critics say it overlooks the basic, reference-based meaning of
words.
14. Types of Word Meaning.

1. Grammatical Meaning: This refers to the meaning tied to the structure of a

language, like tense (past, present) or number (singular, plural). For example, the
word "girls" means multiple people, showing the meaning of plurality.
2. Lexical Meaning: This is the core meaning of a word that stays the same across
its different forms. For instance, "go" always refers to movement, no matter if it's
"goes," "went," or "going."
3. Denotational Meaning: This is the literal, direct meaning of a word. For
example, "atom" refers to the specific scientific concept, which is understood
similarly by all speakers.
4. Connotational Meaning: This is the emotional or cultural feeling a word carries.
For example, "home" can suggest warmth and comfort, not just a physical place to
live.
5. Stylistic Reference: This refers to the level of formality or informality a word
has. Some words are neutral (e.g., "father"), while others are more informal (e.g.,
"dad") or formal (e.g., "parent").

15.Main tendencies of the Change of meaning.

The main tendencies in the change of meaning of words over time include the
following:
1. Broadening (Generalization):
* Meaning expands to include more referents than originally intended.
* Example: "Holiday" originally meant a religious festival, but now it refers to
any day of celebration or relaxation.
2. Narrowing (Specialization):
* A word's meaning becomes more specific than it originally was.
* Example: "Meat" once meant any kind of food, but now it specifically refers to
the flesh of animals.
3. Amelioration:
* A word takes on a more positive meaning than it originally had.
* Example: "Noble" once meant "having high birth," but now it also means
someone who is honorable or virtuous.
4. Pejoration:
* A word takes on a more negative meaning over time.
* Example: "Silly" originally meant "happy" or "fortunate," but now it means
"foolish" or "lacking sense."
5. Shift (Semantic Drift):
* A word's meaning changes completely or significantly over time.
* Example: "Girl" once meant a young person of either sex, but now it
specifically refers to a female child.
6. Loss of Meaning:
* A word loses part of its original meaning, often due to overuse or changing
contexts.
 * Example: "Literally" used to mean "in a literal manner," but now is often used
for emphasis, as in "I literally died laughing."

16.Polysemy. Synchronic and Diachronic Approaches to Polysemy.

Polysemy refers to a single word having multiple meanings that are related by
extension. The different meanings of a polysemous word typically share a common
core or origin but have developed distinct senses over time.
Polysemy means a single word having multiple meanings that are related in some
way.
Synchronic Approach to Polysemy
* This approach looks at the different meanings of a word at a specific time,
without thinking about its history.
* For example, the word "bank" can mean:
* A financial institution (e.g., "I went to the bank.")
* The side of a river (e.g., "We walked along the river bank.")
* A place where things are stored (e.g., "A blood bank.")
* In this view, all these meanings exist together at the same time.
Diachronic Approach to Polysemy
* This approach looks at how a word's meanings change over time.
* For example, "head" started as a word for the top of the body, but over time, it
has taken on other meanings:
* A leader (e.g., "He is the head of the company.")
* The front part of something (e.g., "Head of the table.")
* The top of an object (e.g., "The head of the bed.")

17. The Semantic Structure of a Polysemantic Word.

Polysemy – is the ability of a word to possess several meanings or lexico-semantic
variants (LSV), e.g. bright means “shining” and “intelligent”.
A polysemantic word is a word that has multiple meanings. The semantic structure
of such a word refers to the organization of its meanings and how they are
interrelated. Understanding this structure involves analyzing the different senses of
the word and the connections between them.
The semantic structure of polysemantic words is not homogeneous as far as the
status of individual meanings is concerned. Some meaning (or meanings) is
representative of the word in isolation, others are perceived only in certain
contexts.
Semantic structure refers to the form in which conceptual structure is expressed
and encoded in language. It is the meaning system that underlies language and
allows for the organization and understanding of concepts.
18.Context. Linguistic and Non-linguistic Contexts.
Context in linguistics refers to the surrounding factors that influence the meaning
and interpretation of a word, phrase, sentence, or discourse. It provides the
background that makes communication meaningful.
Linguistic context pertains to the language-related aspects that shape
understanding. It focuses on the structure and content of the text or speech itself. It
is also called co-text and includes:
Lexical context: The meaning of a word depends on the surrounding words. For
example, "bank" means a financial institution in "He works at the bank," but refers
to a river's edge in "She sat by the riverbank."
Grammatical context: The structure and grammar of the sentence influence
interpretation. For instance, "He is running" (present action) vs. "He was running"
(past action).
Sentence or discourse context: The broader text or dialogue provides clues about
meaning. For example, "The apple was red" vs. "The Apple event was exciting."
Non-linguistic context involves external, non-language factors that affect meaning.
These can include:
Situational context: The physical setting or environment in which communication
occurs. For example, the phrase "It's cold" could be interpreted as a request to
close a window if uttered in a chilly room.
Social context: The relationship between speakers, their roles, and cultural norms.
For instance, formal and informal language vary depending on whether you're
speaking to a boss or a friend.
Cultural context: Cultural knowledge and shared beliefs affect interpretation. For
example, "Thanksgiving" means different things in the U.S. compared to other
countries.
Speaker's intent: The tone, emphasis, or intent behind a statement influences its
meaning. For example, "Great!" can express enthusiasm or sarcasm depending on
how it's said.
Historical or temporal context: The time period or historical events surrounding the
discourse can shape its interpretation.

19.Free Word-groups and Phraseological Units.

Free Word-Groups
Definition: Combinations of words formed according to the rules of grammar
where the meaning of the group is the sum of the meanings of its individual
components.
Characteristics:
Words can be replaced by synonyms or similar structures.
The meaning is literal and clear based on the words used.
Word order can often change without losing meaning.
Examples:
"Read a book" (literal meaning: engaging in the act of reading a book).
"Cold water" (water that is not warm).
Phraseological Units (Idioms)
Definition: Stable, fixed expressions where the meaning is not deducible from the
meanings of the individual words.
Characteristics:
Words are not easily replaceable; changes often distort meaning.
Meaning is often figurative or culturally specific.
They are fixed in form and word order.
Examples:
"Kick the bucket" (idiomatic meaning: to die).
"Piece of cake" (figurative meaning: something very easy).

20. Classification of Free Word-groups

1. By Structure
- Simple:Two components (*red apple*).
- Complex: More than two components (a very interesting book).
- Expanded: Includes modifiers (the boy with the red hat).
2. By Meaning
- Endocentric: Has a clear head (a beautiful garden).
- Exocentric: Lacks a head (on the table).
3.By Grammatical Function
- Nominal:Acts as a noun (a bunch of flowers).
- Verbal: Acts as a verb (is working hard).
- Adjectival:Acts as an adjective (very kind).
- Adverbial: Acts as an adverb (quite well).
- Prepositional: Includes a preposition (in the park).
4. By Degree of Stability
- Free: Loosely connected components (read a book).
- Fixed: Set expressions or idioms (kick the bucket).
5. By Function in Communication
- Declarative:States facts (He is coming).
- Interrogative:Forms questions (Who is coming?).

21.Classification of Phraseological Units

By Origin (Vinogradov’s Classification)
Phraseological Fusions: Indivisible, idiomatic units (kick the bucket).
Phraseological Unities: Semantically connected but partly motivated (spill the
beans).
Phraseological Collocations: Less idiomatic, components retain their meaning
(make a decision).

By Structure
Verbal: Based on verbs (break the ice).
Nominal: Based on nouns (a piece of cake).
Adjectival: Function as adjectives (as brave as a lion).
Adverbial: Function as adverbs (in a flash).
Prepositional: Include prepositions (on the spot).
By Function in a Sentence
Idioms: Fixed expressions with non-literal meanings (bite the dust).
Set Phrases: Traditional word combinations (happy birthday).

By Semantic Transparency
Opaque Units: Entirely idiomatic (kick the bucket).
Semi-Opaque Units: Partially idiomatic (hold one’s tongue).
Transparent Units: Easily understood (break the silence).

22.Homonyms
Homonyms are words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but different
meanings. They are categorized into two main types:
Homophones: Words that sound the same but have different meanings and
spellings.
Example: bare (without covering) and bear (the animal).
Homographs: Words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and
may or may not be pronounced the same.
Example: lead (to guide) and lead (a metal).
Homonyms can cause confusion in language, but context usually clarifies the
intended meaning

23. Synonyms. Paronyms.

Synonyms are words that have the same or very similar meanings and can often be
used interchangeably, depending on the context. They help to make language richer
and more expressive, allowing variety in speech or writing.
Examples:
Happy – joyful, content, cheerful.
Big – large, huge, enormous.
Beautiful – lovely, gorgeous, stunning.
However, while synonyms are similar in meaning, they may differ slightly in
usage, tone, or connotation. For instance, slim and skinny both refer to being thin,
but slim is positive, while skinny can be negative.
Paronyms are words that are similar in spelling or pronunciation but have different
meanings, and sometimes different usage. These words can be confusing, as their
resemblance makes them easy to mix up. Careful attention to their meanings and
contexts is necessary to use them correctly.
Examples:
Affect (to influence) and Effect (a result).
Accept (to receive) and Except (to exclude).
Precede (to come before) and Proceed (to continue).
Complement (something that completes) and Compliment (an expression of
praise).
Paronyms often play a role in language nuances, so understanding them is essential
for effective communication and avoiding errors.
 24. Antonyms. .Hyponymy.
Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. They are used to show contrast
and create variety in language. Antonyms can be classified into three main types:
Gradable Antonyms: Words that represent opposite ends of a scale and allow for
degrees in between.
Example: hot ↔️cold, big ↔️small.
Complementary Antonyms: Words where one completely negates the other; there
is no middle ground.
Example: alive ↔️dead, true ↔️false.
Relational Antonyms: Words that are opposites in context but depend on each
other.
Example: buy ↔️sell, teacher ↔️student.

Hyponymy is a relationship between words where the meaning of one word (the
hyponym) is included in the meaning of another, broader word (the hypernym or
superordinate). It represents a "type-of" relationship in semantics.
Hyponym: A more specific term.
Hypernym: A more general term.
Examples:
Rose (hyponym) is a type of flower (hypernym).
Dog (hyponym) is a type of animal (hypernym).
Chair (hyponym) is a type of furniture (hypernym).
Hyponymy is crucial in organizing vocabulary and understanding the hierarchical
relationships between concepts.

25.Semantic grouping of the English Vocabulary

Semantic grouping is the process of classifying words based on their meanings,
relationships, or shared themes. This helps to organize vocabulary in a systematic
way, making it easier to understand the connections between words and their usage
in language.
Types of Semantic Grouping:
1. Synonyms
* Definition: Words that have similar or nearly identical meanings.
* Examples:
* Big: large, huge, enormous, gigantic
* Happy: joyful, content, delighted, cheerful
* Fast: quick, rapid, speedy, swift
2. Antonyms
* Definition: Words that have opposite meanings.
* Examples:
* Hot / Cold
* Tall / Short
* Strong / Weak
* Alive / Dead
* Happy / Sad
3. Types of Antonyms:
* Gradable Antonyms: These represent opposite ends of a spectrum.
* Example: Hot / Cold
* Complementary Antonyms: These are mutually exclusive, where the existence
of one negates the other.
* Example: Alive / Dead
* Relational Antonyms: These are opposites within a relational context.
* Example: Teacher / Student
4. Hyponyms and Hypernyms
* Definition: These terms represent a hierarchical relationship, where a
hyponym is a more specific word under a broader category, or hypernym.
* Examples:
* Hypernym: Animal (broad category)
* Hyponyms: Dog, Cat, Elephant, Tiger
* Hypernym: Fruit (broad category)
* Hyponyms: Apple, Banana, Orange, Grape
5. Semantic Fields (Lexical Fields)
* Definition: A group of words related by a common theme or concept. Words in
a semantic field share similar meanings or associations.
* Examples:
* Colors: red, blue, yellow, green, purple
* Time: morning, afternoon, evening, night
* Emotion: love, hate, joy, anger, sadness
* Movement: run, jump, swim, walk, skip
6. Collocations
* Definition: Words that frequently occur together due to their semantic
compatibility. While not synonyms, these combinations form natural expressions in
the language.
* Examples:
* Make a decision
* Take a risk
* Break the news
* Have a meal
* Give advice

26.Vocabulary as an adaptive System.

In lexicology, vocabulary is viewed as an adaptive system because it constantly
changes to meet the needs of speakers. Here’s how it adapts:
1. Creating New Words: New words are formed as needed, like combining words
(e.g., "smartphone") or creating new ones for new ideas (e.g., "emoji").
2. Meaning Changes: Words can shift in meaning. For example, "holiday" used to
mean a religious day but now means any day of rest.
3. Borrowing from Other Languages: Languages borrow words from others. For
example, "sushi" comes from Japanese, and "ballet" from French.
4. Obsolete Words: Some words fade away because they are no longer needed, like
"floppy disk."
5. Synonyms and Antonyms: New words can emerge to be more specific, or
opposites (antonyms) develop to express contrast.
6. Contextual Changes: Words can change meaning depending on the situation,
like slang in youth culture (e.g., "lit") or professional terms in fields like medicine.
7. Cognitive Needs: Language adapts to be easier and faster to use, like
abbreviations ("OMG") or contractions ("gonna").
8. Regional and Social Variations: Vocabulary changes based on location or
generation, such as different words for the same thing (e.g., "soda" vs. "pop").

27.Lexico-semantic Groups. Semantic Fields.

In lexicology, lexico-semantic groups and semantic fields are key concepts used to
explain how words are related to each other in terms of meaning. Here's an
overview of each:
1. Lexico-Semantic Groups
A lexico-semantic group refers to a collection of words that share a common
meaning or semantic property. These words are linked by a specific, often narrow,
concept. The group is usually smaller and more specific than a semantic field.
* Example: The group of words related to "colors" includes red, blue, green,
yellow, etc. These words are all tied to the concept of color, but each represents a
distinct shade.
2. Semantic Fields
A semantic field (or lexical field) is a larger conceptual domain that groups
together words based on a shared broad theme or area of meaning. It is a broader,
more comprehensive category than a lexico-semantic group.
* Example: The semantic field of "emotion" includes a wide range of words such
as happiness, anger, fear, love, sadness, etc. These words all belong to the general
concept of emotion but represent different emotional states or feelings.
Key Difference:
* Lexico-semantic groups are more specific, focusing on a narrower range of
related words.
* Semantic fields are broader, encompassing larger thematic areas with a variety of
related concepts.

28. Some of the Main Problems of Lexicography

Lexicography, or dictionary-making, faces several challenges in capturing and
organizing language.
1. Word Selection: Choosing which words to include in a dictionary can be
difficult because language is constantly changing. New words appear all the time,
and some old words fall out of use. Lexicographers must decide which words are
important enough to include.
2. Clear Definitions: Many words have more than one meaning, depending on how
they are used. For example, the word "bank" can mean a place where money is
kept or the side of a river. It’s hard to define these words clearly without causing
confusion.
3. Language Change: Language evolves over time. Words can change in meaning
or be replaced by new terms. Keeping dictionaries up-to-date with these changes
requires continuous work and research.
4. Cultural Bias: Some dictionaries may reflect the biases of the time when they
were written, leaving out important words from different cultures or groups.
Modern lexicographers try to be more inclusive, ensuring that all relevant words
are included.
5. Contextual Differences: Words can mean different things depending on the
situation. A word may have one meaning in everyday conversation and another in a
specific profession, like medicine or law. Capturing these differences is tricky.

29.Main Types of English Dictionaries

There are several main types of English dictionaries, each serving a different
purpose:
1. Monolingual Dictionaries: These explain words using only English. They give
definitions, examples, and sometimes the word’s origin. They are useful for native
speakers or learners.Example: Oxford English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.
Purpose: To define words in English without translation.
2. Bilingual Dictionaries: These translate words from one language to another,
helping users learn or translate between languages.Example: English-Spanish
Dictionary, English-French Dictionary.Purpose: To translate words between two
languages.
3. Thesauruses: These list synonyms (similar words) and antonyms (opposite
words), helping users find alternatives.Example: Roget’s Thesaurus.Purpose: To
find synonyms and antonyms for better writing.
4. Learner’s Dictionaries: Designed for people learning English, these provide
simple definitions and examples.Example: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English, Cambridge English Dictionary.Purpose: To help learners understand
English words clearly.
5. Specialized Dictionaries: These focus on specific fields like medicine, law, or
science, explaining technical terms.Example: Medical Dictionary, Legal
Dictionary.Purpose: To explain specialized words in specific fields.
6. Etymological Dictionaries: These explore the origins and history of words.
Example: Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology.Purpose: To trace the history
and changes in word meanings.
7. Colloquial Dictionaries: These focus on slang, idioms, and informal expressions.
Example: The Dictionary of American Slang.Purpose: To explain casual language
used in everyday speech.
30.Historical Development of British and American Lexicography.

The historical development of British and American lexicography (the making of

dictionaries) shows how both countries created dictionaries to organize and explain
their language.
1. Early British Lexicography
* First English Dictionaries: In the 17th century, early dictionaries tried to explain
difficult words.
* Robert Cawdrey's "Table Alphabeticall" (1604): This was the first English
dictionary. It listed difficult words and their meanings.
* Samuel Johnson's Dictionary (1755): Johnson’s dictionary was a big step
forward. It included over 40,000 words and gave definitions, examples, and
sometimes word origins. It became very important for British English.
2. The 19th Century in British Lexicography
* Oxford English Dictionary (OED): In 1857, the Oxford English Dictionary
started as a project to document every word in the English language. It took over
70 years to complete and is still a major reference for British English. The OED is
special because it shows how words have changed over time.
3. Early American Lexicography
* Noah Webster: In America, the development of dictionaries was influenced by
Noah Webster, an educator who wanted to create a dictionary that reflected
American English.
* "An American Dictionary of the English Language" (1828): Webster’s
dictionary included many American spellings, like "color" instead of "colour" and
"theater" instead of "theatre." It also added words specific to America, such as
names for local animals and foods.
4. 19th and 20th Century Development in America
* Merriam-Webster: The Merriam-Webster Company published Webster's
dictionary in the 19th century, and it has been updated ever since. Today, it is the
most popular American dictionary, focusing on modern usage and words.
5. Today
* British Dictionaries: The OED remains the key dictionary for British English,
with new words added regularly.
* American Dictionaries: In the U.S., Merriam-Webster and other dictionaries
focus on reflecting how people use English today.
Both British and American dictionaries have evolved to capture how language
changes over time.
31.Variants and Dialects of the English language
Variants and Dialects of the English Language refer to the different forms of
English spoken in various regions and by different groups of people. These
variations can be found in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and spelling.
1. Regional Dialects
English has many regional dialects spoken in different parts of the world. These
dialects can be very different from each other in terms of accent, vocabulary, and
sometimes grammar.
* British English: In the UK, there are many dialects, including Received
Pronunciation (RP), which is considered the "standard" accent, and regional ones
like Cockney (from East London) or Scouse (from Liverpool). Each has unique
features in pronunciation and vocabulary.
* American English: In the United States, there are also many regional dialects,
such as Southern English (from the southern states), New York English, and
Midwestern English. These regions have distinct pronunciations and slang.
* Australian English: English spoken in Australia has its own unique accent and
vocabulary. For example, Australians use "arvo" for afternoon and "bottle-o" for a
liquor store.
2. Social Dialects
Beyond regional differences, English also has social dialects, which are variations
in language based on social class, education, or occupation. For example, people
may use more formal language in business settings and more relaxed or slang
terms with friends.
3. Global Variants
As English is spoken worldwide, it has adapted to different cultures, resulting in
other varieties of English, such as:
* Indian English: Spoken in India, it includes words from local languages like
Hindi.
* Canadian English: A mix of British and American influences, with some unique
Canadian terms.
4. Standard vs. Non-Standard English
* Standard English: This is the form of English taught in schools and used in
formal writing and speech.
* Non-Standard English: Includes regional or social dialects that may not follow
standard grammar or vocabulary rules but are still widely used in everyday
conversation.

32.Regional and Social Varieties of English

Regional and Social Varieties of English refer to the different ways people speak
English based on where they live (regional) or their social group (social).
1. Regional Varieties of English
These are differences in how English is spoken in different geographical areas.
People from different regions often have their own accents (how they pronounce
words) and dialects (the words and grammar they use).
* British English: In the UK, people speak in many different ways depending on
where they live. For example:
* Received Pronunciation (RP) is seen as a standard accent, often used in formal
settings.
* Cockney is a working-class accent from East London.
* Scouse is spoken in Liverpool.
* Geordie is used in Newcastle.
* American English: In the United States, there are also many regional accents and
ways of speaking:
* Southern English has a slow, drawling accent, typical of the southern states.
* New York English is known for its unique pronunciation.
* Midwestern English is often considered the "neutral" American accent.
* Australian English: The English spoken in Australia has its own distinctive
accent and slang, like "G'day" for "Hello" and "arvo" for "afternoon."
2. Social Varieties of English
Social varieties are differences in language based on social class, education, or
occupation.
* Formal vs. Informal Language: People speak more formally in professional or
academic settings, using full sentences and proper grammar. In casual settings,
people might use slang or more relaxed language.
* Sociolects: These are dialects spoken by specific social groups, like teenagers or
professionals. For example:
* Teen Slang: Young people often use slang like "lit" or "savage."
* Professional Jargon: Doctors, lawyers, or engineers use specialized words that
people outside those fields may not understand.

33.The Theoretical and Practical Value of English Lexicology and its connection
with other Branches of Linguistics.
The Theoretical and Practical Value of English Lexicology refers to the study of
words, their meanings, and how they work in the language. It is important both in
theory (understanding language) and in practice (how we use language).
Theoretical Value of Lexicology
* Understanding Language Structure: Lexicology helps us understand how words
are formed, how they change over time, and how they relate to each other in a
language. This includes studying word origins (etymology), word meanings
(semantics), and word forms (morphology).
* Explaining Meaning: Lexicology is crucial in understanding how words carry
meaning. It helps explain why some words have multiple meanings and how new
words are created or borrowed from other languages.
* Tracking Language Change: By studying the history of words, lexicologists can
explain how languages evolve. They can track how words gain or lose meanings,
and how new words come into use.
Practical Value of Lexicology
* Creating Dictionaries: Lexicology is key in making dictionaries. It helps
dictionary makers decide which words to include and how to define them
accurately.
* Improving Communication: Knowing how words are used helps people
communicate clearly and effectively, whether in writing or speaking.
* Language Learning: Lexicology aids in teaching language, as understanding
word meanings and structures is crucial for learners.
Connection with Other Branches of Linguistics
Lexicology is connected to many other parts of linguistics, the scientific study of
language.
* Syntax: Lexicology and syntax work together because syntax is about how words
are put together in sentences. Knowing word meanings and structures helps us
understand sentence structure.
* Semantics: Lexicology and semantics both focus on meaning. While lexicology
studies individual words, semantics looks at how words combine to form meaning
in larger contexts.
* Phonology: Phonology studies sounds, and lexicology looks at how the sound of
words changes over time. For example, why certain words have different
pronunciations.
* Morphology: Lexicology and morphology are closely linked. Morphology
studies how words are formed (like adding prefixes or suffixes), and lexicology
looks at the meanings of these words.