Word-formation processes in English

Introduction

• English creates new words primarily

through:
• Derivation
• Compounding
What is Derivation?

• Derivation is the process of adding affixes to a root to create a new

word.
• Types of Changes that derivation causes:
• Phonological (sound)
• Orthographic (spelling)
• Semantic (meaning)
• Word Class (e.g., verb → noun)
Examples of Changes in
Derivation
• Phonological Change:
reduce > reduction
electric > electricity
• Orthographic Change:
deny > denial
happy > happiness
• Semantic Change:
event > eventual
emerge > emergency
• Word Class Change:
eat (V) > eatable (A)
impress (V) > impression (N)
Types of Affixes

• Prefixes: Added to the beginning of

words.
Examples: un- (unlock), pre-
(preheat), anti- (antiwar)
• Suffixes: Added to the end of words.
Examples: -able (admirable), -ment
(advancement)
• Affixes can be:
• Native (from Old English)
• Borrowed (e.g., from Latin or
French)
Examples of Prefix Usage

• Time: pre- (prearrange), after- (aftershock)

• Degree: super- (supersensitive), over- (overanxious)
• Size: micro- (microchip), mini- (minivan)
• Negation vs. Privation:
• amoral (without morals) vs. immoral (not moral)
Examples of Suffix Usage

• Nominalizers (Form Nouns):

-ment (advancement), -er (worker)
• Verbalizers (Form Verbs):
-ify (simplify), -ize (publicize)
• Adjectivalizers (Form Adjectives):
-ful (hopeful), -ous (poisonous)
• Adverbializers (Form Adverbs):
-ly (quickly), -ward (homeward)
Productivity of Affixes

• Some affixes are productive (still

widely used):
e.g., -able (available), un-
• Others are unproductive (rarely
used):
e.g., -th (warmth, depth)
• Affix use is arbitrary and must often
be memorized.
Derivation in Lexical Rules

• Examples of lexical rules:

• mis- + align (V) + -ment →
misalignment (N)
• false (A) + -ify → falsify (V)
• Tree diagrams represent the
structure:
e.g., nonsmoker → smoke + -er →
nonsmoke + -er (invalid)
Tree structures of derivation
but
 Reduplication

• Definition: Reduplication involves

doubling the initial syllable or the entire
word, either exactly or with slight
phonological changes.
• Rare in English but common in children’s
language and for humorous/ironic
effects.
• Examples:
• Children’s language: boo-boo, putt-putt
• Humorous/Ironic: goody-goody, rah-rah
Conversion (Functional Shift)

• Definition: Shifting a word from one

part of speech to another without
adding a suffix.
• Examples:
• Noun → Verb: to phone
• Verb → Noun: a run
• Key Feature:
• Regular, productive inflections (e.g.,
telephoned/telephoning).
Common Types of Conversions

1. Verb → Noun:
1. Action as object: a kiss
2. Result of action: a bruise
3. Person performing action: a spy
2. Noun → Verb:
1. Location: to bottle, to box
2. Instrument: to lock, to mail
3. Adjective → Verb:
1. Inchoative: to become X (e.g., to dirty)
2. Causative: to cause to become X
Blends

• Definition: Blends combine compounding and clipping processes.

• Two free words are merged, often by clipping:
• The end of the first word
• The beginning of the second word
• Also Known As:
• "Portmanteau" words
Examples of Blends

• sm(oke) + (f)og → smog

• mo(tor) + (ho)tel → motel
• info(rmation) + (com)mercial →
infomercial
• simul(taneous) + (broad)cast →
simulcast
• trans(fer) + (re)sistor → transisto
What is a
Compound?

• A compound combines two or

more free roots (+ possible affixes).
• It is considered a single word but
can be confused with syntactic
phrases.
• Examples of compounds:
• Single word: icecream
• Hyphenated: ice-cream
• Separate words: ice cream
Key Characteristics of Compounds
• Semantic Cohesion:
• Both compounds and phrases can have cohesive meanings (e.g., shipyard vs.
automobile assembly plant).
• Order of Elements:
• Compounds often have a nonliteral order (e.g., forthcoming vs. come forth).
• Internal Coherence:
• Compounds: Modified externally (e.g., manholes, not *menhole).
• Phrases: Modified internally (e.g., men-of-war, not *man-of-wars).
• Stress Patterns:
• Compounds have one primary stress (e.g., stonewall).
• Phrases have more than one primary stress (e.g., stone wall).
Types of Compounds by Syntax

• Compounds are classified based on their syntax:

• Nouns: airplane, gold-mine, cut-throat
• Verbs: babysit, free-associate
• Adjectives: childproof, bittersweet
Back Formation

• Definition: Back formation creates a simple

word from a form perceived as morphologically
complex.
• This involves removing a suffix based on English
derivational/inflectional patterns.
• Example:
• sightseer → sightsee
• babysitter → babysit
Back Formation vs. Derivation

• Back Formation:
• Complex word → Simple word
• Example: babysitter → babysit
• Derivation:
• Simple word + Suffix → Complex word
• Example: sing + -er → singer
Back Formation Examples (Agentive Suffix)

• Agentive suffix (-er):

• Removed to form verbs:
• orator → orate
• editor → edit
• peddler → peddle
• sculptor → sculpt
• swindler → swindle
• Note: In these cases, -er is part of the root, not a
true suffix.
Back Formation Examples (Other
Suffixes)

• Other suffixes removed:

• -ion: intuition → intuit
• -ive: sedative → sedate
• -al: paramedical → paramedic
• -asm: enthusiasm → enthuse
• -y: sleazy → sleaze
• Inflectional endings removed:
• joyriding → joyride
• henpecked → henpeck
Overview of Shortening

• Definition: Shortening involves the deletion of sound segments, ignoring

morphological boundaries, resulting in:

• Clipping
• Acronyms
• Initialisms
Clipping

• Definition: Clipping is the removal of parts of a word

(beginning, end, or both) while retaining its meaning.
• Examples:
• End clipping:
• ad < advertisement
• rehab < rehabilitation
• Beginning clipping:
• burger < hamburger
• phone < telephone
• Both beginning and end clipped:
• fridge < refrigerator
• flu < influenza
Characteristics of Clipping

• Often begins as colloquial forms (e.g., prof, gym, lab).

• Many become fully accepted as standard words.
• Clippings are phonologically motivated:
• Tend to select the longest possible syllable (e.g., narc).
Acronyms

• Definition: Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a phrase and
pronouncing them as a word.
• Examples:
• NATO < North Atlantic Treaty Organization
• AIDS < Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• radar < radio detecting and ranging
• laser < light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
• sonar < sound navigation ranging
• Note: Acronyms may skip words or use the first two letters of a word to conform to
English phonotactics.
Root Creation

• What is Root Creation?

• The invention of an entirely new
root morpheme.
• Rare form of word formation.
• Key Source:
• Brand names often serve as
examples, though many are not pure
root creations.
 Examples of Root Creations

• True Root Creations:

• Granola
• Quark
• Googol (ten raised to the hundredth
power)
• Onomatopoeic Words:
• Created to imitate sounds:
• Animal sounds: bow-wow, baa,
cuckoo, moo, meow
• Natural sounds: twitter, gulp, hiss,
sizzle, squeak, boom
What is an Idiom?

• Definition:
• A sequence of words functioning as a single unit.
• Characteristics:
• Syntactically fixed: Little to no variation in
wording.
• Semantically conventionalized: Meaning
cannot be predicted from individual words.
• Examples of Idioms:
• Spill the beans
• Bite the dust
• Hold your horses
Characteristics of Idioms

1. Fixed Phrasing:
1. No variation in words allowed.
2. Example: You can’t say "hold your stallions" instead of "hold your horses."
2. Noncompositional Meaning:
1. The meaning of the idiom cannot be deduced from its individual words.
2. Example: "Under the weather" = feeling ill, not literally beneath the
weather.
3. Metaphorical or Proverbial Meaning:
1. Idioms are often metaphorical and emotionally charged.
4. Colloquial Nature:
1. Frequently used in informal settings.
Source:
• Brinton, L., J., Brinton, D., M. 2010. The Linguistic Structure of Modern English.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.