The difference between synchronic & diachronic approaches to language

analysis. Discuss F. de Saussure's opinion.

Synchronic and diachronic are the binary pair introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure in his
“Course in General Linguistics” (1916). The terms diachrony and synchrony refer,
respectively, to an evolutionary phase of language and to a language state. They are two
different dimensions of language study which define the two available temporal axes for the
analysis of language, which can logically be extended to encompass virtually all forms of
human activity.

Linguistics, in Saussure's time, approached the problem of the multiplicity of languages by

trying to trace each of them back to a handful of common sources (in much the same way as
evolutionary biologists approach the problem of the multiplicity of species). This approach
was deemed diachronic by Saussure because it looks for the production of difference across
time. But for Saussure this ignored the (to him, more interesting and important) problem of
how to account for the existence and operation of language itself. To get a handle on this, he
insisted that it was necessary to take a snapshot of language at a particular time and
effectively produce a freeze-frame of it. This approach he referred to as synchronic. By
freezing time, or better ignoring its effects, Saussure thought it would be easier to see that
which was eternal and universal.

Synchronic linguistics, also known as descriptive linguistics or general linguistics is the study
of a language at a particular time whereas diachronic linguistics is the historical study of
language. Synchronic linguistics is the geographic study of language and diachronic
linguistics refers to the study of how a language evolves over a period of time.

Synchronic linguistics is the geographic study of language while diachronic linguistics

undertake historical study of language. Synchronistic consider language as a static entity not
a changing.

Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through different periods in history. They
look at language over a period of time to make comparisons, and would be used, for example
to study the development of English pronoun usage. On the other hand, synchronic linguistics
is descriptive and they analyzing how the parts of a language or grammar work together, how
proper syntax gives a sentence meaning. They do not consider how language has evolved
over time.

For example, synchronic linguistics study of how parts of a language combine to form words
and phrases whereas the study of how the development of English from the Old English
period to the twentieth century occurred is a diachronic study.For example, if we consider the
Normans conquest of England in 1066 and the various words they bought with them, a
diachronic look could analyse what new words were adopted, which ones fell out of use, and
how long that process took for select words. A synchronic study might look at the language at
different points before the Normans or after. Note how you need a longer time period for the
diachronic study than the synchronic one.
Théophile Obenga in Genetic Linguistic Connections of Ancient Egypt and the Rest of Africa
(1996) says, “In reality, “diachronic and synchronic linguistics interlock”. For example,
analyzing the word order in a sentence exclusively in Old English is a study in synchronistic
linguistics. But, analyzing how word order changed in a sentence from Old English to Middle
or Modern English is considered is a diachronic study. The ‘synchronic-diachronic’
distinction is accepted by most of Saussure’s successors and is valid in the present-day
linguistics too.

1. What is a morpheme? Define and classify morphemes based on function and

position.

Morpheme is a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided.

A morpheme is any of the smallest meaningful constituents within a linguistic expression and
particularly within a word. A morpheme is a unit of word formation that is irreducible (not
breakable into smaller units)—almost always a stem, a prefix, or a suffix. A morpheme is the
smallest unit of language that has its own meaning, either a word or a part of a word.

Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: root-morphemes and non-

rootmorphemes.

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word. It has its individual lexical
meaning and all other types of meaning proper to a morpheme except the part-of-
speech meaning.

Non-root morphemes include inflectional morphemes or inflections and affixational

morphemes or affixes.

Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are used to form word-forms.

Affixes possess a part-of-speech meaning and a generalized lexical meaning and

are used for building word-stems and word-formation. The stem is the part of a word
that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. Lexicology is concerned only
withaffixational morphemes.

By the position within the word-structure affixes are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes
and infixes.

A prefix precedes the root-morpheme; e.g.: discharge.

A suffix follows the root-morpheme; e.g.: reader.

An infix is inside the root-morpheme; e.g.: stand as compared to stood.

Structurally morphemes fall into three types: free morphemes, bound morphemes
and semi-free or semi-bound morphemes.
A free morpheme is defined as the one that coincides with the stem of a word-form.
Generally root-morphemes are free morphemes;
e.g.: reader, friendship, shipwreck.

A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. All affixes and
unique and pseudo-roots are bound morphemes; e.g.: goodness, discharge,
friendship, theory, deceive.

Semi-free or semi-bound morphemes can function in a morphemic sequence both

as an affix and as a free morpheme. E.g.: the morphemes well and half occur
as free morphemes that coincide with the stem and the word-form in utterances
like sleep well, half an hour. But they occur as bound morphemes in words
like well-known, half-done.

There are two more types of morphemes: combining forms and semi-suffixes.

Bound root-morphemes of Latin and Greek origin are called combining forms.
E.g.: telephone, telegraph and microphone, photograph.

A semi-suffix is termed as a word-building element formally coinciding with the stem

or word-form of a free separate word but acting as an affix. E.g.: cabman, bar-
happy.

Tasks

Great! Here’s a structured answer for each task:

---

**Task 1: Morphemic Analysis**

Break each word into its **immediate** and **ultimate** constituents.

1. **Uneatable**
- Immediate: un- + eatable, eat + able
- Ultimate: un- + eat + -able

2. **Greenish**
- Immediate: green + -ish
- Ultimate: green + -ish (ish – derivational suffix)

3. **Famous**
- Immediate: fame + -ous
- Ultimate: fame + -ous

4. **Lucky**
- Immediate: luck + -y
- Ultimate: luck + -y
5. **Luckily**
- Immediate: lucky + -ly
- Ultimate: luck + -y + -ly

6. **Majority**
- Immediate: major + -ity
- Ultimate: major + -ity

7. **Half-finished**
- Immediate: half + finished
- Ultimate: half + fin+ish + -ed

8. **Steadiness**
- Immediate: steady + -ness
- Ultimate: stead + -y + -ness

9. **Unmistakable**
- Immediate: un- + mistakable, mis + takeable, take + able
- Ultimate: un- + mis- + take + -able

10. **Supernatural**
- Immediate: super- + natural
- Ultimate: super- + nat+ure + -al

11. **Ex-seamen**
- Immediate: ex- + seamen
- Ultimate: ex- + sea + men

12. **Blue-eyed**
- Immediate: blue + eyed
- Ultimate: blue + eye + -ed

---

**Task 2: Classification of Stems**

- **Simple:** take, look, small

- **Derived:**irresponsibility, purify, hopelessly, manhood, enrich, foolishness, foresee,
unpleasantness, hyperslow, prejudge, businesslike, babylike, trustworthy, praiseworthy
- **Compound:** playwright, afterthought, snow-whiteness, chairman, shoemaker, cowboy,
well-known, playboy, biped, fashionmonger, waterproof, shockproof, old-maidish

**Task 3: Word Formation Explanation**

1. **To burgle** – back-formation from *burglar*

2. **To spring-clean** – conversion of the noun *spring-cleaning* into a verb
3. **To beg** – back-formation from *beggar*
4. **To note** – conversion (zero-derivation) from the noun *note* into a verb
---

**Task 4: Blends**

1. **Flush** = *flash* + *rush*

2. **Glaze** = *glass* + *blaze*
3. **Good-bye** = contraction of *God be with ye*
4. **Electrocute** = *electric* + *execute*
5. **Pomato** = *potato* + *tomato*
6. **Twirl** = *twist* + *whirl*
7. **Cablegram** = *cable* + *telegram*
8. **Galumph** = *gallop* + *triumph* (coined by Lewis Carroll)
9. **Frutopia** = *fruit* + *utopia*

### **Task 5: Verbs Corresponding to the Capitalized Nouns & Stress Comparison**

| Noun | Verb | Stress Comparison |

|------------|------------|----------------------------------|
| OBJECT | object | Noun: 'OBject / Verb: ob'JECT |
| FEARS | fear | Both stressed on the only syllable |
| PRESENT | present | Noun: 'PREsent / Verb: pre'SENT |
| ACCENT | accent | Noun: 'ACcent / Verb: ac'CENT |
| CONDUCT | conduct | Noun: 'CONduct / Verb: con'DUCT |

> **Note:** The nouns have stress on the **first** syllable, while the corresponding verbs
have stress on the **second** syllable (except for monosyllabic *fear*).

---

### **Task 6: Abbreviate the Following Nouns to the First Syllable**

| Full Word | Abbreviation (1st Syllable) |

|----------------|-----------------------------|
| mitten | mit |
| doctor | doc |
| grandmother | gran |
| cabriolet | cab |
| public | pub |
| house | house (unchanged or "ho" in slang) |
| gymnasium | gym |
| proprietor | prop |
| fraternity | frat |
| laboratory | lab |
| margarine | marge |
| sister | sis |
| mathematics | math |
| trigonometry | trig |
| veterinary | vet |
| gladiolus | glad |

---

### **Task 7: Comment on the Formation of the Capitalized Words**

These are all **conversions** (also called **zero-derivation**), where a word from one part
of speech becomes another without a change in form.

1. **CLEARED** – from noun *clear* → verb *to clear* (conversion + regular past tense)
2. **QUIET** – from adjective *quiet* → verb *to quiet* (conversion)
3. **NARROWED** – from adjective *narrow* → verb *to narrow* (conversion + past
tense)
4. **CHILLED** – from noun/adjective *chill* → verb *to chill* (conversion + past tense)
5. **WARMED** – from adjective *warm* → verb *to warm* (conversion + past tense);
second *WARMED* shows reflexive/emotional development
6) **NINES** – idiom *“to the nines”*, meaning “to perfection”; not a conversion, but a
fossilized phrase.
7) **WIN / MUST** – *win* (noun from verb, conversion); *must* (noun from modal verb,
conversion)
8) **OUGHT / SHALLS** – *ought* (modal verb, converted to noun), *shalls* (modal
verb, plural noun form, stylized usage)

---

### **Task 8: Form Words with a Negative Meaning**

| Base Word | Negative Form | Prefix Used |

|------------------|----------------------|--------------|
| ability | inability | in- |
| able | unable | un- |
| accessible | inaccessible | in- |
| action | inaction | in- |
| dispensable | indispensable | in- |
| expected | unexpected | un- |
| comprehensible | incomprehensible | in- |
| to tie | untie | un- |
| eatable | uneatable | un- |
| to bind | unbind | un- |
| to obey | disobey | dis- |
| to organize | disorganize | dis- |
| to mobilize | demobilize | de- |
| to bolt | unbolt | un- |
| just | unjust | un- |
| justice | injustice | in- |

---

### **Task 9: Meaning of Prefix "re-" and Stress Marking**

The prefix **re-** usually means *again* or *back*. Some forms cause a shift in meaning or
stress.
Stress is **bolded**.

| Word | Meaning | Stressed Syllable |

|----------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------|
| **re**-organize | organize again | **re**-OR-ganize |
| **re**-pocket | put back in the pocket | **re**-POCK-et |
| **re**-leather | cover with leather again | **re**-LEATH-er |
| **re**-case | put into a new case | **re**-CASE |
| recol**LECT** | remember | re-col-**LECT** |
| re**COV**er | get back (health, etc.) | re-**COV**-er |
| **re**-cover | cover again | **re**-COV-er |
| re**FORM** | improve | re-**FORM** |
| **re**-form | form again | **re**-FORM |
| re**CREATE** | create again | re-**CREATE** |
| **re**-create | relax, take recreation | **re**-CREATE |
| re**MARK** | say something again | re-**MARK** |
| **re**-mark | mark again | **re**-MARK |
| re**SIGN** | quit a job | re-**SIGN** |
| **re**-sign | sign again | **re**-SIGN |
| re**SOUND** | echo | re-**SOUND** |
| **re**-sound | sound again | **re**-SOUND |
| re**SORT** | go again | re-**SORT** |
| **re**-sort | sort again | **re**-SORT |
| re-**DRESS** | remedy, correct | re-**DRESS** |
| re**JOIN** | answer or reply | re-**JOIN** |
| **re**-join | join again | **re**-JOIN |
| rein**FORCE** | strengthen again | rein-**FORCE** |
| re**PLACE** | put in place again | re-**PLACE** |

---

### **Task 10: Form Verbs with Prefixes & Origins**

| Verb | Prefix | Origin of Prefix & Stem |

|------------------|---------|--------------------------------------------------|
| **belittle** | be- | OE *be-* “about, around” → verb-forming prefix |
| **rebuild** | re- | Lat. *re-* “again” + OE *build* |
| **pervade** | per- | Lat. *per* “through” + *vadere* “go” |
| **promote** | pro- | Lat. *pro-* “forward” + *movere* “to move” |
| **forbid** | for- | OE *for-* “away, off, against” + *bid* |
| **transform** | trans- | Lat. *trans-* “across” + *formare* “to form” |
| **disconnect** | dis- | Lat. *dis-* “apart, away” + *connectere* |
| **devalue** | de- | Lat. *de-* “down, away” + *value* |
| **mislead** | mis- | OE *mis-* “wrongly” + *lead* |

---

### **Task 11: Prefixed and Suffixed Words + Commentary**

From the passage:

#### **Prefixed Words:**

- **differently** – *prefix* "differ" + *suffix* "-ly"
- **animated** – *prefix* "anima" + *suffix* "-ed"
- **abhored** – *prefix* "ab-" (from Latin: "away from")
- **uplifted** – *prefix* "up-" + *verb* "lift" + *suffix* "-ed"
- **mid-Victorian** – *prefix* "mid-" (middle)
- **undivorced** – *prefix* "un-" (negation)

#### **Suffixed Words:**

- **differently** – *-ly* (adverb from adjective)
- **animated** – *-ed* (past participle)
- **noticeably** – *-ly* (adverb)
- **peculiar** – *-ar* (adjective-forming)
- **extravagant** – *-ant* (adjective-forming)
- **chinny** – *-y* (adjective-forming)
- **hopelessly** – *-less* (without) + *-ly*
- **unspeakable** – *-able* (capable of) + prefix *un-*

> **Prefixes** generally change the **meaning** (e.g. *un-* = not, *up-* = direction),
> **Suffixes** often change the **part of speech** or modify the intensity.

Here’s a clear and structured answer for **Task 12** and **Task 13**.

---

### **Task 12: Origin and Meaning of Suffixes**

| Word | Suffix | Origin | Meaning of Suffix |

|-------------|------------|--------------------|------------------------------------------|
| childhood | -hood | Old English | state or condition |
| friendship | -ship | Old English | state, quality, or condition |
| hardship | -ship | Old English | condition or quality |
| freedom | -dom | Old English | state or domain |
| toward | -ward | Old English | in the direction of |
| backward | -ward | Old English | in the direction of |
| manhood | -hood | Old English | state or condition |
| brotherly | -ly | Old English | characteristic of |
| boredom | -dom | Old English | state or condition |
| rider | -er | Old English | one who performs the action |
| granny | -y | Old English (dimin.)| diminutive form |
| teacher | -er | Old English | one who performs the action |
| aunty | -y | Old English (dimin.)| diminutive form |
| hatred | -red | Old English | condition or state |
| hireling | -ling | Old English | one who is hired, often with contempt |
| village | -age | French/Latin | collection of, related to place |
| hindrance | -ance | Latin | state or action |
| student | -ent | Latin | one who does |
| drunkard | -ard | Old French/Germanic| one who engages in an action excessively |

---

### **Task 13: Productive Suffixes, Examples, and Sentences**

#### **-ion** (action/result of)

- **Example**: creation
- *The creation of the website took several weeks.*

#### **-ing** (gerund/participle)

- **Example**: painting
- *Painting relaxes me after a long day.*

#### **-tion** (action/result of)

- **Example**: suggestion
- *Her suggestion was accepted by the team.*

#### **-y** (quality/state or diminutive)

- **Example**: snowy
- *The path was covered in snowy footprints.*

#### **-en** (verb-forming or adjective-forming)

- **Example**: strengthen
- *Regular practice will strengthen your skills.*

#### **-ish** (having the quality of, somewhat)

- **Example**: childish
- *His reaction was a bit childish for his age.*

#### **-ous** (full of)

- **Example**: dangerous
- *It’s dangerous to drive in this storm.*

#### **-ful** (full of)

- **Example**: hopeful
- *She remained hopeful despite the difficulties.*

#### **-some** (tending to, causing)

- **Example**: troublesome
- *The child was troublesome during class.*

#### **-less** (without)

- **Example**: hopeless
- *The search seemed hopeless after several hours.*

#### **-ance** (state or quality)

- **Example**: attendance
- *His attendance improved this semester.*
#### **-ive** (having the nature of)
- **Example**: creative
- *She’s a very creative person.*

#### **-ward** (in the direction of)

- **Example**: eastward
- *The birds flew eastward in the morning.*

#### **-ment** (result or means of an action)

- **Example**: improvement
- *There was a noticeable improvement in her writing.*

#### **-let** (diminutive)

- **Example**: booklet
- *Please take this information booklet.*

#### **-ize** (to make or become)

- **Example**: modernize
- *They plan to modernize the school facilities.*

#### **-able** (capable of being)

- **Example**: readable
- *The font on the website is easily readable.*

Семінар 3

Native words, their classification.

Native Words- Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from
being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the
borrowed stock of words In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number
of words in the English vocabulary. The native words have a wider range of lexical
and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming
word clusters and set expressions.

A native word is a word (or more precisely, lexeme) that was not borrowed from
another language, but was inherited from an earlier stage of the language, i.e. a
word that is not a loanword.

Strictly speaking, the term native word can only be relative to some earlier stage of
the language. So English hand can be said to be a native word (as opposed to the
semantically related manual, a loanword), but only with respect to Old English or
Proto-Germanic. At a still earlier time, hand may have been borrowed from some
other language, i.e. it may be a loanword after all (we have no way of knowing).

Native words, their classification.

By the Native Element we understand words that are not borrowed from other
languages. A native word is a word that belongs to the Old English word-stock. The
Native element is the basic element, though it constitutes only up to 20-25% of the
English vocabulary.

Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language. It
was spoken from about A.D. 600 untill about A.D. 1100, and most of its words had
been part of a still earlier form of the language. Many of the common words of
modern English, like home, stone, and meat are native, or Old English words. Most
of irregular verbs in English derive from Old English(speak, swim, drive, ride, sing),
as do most of the English shorter numerals (two, three, six, ten) and most of the
pronouns (I, you, we, who).

Many old English words can be traced back to Indo-European, a prehistoric

language that was the common ancestor of Greek and Latin as well. Others came
into Old English as it was becoming a separate language.

(a) Indo-European Element: since English belongs to the Germanic branch of the
Indo-European group of languages, the oldest words in English are of Indo-
European origin. They form part of the basic word stock of all Indo-European
languages. There are several semantic groups:

 -words expressing family relations: brother, daughter, father, mother, son;

 -names of parts of the human body: foot, eye, ear, nose, tongue;
 -names of trees, birds, animals: tree, birch, cow, wolf, cat;
 -names expressing basic actions: to come, to know, to sit, to work;
 -words expressing qualities: red, quick, right, glad, sad;
 -numerals: one, two, three, ten, hundred, etc.

There are many more words of Indo-European origin in the basic stock of the English
vocabulary.

(b) Common Germanic words are not to be found in other Indo-European languages
but the Germanic. They constitute a very large layer of the vocabulary, e.g.:

 -Nouns: hand, life, sea, ship, meal, winter, ground, coal, goat;
 -Adjectives: heavy, deep, free, broad, sharp, grey;
 -Verbs: to buy, to drink, to find, to forget, to go, to have, to live, to make;
 -Pronouns: all, each, he, self, such;
 -Adverbs: again, forward, near;
 -Prepositions: after, at, by, over, under, from, for.

4. French borrowings: How did the Norman Conquest influence

the English language? What are the key semantic fields
influenced by French borrowings?
1066. With the famous Battle of Hasting, when the English were defeated by the
Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the
Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social,
political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bilingual
country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years
period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect
of social life. Here is a brief list of example of Norman French borrowings.

 Administrative words: state, goverment, parliament, council, power.

 Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
 Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
 Educational terms: pupil, lesso, library, science, pen, pencil.

Everyday life was not unaffected buy the powerful influence of French words,
Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g.
table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.

According to different sources, nearly 30% of all English words have a French origin.
This fact suggests that 80,000 words should appear in this list. However, this list
does not include derivatives formed in English, but only the ones imported as such
directly from French (for instance joy and joyous, but not joyful, joyfulness, nor
partisanship, parenthood, …). It does not include either combinations of words of
French origin with words of origin other than French (e.g. icecream, sunray, jellyfish,
killjoy, lifeguard, passageway). It also excludes English-made combinations of words
of French origin (e.g. grapefruit is made of grape + fruit but has been coined in
English, layperson: lay + person, consider also mailorder, magpie, marketplace,
petticoat, straitjacket).

The influence of the French language has also marked the domain of the arts:
surrealism, impressionism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, collage, grisaille …;
Architecture : aisle, arcade, arch, vault, belfry, arc-boutant, buttress, bay, estrade,
facade, balustrade, terrace, lunette, niche, pavilion, pilaster, porte cochère ; Cuisine:
petit four, soufflé, mille-feuille, croissant, pastry, gateau, baba au rhum, cream,
caramel, custard, marmalade, meringue, clafoutis, flognarde, beef bourguignon,
cassoulet, casserole, confit, gratin, mustard, mayonnaise, sauce, pâté, foie gras,
terrine, navarin …

Other examples include color names (ecru, mauve, beige, carmine, maroon, blue,
orange, violet, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, perse, scarlet) ; vegetables or fruits
(courgette, aubergine, cabbage, carrot, nutmeg, quince, lemon, orange, apricot);
months of the year (January, March, May, July, November, December).

Referential approach:

The referential approach seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the
interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote. The referential approach
distinguishes between the three components connected with meaning: (1) the sound-form of
the linguistic sign, (2) the concept underlying this sound-form and (3) the actual referent, that
is the object of reality to which this linguistic sign refers. The meaning of a word denoting a
concrete object is not identical with the underlying concept generalizing all the objects of this
class. For example, the meaning of the word denoting the dog is not identical with the
concept ‘dog’ as a class of objects to which a dog belongs.

Functional approach:
Functional approach maintains that the meaning of a word may be studied only through its
relation to other words. It is less concerned with what meaning is than with how it works.
The functional approach maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only
through its relation to other linguistic-units and not through its relation to either concept or
referent.

Key differences:
The difference between the lexical and the grammatical component of meaning is not to be
sought in the difference of the concepts underlying the two types of meaning rather in the
way they are conveyed. The concept of plurality, for example, may be expressed by the
lexical meaning of the word plurality. It may also be expressed in the forms of different
words irrespective of their lexical meaning (girls, boards). The interrelation of the lexical and
the grammatical meaning and the role played by each varies in different word classes and
even in different groups of words within one and the same class. In some parts of speech the
prevailing component is the grammatical type of meaning. The lexical meaning of
prepositions is, as a rule, relatively vague (to think of somebody, independent of somebody,
some of the students). The lexical meaning of some prepositions is however comparatively
distinct (in, on, under the table).

Tasks seminar 3
Task 1

### **African**
- baobab, springbok

### **Arabic**
- assassin, azimuth, emir, harem, khalif, sheikh, sherbert, sofa, sugar, zero, coffee

### **Chinese**
- ketchup, kung fu, tea, tycoon

### **Dutch**
- cruise, deck, easel, horde, yacht, coffee

### **French**
- beauty, chauffeur, machine, manifest, guitar, cuisine, ballet

### **German**
- hamburger, kapellmeister, kindergarten, lager, leitmotif, poodle, rucksack, sauerkraut,
schnaps

### **Greek**
- telephone, teleology

### **Hungarian**
- goulash, hussar, tokay

### **Indian (Hindi/Sanskrit/Urdu origin)**

- bungalow, curry, guru, jute, khaki, loot, pyjamas, rupee, shampoo

### **Italian**
- piazza, soprano, grotto, influenza, fiasco, opera, sonata, sonnet, soprano, macaroni, lottery,
umbrella

### **Japanese**
- bonsai, geisha, hara-kiri, kamikaze, karate, kimono, mikado, samurai, shogun, zaitech

### **Latin**
- incognito, portico, school, solo

### **Native American**

- canoe, hammock, hurricane, maize, tobacco, wigwam

### **Persian**
- bazaar, caftan, caravan, turban

### **Portuguese**
- bamboo, cobra, jungle, sago

### **Russian**
- borsch, glasnost, intelligentsia, perestroika, samovar, sputnik, troika

Polish:
- mazurka

Czech:
polka

### **Spanish**
- banana, bravado, cannibal, chocolate, hacienda, mosquito, mulatto, negro, potato, sombrero

### **Turkish**
- aga, bey, yogurt, kiosk

Task 2
1. **Madeira**: From Portuguese *Madeira*, meaning "wood," referring to the island's
abundance of forests. citeturn0search15
2. **Enfant terrible**: A French phrase literally meaning "terrifying child." Initially
described a child whose candid remarks embarrassed adults; later, it referred to anyone whose
unconventional behavior or ideas shocked others. citeturn0search1

3. **Alma mater**: Latin for "nourishing mother." Originally a title for certain goddesses, it
later came to refer to one's former school or university. citeturn0search2

4. **Sky**: Derived from Old Norse *ský*, meaning "cloud." The term evolved to its
current meaning in Middle English. citeturn0search3

5. **Chef**: Borrowed from French *chef*, short for *chef de cuisine*, meaning "head of
the kitchen." In French, *chef* means "chief" or "leader." citeturn0search4

6. **Macho**: From Spanish *macho*, meaning "male." It denotes masculinity or

manliness. citeturn0search5

7. **Haute couture**: French for "high sewing" or "high dressmaking." It refers to the
creation of exclusive custom-fitted high-end fashion designs. citeturn0search6

8. **Prêt-à-porter**: French for "ready to wear." It describes factory-made clothing, sold in

finished condition and standardized sizes. citeturn0search7

9. **Déjà vu**: French for "already seen." It describes the feeling that one has already
experienced the present situation. citeturn0search8

10. **Curriculum vitae**: Latin for "course of (one's) life." A brief account of a person's
education, qualifications, and previous experiences. citeturn0search9

11. **School**: From Latin *schola*, meaning "meeting place for teachers and students,"
which in turn comes from Greek *scholē*, meaning "leisure, philosophy, lecture place."
citeturn0search10

12. **Judo**: From Japanese *jūdō*, meaning "gentle way." A martial art developed in 1882
by Jigoro Kano. citeturn0search11

13. **Sumo**: From Japanese *sumō*, meaning "to compete." A traditional Japanese form
of wrestling. citeturn0search12

14. **Banjo**: Likely of African origin, akin to Bantu *mbanza*, referring to a similar
instrument. The term was influenced by the Portuguese *bandore*, a lute-like instrument.
citeturn0search13

15. **Undertake**: From Middle English *undertaken*, combining *under-* and *take*. It
means to commit oneself to and begin a task or responsibility. citeturn0search14

16. **Goulash**: From Hungarian *gulyás*, meaning "herdsman" or "cowboy." It refers to a

traditional Hungarian meat stew.
17. **Sheriff**: From Old English *scīrgerefa*, combining *scīr* (shire) and *gerefa*
(reeve, an official). A sheriff was originally a royal official responsible for keeping the peace
in a shire.

18. **Silhouette**: From the name of Étienne de Silhouette, a French finance minister
known for his cost-cutting measures. The term came to describe outline portraits, which were
inexpensive to produce.

19. **Orchid**: From Greek *orkhis*, meaning "testicle," due to the shape of the plant's root
tubers.

20. **Mont Blanc**: French for "White Mountain." It is the highest mountain in the Alps.

21. **Kangaroo**: From the Guugu Yimithirr (an Aboriginal language of Australia) word
*gangurru*, referring to a species of kangaroo.

22. **Fowl**: From Old English *fugol*, meaning "bird." It refers to domesticated birds
kept for their eggs or meat.

23. **Chap**: Shortened from the obsolete term *chapman*, meaning "merchant" or
"trader." In British slang, it came to mean "man" or "fellow."

24. **Caftan**: From Turkish *kaftan*, which in turn is from Persian *khaftān*. It refers to
a long, flowing garment with wide sleeves.

25. **Beau monde**: French for "beautiful world." It refers to fashionable society or the
upper class.

26. **Thermometer**: From Greek *thermo-* (heat) and *metron* (measure). An instrument
for measuring temperature.

27. **Ego**: From Latin *ego*, meaning "I." In psychology, it refers to the self, especially
as distinct from the world and other selves.

28. **Confetti**: From Italian *confetti*, plural of *confetto*, meaning "small sweet."
Originally small candies thrown during celebrations; now, small pieces of paper.

29. **Virtue**: From Latin *virtus*, meaning "manliness," "excellence," or "valor." It refers
to moral excellence.

30. **Fiesta**: From Spanish *fiesta*, meaning "feast" or "

31. **Bon voyage**

- **Origin**: French
- **Meaning**: Literally means "good journey." It is used to wish someone a pleasant trip.
- **Entered English**: 18th century, as a borrowing from French used in travel contexts.

32. **Ibid**
- **Origin**: Latin *ibidem*
 - **Meaning**: Means "in the same place." Used in academic texts and footnotes to refer
to the same source cited immediately above.
- **Entered English**: Used in scholarly writing since the 17th century.

33. **Tulip**
- **Origin**: From French *tulipe*, via Turkish *tülbend* (turban), from Persian
*dulband*
- **Meaning**: A spring-blooming flower. The name may come from the turban-like shape
of the flower.
- **Entered English**: Early 17th century, during the period of tulip mania in Europe.

34. **Get**
- **Origin**: Old Norse *geta*, meaning "to obtain" or "to beget"
- **Meaning**: To receive, obtain, or come to have something.
- **Entered English**: Around the 12th century, during the Viking influence on English.

35. **Law**
- **Origin**: Old English *lagu*, from Old Norse *lagu* (plural of *lag*, “layer, measure,
legal ordinance”)
- **Meaning**: A system of rules created and enforced through social or governmental
institutions.
- **Entered English**: Old English period (before the Norman Conquest).

36. **Tomato**
- **Origin**: Spanish *tomate*, from Nahuatl (Aztec language) *tomatl*
- **Meaning**: A red or yellowish fruit eaten as a vegetable.
- **Entered English**: Mid-18th century.

37. **Umbrella**
- **Origin**: From Italian *ombrella*, diminutive of *ombra* (shade), from Latin
*umbra*
- **Meaning**: A device for protection against rain or sun.
- **Entered English**: Late 16th century.

38. **Operetta**
- **Origin**: Italian *operetta*, diminutive of *opera*
- **Meaning**: A short, light opera, often with spoken dialogue.
- **Entered English**: Mid-18th century.

Let's go step by step with **Exercise 3 and Exercise 4**:

Task 3

| **Word** | **Origin** |
|------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Etymology** | Greek *etymon* (true meaning) + *-logia* (study) |
| **Fungus** | Latin *fungus* (mushroom) |
| **Stimulus** | Latin *stimulus* (goad, spur) |
| **Nucleus** | Latin *nucleus* (kernel, core) |
| **Radius** | Latin *radius* (spoke of a wheel, ray) |
| **Nicholas** | Greek *Nikolaos* (victory + people) |
| **Theodor** | Greek *Theodoros* (gift of God) |
| **Formula** | Latin *formula* (small form, rule, pattern) |
| **Index** | Latin *index* (indicator, sign) |
| **Series** | Latin *series* (row, sequence) |
| **Species** | Latin *species* (appearance, kind) |
| **Alibi** | Latin *alibi* (elsewhere) |
| **Item** | Latin *item* (also, likewise) |
| **Dictum** | Latin *dictum* (saying, remark) |
| **George** | Greek *Georgios* (farmer, earth-worker) |
| **Maximum** | Latin *maximum* (greatest) |
| **Minimum** | Latin *minimum* (smallest) |
| **Superior** | Latin *superior* (higher) |
| **Anterior** | Latin *anterior* (before) |
| **Posterior** | Latin *posterior* (later) |
| **Prior** | Latin *prior* (former, earlier) |
| **Inferior** | Latin *inferior* (lower) |
| **Senior** | Latin *senior* (older) |
| **Junior** | Latin *junior* (younger) |
| **Physics** | Greek *physis* (nature) |
| **Psychiatry** | Greek *psyche* (soul, mind) + *iatreia* (healing) |
| **Sophie** | Greek *sophia* (wisdom) |
| **Peter** | Greek *Petros* (stone, rock) |
| **Antonym** | Greek *anti-* (against) + *-onym* (name) |
| **Archaism** | Greek *arkhaios* (ancient) |
| **Dialect** | Greek *dialektos* (discourse, dialect) |
| **Euphemism** | Greek *euphemismos* (speaking well) |
| **Homophone** | Greek *homo-* (same) + *phone* (sound) |
| **Lexicology** | Greek *lexis* (word) + *logos* (study) |
| **Metaphor** | Greek *metaphora* (transfer) |
| **Metonymy** | Greek *metōnymia* (change of name) |
| **Neologism** | Greek *neos* (new) + *logos* (word) |
| **Datum** | Latin *datum* (something given) |
| **Polysemy** | Greek *poly-* (many) + *sema* (sign) |
| **Synecdoche** | Greek *synekdokhe* (simultaneous understanding) |
| **Synonym** | Greek *syn-* (together) + *-onym* (name) |
| **Analysis** | Greek *analusis* (loosening, breaking up) |
| **Comedy** | Greek *komoidia* (merry-making) |
| **Democrat** | Greek *demos* (people) + *kratos* (power) |
| **Dialogue** | Greek *dialogos* (conversation) |
| **Episode** | Greek *epeisodion* (entrance, incident) |
| **Gymnastics** | Greek *gymnazein* (to exercise naked) |
| **Problem** | Greek *problema* (obstacle, question) |
| **Rhythm** | Greek *rhythmos* (measured motion) |
| **Scheme** | Greek *skhema* (form, shape) |
| **Scene** | Greek *skene* (tent, stage) |
| **Tragedy** | Greek *tragodia* (goat song, ritual drama) |
| **Erratum** | Latin *erratum* (error, mistake) |
| **Animal** | Latin *animalis* (having breath) |
| **Antenna** | Latin *antenna* (sail yard) |
| **Genius** | Latin *genius* (guardian spirit) |
| **Eugene** | Greek *Eugenes* (well-born) |
| **Helene** | Greek *Helene* (torch, light) |
| **Homonym** | Greek *homos* (same) + *onyma* (name) |
| **Radix** | Latin *radix* (root) |
| **Hyperbole** | Greek *hyperbole* (exaggeration) |
| **Idiom** | Greek *idioma* (peculiarity) |
| **Omnibus** | Latin *omnibus* (for all) |

---

### **Exercise 4**

**True or False Statements:**

1. **False** — The native element of the English vocabulary is subdivided into *Indo-
European* and *Germanic* stock, not *Romanic*.
2. **True** — Loan words entered English through travel, trade, literature, colonization, etc.
3. **False** — Abbreviations like *e.g.*, *a.m.*, *v.v.* come from **Latin**, not Greek.
4. **True** — Compounds like *autograph*, *geology*, *telephone* are formed from
Greek roots.
5. **False** — Words with *k* before *e/i* and *sk* are mostly of **Scandinavian**
origin, not Celtic.
6. **True** — The Norman Conquest (1066) introduced a massive influx of French words
into English.
7. **True** — Silent final consonants in words like *coup*, *debut* are characteristic of
French loans.
8. **False** — *Waltz* is German, *cobalt* and *zinc* are of **German origin**, not
Latin.
9. **True** — Words like *reef*, *deck*, and *yacht* are borrowed from **Dutch**.
10. **False** — *Caftan* is of **Turkish** or **Persian** origin, not Russian.

Seminar 4 Tasks
### **Task 1: Shades of Meaning and Ukrainian Equivalents**

1. **House – Home – Accommodation**

- **House** – a physical building where people live (нейтральне) → *будинок*
- **Home** – an emotional concept, a place where one feels safe and belongs → *дім*
- **Accommodation** – a general, often formal term for a place to live or stay → *житло*

2. **Childlike – Childish – Juvenile**

- **Childlike** – positive: innocent, pure → *по-дитячому щирий / наївний*
- **Childish** – negative: immature, silly → *дитячий, інфантильний*
- **Juvenile** – formal, slightly negative: immature or typical of youth → *юнацький,
інфантильний*

3. **Boss – Superior – Manager – Supervisor**

- **Boss** – informal, neutral or slightly negative → *шеф*
 - **Superior** – formal, emphasizes rank → *керівник, начальник*
- **Manager** – official title, neutral → *менеджер, керівник*
- **Supervisor** – lower-level manager, direct oversight → *наставник, інспектор*

4. **Kid – Child – Youngster**

- **Kid** – informal and friendly → *дитина*
- **Child** – standard, neutral term → *дитина*
- **Youngster** – somewhat formal, slightly dated → *юнак, підліток*

5. **Dismissed – Fired**
- **Dismissed** – formal, euphemistic → *звільнений*
- **Fired** – informal, direct, often harsh → *звільнений (вигнаний)*

6. **Senior citizen – Old person – Old age**

- **Senior citizen** – polite, respectful → *людина похилого віку*
- **Old person** – neutral but can sound blunt → *стара людина*
- **Old age** – refers to the stage of life → *старість*

7. **Table attendant – Server – Waiter/Waitress**

- **Table attendant** – formal, euphemistic → *працівник обслуговування*
- **Server** – modern, gender-neutral → *офіціант(ка)*
- **Waiter/Waitress** – traditional, clear → *офіціант / офіціантка*

---

### **Task 2: Negative Connotations**

1. **Slim – Skinny**
- **Negative:** *Skinny* (implies unattractive thinness) → *худющий, кістлявий*
- **Neutral/Positive:** *Slim* → *стрункий*

2. **Cheap – Inexpensive**
- **Negative:** *Cheap* (implies poor quality) → *дешевий (негативно)*
- **Positive/Neutral:** *Inexpensive* → *недорогий*

3. **Single girl – Unmarried woman – Spinster**

- **Negative:** *Spinster* (old-fashioned, derogatory) → *стара діва*
- **Neutral:** *Unmarried woman* → *незаміжня жінка*
- **Neutral/Modern:** *Single girl* → *самотня дівчина*

4. **Have an open marriage – Commit adultery – Live-in love**

- **Negative:** *Commit adultery* (moral/religious violation) → *зраджувати*
- **Neutral/Controversial:** *Open marriage* → *відкрите подружжя*
- **Neutral/Informal:** *Live-in love* (living together unmarried) → *жити разом, не
одружуючись*

---

### **Task 3: Concept vs. Meaning (Polysemy & Connotation)**

#### **1. "House" – Different Uses & Meanings**

| Phrase | Meaning | Ukrainian |

|--------|---------|-----------|
| A house in the country | literal, building | будинок у селі |
| A full house | theatre context – no empty seats | повна зала |
| Every word was heard in all parts of the house | theatre/building | у всіх частинах зали |
| White House | government building (metonymy) | Білий дім (уряд США) |
| Ancient trading house | business or commercial company | торгівельна компанія |
| A noisy cheerful house | household, family | шумна, весела родина |
| To keep house | to manage household duties | вести господарство |
| To bring down the house | cause strong applause/laughter | викликати овації |
| To leave one's father's house | leave home, become independent | залишити батьківський
дім |
| On the house | free of charge (in a restaurant etc.) | за рахунок закладу |

#### **2. "White" – Shades of Meaning**

| Phrase | Meaning | Ukrainian |

|--------|---------|-----------|
| White clouds | literal color | білі хмари |
| White hair | aged hair | сиве волосся |
| A white elephant | something costly and useless | тягар, непотріб |
| The white race | racial classification | біла раса |
| White magic | good, non-harmful magic | біла магія |
| White meat | light-colored meat (chicken) | біле м’ясо |
| As white as snow | simile, pure white | білий як сніг |
| White wine | type of wine | біле вино |
| It’s white of you | old-fashioned: generous/fair | шляхетно з твого боку |
| White lie | harmless lie | невинна брехня |

#### **3. "Die" – Literal and Figurative Uses**

| Phrase | Meaning | Ukrainian |

|--------|---------|-----------|
| Die of hunger | literal death from starvation | померти з голоду |
| Die a violent death | killed, often in conflict | померти насильницькою смертю |
| Die in one’s bed | natural death | померти своєю смертю |
| The day is dying | metaphorical: ending | день згасає |
| Die to the word | obey exactly | точно підкорятись |
| I’m dying to know | idiom: very curious | дуже хочу знати |
| His secret died with him | secret never revealed | таємниця померла разом з ним |
| Die in harness | die while working | померти при виконанні обов’язків |
| Die game | die bravely | померти з честю |
| Never say die | idiom: stay hopeful | не здавайся |

Here are the completed **Task 4** and **Task 5**, following linguistic classification
standards:

---
### **Task 4: Lexical-Grammatical Classes (Parts of Speech)**

| Word | Part of Speech | Explanation |

|--------------|--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-------|
| **already** | Adverb | modifies verbs or clauses in terms of time (e.g., *He has
already left*) |
| **behaviour**| Noun | abstract noun; names a quality or manner of acting
|
| **being** | Verb (participle/gerund) or Noun | *Being* as gerund: "Being honest is hard"
→ noun; as participle: "She is being helpful" |
| **bring** | Verb | denotes an action |
| **cry** | Noun / Verb | verb: *to cry*; noun: *a loud cry*
|
| **connotation** | Noun | abstract noun; denotes an implied meaning
|
| **dream** | Noun / Verb | noun: *a dream at night*; verb: *to dream of success*
|
| **draw** | Verb / Noun | verb: *to draw a picture*; noun: *a lucky draw*
|
| **eager** | Adjective | describes a quality of a noun (*an eager student*)
|
| **fair** | Adjective / Noun | adj: *a fair chance*; noun: *a trade fair*
|
| **gloomy** | Adjective | describes emotional state or atmosphere (*a gloomy
day*) |
| **go** | Verb | action (*to go to school*) |
| **hand** | Noun / Verb | noun: *raise your hand*; verb: *to hand a book*
|
| **intensely**| Adverb | modifies verbs/adjectives (*intensely bright*)
|
| **husky** | Adjective | describes voice quality (*a husky voice*)
|
| **quickly** | Adverb | describes manner of action (*run quickly*)
|
| **set** | Verb / Noun / Adjective | polysemantic: verb (*to set the table*), noun (*a TV
set*), adj (*set phrases*) |
| **synonym** | Noun | denotes linguistic category
|
| **train** | Noun / Verb | noun: *a train arrived*; verb: *to train a dog*
|
| **useful** | Adjective | denotes quality (*a useful tool*)
|

---

### **Task 5a: Classification of Nouns by Semantic Subgroup**

**1. Names of Objects (Things, Places, etc.):**

*Abbey, ace, back, bureau, circus, cream, day, division, fortune, knocker, monument, person,
shape, table, train*

**2. Names of Actions (Abstract Nouns derived from verbs):**

- *Action as process:* *alteration, confession, process, satisfaction*
- *Momentary/single actions:* *cut, dive, jump, run, blame, hurry*

**3. Names of Doers (Agent Nouns):**

*docker, gipsy, maker, writer*

**4. Other (States, Manner):**

*giggling (verbal noun), laughter (sound/action)*

---

### **Task 5b: Concrete vs. Abstract; Countable vs. Uncountable**

| Noun | Concrete / Abstract | Countable / Uncountable |

|--------------|---------------------|--------------------------|
| Abbey | Concrete | Countable |
| Alteration | Abstract | Countable |
| Ace | Concrete | Countable |
| Back | Concrete | Countable |
| Blame | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Bureau | Concrete | Countable |
| Circus | Concrete | Countable |
| Confession | Abstract | Countable |
| Cream | Concrete | Uncountable |
| Cut | Concrete | Countable |
| Day | Concrete (temporal) | Countable |
| Division | Abstract/Concrete | Countable |
| Dive | Concrete (event) | Countable |
| Docker | Concrete | Countable |
| Fortune | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Gipsy | Concrete (person) | Countable |
| Giggling | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Hurry | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Jump | Concrete | Countable |
| Knocker | Concrete | Countable |
| Laughter | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Maker | Concrete | Countable |
| Monument | Concrete | Countable |
| Person | Concrete | Countable |
| Process | Abstract | Countable |
| Run | Concrete | Countable |
| Satisfaction | Abstract | Uncountable |
| Shape | Concrete | Countable |
| Table | Concrete | Countable |
| Writer | Concrete | Countable |
Sure! Here's a detailed explanation for both parts of your question:

---

### **a) Lexical and Grammatical Differences Between: _day, day's, day, days'_**

#### **Lexical Meaning:**

- the word **“day”** retains the same **lexical meaning** (a unit of time, 24 hours) in all
these forms.
- there is **no change** in the dictionary (lexical) meaning across these forms.

#### **Grammatical Meaning:**

Each form expresses a **different grammatical meaning**:
- **day** → **singular noun** in its basic (nominative) form.
- **day’s** → **singular possessive** form (e.g., *the day’s end* = the end of the day).
- **days** → **plural** form (e.g., *two days*).
- **days’** → **plural possessive** form (e.g., *the days’ work* = the work of the days).

✅ **Conclusion**:
- Lexically the same: all mean “day.”
- Grammatically different: number and possession are expressed.

---

### **b) Lexical vs. Grammatical Meaning in Word Forms**

#### **1) tree, tree’s, trees, trees’**

- **Lexical meaning**: all refer to the same object – a tree.
- **Grammatical meanings**:
- *tree* – singular
- *tree’s* – singular possessive
- *trees* – plural
- *trees’* – plural possessive

#### **2) write, wrote, writing, written**

- **Lexical meaning**: all forms relate to the action “to write.”
- **Grammatical meanings**:
- *write* – base form (present tense)
- *wrote* – past tense
- *writing* – present participle / gerund
- *written* – past participle

#### **3) writes, sings, runs, goes**

- **Lexical meaning**: different verbs (to write, sing, run, go)
- **Grammatical meaning**: all are **3rd person singular present tense** forms

#### **4) boys, girls, students, teacher**

- **Lexical meaning**: different words (different types of people)
- **Grammatical meaning**:
- *boys, girls, students* – **plural**
 - *teacher* – **singular**

#### **5) colour, colours; colours**

- **Lexical meaning**:
- *colour* – the concept or quality of colour
- *colours* – can mean:
- a) plural of *colour* (e.g., red, blue, etc.)
- b) military flags or insignia ("regimental colours") – **a different lexical meaning**
- **Grammatical meaning**:
- *colour* – singular
- *colours* – plural

So depending on context, the **lexical meaning may change** slightly (homonymy).

#### **6) bead, beads; beads**

- **Lexical meaning**:
- *bead* – a small decorative object
- *beads* – plural of bead
- *beads* (again) – in another context, could refer to **a necklace**, not just individual
beads (lexical shift)
- **Grammatical meaning**:
- *bead* – singular
- *beads* – plural