ARTS – XI - 8

Indo-Islamic Architecture
1. Introduction and Arrival of Islam in India:
 Islam spread towards India around the 7th and 8th centuries CE.
 Muslims came to India over 600 years as merchants, traders, holy men, and conquerors.
 Early Muslim constructions started in places like Sind and Gujarat by the 8th century CE.
 Large-scale building began in the early 13th century with the establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate after the Turkish conquest of northern India.
2. Architectural Shift: Trabeation to Archuate System:
 By the 12th century, India was familiar with big constructions using trabeation. This involved
using brackets, pillars, and lintels to support flat roofs or small domes.
 Arches were known but were mainly decorative and couldn't support heavy structures.
 The archuate form of construction was gradually introduced. This system used arches that
could bear the weight of domes.
 Arch construction required voussoirs (interlocking blocks) and keystones.
 Domes were supported by pendentives and squinches. This allowed for large, pillar-free
interiors.
3. Fusion of Architectural Styles:
 Muslims adopted many features from local Indian cultures and traditions.
 They combined these with their own architectural practices.
 This constant mixing, accepting, rejecting, and changing architectural elements led to new
styles.
 These mixed-style buildings are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
4. Religious Influences on Decoration:
 Hindus believed in God in many forms and adorned surfaces with sculptures and paintings.
 Muslims believed in one God (Allah) with Muhammad as their Prophet.
 Islam forbade replicating living forms in art.
 Muslim religious art and architecture focused on arabesque (intertwined flowing lines),
geometrical patterns, and calligraphy on plaster and stone.
5. Types of Indo-Islamic Structures:
 Various types of buildings were constructed for religious and secular needs.
 Religious: Mosques (for daily prayers), Jama Masjids (for Friday congregations), tombs,
dargahs (shrines of Sufi saints), minars.
 Secular: Hammams (bathhouses), formally laid out gardens, madrasas (schools), sarais or
caravansarais (travelers' lodges), Kos minars (distance markers), forts.
  These were additions to the existing building types in India.
6. Patrons of Architecture:
 Wealthy individuals funded these constructions.
 The patrons were primarily rulers, nobles and their families, followed by merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elites, and devotees.
7. Influences on Indo-Islamic Architecture:
 Despite Saracenic, Persian, and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were heavily
influenced by existing Indian architectural and decorative styles.
 Availability of materials, resources, skills, and the patrons' aesthetic sense played a crucial
role.
 Religion was important, but architectural elements were borrowed liberally.
8. Categories of Styles:
 Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally divided into four main styles for better
understanding:
o Imperial Style: Developed under the Delhi Sultanate.
o Provincial Style: Found in regions like Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur.
o Mughal Style: Flourished in Delhi, Agra, and Lahore.
o Deccani Style: Prevalent in Bijapur and Golconda.
9. Distinct Provincial Styles:
 Bengal and Jaunpur had particularly distinct provincial styles.
 Gujarat's style had a strong regional character, borrowing elements from local temple
traditions. Examples include:
o Toranas (ceremonial gateways).
o Lintels in mihrabs (prayer niches).
o Carvings of bell and chain motifs.
o Carved panels depicting trees, found in tombs, mosques, and dargahs.
 The 15th-century white marble dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej in Gujarat is a
notable example and influenced Mughal tomb design.
10. Decorative Forms in Indo-Islamic Architecture:
 Included designs on plaster through incision or stucco, either plain or colored.
 Motifs were painted or carved in stone, featuring flowers from India and Iran (like the lotus).
 Lotus bud fringe was commonly used in the inner curves of arches.
 Walls were decorated with trees (cypress, chinar), flower vases, and complex floral designs
(also found on textiles and carpets).
  Tiles (blue, turquoise, green, yellow) were used for wall and dome surfaces in the 14th-16th
centuries.
 Later techniques included tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura (inlay of semi-
precious stones) for surface decoration, especially in dado panels.
 Sometimes lapis lazuli was used in interiors.
 Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy (Quranic verses), high and low relief
carving, and extensive use of jalis (perforated screens).
 Arches varied from plain and squat to high and pointed, and later (16th century onwards)
included trefoil (three-lobed) or multiple foliations.
 Spandrels (the area above the arch) were decorated with medallions or bosses.
 Roofs combined central and smaller domes, chhatris (cupolas), and tiny minarets.
 The central dome often had an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle on
top.
11. Construction Materials:
 Walls were generally very thick and made of easily available rubble masonry.
 These walls were then covered with chunam (limestone plaster) or dressed stone.
 A variety of stones were used, including quartzite, sandstone, buff, and marble.
 Polychrome tiles were effectively used for wall finishes.
 From the 17th century, bricks were also used, providing greater flexibility in structures and
more reliance on local materials.
12. Forts in Medieval India:
 Building large forts with battlements was common, symbolizing a king's power.
 Capturing a fort often meant the vanquished ruler lost power or had to accept the victor's
authority (suzerainty).
 Notable examples include the forts of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad (Devgiri), and Golconda.
 Forts were strategically built on commanding heights for perspective, security, space, and to
inspire awe.
 Forts like Golconda had concentric circles of outer walls for defense.
 Daulatabad had strategic features like staggered entrances and twin forts at different
elevations with complex defenses and labyrinthine pathways to confuse enemies.
 Gwalior Fort's steep height made it unscalable and impressed even Babur.
 Chittorgarh was the largest fort in Asia, occupied for the longest time, and included victory
towers (stambhas) and numerous water bodies, associated with heroic legends.
 Palace complexes within forts often showed liberal absorption of stylistic and decorative
influences.
13. Minars:
 Minars were another type of tower (stambha) common in the subcontinent.
 The Qutub Minar (Delhi) and Chand Minar (Daulatabad) are two prominent examples.
 Their everyday use was for the azaan (call to prayer).
 Their height symbolized the ruler's might and power.
 The Qutub Minar was also associated with the revered saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar
Kaki.
 Qutub Minar: Built in the 13th century, 234 feet high, tapering, five storeys, mix of polygonal
and circular shapes, red and buff sandstone with some marble, highly decorated balconies
and bands of inscriptions with foliated designs.
 Chand Minar: Built in the 15th century, 210 feet high, tapering, four storeys, originally
painted peach with chevron patterning in encaustic tiles and bold Quranic verses, a
combination of local, Delhi, and Iranian architectural work.
14. Tombs:
 Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty were a popular feature.
 Examples include the tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
(Delhi), Akbar, and Itmaduddaula (Agra).
 The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise for the true believer.
 This led to paradisiacal imagery in tomb construction.
 Features included Quranic verses on walls, placement within gardens (charbagh style like
Humayun's Tomb and Taj Mahal) or near water bodies, or both.
 These vast spaces also showcased the majesty and grandeur of the buried person.
15. Sarais (Caravansarais):
 A very interesting feature of medieval India, found ringing cities and across the subcontinent.
 Generally had a simple square or rectangular plan.
 Provided temporary accommodation for Indian and foreign travelers, pilgrims, merchants,
etc..
 Were public spaces with diverse cultural backgrounds, leading to cross-cultural interaction
and syncretic tendencies.
16. Structures for Common People:
 Architectural fusion was also seen in public and private spaces of non-royal society.
 Included domestic buildings, temples, mosques, khanqahs (Sufi hermitages), dargahs,
commemorative gateways, pavilions in buildings and gardens, bazaars.
17. Mandu: A Provincial Style Example:
 Located near Indore, with natural defenses.
 Important under the Paramara Rajputs, Afghans, and Mughals.
  Capital of the Ghuri Dynasty (1401-1561) under Hoshang Shahi.
 Associated with the romance of Sultan Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati.
 Used by Mughals as a monsoon retreat.
 A typical representation of the medieval provincial style of art and architecture.
 A complex mix of official, residential-cum-pleasure palaces, pavilions, mosques, artificial
reservoirs, baolis (stepwells), and battlements.
 Structures were close to nature, designed with arched pavilions, light and airy to avoid heat
retention.
 Local stone and marble were used extensively.
 A fine example of architectural adaptation to the environment.
 Royal Enclave: Most complete and romantic set of buildings around two artificial lakes,
including palaces and attendant structures.
 Hindola Mahal: Resembles a railway viaduct, audience hall of the Sultan. Used batter
(sloping walls) to create an illusion of swinging walls.
 Jahaz Mahal: Elegant two-storey 'ship-palace' between two reservoirs, with open pavilions
and overhanging balconies, possibly used as the Sultan's harem. Had complex watercourses
and a terrace swimming pool.
 Rani Rupmati's pavilion: Double pavilion offering views of the Narmada valley.
 Baz Bahadur's palace: Wide courtyard with halls and terraces.
 Asharfi Mahal: A ruined madrasa.
 Hoshang Shah's tomb: Majestic structure with a dome, marble jali work, porticos, courts,
and towers, considered an example of Afghan robustness with softer Indian elements.
 Jama Masjid of Mandu: Large scale for many worshippers, monumental gateway with a
squat dome, open courtyard with columned cloisters and smaller domes, red sandstone,
mimbar with carved brackets, mihrab with lotus bud fringe.
 Provincial style of Mandu considered close to Imperial Delhi style but still an important
intervention with its robust Pathan architecture, surface embellishments, and lightness.
18. Taj Mahal: The Apogee of Mughal Architecture:
 Built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
 Considered the peak of architectural evolution in medieval India.
 Sublimity comes from its orderly plan, perfect proportions and symmetry, ethereal marble
quality, setting with gardens (bagh) and river, and pure outline.
 Its patina (surface finish) changes hue at different times.
 Entry Gateway: Monumental red sandstone, framing the mausoleum's arch.
 Chahar Bagh: Square, walled garden divided by water channels, with pools and fountains.
Tomb located at the northern extremity to utilize the riverbank.
 Straight path through the garden to the tomb's plinth and terrace.
  Four tall, tapering minarets (132 feet) at the terrace corners.
 Main building topped with a drum and dome, and four cupolas.
 Plinth, walls, and drum-dome are perfectly proportioned.
 Red sandstone mosque to the west and a similar structure to the east for balance.
 White marble sourced from Makrana, Rajasthan, contrasting with the red sandstone.
 Square tomb structure with chamfers forming eight sides, recessed with deep arches,
creating contrasting planes and light effects.
 All sides of the building (floor to roof and roof to pinnacle) measure 186 feet.
 Interior: Crypt below, vaulted octagonal tomb chamber above, with corner rooms connected
by corridors.
 Light provided by carved and perforated jalis in the arched recesses.
 High ceiling due to a double dome.
 Embellishments:
o Stone carvings in high and low relief.
o Delicate marble carving into jalis and volutes.
o Pietra dura arabesques with yellow marble, jade, and jasper on walls and
tombstones.
o Geometric designs with tessellation.
o Calligraphy (Quranic verses) with jasper inlay in white marble.
19. Gol Gumbad: Grandeur in Bijapur:
 Located in Bijapur, Karnataka.
 Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626-1656), the seventh Sultan of the Adil Shahi
Dynasty.
 Built by the ruler himself, striking despite being unfinished.
 A complex of buildings: gateway, Naqqar Khana (drum house), mosque, and sarai within a
large walled garden.
 Monumental square building topped with a circular drum and a majestic dome.
 Built of dark grey basalt and decorated with plasterwork.
 Each wall is 135 feet long, 110 feet high, and 10 feet thick.
 Total height over 200 feet with the drum and dome.
 Only one square chamber inside.
 Dome diameter of 124 feet, covering the second largest uninterrupted floor space in the
world (18,337 sq ft).
 Burial place of the Sultan, his wives, and relatives in a vault below the tomb chamber,
accessed by stairs.
  Hemispherical masonry dome over a square base constructed with pendentives.
 Pendentives transferred the dome's weight to the walls.
 New vaulting systems with arch-nets or stellate forms in squinches to cover angles.
 Amazing acoustical system: Whispering gallery along the dome's drum where sounds are
magnified and echoed many times.
 Four seven-storeyed octagonal spire or minaret-like towers at the corners.
 Towers have staircases leading to the top dome.
 Dome's drum decorated with foliation.
 Heavily bracketed cornice resting on corbels is a distinctive feature.
 A fine convergence of many styles in medieval India.
 Monumentality, majesty, and grandeur are integral aspects of Bijapur's architectural
experience.
 Structural features (dome, arches, geometric proportions, load-bearing techniques) suggest
Timurid and Persian styles.
 Made of local materials and decorated with surface embellishments popular in the Deccan.
 Corner towers resemble turrets attached to mosques like Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid and Purana
Qila in Delhi.
20. Jama Masjid: Congregational Mosque:
 Large mosques with huge spaces were common in medieval India.
 Used for congregational prayers every Friday afternoon, requiring at least forty Muslim adult
males.
 During Friday prayers, a Khutba (sermon) was read in the ruler's name, and his laws were
announced.
 Typically, a city had one Jama Masjid, which became the focus of social, commercial, cultural,
and religious life for Muslims and non-Muslims.
 Generally large with an open courtyard (Sahn) surrounded by columned cloisters (Liwan) on
three sides and the Qibla Liwan (direction of Mecca) in the west.
 The mihrab (niche indicating Mecca) and mimbar (pulpit for the Imam) were located in the
Qibla Liwan.
 People faced the mihrab during prayers.
Expected Prelims and Mains Questions:
Prelims (MCQs):
1. The archuate system of construction in India during the medieval period introduced which of
the following features? a) Trabeation b) Use of brackets and lintels c) Voussoirs and
keystones in arches d) Flat roofs supported by pillars
2. The term 'Indo-Islamic architecture' refers to: a) Architecture solely based on Islamic
principles in India. b) A fusion of Indian and Islamic architectural styles and techniques. c)
 Pre-Islamic architectural styles prevalent in Sindh. d) Architectural styles patronized
exclusively by Indian Muslim rulers.
3. Which of the following decorative forms was specifically forbidden in Muslim religious art
and architecture? a) Arabesque patterns b) Geometrical designs c) Replication of living forms
d) Calligraphy
4. The Qutub Minar was primarily built using: a) White marble b) Granite c) Red and buff
sandstone d) Bricks and mortar
5. The concept of the 'Chahar Bagh' is a significant feature associated with: a) Fort architecture
in medieval India b) Mosque design during the Delhi Sultanate c) Tomb architecture,
symbolizing paradise d) Sarai architecture for travelers
Mains (Descriptive Questions):
6. Discuss the key architectural innovations introduced by the Islamic rulers in India, contrasting
them with the pre-existing Indian architectural traditions.
7. 'Indo-Islamic architecture represents a significant cultural synthesis.' Elaborate on the various
Indian and Islamic elements that contributed to its development.
8. Analyze the role of religious beliefs in shaping the decorative aspects of Indo-Islamic
architecture. How did these differ from contemporary Hindu architectural ornamentation?
9. Examine the significance of forts and sarais in the socio-political and economic life of
medieval India.
10. Compare and contrast the architectural styles of the Taj Mahal and Gol Gumbad, highlighting
their distinctive features and underlying influences.
Keywords and Definitions:
 Agate: A fine-grained variegated chalcedony with colors arranged in stripes, clouds, or moss-
like forms.
 Amalaka: A ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling the amala fruit, crowning the top of
the North Indian style shikhara.
 Anda: A semi-circular structure typically used for Buddhist stupas.
 Arabesque: An ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, leaves, and
flowers, a feature of Indo-Islamic architecture.
 Ardhmandap: Semi-hall in front of the garbhagriha of a temple.
 Ashtadikpalas: Guardians of the eight directions.
 Ayudhas: Weapons.
 Batter: Slope in the wall.
 Bodhisattva: In Buddhism, refers to the previous births of Gautam Buddha.
 Bosses: Circular embossed decorations, usually in stone of contrasting colors, located on
either side of an arch and within the spandrels.
 Buddhism: A religion originated in the sixteenth century BCE with the preachings of Buddha.
 Burin: A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverse edge, used for working bone, antler,
ivory, and possibly for engraving.
 CE (Common Era): Replacing AD or Anno Domini (Era of the Lord).
 Calligraphy: The art of producing decorative handwriting.
 Caturasra: Square.
 Chhatra: Umbrella-like structure on top of a stupa.
 Chhatri: Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome or pyramid-shaped roof.
 Chahar Bagh: A square, walled garden divided into four by intersecting water channels.
 Chaitya Arch: Semi-circular arch with a pointed tip in the center towards the top.
 Chaitya: Place of congregation and worship.
 Chakra: Wheel, a symbol used for Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath.
 Chamfer: To cut off the edge or corner, thereby increasing the number of sides.
 Chert: A flint-like material, usually black or dark brown.
 Chevron Patterning: V-shaped patterns.
 Corbel: The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontally to support a cornice or an arch.
 Cornice: A molded roof-line.
 Crystal: A high quality, clear, colorless glass or an object made of such glass.
 Dado panel: Lower part of the interior wall finished differently from the rest of the wall.
 Dargah: Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saint’s grave called mazar is located.
 Dhammachakrapravartan: First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath near Varanasi.
 Dravid: Normally used for people, culture, language, and architectural style of South India.
 Dressed stone: Stone which is cut to size and polished.
 Encaustic tile work: Inlay in ceramics.
 Faience: Blue-colored artificial glass-like material.
 Gahapati: Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farming and trade.
 Garbhgriha: Sanctum sanctorum.
 Gopuram: Main gateway; the storeyed structure over the entrance to a temple.
 Harmika: Small square fencing atop the anda of a stupa.
 Imam: The person who leads a Muslim congregation in prayers.
 Intaglio: The process of cutting a design into the surface of a small hard stone or gem.
 Jagmohan: Rectangular or square hall in front of a sanctuary or main temple (used for
temple architecture of Odisha).
 Jainism: An ancient religion focused on victory over rebirths through ethical and spiritual
practices.
 Jali: Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs, and other
geometric designs.
 Jasper: A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow, or brown, used for jewelry and
ornamentation.
 Jataka: Stories of the previous births of Buddha.
 Jati: Caste.
 Kalash: Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-design decorating the shikhara of a temple.
 Keystone: A central stone at the summit of an arch.
 Kos minar: Distance marker or milestone in the shape and size of a tower.
 Kuta: A shrine of square plan.
 Lapis lazuli: A rich blue semi-precious stone used as inlay in ornaments and jewelry.
 Linga: Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is worshipped.
 Mahamandapa: Big hall in a temple.
 Mahaparinibban: Death of Lord Buddha.
 Mandap: Hall.
 Maqbara: Mausoleum or tomb.
 Medallion: Circular discs in the spandrels of arches decorated with motifs or calligraphy.
 Mihrab: Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca.
 Mimbar: Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid from where the Khutba was read.
 Mukhlinga: Phallus with a face.
 Multiple foliations: Many curves in an arch.
 Mural: Paintings made on the walls.
 Nagara: North Indian style of temple architecture.
 Naqqar khana: Drum house from where ceremonial music was played, usually situated over
the gate.
 Natyamandapa or Rangmandapa: Dancing hall in the front part of a temple.
 Panchayatana: Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrines in each corner.
 Pendentive: A triangular bracket connecting the base of a dome to its supporting arches.
 Phamsana: A building/temple that tends to be broader and shorter than the Latina type.
 Pietra-dura: Pictorial mosaic work using semi-precious stones.
 Polychrome: An object decorated in many colors.
 Pradakshina: Circumambulation.
 Qibla Liwan: The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca.
 Qila-i Kuhna Masjid: Built by Humayun or Sher Shah inside Purana Qila in Delhi.
 Quartz: A variety of stone.
 Rekhaprasad or Latina: A type of temple with a square base and walls curving inward
towards the top.
 Rupkar/Shilpi: Artisan.
 Sabha Mandapa: Assembly hall.
 Saracenic: A style of architecture popular with Muslims in West Asia.
 Sarai: Dharamshala or a traveler’s lodge.
 Shala ayatasara: Elliptical.
 Shikhar: Superstructure above the garbhagriha in the north Indian style of temple.
 Shilpa texts: Ancient Indian texts describing the principles of art and architecture.
 Shraman: A Buddhist or Jain sect whose followers wandered from place to place.
 Sovereignty: The authority of a ruler/state to govern independently.
 Spandrels: The almost triangular space between two sides of the outer curves of an arch and
a rectangular enclosure.
 Squinch: An arch spanning the corners of a square chamber to support a dome.
 Steatite: A soft greyish or greenish stone used for figurines and vessels.
 Stellate: Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern like a star.
 Sthapati: Architect.
 Stupa: A mound-like structure containing relics of Buddha or Buddhist monks.
 Stucco: A fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces.
 Suzerainty: A sovereign/state having some control over another internally autonomous
ruler/state.
 Tablet: A regularly shaped panel often bearing an inscription or image.
 Terracotta: ‘Baked earth’, referring to porous clay that turns reddish when fired.
 Tessellation: Decoration with mosaic.
 Torans: Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonial gateways.
 Trefoil: Three curves in an arch.
 Turquoise: A semi-precious blue to pale green stone used in jewelry.
 Valabhi: Sub-type of nagara temple.
 Vanga: Ancient name of the Bengal region.
 Varna: Four-fold division of society in ancient India.
 Vesara: Term for the independent temple style during the Chalukyas of Karnataka, combining
nagara and dravida styles.
 Vihara: Place of residence of Buddhist monks.
 Vijanain: Temples with a rectangular building and a vaulted roof.
 Viman: Superstructure over the garbhagriha in South Indian temples.
 Volute: A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar.
 Voussoir: A wedge-shaped stone used to construct an arch.
 Vritta: Circular.
 Yakshas/Yakshanis: Demi-gods and demi-goddesses, protectors of nature and resources.