THE MISSIONS HISTORY OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH FROM THE

MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE MODERN TIMES.

by
Wankitboklang Wanniang
M.Th. 1

to
D. Jeyaraj

In partial fulfilment of the requirements of the course

History of Mission

CHURCH ON THE ROCK THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

8th December, 2015

1
Introduction

Roman Catholic mission activity has seen shifts and rethinking in its course. The mission
activity had spread to all section of the globe due to the commitment of the missionaries and
different orders. The Roman Catholic Church had done a significant role in proclamation of
the gospel and also in the upliftment of the marginalized, through education and humanitarian
works. The paper traces the development of the Catholic mission beginning from the 16 th
century to the 21st century.

By the death of Constantine the Roman Empire he tried to unite was again divided into two.
The Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople and the Western at Rome, were also the
dominant ecclesiastical power compared to other bishoprics of that time. There was a rivalry
between these two powers both politically and ecclesiastically. The crowning of
Charlemagne, as emperor of the Roman Empire in the West, by Pope Leo III in 800 was seen
as an affront to the Eastern power as in the East the emperor controlled the church. This act
widened the gulf between the two ecclesiastical and political powers. After much feud and
rivalry the final split between the two came in 1054 after a fall out between Pope Leo IX and
Patriarch Michel Cerularius.1 The Latin Western Church with its ecclesiastical capital in
Rome headed by the popes is known the Roman Catholic Church.

With Luther’s theses in 1517, there began a more open and strong move against many of the
Roman Catholic Church’s policies and sets of beliefs. This led to a total schism and even to a
30 years (1618-1648) war that ended only in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This Protestant
Reformation had its own impact on the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church
began to undergo its own reformation in its spiritual, educational and organizational aspects
of its institution. Another significant step was the formation of new orders among whom the
Jesuits were at the forefront of Catholic missions. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) was also
an important counter-Reformation development as it defined and codified the Catholic
doctrine.2

1
F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction to Church History (Bangalore: TBT, 2002), 131.
2
Hrangkhuma, An Introduction to Church History, 266-267.

2
1. Mission during 1500 – 1800

The collapse of Roman imperial power 3 and the Donatist4 controversy raised many questions.
Augustine’s reaction5 to these gave way to later interpretation of the self understanding of the
Roman Catholic Church and its relation to the task of mission. It brought a reinterpretation of
Cyprian’s6 Extra ecclesiam, nulla salus or “Outside the [Catholic] Church, there is no
salvation”7. This ecclesiastical idea of salvation was reaffirmed by the bull Unam Sanctam
(One Holy) of Pope Boniface VIII in 1302 and the Council of Florence in 1442 and thus, had
its bearing on mission during this era. This ecclesiasticization of salvation continued to be
reaffirmed even to the modern era as recent as 1958 by Pope Pius XII. Church planting was
an important and inevitable activity as the idea of salvation within the Church is dominantly
prevalent. The idea of the city of God in the subsequent centuries came to be identified with
the empirical Roman Catholic Church though this was not Augustine’s initial intent. This
gave rise to the understanding of the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church and the state
as subordinate. The Unam Sanctam, 1302, declared that both the “temporal sword” and the
“spiritual sword” had been entrusted to the church. 8 This led to a give and take relationship
between the church and the state. The emperor is blessed and prayed by the Pope and in turn
the emperor guarantees the protection and the support for the church. These ideas also had led
to the using of force against those considered schismatics. “The charge cogite intrare
(“compel [people] to come in” – Lk 14:23) was applied to them and executed with the help of
the state.”9

1.1 Padroado/ Patronato

By the 15th century, many new lands were discovered and the two major navigational
monarchies – Spain and Portugal, were contesting for new conquests. In 1456, Pope Calixtus
issued a Bull granting the Portuguese crown privileges of dominion, commercial monopoly
3
This refers to the Roman Empire in the West based in Rome, the Eastern Empire was based in
Constantinople. By 410 AD Aleric a Goth had stormed the walls of Rome.
4
The Donatists, named after Donatus a bishop of Carthage, elected their own bishops as a rejection of
the consecration by Felix a bishop accused of handing over scriptures during the Great Persecution under
Emperor Diocletian. This created a split in the Catholic Church.
5
Augustine wrote his monumental work De Civitate Dei or City of God showing that though the two
cities – the city of God and the earthly city – co-exists, yet the city of God endures forever. The city of God was
only later identified with the empirical church though this was not in Augustine’s idea. Read, D.J. Bosch,
Transforming Mission (New York: Orbis Books, 1994), 220-221.
6
Cyprian was a bishop of Carthage from 249 AD till his martyrdom in 258 AD. Cyprian in dealing
with many schisms, came up with the dictum extra ecclesiam, nulla salus. To Cyprian, a schismatic lost one’s
salvation because without the church as the mother no one can have God as their father.
7
Bosch, Transforming Mission..., 218.
8
Bosch, Transforming Mission..., 221.
9
Bosch, Transforming Mission..., 219.

3
and spiritual oversight in lands discovered and yet to be discovered. As Spain was also a
Roman Catholic nation, the privileges were also extended to it. This led to a rivalry which
was settled by Pope Alexander VI with his famous Bull of 1493 when the conquered and
unconquered lands were divided. The Pope divided the globe by a line from the North Pole to
the South, west of the Azores; the lands on the west belong to Spain and those on the east to
Portugal.10 This gave rise to the Padroado (Portuguese) or the Patronato (Spanish) system
where the two monarchies had not only political responsibilities to their newly conquered
lands but missionary and ecclesiastical responsibilities as well. This saw colonialism in many
Asian, African and South American countries during this era, accompanied by mission work.
It was during this time that the word “mission” came to be understood in the generic sense as
it is today. The conquered indigenous people were evangelized and baptized. Those
evangelized were given the catechumens as part of indoctrination. Churches were planted in
all the colonies both for the settlers and the indigenous peoples evangelized. This was the
time of the emergence of mission activities in non-Western lands undiscovered before. Thus
Bosch says “Modern missions originated in the context of modern Western colonialism”11

1.2. The Encomienda

The encomienda system was an old Spanish institution of rewarding the efforts of the
conquering Spaniard soldiers with a grant of the labour of defeated foes. This system was
employed in the evangelization of the indigenous Indians. In the Americas, the holder of the
encomienda had control over a group of Indian labourers with the obligation of protecting
and Christianizing them, the Indians were to work in whatever capacity necessary. 12 In the
Caribbean, Indians were shipped out to settlers who could demonstrate a need for labourers in
mining, farming, or any other effort they might undertake. In many encomiendas the
indigenous peoples readily accepted the Roman Catholic faith and became a part of the
believing community. Churches and monks were part of the encomiendas where catechism
and indoctrination could be done. In theory the Indians were considered free and allowed to
exercise that freedom within limits; in reality, the encomienda was slavery. “Certainly,
perhaps even more than the devastation wrought by disease, the introduction of the
encomienda signalled the beginning of the destruction of indigenous civilizations in the
Caribbean.”13 Such atrocities were challenged by some prophetic voices such as those of de
10
Stephen Neill, A History of Christian Missions (London: Penguin Books, 1990), 121.
11
Bosch, Transforming Mission..., 303.
12
Ondina E Gonzalez. & Justo L Gonzalez, A History Of Christianity in Latin America (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2008), 29.
13
Gonzalez & Gonzalez, A History Of Christianity in Latin America..., 30.

4
Montesinos (1475-1545) and Las Casas (1484-1566), the latter came to be known as
“Defender of Indians”.14 The works of de Montesinos and Las Casas are notable in protecting
the Indians from oppression under the colonial thirst for riches of the Americas. They showed
a glimpse of hope in mission as solidarity with the oppressed.

1.3. Convento/ Christian Villages

This was a model employed to preach, evangelize and baptize the indigenous Indians with
efforts to keep distance from the conquering Spaniards. A convento is a new Christian village
established by four or five missionaries with several Spanish families and hundreds of
indigenous people living together. Such villages would include a school, hospital and an
orphanage. Attempts at learning the native language and production of literature were made.
Such steps were initiated by the arrival of Fransiscans 15 in 1524, Dominicans16 in 1526 and
Augustinians17 in 1533. These religious18 involved with the Indians and attempt to distant
from the conquest in order to promote coercion-free evangelization. This saw fair initial
success in Guatemala and Uruguay and some of the indigenous people became agents of
evangelization. Such steps opened doors for women religious orders as the Poor Clares 19,
Dominicans, Carmelites20 and Capuchinesses21 to involve as teachers and care-takers for the
orphans. In Northern Mexico the Jesuits were able to apply this method successfully. The
people had to work for an allotted time, but they also had time for their own gardens and
development of skills. This led to people being well developed in many skills and European
methods of agriculture. In this way the gospel through the Roman Catholic Church spread
through many of these conventos. These conventos became communities of believers. They
also offered protection from sporadic inter-tribal wars. The people gained better knowledge
of catechism, agriculture, learning, writing and better health care in the hands of the monks.

14
S.B. Bevans & R.P. Schroeder, Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today (New York:
Orbis Books, 2013), 176.
15
The Franciscans are members of a religious order founded in 1210 by St. Francis of Assisi. The order
vowed to a life of poverty and preaching.
16
The Dominicans are members of a religious order founded by St. Dominic in France on 1216. The
primary focus is on preaching and combating heresy.
17
The Augustinian order followed the Rule of St. Augustine. It was founded in 1244, the primary focus
is on pastoral, mission and educational activities.
18
The “religious” were the monks involved in missions where as the “secular priests” were parish
priests for the settlers in colonies.
19
The Poor Clares were nuns of an order that came from the Franciscans. It was founded by St. Clare
and St. Francis of Assisi in 1212. Though initially a contemplative order, yet they were active in missions.
20
The Carmelites were nuns of an order believed to have been founded on Mt. Carmel. They have been
in existence since the late 12th century and they appear again when Pope Gregory IX approved of their code.
21
The Capuchinesses were nuns of an order which is a branch of the Poor Clares.

5
Sadly though, the same ideology could not be continued in the face of the tabula rasa22
perspective of the missionaries themselves and the military and cultural conquest. Later on
the convent continued as encompassed within the conquest.

1.4. Accomodation
This method was seen in the mission activity in Asian countries like India, China and Japan.
It was initiated by a Jesuit Alessandro Valignano (1539-1606) and became more popular with
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) who came to China in 1583 and de Nobili (1577-1656) who came
to India in 1606. To avoid the influence of colonial and tabula rasa mentality these Jesuits
accommodated categories, modes and etiquette indigenous to the country they work. It
involved a thorough learning of the local language, customs and culture. These Jesuits
adopted eastern lifestyles, dresses and food pattern. Ricci saw that the Confucian rites and
customs, such as ancestral veneration, were more of social significance rather than religious.
Under the work of Ricci both as missionary in Peking and Jesuit superior in China, the
mission work flourished. A number of people from notable families and scholars of
considerable distinctions had been baptized. “At the time of Ricci’s death, on 10 May 1610, it
was reckoned that the Church had about 2,000 members.” 23 de Nobili adopted the Indian
Brahmin sanyasi lifestyle and custom. Many of the Hindu observances, such as the sacred
thread and sandal wood paste, were reinterpreted by de Nobili to have Christian relevance for
the local people. Such steps taken opened up avenues for religious and philosophical
discussions with the interested visitors who came to see him in Madura. He was able to gain
adherents to the faith whom he baptized but they still retain their caste distinctions. de Nobili
was able to extend his work to other places like Trichinopoly, Salem and Moramangalam. 24
Though the initial contact was mostly with the higher caste, yet later in the mission work de
Nobili was able to baptize many from different castes. Due to the problem of caste, the
Brahmin Sanyasi were appointed to minister to the higher and the Pandaraswami to the lower
castes. Churches were established and the people were taught the rudiments of the Catholic
faith. Many of the local people also became catechists. “For the rest of the seventeenth

22
Tabula rasa is “the view that in non-Christian life system there is nothing on which the missionary
can build, and that everything must be levelled to the ground before anything Christian can be built” S. Neill, A
History of Christian Missions, (London : Penguin Books, 1990), 133.
23
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 141.
24
C.B. Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2013), 116.

6
century and the greater part of the eighteenth Jesuit missions were carried on in the inland
parts of South India by the methods initiated by de Nobili.”25

1.5. The Rite Controversy

The methods carried out by Ricci and later by de Nobili gave a footing to the Rites
Controversy. Yet there were several other European factors that contributed to the
Ccontroversy. It was more a controversy of different missionary orders with different mission
ideologies. The Jesuits were concerned of the colonizers and the tabula rasa attitude which
gave low regard for non-Western cultures. They employed the local customs and the local
language to gain contact. But the Dominicans accused the Jesuits of partaking in superstition.
This controversy got the involvement of the Roman Papal power, the different religious and
ecclesiastical orders and even the Chinese monarch. In 1676, Navarette 26 a Dominican in
Madrid wrote against the Jesuits. In 1693, Bishop Maigrot, the French Vicar apostolic of
China condemned the accommodation model of Ricci.27 Through the appeal of the Jesuits, the
Chinese Kangxi emperor in 1700 declared that the ancestral rituals were of social not
religious significance.28 The Papal legate, Bishop Tournon, in 1704 condemned the
accommodation model in India and China and this worsened the Asian scene. This
controversy was a great blow to the missionary effort of the time. The tension later led to the
expulsion of the missionaries from China and furthermore the dissolution of the Jesuits.

Within this era (1500-1800) studied the Roman Catholic Church spread its missions work to
many countries around the globe. The gospel had reached India, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand,
Malay, the East Indies (a stretch of islands also called the Malay Archipelago), Japan, China
and the Philippines in Asia, even though Burma, Japan and China were not colonized like the
other countries. Roman Catholic Christianity was also able to gain foothold even in Tibet and
Korea before 1800 though both still proved to be difficult to penetrate. More hope in
expansion was seen in India, Ceylon and Philippines. Japan and China due to political
instability later witnessed bitter persecution of the Church though a quite a few still
persevere. In Africa, the Catholic Church began the mission work in Azores, the Madeiras
and the Cape Verde Islands. Catholic missions also began to grow in Sierra Leone, the

25
Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History..., 119.
26
In 1667-1668, due to persecution, the Jesuits, the Dominican and the Franciscans were imprisoned
together. This led to discussion and partial workable agreement on the Riccian approach. Domingo de
Navarette was a Dominican priest who participated in the Canton discussion. He went to Europe and reopened
the issue.
27
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 193.
28
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 193.

7
Congo, Angola, Mombasa, Mozambique, Madagascar and Mauritius. In many of these
countries there were great initiatives of the mission work, but it was yet a time when “No
permanent Christian communities seem to have arisen.” 29 In the Americas, the Roman
Catholic Church had a great success in South America and also began its work in North
America. The Spaniards and the Portuguese did not face a difficult conquest in the
colonization of this new world. The political instability and inter-tribal wars offer fertile
grounds for conquest. The people also did not show unwillingness to the gospel as part of the
new civilization. Mission flourished in Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela,
Mexico and Ecuador. Mission in these parts saw better permanency; Christianity in most of
these countries was dominantly of Roman Catholic tradition till today. Roman Catholic
missions also began in the West Indies, and in parts of modern USA – New Mexico, Arizona,
Texas, Florida and Georgia. Many of the Indian tribes were evangelized and baptized. The
promising situation in these parts was towards the end of the 18 th century impeded by the
expulsion of the Jesuits from many mission fields. This was due to tension between the
Jesuits and the Spanish Crown and it left gaps difficult to fill.

Another important development in this era was the formation of the Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faith (referred to as simply the Propaganda) brought into action by Pope
Gregory XV in 1622. This arose out of the tension between the Papal power and the
Padroado over authority in the mission fields. The controversy between the different orders
was also another factor and so also the rise of Protestant mission. Thus the need was to bring
all the mission activities under a centralized authority. The Propaganda took over the whole
mission activity of the Church. The Propaganda’s primary aim was the dissemination of the
Roman Catholic faith. It brought a new understanding of respect of the non-western cultures
and customs and a thirst for indigenous clergy. The plan of the Propaganda was also to
increase bishoprics church planting activities overseas. This however, began to gain more
strength during the next period to be discussed.

2. Mission during the 1800 – 1940’s

Towards the end of the 18th century, Roman Catholic mission saw some tragedy. The two
colonial powers Spain and Portugal lost political power in many colonies. The European
political situation, internal conflicts and the Protestant Reformation posed a challenge that

29
K. S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. III. (London: Eyre and
Spottiswoode, 1940), 242.

8
Roman Catholic mission could pick up pace slowly till the 19 th century. During this period
Protestant forms of Christianity had began to gain foot-hold and influence on many non-
western parts of the globe. The Roman Catholic mission also went through a political and
ecclesiastical tug of war between the existing Padroado and the newly formed Propaganda.
Another major blow to Catholic mission was the dissolution of some religious orders
especially of the Jesuits. Such was the case that at the beginning of this period, the Catholic
presence in the non-western world was weak in comparison. But by the mid 19 th century
Catholic mission were again a force to be reckoned with and feared by the Protestants.

2.1. Catholic Reformation and New Orders

The Roman Catholic reformation brought the formation of the Propaganda Fide and
formation of New Orders. Yet practical effects of these could be seen more in the later
centuries by the beginning of the 19th century. In the 19th century there was an amazing
proliferation of many orders with mission as one of the specific purpose. Old orders had been
reconstituted and new ones founded, among them the Congregation of the Holy Hearts of
Jesus and Mary (1805), the Marists Fathers (1816) and Brothers (1817), the Missionaries of
the Most Holy Heart of Mary (1841), Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (1855), Mill Hill
Missionaries (1866) and the Society of Missionaries of Africa or White Fathers (1868). 30
Congregations such as the Franciscans, the Dominicans, the Capuchins, the Jesuits and the
Augustinians brought renewed energy and vision into mission work. Significant was also the
opening for women to take part in mission through the founding of women Orders such as the
Sisters of Notre Dame of Namur (1803), the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (1805), the
Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny (1807), the Marist Sisters (1817), the White Sisters (1856). The
renewal of African mission was attributed to Anne-Marie Jahouvey (1799-1851) founder of
the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny (1807). The Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in 1818
began establishing schools for the settlers in Louisiana Territory. The sisters involved in
education of the settlers. Rose Duchesne was responsible for initiating her society’s work
with the Native Americans.31 Though it was a time where women involvement in mission was
much restricted, Duchesne in her later life went and lived with the Native Americans of
Kansas. Francois Libermann (1802-1852) founded the Missionary of the Holy Heart of Mary
(1840) for the evangelization of Africa and in 1848 it was merged with the Holy Ghost
Fathers (1703). “Libermann promoted missionary accommodation to African customs,
formation of indigenous clergy and subsequent bishops, and evangelization of African by
30
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 222.
31
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 224.

9
Africans”.32 Other missionary orders, such as the Paulist Fathers (1858), owed their origin to
the vision of the evangelisation of the growing European immigrant communities in North
America. The United States continued to be classified by the Vatican as a mission territory
until 1908. The missionary impetus was revived in overseas work.

2.2. Mass Movement33

Baptism en masse was not totally new in Catholic mission. Yet, the mass movement among
the indigenous tribes encountered in India in the 19th century provided new and
unaccustomed fields in Roman Catholic missions. The work of the Jesuit Constant
Lievens(1856-1893) in India among the Chota Nagpur tribals was of great significance. He
entered the field when Protestant missions were already present. The high handedness of the
landlords upon the illiterate peasant tribal made Lieven to intervene into the situation. He
advised the peasants to pay taxes only as to what they seemed fit. This inevitably led to law
suits in courts which Lieven aided by providing lawyers to fight the peasants’ case. This
attracted thousands of new converts as well as Protestant converts into the Catholic fold.
Many of this mass movement came from the seceded Lutheran fold with its catechists. It also
continued among the non-Christian Kols and gave rise to a very large Catholic community.
The mission introduced “co-operative stores, rice banks, produce banks, industrial schools,
cottage industries and improved methods of agriculture.” 34 Problems arose when in some
villages this led to a revolt not only against the landlords but even the government. This led to
imprisonment of many and subsequently many fell back into their old religion. Success could
be seen in that by 1891 Lieven left behind him a church of 79,000 baptized Christians. 35 Most
of these people migrated to North East India, mostly to tea plantation areas, with a strong
church base till today.

2.3. Anti-slavery initiative

The commercial European contact with Africa from the 17 th century was through the slave
trade. This was a primary concern of Cardinal Lavigerie (1825-1892) the founder of the
White Fathers.36 The slave trade was also brought into notice by other missionaries in Africa.
However, European rulers were either less informed or were of the opinion that it was a trade
32
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 224.
33
The phenomenon in which a large number of people of one tribe, caste or class accepted Christianity
and baptism. This is not new in Roman Catholic Missions as it was seen even in the beginning of it mission
activity in many South American countries and India. The concern at the present portion of the paper is the
phenomenon in the 19th century.
34
Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History..., 224.
35
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 342.
36
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 337.

10
that could not be immediately eradicated. Lavigerie wanted more than this. He looked
forward for pro-active steps from all Christian powers and even that the Pope should take the
lead. In Berlin, in 1884 a Conference on Colonial Questions was convened. This was
attended by major powers and even Islamic Turkey. This brought a great freedom for
missionary activities in Africa. Significantly all powers undertook steps to suppress slavery.
Also significant was the 1889 Brussels Conference for the Abolition of Slave Trade convened
as a result of Lavigerie’s agitation. For the first time there was an international agreement on
the ban of the slave trade came into being. This was a significant step in missions. The slave
trade was a brutal oppression on the Africans. Humans were treated as commodities and
shipped to another country in horrible situations in the ships. Death and diseases were
common. The slave trade was a dehumanizing act and a complex issue that had no quick
solution. Such prophetic works as that of Lavigerie showed an understanding of human
dignity long before such things were formally discussed. Neill commented on him as a
“friend and champion of the slaves.” 37 It was a search of upliftment and equality of the
oppressed. It was a fight to change the status quo. This was a prophetic act in missions.

2.4. Indigenous Leadership

The phenomenon of indigenous priests was seen only till the beginning of the 20 th century.
The Propaganda Fide looked forward to the inclusion of indigenous leadership in many parts
of the globe. But the sad story was that most of the European missionaries were of a negative
opinion of the indigenous people’s potential. Paternalism was strong in Catholic mission. The
Council of Mexico (1555) forbade the admission to Orders of anyone who is of mixed
blood.38 In practice the rule was used to keep all non-European from the Orders. In Africa
there was a difference. Henry was consecrated as the first Bishop who is an African in 1518. 39
This was the first try at creating an indigenous clergy, but it proved unsuccessful. Uniquely
though, India and China had indigenous vicars apostolic much earlier – Bishop Matthew de
Castro in 163740 and Bishop Fray Gregorio Lopez in 1674 41 – under European names.
Mission work should aim at some permanence. This would be a possibility with the inclusion
of the indigenous people in the leadership. In the 16 th century the missions in South America
suffered a lack of priests and missionaries to work in the interior parts because the indigenous

37
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 358.
38
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 149.
39
K. S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. III...., 243.
40
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 154-55.
41
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 161-62.

11
ministry was not properly developed.42 One is only reminded of Henry Venn’s three-self
formula. “According to the formula, the goal of mission was to establish churches that were
self-supporting, self-governing, and self-propagating.”43 For this indigenous leadership is a
vital factor.

2.5. Education
Education had always accompanied Catholic missions. The Christian villages of the
Americas had schools, so also missions in Africa and Asia. These were primary schools and
junior seminaries. The schools had always been a source of providing catechism, promoting
learning of local languages with the three R’s – reading writing and arithmetic. Missionaries
of the women orders were instrumental in assisting mission work as teachers in such schools.
Unfortunately most of them were not up to expected strength and some like the junior
seminary in Congo were short lived. By the late 19 th century and beginning of the 20th century
education had picked up as an important element of Catholic mission. Educational facilities
were established to cater primary and higher education and vocational training. Especially in
the non-Western nations, such were set up in the view to improve the lives and train the skills
of the people. This contributed to the social and economical enhancement of the people. In
many under-developed countries education had even contributed to the general health of the
people. In early 19th century India, the Roman Catholic missions had engaged in mostly
primary education and education beyond that stage is confined to seminaries only. 44 The
Jesuits were the first to engage in the new educational opportunity opened up by the
government’s financial aid45 since 1860. In 1844 a college was started in Nagapatnam and
later in 1883 moved to Trichinopoly, similar foundations followed in Palamcottah and
Madras.46 The educational work of mission had been a boon to the people of India. It was a
time when education was limited to an elite class of the society. The missionaries provided
education cutting across caste, class and gender barriers. The primary aim was “to train up
the rising generation of Christians, and also to impart good principles to the non-
Christians.”47 Education as always was also an empowering force to the people in terms of
better job possibilities and empowering the oppressed. Education also provided potentiality of
42
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 148.
43
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 224.
44
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 342.
45
“The government ruled that priests and nuns, who received a bare living allowance from the Church,
might be entered for the purposes of government grant of their ‘commercial value’ as teachers; this concession
was, of course, the greatest help financially to the Roman Catholic institutions”. Neill, A History of Christian
Missions, 343.
46
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 342-343.
47
Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History..., 224.

12
students for priesthood which will continue the mission work. Modern Roman Catholic
missions have taken part in educational work from primary level to colleges. There were also
technical schools offering training in electrical, mechanical, and printing courses.

2.6. Humanitarian Works

Works of compassion were always axiomatic with missions. The religious orders were
concerned of the welfare of the indigenous people they minister since taking care of the sick
was a usual activity for them. Lavigerie’s concern for slavery led him to take care of orphans
during the epidemic and famine in Algiers. 48 This encouraged others to follow. The
reductions of Jesuits in the Americas had a similar model. The Jesuits were also instrumental
in providing care to the African slaves shipped to South Americas. By the 20 th century the
Roman Catholic missions had set up many hospitals and relief agencies to cater to the need of
better health and calamities in many parts of the globe. Many parts of the world even in the
21st century require proper medical attention. The Roman Catholic mission dispensaries,
hospices and hospitals had spread in many countries. India witnessed a significant role played
by the Missionaries of Charity, Latin America and Africa did so by the presence of
organization such as the Catholic Medical Mission Board. In 19 th century India as commented
by C.B. Firth “when government nursing services were less developed than they are now
nuns were found to be nursing in civil hospitals also.” 49 In this, mission work is seen as part
of compassion for the suffering. It was a great blessing especially for the poorer section of the
society. Such acts are a living of the message of compassion preached.

3. Emerging Models of Mission: Vatican II (1962-65) onward

The Catholic mission had learned a great deal in its interactions with other cultures and faiths.
The Vatican II brought shifts, initiated in the 19 th century and vividly seen more in the
beginning of the 20th century, in the Church’s understanding of mission. Missions used to be
a highly professional affair and a sole interest of the Orders, but from 1815 the Propaganda
Fide sought to interest the laity with the responsibility of supporting and taking part in
mission activities. The Roman Catholic mission, however, lacks serious lay participation in
mission as mission continued to be the work of the trained selected few. The understanding of
salvation within the Roman Catholic Church only shifted to a tolerance and respect of other
faiths. The grace of Jesus Christ is seen not as in a sole ownership of the Catholic Church but
present in all human encounters to liberate them. Ecumenism in the Roman Catholic
48
Neill, A History of Christian Missions..., 360.
49
Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History..., 224.

13
understanding continued to be a pseudo-Ecumenism which is not inclusive of other traditions,
but a merge under the Papal rule.

3.1. Dialogue as mission

Following Vatican II, especially Nostra Aetate (“In our time”, 28 Oct, 1965)50, the Vatican
Secretariat for Non-Christians in 1984 brought out a document known as Dialogue and
Mission. It reflected on the Church’s attitude toward followers of other religions and the
experiences of inter-religious dialogue. Dialogue is seen in different forms. First is the
dialogue of life which involves the attitude, spirit and behaviour of a person toward
expressions and modes of another religion. It is an openness to co-exist and enrich human and
spiritual values for peace and harmony. This can involve lay people of any capacity in their
day to day life interactions. Secondly, the dialogue of works involves collaboration with
others in deeds of humanitarian, social economical and political in nature and goals. This
form is usually initiated by organizations to work together in seeking solutions. Thirdly, the
dialogue of experts is a particular interest of specialists. It involves a study to deepen and
enrich respective religious heritages in interaction or in applying a category of their expertise
to problems faced by humanity. This is perhaps the most popular form of dialogue. Bilateral
or even multi-lateral meetings are conducted for discussions on a range of issues. Fourthly,
the dialogue of religious experience is a sharing at a deeper level of their spiritual
experiences. This could take place formally or informally in a give and take manner is the
search of God. To a great extent some form of dialogue always exists in missions. The
interaction of the Christian faith coupled with the cultural background of the missionaries in
contact with new cultural and religious situations always is not void of dialogue, of
interpretation and re-interpretations. Yet inter-faith dialogue seeks more than just this. It
seeks a proper understanding of the religious and philosophical categories of another faith
and also gives respect to the faith. On one hand, this leads to communal harmony. Such a
thing is important to a place like India where Christianity is a minority and the economic is
mostly controlled by non-Christians. On the other hand, when evangelization is considered a
mandate for the Church, dialogue could be at times seen as a fruitless exercise in winning
adherents to Christianity. Pope John Paul II brought a clear and balanced view of dialogue in
mission in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio (“Mission of our Redeemer”, 1991).51 This

50
http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-
ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html (22-10-2015)
51
“Redemptoris Missio”, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_ redemptoris missio.pdf (27-11-2015).

14
document brought back the centrality and uniqueness of Jesus Christ in mission theology.
Even though Christians are called to dialogue, they must always keep in mind the uniqueness
of Christ and that “the Church is the ordinary means of salvation and that she alone possesses
the fullness of the means of salvation.” 52 This document reaffirmed that the Church is called
in its mission into the inter-faith dialogue, yet the centrality and uniqueness of Christ, and
explicit faith in Christ is maintained. Mission cannot be reduced to dialogue but dialogue is a
part of the Church’s evangelizing act.

3.2. Presence/ Witness of Life as mission

Such a method of evangelization emerged in reading the signs of time especially in non-
Western countries with a majority of non-Christians. Evangelii Nuntiandi (“the effort to
proclaim the Gospel to the people of today”, 8 Dec, 1975) 53 states “the first means of
evangelization is the witness of an authentically Christian life.” 54 The witness of authentic
Christian life is seen as a priority to proclamation which in cases could lead to confrontation.
This however does not negate proclamation. The apostolic exhortation of Evangelii Nuntiandi
affirms that the modern man listens more to a witness than a teacher and that people desire
and respect an authentic witness. Bearing witness to Christ is a fundamental part of faith.
Contemporary society marked by critical thinking and reflection does not easily buy into
eloquent speech. Redemptoris Missio also affirmed the importance and connection between
mission and Christian presence.55 The presence of contemplative orders in a place can revive
the spirituality and mission spirit of the local church and the non-Christians religious
traditions who esteem contemplative spirituality. Pope John Paul II also appraised the
presence of the missionaries in service to the people and integral development of the
individual and the society. India has a great example of this in the life and work of Mother
Teressa and her sisters. Redemptoris Missio also affirmed that the witness of any person who
works in ethical integrity, compassion, dedication and even those who having hope they
struggle for new life, is authentic witness.56 Such people by their faith inspired lives raise
questions about their motives and visions in other people’s minds. Mission activity in a place
where Christians are of minority and face social threats should be taken in careful
52
“Redemptoris Missio”, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_ redemptoris missio.pdf (27-11-2015).
53
“Evangelii Nuntiandi”, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_evangelii-nuntiandi.pdf (22-10-2015).
54
“Evangelii Nuntiandi”, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_evangelii-nuntiandi.pdf (22-10-2015).
55
“Redemptoris Missio”, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_ redemptoris missio.pdf (27-11-2015).
56
Bevans & Schroeder, Constants in Context..., 353-354.

15
considerations. In a very practical way the life witness of any Christian, in such a situation,
could be a gospel message without an unhealthy encounter. Yet in taking mission as effort to
proclaim the Gospel, witness of authentic life could be a part of a whole and not an end in
itself.

3.3. Justice and Peace as mission

Mission activities had always been accompanied with care for the poor and the marginalized.
The prophetic activity of Las Casas57 against injustice done to the Indians and Lavigerie’s 58
anti-slavery initiative were evidences of quest for justice in missions. This had continued
through the centuries, but, the late 20 th century saw a great revived interest on justice and
peace. The quest for justice is not simply a work of charity but an involvement in
establishment of justice and struggle for liberation to eradicate the cause of injustice. This is
influenced by the modern understanding of human dignity and equality. The Church is
therefore called speak for, stand in solidarity with and empower the oppressed. Linked to the
fight for justice in the Church’s evangelization is the quest for peace. Violence is a great
injustice and provides no solution whatsoever. The Church promotes peace by sensitizing the
people to make conscious choice. This is also done by participating in educational programs
that will inform the conscience on issues of justice, war and peace. The Catholic Church also
dedicated special prayer for this issue. A great example is of the role of the Roman Catholic
Church in East Timor during the Indonesian military occupation and after independence. The
Roman Catholic Church “offered physical protection from persecution, negotiation with
authorities and advocacy of human rights”59. Thousands of refugees who fled to escape from
violence and intimidation were sheltered by the Church. For this the Church paid a heavy
price with the killing of a Jesuit, 9 diocesan workers, 2 nuns and 2 seminarians. 60
Reconciliation talks were organized by Bishop Belo in Dare and Jakarta where the
participants agree to the outcome of the UN sponsored referendum. After attaining
independence, East Timor still had to deal with the after-effects of the suppression. The East
Timor Catholic Church and international organizations the Catholic Relief Service and the
Jesuit Refugee Service still continued to work for the reconciliation. For his part, Bishop Belo
got international recognition by winning the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1996.

57
Refer to sub-point 1.2. in pp 3-4.
58
Refer to sub-point 2.3. in pp 9-10.
59
Yulius Yasinto, “Mission in East Timor: Builing a Culture of Peace.” in Mission and Violence, edited
by P.F. Gesch (Papua New Guinea: DWU Press, 2009), 205.
60
Yasinto, “Mission in East Timor”, 203.

16
3.4. Integrity of Creation as mission
The concern for the preservation of the ecology is part of the quest for justice and peace.
Thus ecology is seen as a missiological responsibility of the Church. The call is for the
Church itself and the individuals, and also to persuade others, to rethink and adopt lifestyles
that would not squeeze the earth’s resources especially those which would deprive others
from opportunities. It calls for practical steps such as wisely using energy or more fuel
efficient machines. Furthermore institutions like churches, schools, seminaries and hospitals
could support ecological sound infrastructure and systems. Examples of such activities in
India could be found in the National Biblical Catechetical & Liturgical Center, Bangalore, the
Maitreya Centre for Eco-Justice and Eco-Spirituality, Bangalore and the Franciscans in
Umsohlait, Ri-Bhoi District, Meghalaya.61

4. Missiological Implication

Roman Catholic mission had seen many changes and developments in its methods and
understanding. The methods and understandings of mission in the early colonial period could
look odd and shocking to the modern perspective. This was the time when baptism was
sought to be administered whatever the cost or cause. Catechism can follow later or in most
part of the mission fields the people were left nominal without any catechism at all. However,
there are methods like education and humanitarian aid which are practiced even today.
Moreover, even in Protestant circles, such steps taken to be part and parcel of mission
activities. The modern understanding of mission among Roman Catholics seem to have a
confusion – it ranged from the old understanding of salvation within the church only to
salvation of all creation under Christ’s inclusive grace. Even in the midst of this, throughout
the centuries, Roman Catholic mission had emphasised evangelism, though this often goes
hand in hand with adherence to the institutional church which in turn goes hand in hand with
church planting. Pope Benedict XVI (1927- ) called for the new evangelisation of Europe.
Issues of justice, peace and liberation are also high on the agenda. As with the Roman
Catholic Church evangelism is often seen as drawing people into the institutional church.

Conclusion

The understanding of mission throughout the history of the Roman Catholic Church has seen
shifts and encountered many challenges. The commitment of the different Orders in mission

61
Interview with Allwyn Mendoz, Vice Principal, St. Claret College, Ziro, Arunachal Pradesh, 14 th
Nov 2015.

17
activities is commendable even in the midst of many shortcomings encountered. The Catholic
Church with its ecclesiastization of salvation is still at the forefront in mission activities and
church planting. The attention in mission given to other aspects of human life brought much
improvement and upliftment in the lives of many people. Inter-religious dialogue brought
something into focus, i.e, the tolerance and respect of other faiths. This is an important
development in countries like India where Christianity is a minority. Yet this also poses a
challenging question as to whether evangelization is still necessary in the light of the concept
of validity of all faiths. Important left out areas, such as ecology, human dignity were brought
into light in mission activities.

Selected Sources:
Books:
Bevans, S. B. A Century of Catholic Mission: Roman Catholic Missiology 1910 to the
Present. Oxford: Regnum Books International, 2013.

Bevans. S. B. & Schroeder, R. P. Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today.

Bangalore: Claretian Publications, 2005.

Bosch, D. J. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. New York:

Orbis Books, 1996.

Firth C.B. An Introduction to Indian Church History. Delhi: ISPCK, 2013.

Hrangkhhuma, F. An Introduction to Church History. Bangalore: TBT, 2002.

Gonzalez, O. E. & Gonzalez, J. L. A History Christianity in Latin America. New York:

Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Hsia, R. P. Ed. The Blackwell Companions to European History: A Companion to the

Reformation World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.

Latourette, K. S. A History of Christianity, Vol.II. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

Latourette, K. S. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. III. London: Eyre and
Spottiswoode, 1940.

Latourette, K. S. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. VII. London: Eyre and
Spottiswoode, 1945.

Lea, H. C. A History of the Inquisition of the Middle. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1901.

Logan, F. D.. A History of the Church in the Middle Ages. London: Routledge, 2002.

18
Neill, S.. A History of Christian Missions. London: Pelican Books, 1964; London: Penguin
Books, 1990.

Schaff, P. History of the Christian Church, Volume VII. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics
Ethereal Library, 1882.

Articles:
Yulius Yasinto, “Mission in East Timor: Builing a Culture of Peace.” In Mission and
Violence. Edited by P.F. Gesch. Papua New Guinea: DWU Press, 2009.

Devaraj. S. “Witness of Life: Our Mission Today.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological

Reflection (Jan, 2013): 46-63.

Joseph, R. “Relevance of Faith Formation in the Missionary Mandate of the Church.”

Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection 73/1 (Jan, 2009):57-71.

Kavunka, J. “Roman Catholic Perspective on Doing Mission.” Union Biblical Seminary

Journal 6/1 (March, 2009): 83-104.

Kavunkal, J. “Problems and Perspectives in Mission Today.” Union Biblical Seminary

Journal 2/2 (Sept, 2004): 82-93.

Kroeger, J. H. “Exploring the ‘New Evangelization’.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological

Reflection (Sept, 2013): 659-672.

Kroeger, J. H. “The Mission Vision of Paul VI’s Envangelii Nuntiandi.” Vidyajyoti Journal
of Theological Reflection 78/8 (Aug, 2014): 599-613.

Kuruvachira, J. “Intrareligious Dialogue in the Document Dialogue and Mission.” Mission

Today 16/3 (July-Sept, 2014): 196-220.

Kuruvachira, J. “St. Augustine’s Theology of the Two Cities in the City of God.” Mission
Today 16/2 (April-June, 2014): 143-164.

Manjaly, T. “Social Responsibility: Jesus’Jubilee Message (Part I).” Mission Today 13/2
(April-June, 2011): 136-160.

Manjaly, T. “Social Responsibility: Jesus’Jubilee Message (PartI I).” Mission Today 13/3
(July-Sept, 2011): 207-220.

Mascarenhas, F. “Seven Essesntials of Catholic Identity.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological

Reflection (June, 2013): 423-426.

Menamparampil, T. “Dialogue in Troubled Times.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological

Reflection (May, 2001): 325-339.

Michael, S. M. “Christianity as a Movement.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection

(Dec, 2010): 905-927.

19
Tan, J. Y. “From ‘Ad Gentes’to ‘Active Evangelization,’I.” Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological
Reflection (July, 2013): 506-521.

Tan, J. Y. “From ‘Ad Gentes’to ‘Active Evangelization,’II.” Vidyajyoti Journal of

Theological Reflection (Sept, 2013): 692-710.

Online Sources:
http://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-
ii_enc_07121990_redemptoris-missio.pdf (27-11-2015)

http://w2.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-
xiii_enc_03121880_sancta-dei-civitas.pdf (22-10-2015)

http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-
vi_exh_19751208_evangelii-nuntiandi.pdf (22-10-2015)

http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-
ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html (22-10-2015)

Interview:
Mendoz, Allwyn, Vice Principal, St. Claret College, Ziro, Arunachal Pradesh. Interview, 14 th
Nov 2015.

20