LECTURE MATERIAL

Second Semester

COURSE COORDINATOR:
DR. BLESSING FUNOM

UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA
TABLE OF CONTENT

LECTURE ONE

1.0 Introduction to library development and library rules and their consequences.

1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..9
1.2 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………….…9
1.3 Main Text……………………………………………………………………………10
a. Definition of a Library…………………………………………………………10
b. Objectives…………………………………………………………………………..10
c. Functions of the Library……………………………………………………..11
d. Historical Development of the Library……………………………...11
e. Library rules and their consequences ………………………………13
1.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE………………………………………………….14
Answers to Exercise……………………………………………………………….14

LECTURE TWO

2.0 Types of Libraries…………………………………………………………………………….

2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….16
2.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………16
2.3 Main Text……………………………………………………………………………..18
a. Academic Library……………………………………………………………….18
b. School Library……………………………………………………………………18
c. Public Library……………………………………………………………………19
d. National Library………………………………………………………………19
e. Special Library…………………………………………………………………20
f. Private Library…………………………………………………………………21
2.4 SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE……………………………………………..21
Solution to Exercise…………………………………………………………….21

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LECTURE THREE

3.0 Structural Organization of the Library………………………………………….22

3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………23
3.2 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………..23
3.3 Main Text…………………………………………………………………………..2f4
a. Administrative Department……………………………………………..24
b. Reader’s Services Division……………………………………………….24
i. Circulation unit…………………………………………………… 24
ii. Reference unit………………………………………………………..24
iii. Reserve unit………………………………………………………………24
c. Technical Service Division…………………………………………………25
i. Collection Development unit…………………………………..25
ii. Cataloguing and Classification unit……………………………26
d. Serials Division……………………………………………………………………..26
e. Special Collection Division…………………………………………………….26
f. Bindery unit…………………………………………………………………………..s
3.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE………………………………………………………..27
Answer to questions……………………………………………………………………27

LECTURE FOUR

4.0 Types of Library Materials……………………………………………………………………….29

4.1 introduction ………………………………………………………………………………30
4.2 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………..30
4.3 Main Text…………………………………………………………………………..….31
a. Print materials…………………………………………………………………………..31
i. Books……………………………………………………………………………….31
ii. Periodicals………………………………………………………………………..32
iii. Vertical …………………………………………………………………………….32
iv. Government publication………………………………………………..…32
v. Thesis and dissertation………………………………………………………33

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 b. Non-print materials ……………………………………………………………………33
i. Electronic Resources………………………………………………………….33
ii. Types of Electronic Resources……………………………………………34
● E-journals……………………………………………………………….34
● E-books……………………………………………………….…………34.
● Online Databases……………………………………………………34
● Directory of Open Access Journals…………………….....35
● Directory of Open Access Books…………………………….36
● Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM)…………36
4.4 SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE………………………………………………………….36
Answers to the questions……………………………………………………………….36

LECTURE FIVE

5.0 Organization of Library Materials……………………………………………………………38

5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………38
5.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………39
5.3 Main Text………………………………………………………………………………40
a. Cataloguing ……………………………………………………………………………40
b. Classification …………………………………………………………………………40
c. Classification scheme……………………………………………………………41
d. Types of library classification scheme…………………………………41
e. Importance of classification scheme…………………………………..44
f. Library catalogue…………………………………………………………………44
g. The physical forms of library catalogue………………………………45
h. Information on card catalogue ……………………………………………48
5.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE……………………………………………………50
5.5 Answer to the exercise……………………………………………………………51

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LECTURE SIX

6.0 Library Services…………………………………………………………………………………53

6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………53
6.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………53
6.3 Main Text……………………………………………………………………….55
a. Circulation services……………………………………………………………55
b. Inter library cooperation………………………………………………….55
c. Reference services……………………………………………………………55
d. Photocopying services………………………………………………………56
e. Indexing and abstracting……………………………………………………57
f. Exhibitations………………………………………………………………………57
g. Audio-visual services………………………………………………………….57
h. Staff training ………………………………………………………………………57
i. Consultancy services…………………………………………………………57
6.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCIISE……………………………………………………57
Answer to the exercise……………………………………………………………57

LECTURE SEVEN

7.0 Reference sources or materials…………………………………………………………59

7.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………59
7.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………60
7.3 Main Text…………………………………………………………………………61
a. Concept of reference source or materials …………………………61
b. Types of reference source or materials………………………………63
7.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE…………………………………….………………68
Answers to the exercise……………………………………………………………69

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LECTURE EIGHT

8.0 Electronic Learning or E-Learning………………………………………………………70

8.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………70
8.2 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………….70
8.3 Main Text…………………………………………………………………………70
a. Electronic learning………………………………………………………………70
b. Technologies used in E-learning…………………………………………72
c. Advantages of E-learning……………………………………………………72
d. Disadvantages of E-learning…..………………………………………….73
8.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE…………………………………………………..73

Answers to the exercise………………………………………………………….73

LECTURE NINE

9.0 Computer Networks………………………………………………………………75

9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………76
9.2 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………77
9.3 Main Text……………………………………………………………………77
(a) Definition of computer network………………………………………77
(b) Component of computer network………………………………….77
(c) Types of computer network……………………………………………78
(d) Advantages of computer network………………………………….80
(e) Disadvantages of computer network………………………………82
9.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE………………………………………………83
Answers to the exercise…………………………………………………….83

LECTURE TEN

10.0 Copyright and Intellectual Property…………………………………………85

10.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………86
10.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………86
10.3 Main Text………………………………………………………………..86

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 a. Definition ………………………………………………………………………86
b. Materials works eligible for copyright……………………………87
c. Ownership of copyright…………………………………………………89
d. The provision of copyright law………………………………………89
10.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE…………………………………………89
Answers to the exercise……………………………………………………89

LECTURE ELEVEN

11.0 Citation and Referencing………………………………………………………91

11.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….….91
11.2 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………92
11.3 Main Text………………………………………………………………………92
a. Purpose of Referencing ……………………………………………………93
b. Referencing Rules………………………………………………………………93
c. Types of Referencing Style……………………………………………….94
11.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE……………………………………………..119
Answers to the Exercise……………………………………………………….119

LECTURE 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction to library development and library rules and their consequencies.
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Main text
(a) definition of a library
(b) objective of the library
(c) functions of the library
(d) historical development of the library
(e) library rules and their consequences
1.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE.

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 SOLUTION TO EXERCISE.
1.0 Introduction to use of library: This section will discuss library objectives, functions and
development from the ancient times, through the medieval period to the modern time as
well as rules for using the library.This will help the students to handle and use library
resources with care.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture students should be able to:

(a) Define a library and be able to say what the objectives and functions of the library are.
(b) Mention groups of people that contributed to the development of ancient libraries
(c) Explain the factors that gave rise to establishment and development of modern libraries
(d) Mention the first library that was established in Nigeria
(e) Mention prominent Nigerians that had private collections which contributed to library
development in Nigeria.
(f) Identify the rules for using the library

1.3 Main text

(a) Definition of a library

What is library? Librarians’ Glossary defines library as “a collection of books and other literary
materials kept for reading study and consultation”.

Johnson and Harris defined a library as “a collection of graphic materials arranged for relatively
easy use; care for by an individual or individuals familiar with that arrangement and available
for use by at least a limited number of persons.

Elmer Johnson defined library as “an organized collection of general information and
literature”.

However, UNESCO defined a library as an organized collection of published books and

periodical and of other reading and audiovisual materials, and the services of a staff able to
provide and interpret such materials as are required to meet the information, research,
education or recreational needs of users.
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(b) Objectives of the Libraries

The major objective of the library is to ensure that the user is served within the shortest
possible time. That is why the library acquires various materials in various formats. In addition
the library arranges its materials in such a way that they can be located as easily as possible.
There is usually a special place in the library where information on books and other reading
materials can be found. This is the card catalogue. That is why any reader in the library will find
catalogue cabinets containing sometimes endless trays of cards. Other means like the computer
are now used to contain catalogues of books and other library materials.

In addition to these facilities in the library, seats are so arranged to cater for users who want to
make notes. Library staffs are seen replacing books in their proper positions on the shelves. At
other times, you will find library staff sitting in their desks ready to attend to readers’ problems.
There are other staff members you may not see. These staff works behind the scene. They
arrange for books and other materials to be acquired. Other staff catalogue and classify the
books and yet others attend to administrative and financial problems of the library. It can
therefore, be appreciated that the library bothers itself to imagine library users’ needs and tries
to satisfy these needs within the shortest possible time.

(c) The Functions of the Library

The major functions of the library are to select, acquire, organize, retrieve and disseminate
information to library users in order to meet their educational, informational, research,
recreational and social needs.

(d) Historical Development of the Library

Library development is as old as the invention of writing. Collection of documented materials

started as soon as writing started. There were the private, temple and royal collections. Scribes
were appointed in the ancient days to copy documents at the scriptoria. They evolved systems
of arranging the ever-increasing documents for easy location in the places where they were
housed. Some carved the alphabetical list (catalogues) of their holdings on stone and they are
clay tablets. With the civilization processes, there were the ancient and medieval libraries.

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The Egyptians developed hieroglyphic which is a form of writing. They were also associated
with the ancient libraries. The Sumerians and the Babylonians as well as Greek contributed to
the development of the ancient libraries.

The Medieval libraries came into the focus after the ancient libraries. The invention of printing
by John Gutenberg gave a boost to the production of books and this also contributed to the
development of libraries.

The renaissance, enlightenment, reformation, industrial revolution, invention of printing and

increase in learning, demands for knowledge and materials to read influenced the
establishment and development of modern libraries. Social movements/clubs and professional
bodies began to establish libraries.

In Nigeria, the Lagos Book Club was formed in the 1920 by the expatriate civil servants and
some Nigerians. The club subsequently received a grant of £6,400 (pounds) from the Carnegie
Corporation of New York in 1932. A subscription library emerged and members had a fee to
enable them use the facilities provided by the library.

Many important educated Nigerians had private libraries which could compare with other of a
similar nature in other parts of the world. Henry Carr had a private library of about 18,000
volumes. The collections were taken over by the Nigerian Government and were given to the
University College, Ibadan at its inception. Tom Jones, a wealthy merchant instructed that
library should be set up in his estate. This was done and the library was quite popular among
the educated elites.

Herbert Macaulay, a prominent Nigerian politician and nationalist had an impressive private
library. The collection included works of history, politics and biography.

The University College Ibadan was established in 1948 and we can say that the first truly
academic library started there. The library served the nation and performed some of the
functions of a national library before National Library of Nigeria was established in 1964.

e. RULES IN THE LIBRARY AND THEIR CONSEQUENCY

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The following behaviours of students toward library books have been a major problem to
libraries and any student involve in these behaviours can be punished.

1. Mutilation of books – destruction of library books through tearing of pages,

cutting of pictures.
2. Theft or stealing
3. Overdue of borrowed books
4. Violation of shelving instructions
5. Noise making
6. Eating and drinking in the library
7. Careless handling of library materials
8. Indecent dressing
9. Always come to the library with your library identity card
10. Entry to the library with bagswill not be allowed.

1.4 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)

1. How did UNESCO define a Library?

2. Mention four groups of people that have contributed to the development of the ancient
libraries.

3. Which library emerge first in Nigeria?

4. List three factors that gave rise to the establishment of the modern library in Nigeria.

5. Mention two prominent Nigerians who had private library in 1920s.

6. Mention two objectives of a library

7. Mention two functions of a library

8. Mention three rules for using the library

Answers to the questions

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 1. UNESCO has defined a library as “an organized collection of published books and
periodical and of other reading and audiovisual materials, and the services of a staff able
to provide and interpret such materials as are required to meet the information,
research, education or recreational needs of users.
2. Egyptians, Sumerians, Babylonians and the Greek
3. Public library
4. Reformation, Industrialization, inventing of printing and increase in learning
5. Henry Carr and Herbert Macaulay
6. To meet users need for information, education or research
7. Acquisition and organization of information resources
8. i. No Mutilation of library books
ii. No steeling of library books
iii. No keeping of overdue books etc

LECTURE 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.0 TYPES OF LIBRARIES

2.1 introduction
2.2 objectives
2.3 MAIN TEXT
(a) Academic Library
(b) School library
(c) Public library
(d) National library
(e) Special library
(f) Private library
2.4 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE.
SOLUTIONS TO THE EXERCISE.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

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Libraries are broadly categorized into different types based on the target audience or clientele
to be served. These different categories of libraries are the Academic, School, Public, National,
Special and Private libraries. These are examined below in terms of objectives and their
respective clientele.

2.2 Objectives.

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

(a) Mention types of libraries.

(b) Mention the name given to libraries mainly established to serve the staff of a particular
organization or specialist.
(c) Mention the name given to libraries established in the rural areas to serve the people at
the grass root.
(d) Mention the name given to libraries in higher institutions.
(e) Mention how libraries derive their names.

2.3 Main Text

(a) Academic Libraries

The academic library is the library that is established by institutions of higher learning to
achieve its educational goals in terms of research, teaching and learning. Example of academic
libraries included all libraries found in the Universities, Polytechnics, College of Education,
School of Basic Studies, etc.

Users of academic libraries include the staff, students and the staff dependents. An example of
an academic library is University of Abuja library.

The purpose of academic library is to provide graphic and non-graphic materials to support the
instructional, information, research and bibliographical needs of the users.

Problems facing academic libraries include poor funding, inadequate staff, outdated collection,
stealing, mutilation and space.

(b) School Libraries

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A school library is a library established to serve the teaching and learning of the primary and
post primary school users. School library is usually established and funded by the
institutions/government.

The users of school libraries include the students, staff and parents. Materials of school library
are mostly on the subject covered in the school curriculum.

On important use of the school library is the lessons allocated in the timetable for pupils and
students to go to the library and use the materials.

The basic purpose of school library is to provide materials or information resources that will
support the instructional and recreational needs of the staff and students of that particular
institution. Problems facing school library include space, finance, inadequate collection,
mutilation, chief example of school library is Government Secondary School Library
Gwagwalada.

(c) Public Libraries

Public library is a state affair, i.e. it is established and funded by states. Several states have state
library boards. In some parts of the country, some local governments have libraries and
branches are also in some urban centers.

The public library serves its immediate community regardless of religion, ethnic groups, sex
educational levels, etc. users are expected to be registered members before they are allowed to
borrow any material. The purpose of public library includes:

1. Providing materials for information needs

2. Encouraging educational processes
3. Preservation of local material
4. Providing enlightenment material
(d) National Libraries

It was established in 1970 by Decree No. 29 of National Library of Nigeria. National library is
being refers to as a reference library of last resort. It is established by the Federal Government

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to serve the information needs of the country. It helps in the development of libraries in a
country, i.e. it oversees other libraries.

Its collection covers wide range of collection of nation’s literature and materials which it
different from academic and other libraries.

Purpose of National Library are

1. To serve as the national bibliographic center for the country;

2. To serve as the legal depository for the country. All publishers must donate copies of
their books to the library;
3. It serve as the national copyright information center (NCIC)
4. To coordinate and encourage library cooperation in the country;
5. It ensures planning and development of libraries within the country;
6. It serves as a link with other similar libraries over the world.
(e) Special Libraries

A special library is a library that is established along a specialized field. It is established to serve
the staff of particular organization who specialized in certain productions or research. It include
those libraries in industries, factories specialized research institutes, media organizations, etc. it
does not have objectives different from that of their parent organizations. Information
resources are those that will meet the realization of the organizational goal such as libraries
include among other, those in industries research institutes, media organizations, i.e. NTA,
FRCN, National Mathematical Centre, National Pharmaceutical Research and Development,
Central Bank of Nigeria, etc.

The users mostly come to library for specific information need. This therefore, justifies the
emphasis on selective disseminating of information (SDI) in special libraries.

(f) Private Libraries

These are libraries established by individuals for their private use. Materials acquired are those
of the users’ interest. Their usages are more restricted. Most of them remain unknown unto the
death of the owners.

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2.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Name two types of libraries.

2. What is the name given to libraries established mainly to serve the staff of a particular
organization or specialist?

3. What is the name given to libraries in higher institution?

4. How do libraries derive their names?

5. Which library is called people University?

Answers to the questions

1. Academic, public and any other

2. Special library
3. Academic library
4. From the organization or institutions that establish them
5. Public library

LECTURE 3

TABLE OF CONTENT

3.0 STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE LIBRARY

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives or Learning Outcome
3.3 Main Text
a. Administrative department
b. Reader services division
i. Circulation unit
ii. Reference unit
iii. Reserve unit
c. Technical services division
i. Collection development unit

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 ii. Cataloguing and classification unit
d. Serials division
e. Special collection division
f. Bindery units
3.4 Self-Assessment Exercise
Answer to the questions
3.1 Introduction

Library organization depends on the size and type of the library collection as well as the type of
users and size of the library building. For proper organization, the library is divided into
divisions in order to enhance the library function in achieving the institution goals and for user
to locate materials of interest with ease.

3.2 Objectives or Learning Outcome

4 At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Identify the various divisions and units in the library.
2. Explain the activities of each division and unit

3.3. Main Text

STRUCTURAL ORGANZATION OF THE LIBRARY

a. Administrative department
The University Librarians office comes under this department and he or she supervises
all the activities of the university library.
b. Reader Services Division

This is the area where the activities of library staff are glaringly seen. The readers’ services
division is made up of various units:

i. Circulation Unit

This unit is referred to as open access unit. In this unit, the circulation desk handles the charging
and discharging (i.e. borrowing and returning) of books in the library. The unit is also charged

16
with the responsibility of handling the routines of registration of users, users statistics, inter-
library loan, recall notices, overdue notices.

In the circulation unit of the library, adequate reading space and facilities are provided for the
users to consult the materials. The circulation librarian and his/her assistants guide the patrons
on how to use the library materials.

ii. Reserve or Short Term Loan Unit

This unit houses materials that are rare and in high demand, materials that are limited in
number or recommended by lecturers. The books are loan out to users on hourly bases.

iii. Reference Unit

This unit provides materials that are for reference purpose only, materials in this unit are not
lent out but just for consultation purposes. They include encyclopedia, dictionary, handbooks,
manuals, proceedings, almanac, directories, yearbooks, maps, biographies, indexes/abstracts,
bibliographies, etc. they are arranged as a separate collection in the library.

c. Technical Services Division

Technical services division is generally referred to as that division which its activities are
unknown out of sight (i.e. behind the scene) of regular users of the library. It is made up of
acquisition/collection development unit and cataloguing and classification unit.

i. Collection Development Unit

This unit handles all recommendations of books for purchases. It order and receive order from
suppliers. Process all the book invoices for setting the payments. The unit is charged with the
responsibilities of selecting the materials, carrying out the bibliographic data checking, checking
the stock of the library to avoid duplication of library material receive requests, checking details
of the materials against the details on the order slip and processing the materials.

Specific Functions of Acquisition/collection Development Unit

a) Selection of books and monographic series for ordering

b) Receiving request from the faculties and library staff
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 c) Bibliographic checking
d) Ordering books, monographs series not on standing order and other library
materials, e.g. record cassettes, etc.
e) Receiving books and other library materials from book sellers, documents unit, gift
and exchange unit. Serials recording and these unit for accessioning
f) Filing of on-order and in-progress cards
g) Clearing invoices for payment
h) Routing library materials to appropriate units
i) Conducting regular surveys of the collection to determine the adequacy or gaps in
conjunction with the coordinator of acquisitions
j) Liaise with the faculty members and the library senior staff
k) Compilation of necessary statistics
l) Maintaining accession register
ii. Cataloguing and Classification Unit

Cataloguing and classification unit perform the function of cataloguing and classifying the
library materials. This unit organizes the materials into a set pattern of classes. These materials
are placed on the appropriate shelves with materials on specific subjects being housed together
in the same area of the library. This unit also maintains and provides catalogue cards which are
arranged in the catalogue cabinet. Each card in the catalogue represents a book in the library.

d. Serial Division

Various journals and newspapers subscribed to by the library are selected ordered, received
processed and shelved by the serials division.

e. Special Collection Division

This division contains all postgraduate thesis and dissertation, government publications e.g
World Health Organization, United Nations publication, and any publication that emanates
from government establishments, Conference, seminar, workshop and inaugural lectures
papers.

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 f. Bindery unit: This unit is responsible for the repair of damaged books and binding of
books, thesis and dissertation in the library. It is open to students, staff and members of
the general public to repair their damaged books and to bind their books, project works,
thesis and dissertation.
3.4 Self-Assessment Exercise
1. List three units in readers services division
2. The unit where journals and newspapers are kept in the library is
called………………………………….
3. What is the name of the unit that is responsible for the acquisition of library materials
4. Mention the unit that keep reference materials in the library
5. The university librarian office comes under ………………………………………………department.
6. Why are some books kept in the reserve book unit
7. The unit of the library that register and loan books to users is called
……………………………………………………….
8. Which unit of the library can you find thesis, dissertation and government publications

Answers

1. Reference , reserve and circulation unit

2. Serials unit
3. Collection development unit
4. Reference unit
5. Because such books are in high demand and the library have a few copies of such books.
6. Administrative department
7. Circulation
8. Special collection unit

LECTURE FOUR

4.0 TYPES OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Objectives

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4.3 Main Text

1. Print materials

a. Books

b. Periodicals

c. Vertical file

d. Government publication

e. Thesis and Dissertation

2. Non-print materials

i. Electronic Resources

ii. Types of Electronic Resources

● E-journals
● E-books
● Online Databases
● Directory of Open Access Journals
● Directory of Open Access Books
● Compact Disk Read Only Memory ( CD- ROM)

4.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

SOLUTION TO EXERCISE.

4.1 Introduction

The goals of any institution of higher learning are teaching, learning and research. These goals
can only be achieved through the consultation of already existing resources which may be print
or non-print (electronic) format.

4.2 Objectives

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At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

1. Identify print materials in the library

2. Identify electronic resources that they can accessed from the library

4.3 Main Text

Library materials are all forms of information carriers that can be used to record, store,
preserve, transmit or retrieve information for learning, for research for instructional purpose,
etc. They may be divided into groups according to their formats. Library material consists of
print and non-print electronic formats.

The goals of any institution of higher learning are teaching, learning and research. These goals
can only be achieved through the consultation of already existing resources which may be in
print or non-print electronic format.

Print Materials

These are paper based information sources i.e. materials that are printed on paper. They form
the bulk of information sources in the media centers, print materials include books, periodicals,
vertical files and government publications.

a) Books – Books are published work of literature of scholarship, UNESCO refers to

book as a “non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages excluding covers”.
Books are written into fiction and non-fiction to suit all ages, reading abilities and
reading interest.
i) Fiction books: These are simply referred to as story books or novels. They are
read for enjoyment and relaxation. Some subject fiction e.g. (science fiction can
provide the reader with some general information).
ii) Non-fiction books: They included all other books except story or novels.
Examples of non-fiction books are (a) reference books – reference books are not
meant to be read from page to page, they are to be consulted for specific
information and are not to be borrowed out of the library. Reference books
include encyclopedia, dictionaries, handbook, etc.

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 iii) Textbooks: These are written by expressing various subjects for the purpose of
instructions.
iv) Supplementary readers: These contain information that may not be covered by
the textbooks. They are read for further information (e.g. our common insects)
b) Periodicals: These are publications which come out at regular interval and intended
to continue indefinitely in several vols, and several authors contribute articles to
them and they have distinct titles. Journals, magazines and newspapers, weekly, bi-
monthly, monthly, quarterly, biannually, annual, etc.
c) Vertical File: this is a file of pamphlet materials that are kept in filing cabinet. It is
sometimes called the information file. The articles or pamphlets are filed by subject
and are kept in folders with subject headings at the top of the folder. The drawers of
the cabinets are labeled as well. The vertical file collection is very handy in providing
current information. Information obtain in vertical file are too brief to be treated in
books.
d) Government Publications: These are official publication put out by the government
and its agencies some of publications appear on regular basis while others are
occasional publications. They contain information about the government
programmes and activities. They affect especially education and socio-political
issues of a particular country.
e) Thesis and dissertation: These are record of postgraduate’s research.

Non-Print Materials

These consist of library resources that are not in printed formats. They are products of
advanced technology, requiring special equipment such as hardware and software for their
usage.

Electronic resources fall under the non-print materials.

What are e-Resources?

E-resources are referred to as online resources. They store information that are transmitted
and accessed via Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), intranet or internet.

22
According to Okore, Asogwu and Okpala (2015), the use of online resources for research and
educational purpose by student (undergraduate and postgraduate) means that they benefit
from the works of experts in the different fields of study. Though libraries acquire and house
significant number of print materials, such limited acquisitions may not meet the needs of
researchers with the proliferation of information in various academic disciplines. Researchers
(students inclusive) often extend their searchers to online resources, so as to benefit from the
numerous works of experts in the different fields of study. They use online resources for a wide
variety of reasons which include acquisition of knowledge, monitoring publications in the
different fields of study (journal/database, e-mail alerts), looking for information to fuel some
academic or scientific debate, retrieving resources to carry out some assignment.

The library provides access to wide variety of e-resources including electronic books (e-books),
electronic journals (e-journals), indexes and collections of journals articles, reference works,
digital collections, databases, and websites. All library e-resources can be accessed on campus
most can be accessed off campus. E-resources are useful because of the volume of information
they contain and because of the convenience of being able to access them both on and off-
campus at any time. It should be noted however, that e-resources are online resources.

TYPES OF E-RESOURCES

E-journals (electronic journals):These are electronic issues of journals and articles that are
accessed via the internet. E-journals are essentials because they contain current information
and the publications are always timely.

E-books (electronic books): These are electronic versions of printed books which are often
purchased by the Library to supplement printed copies of books which are in heavy or regular
demand. In addition to the e-books purchased by the library, there are many e-book collections
freely available online

E-thesis and dissertation: These are electronic version of postgraduate records of research.

Online Database: These are organized collection of computerized information or data such as
articles, books, graphics and multimedia that are in general or subject-based in form of
abstracts and or full text and be accessed online or over the internet. This is different from a

23
local database in that the later (local databases) is usually held in an individual computer or
attached storage, such as CD or external hard drive and accessed via the intranet rather than
internet.

Some of the online databases provide access to the full text. Examples of such online databases
include: Ebscohost, Agora, Hinari, Jstor, NEXUS, Keesings, Sabinet Online, Researchpro,
MEDLINE, Academic Source Complete, Business Source Complete, Legal Collection, etc.

Open Access Resources: ‘Open Access’ simply connotes free access to any collection of
materials which otherwise could have been assigned restrictions but

for the need to bridge the digital divide. Digital means not having equal access to information
by people, some would be the information-haves and others information-have-nots. What this
simply means is that some people who do not have the financial resources to subscribe or
purchase materials online cannot have access to such needed information as opposed to the
rich ones who can afford such. With open access resources, books and journals can be accessed
by anyone, at any time, without restraint and made use of at one’s convenience. Example of
open access databases includes Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and Directory of
Open Access Books (DOAB).

Directory of Open Access Journal (DOAJ): This is an online directory that indexes and provided
access to quality open access, peer-reviewed journals. Open Access (OA) journals are scholarly
journals that are available online to the reader without financial, legal or technical barriers
other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself (Wikipedia). Some
journals could be open access but may require individual payment of some fee to finance the
production and publication of the journal online. Academic institutions or government can also
finance open access journals. The directory of open access journals covers all subject
categories. Visit the website at www.doaj.org.

Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB): The primary aim of DOAB is to increase discoverability
of peer-reviewed Open Access Books that have been published under an Open Access license.
The address for DOAB is www.doabooks.org.

24
Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM): Physically, CD-ROM is the same compact disc that
has become the standard in the music industry. It is plastic disc, 43/4” (12cm) in diameter, on
which data is recorded digitally. In order to take advantage of the information on a CD-ROM
disc, you must have a CD-ROM drive (also called a CD-ROM player) connected to your personal
computer, CD-ROM has capacity of about 650 million characters for the small format on each
disc. This is equivalent to over 200,000 pages of printed text.

4.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. List and explain any two print materials in the library

2. Define a book

3. A publication which comes out at regular interval and intended to continue indefinitely in
volumes is referred to as ……………………………………………………………

4. List any two types of electronic resources you can access from the library

5. Give two examples of online databases

ANSWER TO THE EXERCISE

1. The answer can be from any of the following: Books, periodicals, vertical file,
government publications
2. A non-periodical printed publication of a least 49 pages excluding cover
3. Periodicals and serials
4. The answer can come from any of the followings: E-journals, E-books, Online database,
Open Access Resources, Directory of Open Access Journals and Directory of Open Access
Books.
5. Ebscohost, Hinari, MEDLINE, Agora, etc

LECTURE 5

5.0 ORGANIZATION OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

5.1 Introduction

25
5.2 Objective.

5.3 Main Text

(a) Cataloguing

(b) Classification

(c) Classification Scheme

(d) Types of library classification

(e) Importance of classification Scheme

(f) Library catalogue

(g) The Physical forms of library catalogue

(h) Information on card catalogue entry.

5.1 Introduction

For effective use of the library information found in library resources are organized for easy
retrieval. When a library user approaches the library enters a library with a defined need and
once his need is identified, such a user uses the library to retrieve the relevant information to
satisfy his information.

Organization and retrieval of information takes place when books, journals, serials and audio-
visual materials are organized by way of cataloguing and classifying them by units and subjects
specialization. All academic library materials are arranged alphabetically and sequentially by
subject classification numbers. Arrangement of labels on library shelves and books on them are
also done in alphabetical and sequential order by subject classification and author numbers.
Library materials therefore are organized through cataloguing and classification to enable
library users retrieves information available in-them.

5.2 Objectives.

26
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

(a) Define library classification and identify the types of library classification schemes.
(b) Explain the importance of library classification scheme.
(c) Define a library catalogue, understand the different forms of library catalogue and their
importance.
(d) Comprehend the information on library catalogue entry.

5.3 Main Text

Library collections are made up of both print and non-print materials. These materials are
property organized through the following aids to achieve the institutional goals. The materials
are therefore organized through

(a) Cataloguing is a process where all physical details of material are recorded on cards.
These physical details include:
(b) Author
(c) Title, including author statement and edition
(d) Imprint (place of publication, publisher and date of publication)
(e) Collation and series note
(f) Bibliography
(g) ISBN (International Standard Book Number)
(h) Tracings/added entry
(i) Call number

(b) Classification

Classification is the process by which we group things according to their likeness and separate
them according to their differences. Things can be classified differently and by different people
according to different purpose or needs.

The objective of classification is to arrange things in the most helpful order and for
convenience. As far as books are concerned, it must be obvious that there are many possible
ways of arranging them, either by size, by publisher, colour of ````````````binding, alphabetically
by subject, alphabetically by author or by systematic subject arrangement. With regards to the
27
library, classification is therefore the arrangement of all knowledge into generally accepted
classes.

(c) Classification Scheme

A printed classification for arranging books is called a scheme. A notation consists of the
symbols adopted by a book classification to signify the classes, divisions and subdivisions which
form the schedules. A notation is also called “class mark”. A notation may be pure or mixed. A
pure notation being one in which only one kind of symbol is used and a mixed notation being
one in which two or more kinds of symbols are utilized. Good qualities of a notation include:
the notation should be brief, simple, flexible and easy to say, write, read and understand.

Since it is convenient and important that all books on subject be kept together, libraries should
have classification schemes as devices for achieving this goal.

(d) Types of Library Classification

1. Library of Congress Classification Scheme (LC)
2. Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC) 1876
3. Universal Decimal Classification Scheme (UDC)
4. Expansive Classification of C.A Cutter 11891-1903
5. Bibliographic Classification of H.E. Bliss 1935

Library of Congress Classification Scheme (LC)

It is developed by LC system in America. It has mixed notation combining alphabets and figures.
It is mostly used in academic libraries. All books are placed in capital letters A-Z. Non-used
letters are I.O.W.X.Y. These letters are reserved for future expansion of knowledge.

Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC)

It is developed in America by Melvil Dewey in the 19th century. All branches of knowledge are
divided into 10 main classes.

000 – General works

100 - Philosophy

28
200 - Religion

300 - Social Sciences

400 - Language

500 - Pure Sciences

600 - Technology (Applied Sciences)

700 - Fine Arts

800 - Literature

900 - History (Travel and Geography)

Each tens in the hundreds stands for sub-class or sub-division of a subject.

Future Expansion

A - General works

B - Philosophy and Religion

C - History – General

D - History – Old World

E - American History and General U.S. History

F - American History

G - Geography

H - Social Science

J - Political Science

K - Law

L - Education

29
M - Music

N - Fine Arts

P - Language and Literature

Q - Science

R - Medicine

S - Agriculture, Forestry, Animal Culture, Fish Culture, Hunting

T - Technology

U - Military Science

V - Naval Science

Z - Bibliography and Library Science

(e) Importance of Classification Scheme

1. It helps to pinpoint a specific or precisely defined item of information

2. It helps to locate particular library item on the shelve
3. It helps to show complete range of subject available in the library and their
relationship to another
4. Easy location of library materials on the shelve

Class mark: class mark represent the approximation of the subject or discipline use of special
device where subjects are represented by numbers.

Accession Number: These are numbers assigned to library materials as they are required into
the library.

Arrangement of Library Materials on the Shelves: Library materials are arranged on the
shelves with the help of the classification scheme which put the books and other library
materials of similar subjects together in sequence. That is books which are related and similar in
subject area are arranged together in sequence using the class mark.

30
THE LIBRARY CATALOGUE

The library catalogue can be defined as a list of library materials arranged in an orderly manner
for easy retrieval. The library catalogue is the key to the use of library. It is kept near the
entrance of the library for easy accessibility. The catalogue is of two forms, i.e. the physical and
inner forms of catalogue.

The physical forms of the catalogue are the card, book and shelf catalogues computed or OPAC.
The inner forms are the dictionary catalogue comprising author/title and subject catalogue. The
other inner form is the classified catalogue.

(f) The Physical forms of Library Catalogue

a) The card catalogue: This is most popular catalogue in use all over the world. The
physical descriptions of the materials are on cards. The cards are kept in cabinet
for safety. The card catalogue cabinet has several drawers each alphabetically
lettered to assist users in their search. The standard size of the catalogue is
5”X3” with a hold below it through which a rod is passed to hold them together
in the cabinet see the example below:

Author:

HD
87.5
T951
TURNER, R. KERRY
The economics of planning/R. Turner and Clive Collis – London: Macmillan
1977
103p:iII. 220cm – (Macmillan Studies in Economics)
Bibliog.. pp96-103
0-333-19657-D(pbk)
1) Economic policy (2) planning (i) Collis, Clive joint author (ii) Title (iii) Series

Title:

31
 HD
87.5
T951 TURNER, R. KERRY
The economics of planning/R. Turner and Clive Collis – London: Macmillan
1977
103p:iII. 220cm – (Macmillan Studies in Economics)
Bibliog.. pp96-103
0-333-19657-D(pbk)
1) Economic policy (2) planning (i) Collis, Clive joint author (ii) Title (iii) Series

Subject:

HD
87.5
T951 TURNER, R. KERRY
The economics of planning/R. Turner and Clive Collis – London: Macmillan
1977
103p:iII. 220cm – (Macmillan Studies in Economics)
Bibliog.. pp96-103
0-333-19657-D(pbk)
1) Economic policy (2) planning (i) Collis, Clive joint author (ii) Title (iii) Series

NOTE: To have access to cards in the card catalogue users should ignore the following: vowels,
the, and, an, a, etc.

b) Book catalogue: Catalogues that appears in book form are called book catalogue
or printed catalogues. This is where the information about the materials is
arranged in book form. Such arrangement is made according to a system, i.e.
alphabetically or according to a classification scheme. Examples of book
catalogue are the National Union Catalogue (NUC) of the United States of
America and the National Bibliography of Nigeria (NBN) publishers catalogue,
etc. such catalogues are issued periodically with quarterly and annual
commulations.

32
 c) Sheaf catalogue: This catalogue has the same information as the other two, but
it is put together in booklets with hard covers. They are stored in cabinets (form
of shelves). Each booklet contains nine (9) numbers of cards. The arrangement
alphabetically and also by the classification scheme used. Example of sheaf
catalogues can be found in the Agricultural library, Institute for Agricultural
Research (IAR), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
d) On-line public Access Catalogue (OPAC): This is the most modern form of
catalogue. One needs a microcomputer with a large memory. Bibliographic
records of all the documents in a collection are stored in the computer memory
disk. It is also the most efficient. It possesses all the advantages of other forms of
catalogue. It is very flexible as it can be updated easily. It is also possible to
access the records through several points. The catalogue does not occupy too
much space and it can be provided in many places. All the bibliographic records
of a collection are input into the computer and can be accessed through the
internet. The only disadvantage is that it is very expensive.
e) Computerized catalogue: With the use of library software the bibliographic
records of a library collection may also appear in computerized form and can be
accessed within the library offline.

Inner Forms of Catalogue

The purpose that the catalogue is expected to achieve determines its patterns of arrangement.
This type of catalogue is called the inner forms of catalogue because of their mode of entries
and their arrangement in the catalogue cabinet. They are easy to use as cards are arranged
based on author, titles, subject, series translator, editor, etc. They are two types, dictionary and
classified catalogue.

Dictionary Catalogue

The dictionary catalogue also is known as alphabetic catalogue is the type whose author, title,
subject was first used in USA in 1876.

33
Entries are arranged on cards in the cabinet in one general alphabetical order. In practice
however, this kind of catalogue does not exist, rather what we have is the divided dictionary
catalogue. This involves the division of the dictionary catalogued into two or more sections. The
most popular type is the division into;

(a) Author title catalogue

(b) Subject catalogue

In each case entries are alphabetically arranged as explained below.

(a) Author/title catalogue: It comprises the cards whose main and added entries begin with
author or name, title or subject. This is the type of catalogue where the entries for the
author, subject or title are filed together under one alphabetical sequence. The
alphabetical arrangement brought about the dictionaries catalogue.

Classified Catalogue

This type of catalogue has its entries arranged according to a classification scheme; rather than
alphabetically. As for Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme only figures indicating the classes
are involved.

(g) Information on a Card Catalogue Entry

Information appearing on full unit catalogue;

1. Author: The author is giving the place of prominent as the author is the basic
entry or main entry. The author’s personal name is always inverted; the
surname is followed by the forename so that all the books by the same
author may be brought together, no matter what variations in name appear
on the title pages of his books.
2. Title: The title, including the author statement and the edition is the next
item on the card. All titles in foreign languages are entered in the language
use on the title page.
3. Imprint: Place of a publication, publisher and date

34
 4. Collation: This part describe the book by providing information such as
pagination, illustrations,heights and series about the book.
5. Notes: Give additional information about bibliography included in the book.
6. Tracing: Shows other added entries.
7. ISBN.
8. Call number: Call number is to show the location of the book on the shelves

How to Use the Catalogue to Retrieve a Material in the Library

Good library users usually begin their search for library books from the public catalogue.

The card catalogue is designed in such a way that one particular book can be reached or
retrieve through a number of points. A library user can locate a book through the author (and
joint author), the title, editor, series and the subject matter of the book. The user must decide
through which of these points he wants to locate the book. He must know the name(s) of the
author(s) to be able to access the book through the author or joint author. In this regard, he
must begin by consulting the author/title card catalogue as explained earlier; entries are
arranged in one alphabetical sequence, beginning with the surname in case of authors. The
catalogue cabinet is partitioned into drawers each labeled with a letter of the alphabet.
Therefore, if the book in question is the Economic of planning by R. Kerry Turner and Clive
Collis, the bearing the label “T” or “C” being the letters that begin the authors’ surnames. In
consulting the “T” or “C” drawers, he begins to go through several cards inside until he gets to
the one for Turner, R. Kerry or Collis, Clive as the case may be.

The reader must ensure that the author’s name corresponds or conforms with the title to have
written other books which are filed together in the author/title catalogue.

The next step is to copy down in a piece of paper. The number and letters on the top left hand
corner of the card. This is called the call number and it serves as the shelf-location mark.

From the Catalogue to the Shelf

Once the library user has copied the call numbers of books to be consulted, the next line of
action is to walk straight to the book shelves for location and retrieval. The call number is the
35
number assigned to the book according to its subject and author. It also serves as a mark of
identification of the book on the shelf. Under normal circumstances, a book should be located
easily on the shelf using number as books and shelves are labeled with classification marks.

5.4 Self-Assessment Exercise (SAE)

1. What is library classification?

2. Mention three popular library classification scheme

3. Assign the main classes of the following subject area in library of congress classification
scheme: Social Science, Education, Bibliography and Library Science, Political Science, Science

4. What are the functions of library catalogue

5. Mention two forms of library catalogue

6. Identify three items on a card catalogue

7. List the five (5) non-used letters of the alphabets in library of congress classification scheme

ANSWERS TO QUESTION

1. The arrangement of all knowledge into generally accepted classes

2. Library of congress classification scheme (LC), Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme
(DDC) and Universal Decimal Classification Scheme (UDU)
3. Social Science – H, Education – L, Bibliography and Library Science – Z, Political Science –
J and Science – Q
4. a. It shows the total holdings of a library
b. It allows for easy access to the library collection
c. It facilitates the location of materials in the midst of a vast array of books and other
resources
d. It is the key to any library collection

5. Card catalogue and Shelf catalogue

6. Author, title, imprint, edition, collation, call number (class marks)

36
 7. I.O.U.X.Y

LECTURE 6

6.0 Library Services

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objective
6.3 Main Text
a. Circulation services
b. Inter library cooperation
c. Reference services
d. Photocopying services
e. Indexing and abstracting
f. Exhibitions
g. Audio-visual services
h. Staff training
i. Consultancy services

6.1 Introduction

There are many services offered by the library to enable the users make maximum use to it
resources. Given the complexity of library arrangement, many of these services are however,
hardly utilized by the users. It is therefore necessary to highlight the services available to library
users. These services, none the less differ from library to library.

6.2 Objective.

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

a. Identify the services offered by academic libraries

b. Explain the services in a university library
c. Know how to utilize the various reference services in an academic library
d. Mention functions of the circulation unit of a library
e. 6.3 Main Text

37
Library renders some services to the library users to achieve their objectives. These services
include:

(a) Circulation services

(b) Reference services

Circulation services: Circulation services rendered to users in the library include; registration of
users, giving out books on loan readers and assisting readers to make effective use of the
library materials.

(1) Circulation services: The duty of circulation librarians is to control the movement of
books in and out of the library. The circulation unit registers users, charge and
discharge books to users (borrow and collect back the books) from users. Give out
reserve books to users on hourly bases.
(2) Inter-Library Cooperation: Academic libraries cooperate to provide wider services to
their uses. One visible area of cooperation which benefits users most is inter-library
loan. Inter-library loan can be described as a library transaction in which one library
borrows materials from another on behalf of a user. What it means is that a user of
library “A” is free to borrow materials from library “B” through the appropriate
officer in his library.
(3) Reference Service and Materials/Tools: Reference service is the hallmark of modern
librarianship. Reference service is the direct personal assistance given to users in
pursuit of information. This aid could be in form of a guide to sources of desired
information or in the outright provision of the information. The reference librarian
“please, where can I find something on poultry management”? Reference service
therefore can be seen as a formalized provision of information in diverse form by a
reference form by a reference librarian who interposed (stands) in between the
questionnaire and the available information sources.

Importance of Reference service

1) Reference services help in research, as a researcher before conducting a research,

you have to find which areas covered and those uncovered to avoid duplication.

38
 2) It provides different tune of information service, i.e. different people come for
different information and this services provide different information to readers.
3) Reference service educate library users – By going to reference section to find out
information for yourself or through library instruction or users education, one will be
familiar with how to use the library resources.
4) Reference service also entertains – There is a book known as Guinea’s book of
records used to entertain people, it is a funny miscellaneous information source.

5.0Inter-library lending – agreement between two or more library to borrow and exchange
materials themselves, for the benefit of their users. No library is self-sufficient in terms of
materials resources

1. Photocopying
2. Indexing and abstracting indexing is the process of records or listing the physical
details of an article, e.g. author, title, none of the periodical page, edition.
Abstract – after listing the physical details of an article, it also summaries the
contents of the articles.
3. Exhibitions – displaying to public published and non-published materials
exhibition on various subjects are mounted
4. Audio-visual unit – electronics like film, fiches, card
5. Staff training – library, staff being trained on the job
6. Consultancy services – giving advice on how to set up a library
6.4 Self - Assessment Exercise (SAE)
1. Mention four (4) services offered by an academic library
2. Explain briefly inter-library lending
3. List two functions of circulation unit of the library
4. What is abstracting
5. Mention three audio-visual materials in the library

Answers

1. Circulation services, reference services, inter library cooperation and lending,

photocopying services
39
 2. Inter library lending in an agreement between two or more libraries to borrow and
exchange materials among themselves for the benefits of them users
3. Registration of users; charging and discharging of books and other library materials to
user; keeping statistics of users and materials consulted in the library; making the library
especially the reading units conducive for consultation; etc
4. Abstracting the process of listing the physical details and summarizing the contents of
an article
5. Micro fiche, film, transparencies, over-head projector, audio and video computer disks,
etc

LECTURE 7

TABLE OF CONTENT

8.0 Reference Sources or Materials

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives.
8.3 Main Text
a. Concept of Reference Source or Material
b. Types of Reference Sources or Material

7.4 Self – Assessment Exercise

7.1 Introduction

Reference sources are materials or publications meant to be consulted when needed for
specific information desired by library users or researcher. The word reference is derived from a
verb ‘refer’. This means they are materials users can turn to for information. Reference sources
can appear in both printed and electronic formats. According to Aina (2004) reference sources
are specially completed to provide answers to any types of query users of the library. This type
of materials contains facts that come up from research efforts of individuals in a particular field
of endeavor. Reference sources are not expected to be read from cover to cover like other
textbooks.

7.2 Objective
40
At the end of this lecture, the students are expected to:

1. Explain the concept of reference sources.

2. Identify the different types of reference sources.

7.3 Main Text

Reference sources or materials include the following:

(a)Encyclopedia is a book or a set of book that provides information about every branch
of knowledge or on one subject. The information is arranged in a system or alphabetic
order.

A general encyclopedia provides information about every subject, important places, events and
important personalities. There is one volume of encyclopedia as well as multivolume sets.
Articles in different encyclopedia vary in length from two lines to several pages. Encyclopedias
are comprehensive in coverage and will answer all questions of general information. The
multivolume encyclopedia has separate index volume.

Purpose of Encyclopedia

1. It serves as a source of answer to facts, questions such as who, what, when, where,
how etc.
2. It serves as a source of background information for the experts and layman
3. The third purpose is directional. The bibliographies at the end of article may help
readers to find additional information.

Subject encyclopedia provides detail information on a particular subject.

Types of Encyclopedia

(A) The general encyclopedia provides information on almost every subject, place or
personality. Examples of general encyclopedia on a;
(e) Encyclopedia Americana. It is American bias or oriented published 30 volumes by
encyclopedia Americana in cooperation in Danbinry in Connecticut in U.S.

41
 (f) Encyclopedia Britannica – published by Chicago in 30 volumes, Britannica is better for
scholarly wire.
(B) Subject encyclopedia gives details on a particular subject. It offers several pages with
illustrations and extensive bibliography. Examples of subject encyclopedia:
(i) Encyclopedia of Education
(ii) Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(iii) Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
(iv) Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science
(v) Encyclopedia of Sociology, etc.
(C) A dictionary is a book or a work which contains the words of a language or subject
arranged alphabetically with their spellings, meanings, pronunciation, and
syllabication.

The function of a dictionary is to define words using a set of known words to explain unknown
words. Examples of dictionaries;

(i) Oxford English dictionaries

(ii) Websters new international dictionary of English language
(iii) Random house dictionary of English language
(D) Directories – The American Library Association Glossary of library terms defined
directory as a list of persons or organizations systematically arranged usually in
alphabetical or classed order giving address, a filiations for individuals and officials
address functions and similar data for organizations.

The purpose of directory is evidence in the definition, it is to provide answers to questions

about and individual or films address or telephone numbers. Provide a description of a
particular manufacturer’s produce or service. Historical current data about an institution, firm
and political group.

Types of Directories

(a) Institutional directories - are list of schools, libraries, hospitals, museums and similar
organization e.g. the world of learning

42
 (b) Trade and business directories – These primarily list of manufacturers, companies,
industries and personal services. It gives different people involved in such trade e.g.
Nigerian Yellow Pages
(c) Professional directories – These are primarily list of professional organizations such
as medicine, librarianship, law, etc. it provide information about a particular
profession, e.g. directory of Nigeria libraries
(d) Telephone directory – is either at the national or state level. It gives telephone
number.

E) Handbooks: Handbooks means a book which could be held comfortably in the hand.
The primary purpose of a handbook is to serve as a ready - reference sources for a
given field of knowledge. Examples of handbooks are:

(i) Nigerian handbook gives information about Nigeria

(ii) Handbook of Education in Nigeria provide information on chemistry
(iii) Handbook of Education in Nigeria provides information on education that
came into Nigeria
(iv) Guinea handbook gives different forms of information published annually to
update the previous records.
They provide information on extraordinary events.

F) Manual: A manual is concerned with how to do something e.g. how to repair a

car. Example is a manual of cookery

G) Year books or annuals: They are published yearly or annual. This provides a
variety of information and review events of the past year. They could also
present the events of the past year. They could include directory information,
biographies.

Statistics and Latest Achievement

Purpose of year book is to update the content of the main set. Examples of year books:

43
 i) Nigerian yearbook is to update the content of the main history of the country,
politics economic, achievement in sports, etc.
ii) European yearbook provides basic information about every country in the
world, i.e. their politics, economy, history, etc.
iii) Subject yearbook such as statistical yearbook gives different types of statistic in
different subjects in different parts of the world
iv) Demographic yearbook – gives information on population about different
countries in the world about birthrate, death rate, etc

H) Almanac – like year books. They are collection of facts and statistics. They
provide information about many events

(i) Whitaker’s almanac – gives different information about different countries in the
world.

(ii) World almanac and book of facts – all these provide factual information.

I) Indexes: This is a guide or key to specific bits or piece of information out of a

larger unit.

Purpose: it is used to locate or identify a particular part of information out of a longer unit.

(i) Book indexes – to help locate particular information out of a book

(ii) Index to newspapers – index to a collective newspapers give different
newspapers that have had an article in a particular issues e.g. index to Nigerian
newspapers
(iii) Periodical index – index to a particular periodical or collection of periodical
literature
(iv) Homemade indexes is one that is prepared by the library to meet the demand
of users in those areas in which there is no published index.

Subject Index

1. Education index
2. Social science index

44
 3. Biological and Agricultural index

J) Abstract: An abstract is a short summary of a content of a work. An abstract locate

materials as well as describing the content of the work. Purpose of abstract – it
helps in controlling information explosion.

Two Forms of Abstract

(a) Indicative abstract – gives a brief summary of the content of the work
(b) Informative abstract – provides details information about the original documents
enough to make the user to decide whether to read the original article or not.

Examples of subject abstracts

i) Biological abstract
ii) Chemical abstract
iii) Physical abstract

K) Biographies: is a publication that provides useful information on eminent people,

it includes birth education and achievement. Example of biographies: who is who
in Nigeria; who is who in Africa.

L) Gazetteer is defined as a geographical dictionary, it provide geographical

information about places include name of towns, villages, rivers, mountain, etc.
population location, history, economics and political features of a particular
place. Examples;

i) Webster’s new geographical dictionary

ii) Columbia Lippincott gazette of the world

M) Map: Map is a geographical representation of the earth or any celestial body.

N) Atlas: Atlas is a collection of maps. There are different types of maps from
different purposes. Examples of Atlas-world atlas of agriculture (i) Oxford
economic atlas of the world.

45
Travel guide – it gives minimum historical background information about the area. It provides
access to information on hotel museum, historic site, restaurants, etc. They are mostly
restricted to town, city, state and country. They are issued on revised annually.

O) Bibliography: is a technique of systematically producing descriptive lists of

written or published records.

Purpose of Bibliography

To identify and verify the existence of information on a given subject and it locate materials in a
subject area help in selection of materials. Examples:

(i) National bibliography

(ii) Universal bibliography
(iii) Subject bibliography
(iv) Trade bibliography
(v) Author bibliography
(vi) Bibliography of bibliographies
(vii) National library bibliography

7.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. Explain the concept of reference sources

2. Identify six (6) types of reference materials and discuss them.

3. Mention two general Encyclopedias

4. Mention two types of abstracts

LECTURE EIGHT

8.0 Electronic Learning or E-Learning

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Main Text
a. Electronic learning
46
 b. Technologies used in E-Learning
c. Advantages of E-Learning
d. Disadvantages of E-Learning
8.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Answers to the exercise

Introduction

There are trend to move towards blended learning services, where computer based
activities are integrated with practical or classroom based situations. The students need to
know about this trend, so that they can be prepared to use available technology to learn.

8.1 Objectives

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define e-learning
2. Explain advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
3. Explain asynchronous and synchronous

8.3 Main Text

a. ELECTRONIC LEARNING OR E-LEARNING

Electronic Learning (E-learning) in a lay man language is learning that is aided by electronic
means. E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching, which
are procedural in character and are aimed to effect the construction of knowledge with
reference to individual experience, practice and knowledge of the learner ( Tavangarian,
Leypold, Nolting and Poser, 2004). E-learning is basically computer and network enabled
transfer of skills and knowledge. According to WIKIPEDIA (2010), e-learning is an all compassing
terms generally used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. It refers to using electronic
applications and processes to learn. The applications and processes include Web-based
learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, hypermedia in general, discussion
boards, digital collaborations, etc. The contents are delivered via the following means: Internet,

47
intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV and CD-ROM. E-learning is naturally suited
to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face
teaching.

E-learning services have evolved since computers were first used in education. E-learning is
also referred to as educational web sites, such as learning scenarios and interactive exercise for
students. The term is also extensively in the business sector where it generally refers to cost-
effective online training.

E-learning services are some of the various services that have been developed through
electronic medium. Examples are:

E-service: It is electronic delivery of government information programmes and services that is

often over internet.

E-administration: This is the use of information and communication technology to create data
repositions for management, information system and computerization of records.

The requirement of e-learning is that one must be highly trained in the use of computer and
internet.

E-learning consists of asynchronous and synchronous activities. Asynchronous activities used

technologies like blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. These enable students to exchange ideas
or information without dependence on other student’s involvement at the same time

Synchronous activities involve the exchange of idea and information with one or two students
at same period of time. E.g a face to face discussion. This occurs with all students joining in at
once.

b. Technologies used in E-learning

Many technologists can be and are used in e-learning. They are:

a. Virtual classroom
b. Electronic voting system

48
 c. Learning management software
d. E-mail
e. Computer aided assessment
⮚ Web site
⮚ Games
⮚ CD-ROMs (Computer Disk Read Only Memory)
⮚ Educational animation.

C. Advantages of E-Learning

● Time used for learning is reduced; concepts are easily learnt and retained
● Flexible and convenient i.e ability to work at any place where an internet connection is
available and at one’s own pace
● Real life subject matters can be built into the multimedia lesson to access near-reality
hazardous content matters without life threatening risks.
● It gives room for concentration during lesson, enhance thought provoking, problem
stimulation and encourage problem solving
● Reinforcement by means of feedback is possible during an interactive multimedia
computer-based instruction (CBI) lesson
● The content discussed during lesson can easily be made available in a storage device or
hard copy processed at the institution’s computer network service. This could be used
for those who missed a lesson and also serves as tutorials for the weak student

d. Disadvantages

● It cut out direct teacher – student relationship as it lacks face to face interaction with
the teacher
● The feeling of isolation is sometimes experienced by students

8.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. define e-learning

2. Explain asynchronous and synchronous activities in e-learning

49
3. State three advantages of e-learning

4. List two disadvantage of e-learning

5. List three technologies require for e-learning programme

Answers to the exercise

1. E-learning is an all-compassing terms generally used to refer to computer enhanced

learning. It refers to using electronic applications and processes to learn.
2. i. Asynchronous activities use technologies like blogs, wikis, and discussion boards.
These enable students to exchange ideas or information without the dependence on
other student’s involvement at the same time.
iii. Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one or
two students at same period of time. e.g a face to face discussion. This occurs with
all students joining in at once.
3. i. E-learners can use the internet to access up-to-date and relevant learning materials,
and can communicate with experts in the field in which they are studying
ii. Situatedlearning is facilitated, since learners can complete online courses while
working on the job or in their own space, and can contextualize the learning. For the
instructor, tutoring can be done at any time and from anywhere
iii. Online materials can be updated, and learners are able to see the changes at once.
When learners are able to access materials on the internet, it is easier for instructors to
direct them to appropriate information based on their needs.
4. i. It cut out direct teacher – student relationship as it lacks face to face interaction with
the teacher
ii. The feeling of isolation is sometimes experienced by students
5. Virtual classroom, e-mail, computer aided assessment, etc

LECTURE NINE
9.0 Computer Networks

50
 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Main Text
(a) Definition of computer network
(b) Component of computer network
(c) Types of computer network
(d) Advantages of computer network
(e) Disadvantages of computer network
9.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Answers to the exercise
9.1 Introduction
Network makes it possible for information to be communicated on-line. There are
various types of Networks and their areas of coverage in terms of connectivity. The
student needs to be exposed to computer networks since they require it to access
online resources in the library.
9.2 Objectives
At the end of this lecture the student should be able to:
1. Explain a computer network.
2. Identify the resources that can be shared in a network.
3. Identify the component of computer network.
4. Identify types of computer network.
5. Explain advantages and disadvantages of computer network.

9.3 MAIN TEXT

Computer Network

Definition: A computer network is a group of electronically connected computers which can

share information and resources among themselves. A network could also be the

interconnections of computer hardware and peripherals for the purpose of sharing resources.

The resources include information or other computer facilities such as printers, fax machines,

51
web camera etc. There are communication protocols that outline how this sharing should take

place.

Computer networks grant the user access to remote programs and databases either of the

same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks deliver

optimal information and communication promises which may raise the organizational learning

rate. Computers can be networked using cables or electromagnetic waves known as wireless.

Networking is the act of linking computer so that users can exchange information or have

access to central store of information.

(b) Components of Computer network

1. Hardware: It is any component of the computer that one can touch or see. It consists of

equipment’s like keyboard, mouse, monitor, CPU, printers, scanners, cables, network cards, etc.

hardware is controlled by the software. For networking to take place there is the need for at

least two devices and a cable or wireless connection to connect the devices. There is also the

need for a networking software to be installed on the devices to enable them see each other.

2. Software: Generally, software is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do.

Therefore, there are different types of software for different functions in the computer. As

earlier stated, there is the need for networking software to be installed the networked devices

to enable them see each other. A popular networking software is the Net Operating System

(NOS) which is a programme that enables a network to function. The networking software can

be pre-installed on the devices or comes on separate CD along with the devices.

(c) Types of Computer network

52
There are different types of networks depending on the nature, size and services the network

was meant for. The following are the most popular types of network:

● WAN (Wide Area Network)

● LAN (Local Area Network)

● Intranet

Wide Area Network (WAN)

This network covers wide geographical distances that are within a province, country or the

globe. The computers in the network are spread over large distances.

Generally, mainframes computers are used in WAN, other computers (PCs) in the network

communicate with the mainframe through the terminal emulation software while the

mainframe computer can download data files from the host computer or upload data files to

the host. Example of WAN is the internet.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers connected together to serve a limited

geographical area. The basic features of a LAN are:

-Its nodes are interconnected through a continuous medium such as cable.

-It is privately owned.

-It supports both low and communication channels.

Intranet

53
An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organization's staff. Generally a wide

range of information and services from the organization's internal IT systems are available that

would not be available to the public from the Internet. A company-wide intranet can constitute

an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single

starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form an intranet is

established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks

(WANs). The main distinguishing feature of the intranet is that it does not need internet

connectivity for it to function. The major software used in creating intranets is Microsoft

SharePoint. Others include Autonomy Corporation, Atlassian Confluence, Bitrix24, Drupal, eXo

Platform, Google Sites, Igloo Software, etc.

(d) Advantages of Computer Network

1) Save cost by sharing hardware and software resources

2) High reliability by having numerous sources

3) Sharing of programmes and data in organization where most people use the same software.

4) Cost reduction by scale down to microcomputer-based networks instead of using

mainframes.

5) Better communication through networking, facilitated through e-mail.

6) Security of information, this ensures that no user of an organization can

monopolize information as it will be available to everybody.

7) Better flexibility due to ability to connect devices from diverse vendors

54
8) Sharing Media: Sharing media among computers is effortless when connected to a network.

Similar to file sharing, computers can stream music, videos and movies from one computer to

the next.

9) Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network for sharing

files, the concern of storage capacity is fixed to a significant degree. A standalone computer

may be lacking in storage capacity but when many computers are on a network, the capacity of

several computers can be utilized. It is also possible to implement a storage server on the

network so as to have a large storage capacity. Data is also simple to backup as all the data is

stored on the file server.

10) Speed: Networks offer a very rapid system for sharing and transferring files. The sharing of

data with other users in a stand-alone environment involves physical transfer of data such as by

copying the data on a portable drive or taking a printout. This needs more time and is

inconvenient when likened to sharing the data over a network.

(e) Disadvantages of Computer Network

1) Maintenance: The biggest foreseeable problem with a network is maintenance. There has to

beprocedures for updating materials and for reviewing and discarding items on the networks,

someone must be assigned to these duties and to the maintenance, design and upgrade of the

hardware and software.

2) Lack of Training / Interest: Another possible problem with networking is the low expertise in

using it especially the configuration or addition of new devices to the network.

55
3) Performance Limitations: Some applications that have been well optimized for

conventional andproprietary systems may cause issues as they may be designed to work only

one system and not to be shared.

4) Epileptic power supply which is a general problem in Nigeria.

5) Security Concerns: One of the chief downsides of computer networks involves security

issues. In a standalone computer, physical access is needed for any kind of security lapse.

Conversely, if a computer is connected to a network, a hacker can get unauthorized access by

using various tools.

6) Virus and Malware: If even one computer on a network gets infected with a virus, there is a

possibility for the other systems to get infected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily,

because of the inter-connectivity of various devices. Besides, multiple systems with shared

resources are the best propagating ground for viruses. Likewise, if malware unintentionally gets

installed on the central server, all connected clients to the server in the network will inevitably

get infected.

7) Lack of Independence: As networks generally have a centralized server and dependent

clients, the client users usually do not have any control whatsoever. Centralized decision

making can occasionally impede how a client user desires to use his computer.

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

1. Define a computer Network

2. List four resources that can be shared in a computer network.
3. List two component of a computer network
4. Mention three type of computer network
5. List three advantages of a computer network
6. List two disadvantages of a computer network
56
LECTURE 10

10.0 COPYRIGHT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Objective

10.3 Main Text

a. Definition of Copyright and intellectual property

b. Material works eligible for copyright

c. Ownership of Copyright

d. The provision of copyright

10.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

Solutions to Exercise

10.0 Introduction

This lecture introduces the students to the nature of copyright and intellectual property
protection to creative works; ensure their maximum utilization as information resources and
social-economic benefits to their creators.

10.2 Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define copyright
2. Identify two main purposes of copyright
3. Mention the two rights of an author
4. Identify materials eligible for copyright
5. Identify copyright owners

10.3 Main Text

Copyright and Intellectual Property

57
a. Definition: Copyright is the exclusive right granted an author and other creative artists such
as musician, publishers, performer, photographer, and film maker etc. to authorize the use of
their work in any way. In this way the author dictates access by the third party in relation to his
work. Copyright and intellectual property are used interchangeably.

The concept of copyright was desired for the society for two main purposes:

(1) to encourage creative people to produce works of culture

(2) to provide incentives for the effective dissemination of these works

The copyright law is not designed to limit public access to information but to ensure that the
public has access to it by protecting the economic and moral rights of the author.

Moral right is the right of a copyright owner to be acknowledged in any use made of his work. It
is also his moral right not to allo his work to be distorted or mutilated.

While the economic right of an author is the right to earn money from his work either directly
or through an agent. It makes sure that, the owner gets payment or royalties whenever the
work is used or reproduced.

Copyright law is therefore based on the assumption that an author is more likely to be
motivated to embark on continuous production of intellectual products, if there is assurance of
nobody claiming the credit nor profit from the authors’ efforts.

b. Materials/works Eligible for Copyright

The following works are eligible for copyright protection in Nigeria:

Literary works irrespective of literacy quality which falls under the under listed categories:

⮚ novels, stories and poetic works

⮚ plays, stage directions, film scenarios and broadcasting scripts
⮚ choreographic works
⮚ computer programmes
⮚ text-books, treatises, histories, biographies, essays and articles

58
 ⮚ encyclopedias, dictionaries, directories and anthologies
⮚ letters, reports and memoranda, lectures, addresses and sermons
⮚ law reports, excluding decisions of courts
⮚ written tables or compilations

Musical WorkAny musical work irrespective of musical quality and includes works composed
for musical accompaniment. It includes the song and accompanyinginstrument.

Artistic works which irrespective of quality fall under any of the following categories: paintings,
drawings, etchings, lithographs, woodcuts, engraving and prints, maps, plans and diagrams,
works of sculpture, photographs not comprised in a cinematograph film, works of architecture
in the form of buildings and models, works of artistic craftsmanship and also pictorial woven
tissues and articles of applied handcraft and industrial art.

Cinematograph Film This includes the first fixation of a sequence of visual images capable of
being shown as a moving picture and of being the subject of reproduction and includes the
recording of a sound tract associated with the cinematograph film.

Sound Recordings This is defined as the first fixation of a sequence of sound capable of being
perceived aurally and of being reproduced but does not include a sound tract associated with a
cinematograph film.

Broadcast This is a sound or television broadcast by wireless telegraphy or wire or both or by

satellite or cable programmes and includes re-broadcast.

c. Ownership of Copyright

The following persons are entitled to copyright in Nigeria:

1. Persons who are either Nigerian citizens or domiciled in Nigeria;

2. Persons whose works are first published or made in Nigeria;
3. Persons who are employed to make a work in the course of their employments;
4. Persons who are commissioned to make a work;

59
5. Proprietors whose works are made by authors in the course of their employment by the
proprietor for the purpose of publication in a newspaper, magazine or similar
periodicals.
6. Persons to whom the copyright has been transferred either by assignment or
testamentary dispositions; persons to whom license have been granted;
7. The government, where it has commissioned someone to make a work;
8. Companies registered in Nigeria which produces works of copyright;
9. Non-Nigerians who are neither domiciled in Nigeria but belong to a convention country
to which Nigeria is a party provided their works are first published in such convention
country, or by United Nations, the African Union or ECOWAS.
d. The provision of copy right law
(1) Section 5 of the Nigerian copyright Act provides the kind of rights that are
exclusively reserved for the owner of a work. Whoever does anything contrary to
these reserved rights infringe on the right of the copyright owner. The law
provide that:
(i) Anyone whose name appears on a work is presumed to be the owner of
the work unless proven otherwise
(ii) Copyright of a work is infringed through unauthorized publication, sale,
lease, display and broadcast
(iii) Publishers, printers and producers must keep a register of every work
produced by them. It is an offence not to maintain such register
(iv) The owner of any work can go to court and obtain an order to seize any
counterfeit copies of his work and any equipment’s used to reproduce it.
The owner can also claim damages and demand an account of the money
accruing from the sale of the illegally produced copies of his work
(v) It is a criminal offence to counterfeit, export, import, reproduce, exhibit
or sell any work without the permission of the copyright owner
(vi) Copyright protection is for the life time of an author of a work and fifty to
seventy years after the death of the author. That is, 70 years for author of
literary, dramatic or musical works and 50 years for producers of films,
records, performance etc.
60
 (vii) Artists who make public performance such as singers, dancers etc. have
the right to stop anyone from recording or broadcasting their
performance without their express permission. In a situation where their
live performances are recorded without their permission, they can seek
redress.

LECTURE 11

11.0 CITATION AND REFERENCING

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Objective

11.3 Main Text

(a) Purpose of Referencing

(b) Referencing Rules

(c) Types of Referencing Style

11.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

SOLUTION TO EXERCISE

11.1 Introduction

As the students use the various types of library materials for research, they need to know how
to cite and reference the materials they have used or consulted. This is done to acknowledge
the owners of the work they have consulted. Therefore this lecture will expose the students to
different citation and referencing styles.

11.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Mention three purposes for referencing a cited work

2. Identify three types of referencing style
3. List three referencing rule

61
11.3 Main Text

(a) PURPOSE OF REFERENCING

There are at least five reasons for referencing a cited work.

a. It is essential (moral/legal) to acknowledge peoples works and ideas

b. When a work is properly referenced, it gives adequate credit for work done by others; it
also assists to prevent unintentional plagiarism. Plagiarism simply means using another
person’s ideas or work as if they are your own when actually they are not. When that is
done deliberately, it is called international plagiarism. When you fail to reference a cited
work, albeit by omission, this is unintentional plagiarism. In the academic community,
plagiarism is considered as intellectual dishonesty or cheating. It attracts punitive
sanctions in the academic/intellectual system. Where however there is appropriate
citation of consulted sources, plagiarism cannot arise in the first instance;
c. It directs the reader to sources that may be of interest to him/her
d. It verifies quotations and enable readers to identify and consult any item to follow up a
cited author’s argument
e. It shows the extent and quality of writer’s research;
f. Referencing has the potential to strengthen a position by marshaling respectable
published support

(b) Referencing Rules

There are four main rules of referencing:

a. A reference must be included every time you use someone else’s idea or information
b. A reference must be included when you:
● Paraphrase (express some else’s idea in your own words)
● Summarize (express someone else’s idea in a reduced form in your own
words)
● Quote (express someone’s else’s idea in their exact words or
● Copy (reproduce a diagram, graph or table from someone else’s work)

62
c. An important principle in referencing is to be consistent
d. Each reference must appear in two places:
● Shown in the text of your assignment each time it is used (the in-text reference
● Listed once in the reference list at the end of the assignment

63
 (c) Types of Referencing Style

There are several citation or referencing styles butOmekwu and Okafor (2015) have identified
seven of them. They are named after the institution or individual responsible for their
development. The seven citation styles under consideration are:

a. APA-American Psychological Association

b. Harvard citation style
c. Chicago manual of referencing style
d. MLA-Modern Language Association
e. CSE-Council of Science Editors
f. AMA-American Medical Association; and
g. Turabian citation style

APA Referencing Style

APA is the acronym for the American Psychology Association and APA referencing style is
mostly used in the social sciences and education. It consists of in-text citations which are
compiled as references at the end of a piece of literary/research/scholarly work

In-Text APA Citation guidelines

In-text citation refers to, how to cire to consulted sources in the body of a text. APA citation
requires that you mention author and year of source consulted. The guideline below will be
useful

Guideline 1: A work with one author Example, Omekwu (2006) insists that information
technology will affect African culture in a variety of ways.

Or

Information technology will affect African culture in a variety of ways (Omekwu, 2006) and for a
direct quotation: “Information Technology will affect African culture” (Omekwu, 2006, p.25)

64
Guideline 2: A work with more than one author; For work with two authors, you name both.
Example, Omekwu and Okafor (2009) maintain that in-text citation is very important in
referencing

Or

In writing in-text citation you must indicate name and year (Omekwu and Okafor, 2009).

For a work three to five authors or editors, you mention all of them in the first citing. In
subsequent citing, you use the first author’s name followed by ‘et.al’ (for and others).

If a work has six (6) or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et.al.
each time you refer to the work. However, list all the authors in the reference section.

When there are eight or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et.
al. in the reference list include six authors names and use ellipsis ( …) before concluding with
the last authors name.

Guideline 3: Author with more than one work in one year – In an authors with more than one
work in one year, you place a lower-case letter after the date. Example, Omekwu (2006a,
2006b) insists that librarians must be proactive to face the challenges of information delivery in
the 21st century

Guideline 4: A work in another book edited by another person – A work in another book
edited by another person you have to cite the author of the work not the editor

Guideline 5: Quoting from an author cited in another book or article – In quoting from an
author cited in another book or article the following example is applicable: Okafor says that
development of e-learning has a huge impact on staff learning (as cited in Omekwu, 2008)

Guildeline 6: An electronic or internet sources – In an electronic or internet source, you have

to give year of electronic publication or the date on which you accessed the material

The following are examples of how journals, books, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedia and
online articles are referenced at the end of your own work.

65
Journal Article: Where the page numbering continues from issue to issue

Okoro, L (1990). Authorship in library acquisition. Library acquisition 28, 316-318

Lui, R.V. (1991). The complexities of citation practice. Studies in popular culture,
13(2), 53-65
Magazine or Journal Article from a Database

Meyer, V.R. (1994), October/November). Bibliometrics: Theory and practice.

American Scientist, 86(6), 585. Retrieved June 29, 1994, from Expanded
Academic ASAP database
Newspaper Article

Nwankwo, A. (1995), March 15). Child trafficking in Nigeria.Punch Newspaper, p.

B2.
Book

Smith, M., & Smith, D. (1993).Knowledge.Creation dissemination in Africa. Dakar:

CODESRIA
Edited Book Article or Chapters in edited books

Nwankwo, D. (Ed.). (2004). Librarianship in digital era.Awka, Nigeria: Hallman

Educational.
Simui, M. (2004). The provision of scholarly information in higher education in
Zambia. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum of the fantastic (pp. 219 – 223).
Zambia: Greenwood.
Omekwu, C. O., Okeye, M. O. &Ezeani, C. N. (Eds.) (2015). Introduction to the use
of library and study skills (2nd ed.). Nsukka, Nigeria: university of Nigeria
Press.
Book author & Publisher are the same

Mid-central District Health Board (2014).Local annual plan 2010.Palmerston,

New Zealand: Author
Encyclopedia Article

Sturgeon, T. (1995).Science fiction.In the encyclopedia Americana (vol. 24, pp.

390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier. Website
Narin, F. (1996). DS9 trails and tribble-ations review. Retrieved May 18, 1998,
from Psi Phi: Bradley’s Science Fiction Club Web site:
hhtp://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html
Journal Article (online from a database)

Marshall, M., Carter, B., Rose, K. &Brotherton, A. (2012). Living with type 1
66
diabetes: Perceptions of children and their parents. Journal of Clinical
Nursing, 18(10), 173-180. Retrieved from
http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp.
Internet – No author no date

Pet therapy.(n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.holist.online.com/stress/stress_pet-therapy.htm.
Internet – Organization/Corporate author

Ministry of Health (2012).Drug policy in New Zealand. Retrieved from

http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/wpg_index/about.drugs
Blog post

Liz &Ellory.(2012), February 6).The day of fread(s) [Blog post]. Retrieved from
http://www.travelblog.org/oceania/Australia/blog-669396.html
Brochure/Pamphlet (no author)

Ageing well: How to be the best you can be. {Brochure} (2009). Wellington, New
Zealand: Ministry of Health.
Same Brochure accessed online

Ageing well: How to be the best you can be. {Brochure} (2009). Retrieved from
http://www.health.edu.govt.nz.resource/ageing-well-how-be-best-you-
can-be
Conference Paper

Williams, J. &Seury, K. (2010). Bridging the divide: Scaffolding the learning

experiences of the mature age student. In J. Terrell (Ed.), Making the links:
Learning, teaching and high quality student outcomes. Proceedings of the
9th conference of the New Zealand Association of Bridging Educators (pp.
104 – 116). Wellington, New Zealand
Tips to follow

⮚ Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books,
articles, etc.
⮚ Indent the second and following lines 3; 5 to 7 spaces or one half inch
⮚ Use only the initials of the authors first (and middle) names
⮚ If no author is giving, start with the title and then the date
⮚ Article titles and book titles: capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle.
(Capitalize all significant words of periodical titles.)
67
 ⮚ Magazine articles:include the month (and day) as shown under ‘Magazine Article from
a Database” and “Newspapers”.
⮚ Websites:if the date the page was created is not giving, use (n.d.).
⮚ Use “&” instead of “and”.
⮚ If there are more than one work by the same author, arrange according to publication
date, oldest to the newest.
⮚ Italicize or underline the titles of the book, journal and web documents.
⮚ Capitalize only the first word of the title of the article and the sub title or proper names

Harvard Citation Style

Harvard style or the Harvard system so named after it was first used in a paper published by
eminent zoologist Edward Laurens Mark; he was a director of Harvard’s zoological laboratory.
The author-date method was later attributed to him and named after Harvard. In otherwise
Harvard reference style involves a short author-date reference.

In-Text Harvard Citation Guidelines

In-text citation deals with how to refer to consulted source in body of a text, an article, term
paper, and project/thesis. The Harvard style requires that you mention basic details about the
consulted sources such as author or editor’s name and year of publication. These details are
often available in the inside cover of the titles page. The guidelines below on Harvard in-text
citation have been developed by the Department of Lifelong Learning of the University of
Exeter.

Guideline 1: When an entire piece of work is summarized

When an entire piece of work is summarized you need to indicate the points of the summary
with the author’s name and date included. Example: Omekwu (2006) insists that information
technology will affect African culture in a variety of ways

Guideline 2: Direct quote from books or journals with one author

Example: In referencing, Okafor (2009:3) states that “both in-text and end of reference are very
important in any write up”. In referencing both the “in-text and references at the end of the
work are very important”. (Okafor, 2009:3)

68
Guideline 3: Direct quote a book or journal and article with two authors

Example: Omekwu and Okafor (2009:8-12) maintain that in-text citation is very important in
referencing

OR

In writing in-text citation you must indicate name, year and page, (Ukwoma and Igbokwe
2008:178-180).

Guideline 4: Direct quote from a book or journal article with more than three authors:
Example: Omekwu et.al (2009:8) insisted that “libraries must be proactive to face the
challenges of information delivery in the 21st century

Guideline 5: When you paraphrase, you do not need to put inverted commas

Example: When you have in-text citation and reference at the end of the work, it makes the
work more authentic. (Okafor and Ukwoma, 2008:182)

Guideline 6: Direct quote and paraphrasing from a source with a cooperate or government
author

Example: NLA (2006:9) emphasized that “information resources can only be enhanced through
online and databases” OR in paraphrase: The effect of online and databases on improvement of
information resources cannot be overemphasized. (NLA, 2006:9)

Guideline 7: Citing of an author with two works in the same year

When you cite an author with two books in the same year, you place ‘a’ lower –case letter after
the publication data of the year reference, and ‘b’ on the second reference

Guideline 8: Quoting from an author cited in another book or article

Example: Eze and Okoro (in Omekwu, 2007:13) state that the “level of information literacy
affect the use of computers in the libraries”.

Guideline 9: Quoting an anonymous source

In quoting an anonymous source the rue is that you replace the author’s surname with the title
of the work. Example The development of e-learning has a huge impact on staff learning
support (Libraries without Walls, 2005:7)

69
 Guideline 10: Citations from Newspapers and Magazine Article

The rule is the same as you would cite other books and articles that the authors are
anonymous. Example: New Nigeria reported that thirty-four people dies in the accident.
(2008:14).

Guideline 11: Paraphrasing more than one author with the same idea

When you are paraphrasing more than one author with the same idea, follow the example
below. Example: in-text citation is essential in modern writing (Omekwu, 2009:6 and Okafor,
2008:9)

Guideline 12: Citing of lecture notes

Example: Dr. Charles Omekwu stated in his lecture presented on 15 th March, 2009 that any
write up without reference is not a scholarly work

Guideline 13: Electronic sources

These are cited in the text in the same way as traditional print sources with the exception of
page numbers

End of Work References

Examples of different citation are shown below:

Book – single Madu, DH 1997, Home making for girls, Longmans, Lagos
author

Book -2 or 3 Eze, EJ, Orji, DP &Onah, EC 1997, Basic marketing, Irwinn, Sydney
authors

Book – more Bond,WR, Smith, JT, Brown, KL & George, M 1996, Management of small firms,
than 3 authors McGraw-Hill, Nigeria

Book – no A history of Lagos 1994, Longman, Nigeria

author

Book – editor Okon, TM (ed) 1998, Management in home, Academic Press, Lagos

Book – Nigeria Bureau of Statistics and Agricultural Resources 2006, Aquaculture

organization as development in Nigeria: a review of key economic issues, ABARE, Canberra
author

70
Book – chapter Milkman, R 1998, The new American workplace: high road or low road? In
or article in Workplaces of the future, eds P Thompson & C Warhurst, Macmillan Press, London,
edited book pp. 22-34

E-book Aghion, P &Durlauf, S (eds.) 2005, Handbook of economic growth, Elsevier,

Amsterdam. Available from: Elsevier books. (4 November 2004)

Book – different Bond, G 1991a, Business ethics, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Bond, G 1991b, Corporate
works by same governance, Irwin, London
author in same
year

Newspaper – Ionesco, J 2001, Federal election: new Chip in politics’, Advertiser 23 October, p. 10
print

Newspapers – Meryment, E 2006, ‘Distaff winemakers raise a glass of their own to their own’, The
electronic Australia, 7 October, p. 5. Available from: Factiva. (2 February 2007)
database

Journal article – Conley, TG &Galeson, DW 1998, ‘Nativity and wealth in mid-nineteenth century
print cities’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 468-493

Journal article – Malhotra, Y 2003, ‘The knowledge application gap in information systems research
electronic and education and their quest for the dependent variable’, Information Resources
database Management Journal, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 1-7. Available from: Proquest. (17 February
2004)

Internet – Kingsford, RT, Dunn, H, Love, D, Nevil, LJ, Stein, J &Tait, J 2005, Protecting Australia’s
website rivers, wetland, and estuaries of high conservation value, Department of the
Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. Available from:
≤http://www.environment.gov.au/water/publications/environmental/pubs/protecti
ng-rivers.pdf≥ (6 February 2008)

Internet – blog Newton, A. 2007, Newcastle toolkit. 16 January 2007. Angela Newton: Blog.
Available from: ≤http://elgg.leads.ac.uk/libajn/weblog/≥ (23 February 2007

Conference Riley, D 1992, ‘Industrial relations in Australian education’, in Contemporary

proceeding – Australasian industrial relations: proceedings of the sixth AIRAANZ conference, ed.
print D. Blackmur, AIRAANZ, Sydney, pp. 124-140.

Conference Fan, W, Gordon, MD &Pathak, R 2000, ‘Personalization of search engine services for
proceeding – effective retrieval and knowledge management’, Proceedings of the twenty-first
electronic international conference on information systems, pp. 20-34. Available from: ACM
Portal: ACM Digital Library. (24 June 2004)

Lecture notes Foster, T 2004, Balance sheets, lecture notes distributed in Financial Accounting 101
at The University of Western Australia, Crawley on 2 November 2005
71
Image The Lunar Interior, 2000. Available from:
≤http://www.planetscapes.com/solar/browse/moon/moonint.jpg≥ (28 November
2000)

Sources: http://www.uwa.edu.au/help/guides/harvardcitation_style

Chicago Citation Style

The Chicago manual of referencing style involves two basic documentation systems, the
humanities style and the author-date systems. Citation of various information sources using
Chicago citation style are shown below.

Examples of referencing various sources using the Chicago style

Book

Okoro, Evans and Okoye, Denise. 1993. “Information Technology”. Theory and
Practice. New York: Spectrum.

Journal Article

Okoro, Mercy. 1991. “The Complexities of Citation Practice: A Way Forward”,

Library Acquisitions 13(2): 53 – 65. Accessed May 9, 2000.Doi: 10
_1207/51532P11014_15.

Magazine Article

Do not include the page numbers in the reference list. Cite the specific pages in the
parenthetical reference. (section 17. 183)

Odo, Maria. 1996. “Crisis of Power Supply in Rural Area”. Newswatch, December
2. 30 – 35

Newspaper Article

Do not include the page numbers in the reference. If the newspaper has several editions,
include that information as shown below

Nwankwo, Alice. 2008. “ICT: Criteria for achieving vision 2020”. Punch
Newspaper, March 15, sec. A.
72
Newspaper Article – No Author (section 17. 192) Do not follow this format for other items
without an author. See notes below.

Newsday. 2003. Activision suing over Star trek. July 2, Queens edition, sec. A

Encyclopedia Article

Theodore, Sturgeon V. 2013. “Science Fiction”, In Encyclopedia Americana,

edited by Hugo Gernsback, 5: 2188 – 91. Detroit Hallman

Book Article or Chapter For multivolume books, include the volume number

before the page number. Joshi, Nancy E. 1999. “Scientific and

Technological Research in Universities”. In Spectrum of the fantastic,
edited by DharShafi, vol 1(1) 216 – 228. Westport, CT: Greenwood

Website

Lynch, Tim. (1996). “Review of DS9 trails and tribble-ations. Psi Phi: Bradley’s
Science Fiction” accessed October 8, 1977
http://wwwbradley.edu/campusorg/.html

Blog

Amachi, John. 2014. “Sign of Mornopause: What Women Really Think

(blog), Slate, June 16. Accessed February 2015.
http://www.slate.com/blogs/monopauseusefactor

Tips to follow

⮚ Double space all lines

⮚ Indent the second and following lines
⮚ If no author is given, start with the title and then the date
⮚ Journal, magazine, or newspaper article from a database: Follow the examples
shown above. Then add the URL of the database’s homepage after the period (it
is not necessary to include the long link directly to the article). End the URL with
a period Websites: Include the title of the web page, the title of the entire web

73
 site (or the owner of the website – these two might be the same, as in this
example). Including the data you accessed the page compulsory.

MLA Citation Style

MLA citation style was developed by the Modern Language Association. It is popular in the arts
and humanities particularly in English, literary and cultural studies. Examples of a citation of
different information sources are shown below.

Examples of referencing various sources using the MLA style

(a) Book
Okoro, Evans and Denise Okoye.Information Technology: Theory and
Practice. New York: Spectrum, 1995
(b) Journal Article
Okoro, Mercy R. “The complexities of citation practice; A way forward”.
Library Acquisition 13. 2 (1991): 53-65.
(c) Newspaper or Magazine Article
Odo, Maria. “Crisis of power supply in rural areas”.News Watch 12
December 1996: B2
(d) Book Article or Chapter
Joshi, Nancy E. “Scientific and technological research in Universities”.
Spectrum of the fantastic Ed. DharShafi,. Westport: Greenwood,
1999. 216-228
(e) Encyclopedia Article (well known reference books)
Sturgeon, Theodore. “Science Fiction”.The Encyclopedia Americana.
Ed. Maurice Horn.2 vols. New york: Chelsea, 1976
(f) Encyclopedia Article (less familiar reference books)
Horn, Maurice. “Flash Gordon”.The World Encyclopedia of Comics. Ed.
Maurice Horn. 2 vols. New York: Chelsea, 1976
(g) Website
Lynch, Tim. “DSN Trails and Tribble-ations Review”.Psi Phi: Bradley’s
Science Fiction Club.1996. Bradley Universiity. 8 Oct. 1997
74
 http://www.bradley.edu/html≥. Accessed 20 May, 2012
(h) Newspaper or Magazine Article on the Internet
Andreadis, Athena. “The Enterprise Finds Twin Earths Everywhere It
Goes, But Future Colonizers of Distant Planets Won’t Be So Lucky”.
Astronomy 18 Jan. 1999: 64-. http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
Accessed 20 May, 2012

Tips to follow

⮚ Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books,
articles, etc
⮚ Double space all lines
⮚ Indent the second and following lines 5 spaces (or one half inch)
⮚ If no author is given, start with the title
⮚ Abbreviate the names of all months except May, June, and July
⮚ If the paging or a magazine or newspaper article is continued elsewhere in the issue,
include only the first page followed by a plus sign (ex. 25+.)
⮚ If the encyclopedia does not arrange its articles alphabetically, treat the encyclopedia
article as if it were a book article. Specific volume and page numbers are cited in the
text, not in the list of references
⮚ Websites: include the title of the web page, the name of the entire web site, the
organization that posted it (this may be the same as the name of the website). Also
include the full date the page was created or last updated (day, month, year if
available) and the date you looked at it
⮚ Internet Magazine Articles: Include: the full date of the article (day, month, year if
available) and the date you looked at it
⮚ If you are citing a journal instead of a magazine, include the volume (and issue
number) and date as shown under the journal Style above
⮚ As for page numbers, different databases will provide different information. Include
the range of pages (25-28.); or the starting page followed by a hyphen, a blank space,
and a period ((64- .); or the total number of pages or paragraphs (ex. 12 pp. or 33
pars.). of no page information is given, then leave it out
75
 ⮚ The name of the database (underlined) and the company that created it. The library or
the organization (and its location) that provided you with access to the database

Council of Science Editors (CSE)

This guide is based on Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and
Publishers, 7th edition, 2006 (T11 S386 2006). The developers of this citation style were
formerly known as the Council of Biology editors (CBE).

Bibliography items are listed alphabetically at the end of the research paper. CSC is mostly used
in life and physical sciences. The examples below show how in-text and bibliographic citations
are done

Examples of referencing various using the CSE style

(a) Books

In-text:

(Okoro and Okoye 1999)

Bibliographic:

1 Okoro, E, Okoye D. Information technology: Theory and practice. New York: Spectrum. 1999.
75-80p.

(b) Book Chapter

In-text:

(Joshi, 2000)

Bibliographic:

2 Joshi, NE. Scientific and technological research in universities. In: DharShafi, editor Spectrum
of the fantastic. 2nd ed. 2nd ed. Washington (DC): ASM Press. 2000. P473-488

(c) Electronic Book

76
In-text:

(Edward 1994)

Bibliographic:

3 Edward, SB. The unheeded cry: animal consciousness, animal pain, and science (Internet).
Ames (IA): The Iowa State University Press; 1994 (cited 2007 August 27). Available from:
http://www.netlibrary.com.

(d) Journal Article (Print)

In-text:

(Okoro et al. 2003)

Bibliographic:

4 Okoro MR, Johnson DL, Stehlik LL, Manderson J, Shaheen P. The complexities of citation
practice; A way forward. Library Acquisition. 2012 July 1: 13(2): 53-65

(e) Electronic Article (From Journal Publisher’s Website)

In-text:

(Leng et al. 2004)

Bibliographic:

5 Leng F, Amado L, Mcmacken R, Coupling DNA supercoiling to transcription in defined protein

systems. Journal of Biological Chemistry (Internet). 2004. (cited 2007 July 24); 279(46): 47564-
47571. Available from: http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/279/46/47564

(f) Electronic Article (From Online-Only Journal)

In-text:

(Hong and Wong 2005)

77
Bibliographic:

6 Hong P, Wong W. GeneNotes: a novel information management software for biologists.

(Internet) BMC Bioinformatics. 2005 (cited 2007 July 24); Available from:
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2105/6/20

(g) Electronic Encyclopedia Article (From Database)

In-text:

(Wang C 2007)

Bibliographic:

7 Wang C. Stem Cells. In: AccessScience@McGraw-Hill. (Internet){Highstown (NJ)}: McGraw_Hill

Education; 2007. (cited 2007 Sept 10). Available from:
http://www.accessscience.com/content.aspx?id=800100

(h) Dissertation/Thesis

In-text:

(Dettmers 1995)

Bibliographic:

8 Nwodo JM. Information seeking behavior: the role of an introduced predator (dissertation).
(Columbus {OH}): Ohio State University. 1999. 400p

(i) Conference Paper

In-text:

(Clarke and Crame 2003)

78
Bibliographic:

9 Clarke A, Crame JA. Importance of historical processes in global patterns of diversity. In:
Blackburn TM, Gaston KJ, editors. Macroecology: concepts and consequences. Proceedings of
the 43rd annual symposium of the British Ecological Society; 2002 Apr 17-19; Birminghan.
Malden (MA): Blackwell. P. 130-152

(j) Conference Abstract

In-text:

(Swanson et al. 2004)

Bibliographic:

10 Swanson TA, Blair P, Madigan L. Reduction in medication errors through redesign of the
medication use system (abstract). In: American Society of Health system Pharmacists 39 th
midyear meeting; 2004 Dec 5-9; Orlando. Bethesda (MD): American Society of Health-System
Pharmacists. MCS-28.

(k) Technical Report

In-text:

(Ford et al. 2004)

Bibliographic:

11 Ford Pl, Fagerlund RA, Duszynski DW, Polechla PJ.Fleas and lice of mammals in New Mexico.
Fort Collins (CO): USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station. General Technical
Report No. RMRS-GTR-123

(l) Web page (With No Author Listed)

In-text:

(Emerald Ash Borer … {updated 2007})

79
Bibliographic:

12 Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) {Internet}. [Updated 2007 Feb 27]. Columbus (OH): Ohio
Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry; (cited 2007 July 24). Available from:
http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/forestry/health/eab.htm

AMA Citation Style

AMA citation style was developed by American Medical Association. It is mostly used in
medicine and related disciplines. Examples of citation of information sources using this method
of citation are shown below

Examples of referencing various sources using the AMA style

(a) Book
1. Okoro, E,Okoye, D. Information Technology: Theory and Practice. New York: Spectrum,
1995
(b) Journal or Magazine Article(with volume numbers)
2. Okoro, VN. The complexities of citation practice; a way forward. Library Acquisition
2003: 13. (2): 53-65.

Newspaper or Magazine Journal Article (without volume numbers)

3. Odo, M. Crisis of power supply in rural areas. News Watch. December 12,. 1996: B2
(c) Encyclopedia Article
4. Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, editorial director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief;
Leish KW, managing ed. The encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 24. International ed.
Danbury, Conn: Grolier Incorporated; 1995:390-392
(d) Book Article or Chapter
5. Joshi, Nancy E. “Scientific and technological research in Universities”.
Ed. DharShafi, ed. Spectrum of the fantastic. Westport: Greenwood,
1999. 216-228
(e) Website
6. Lynch, Tim. DSN Trails and Tribble-ations Review”. Psi Phi: Bradley’s
80
 Science Fiction Club Web site.1996. Available at:
http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/03r.htm. Accessed October 8, 1997
(f) Journal Article on the Internet
7. McCoy LH. Respiratory changes in Vulcans during ponfarr. J Extr Med (serial online).
1999;47:237-247. Available a: http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu .
Accessed April 7, 1999.

Tips to follow

⮚ Items are listed numerically in the order they are cited in the text
⮚ If you are typewriter and cannot use Italics, then use underlining.
⮚ Authors: use initials of first and second names with no spaces. Include the first three,
followed by at al. if no author is giving, start with the title
⮚ Books: include the edition statement (ex: 3rded. Or Rev ed.) between the title and place
if it is not the first edition
⮚ Place: use abbreviations of states, not postal codes
⮚ Journals: abbreviate titles as shown in Index Medicus. if the journal does not paginate
continuously through the volume, include the month (and day)
⮚ Websites: include the name of the webpage, the name of the entire website, the full
date of the page (if available), and the date you looked at it

Turabian Citation Style

Turabian citation style was developed by Kate Turabian in her Manual for writers of research
papers and term papers.It I similar to Chicago manual of style.Turabian can be used by
researchers in natural and social sciences. The examples of the citation of information sources
are shown below

Examples of referencing various sources using the Turabian style

(a) Book
Okoro, Evans and Denise Okoye. 1995. Information Technology:
Theory and Practice.New York: Spectrum..

81
 (b) Journal Article
Okoro, Mercy R. 1991. The complexities of citation practice; A way
forward._ Library Acquisition 13 (June): 53-65.
(c) Newspaper or Magazine Article
Odo, Maria. 1996. Crisis of power supply in rural areas. News Watch,
12 December 1996: B2
(d) Book Article or Chapter
Joshi, Nancy E. 1999. Scientific and technological research in
Universities.In Spectrum of the fantastic ed. DharShafi, 219-223.
Westport, CT: Greenwood.
(e) Encyclopedia Article (well known reference books)
Well-known reference books used as source are not included in the Reference List
but are cited in parentheses within the text. (Theodore Sturgeon, “Science fiction”, in
Encyclopedia Americana, 1995 ed)
(f) Website
Lynch, Tim. DSN Trails and Tribble-ations Review.Peoria, IL: Bradleys
Universiity.On-line. Available from Internet,
http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html,
Accessed 20 October, 1997

Tips to follow

⮚ Arrange the items on your reference list alphabetically by author, interfiling books,
articles, etc
⮚ Indent the second and following lines 5 spaces
⮚ If you are using a typewriter and cannot use italics, then use underlining
⮚ If no author is given, start with the title and then the date
⮚ Websites: include the date the page was created (or updated) and the date you looked
at it.

82
Conclusion

One of the distinguishing features of a good scholarly work is the quality of its referencing style.
A badly referenced work is a mark of poor scholarship. Where people’s intellectual output are
used by a student, a researcher, an author or a writer in a term paper, project, thesis, journal
article or any communication channel without crediting the sources is a serious academic
offence. It is called plagiarism. To escape the trap of intentional or unintentional plagiarism,
consulted sources must be properly cited and referenced. It has been mentioned earlier that
review of literature enables a researcher to explore the frontier or universe of knowledge in
order to forestall the reinvention of the wheel. A reinvention of the wheel occurs when an
already completed work is repeated or replicated in a way that adds nothing new to the body of
knowledge in that participation discipline. The major referencing styles are APA, Harvard,
Chicago, MLA, and AMA. Others are CSE and Turabian.

When contributing a paper to a journal it is a good advice to first identify the particular
referencing style of that journal. It is also advisable for both undergraduate and postgraduate
students to find out the referencing style recommended by their faculties and universities for
the purpose of term paper, projects, thesis or dissertation. The best way to master the various
referencing styles is by usage in appropriate circumstances in the research process.

11.4 Self-Assessment Exercise

(1) List three purposes for citing referencing

(2) Mention three referencing rule

(3) List any three referencing style

SOLUTION TO EXERCISES

(a) i. It is essential to acknowledge peoples works and ideas

ii. It given adequate credit for work done by others to avoid plagiarism
iii. Direct readers to sources that may be of interest to them
(b) i. A reference must be included any time you use someone else’s idea or information
ii. A reference must be included when you paraphrase, summarize, quote and copy
someone else’s idea

83
 iii. Consistency
(c) i. APA – American Psychological Association
ii. Harvard Citation Style
iii. MLA – Modern Language Association

Ademola, S.A (2013) Intellectual property (IP) rights in Nigeria: A legal Dialectics.

Communication and IT law.

Aino, L.O (2004) Library and Information Science Text for Africa. Ibadan; Nigeria:

Third World Information Services.

American Medical Association (2008). AMA citation style in American Medical

Association Manual of Style, 9th ed. Available at

http://www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citama.htm

American Psychological Association (2008).APA Citation Style in Publication

Manualof the American Psychological Association 5th ed. Available at

http://www.liu.edu./cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citapa.htm

Asein, J.O (2004) Nigeria Copyright Law Practice: Abuja, Books and Grarel

Attama, R.O and Ezema, I.J (2002). Library and Information Services: a practical

approach. Enugu: Mikan Press

Copyright Act (Cap. C28 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004)

Edoka, B.E (2000). Introduction to Library Science. Onitsha: Palma

Kumar, Kishan (1980) Reference Service. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House

Modern Language Association (2008). MLA Citation Style in MLA Handbook for

writers of Research papers, 6th ed. Available at

http//:www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citama.htm

Nwosu, O.C (1995) Exploring and Exploiting the Library: Awka, Nigeria: J.F

Publishers

Olanlokun, S.O and Salisu, Taofiar .M (1983) Understanding the Library: A

84
handbook on library use Lagos: concept publications Ltd

Omekwu, C.O and Okafor, V.N (2015) How to cite sources consulted in the

Research process.In Omekwu, C.O, Okoye, M.O and Ezeani, C.N. The use of

the Library and study Skills. Nsukka; Nigeria: University of Nigeria Press

Limited.

Tavangarian, D., Leypold, M., Nolting, K and Poser, M. (2004). Is e-learning the

solution for individual learning? Journal of e-learning.

University of Exeter (2009).Harvard Citation Style. Available at

http://.www.exter.ac.uk

85