Into the Factories: The New World of Work

The Industrial Revolution caused a dramatic shift in women’s roles in society.

Before industrialisation, the household would have been the centre of
production, and women’s work largely confined to the domestic sphere, but no
less physical for it. Tasks such as fetching water, and tending livestock would
have kept women as busy as clothing and feeding a family, while many also
took other work into their home such as hand-spinning or weaving. Cottage
industry, as it was called, didn’t entirely end with the arrival of large- scale
manufacturing, but the advent of machinery had an irreversible impact on
women’s lives.
As machines replaced individual labour and burgeoning industries needed coal,
women became part of the growing working classes that laboured in mines and
mills. In the late 18th century, many families would seek employment together,
with husband, wife and children all working at the same factory or pit, while for
many single women, taking a job outside the home offered the chance of greater
independence.
But women were seen as less physically strong and skilled than men and were
paid less. Many employers were quick to exploit this cheaper option, and soon,
tasks such as printing and working at spinning machines that didn’t require as
much strength and were easy to learn, became seen as ‘women’s labour’.
The Rise of Factory Towns
The proliferation of factories led to the emergence of factory towns—
communities centered around industrial work. These towns were often built
near factories, facilitating the influx of laborers seeking employment. While
factory towns provided women with jobs, they also transformed their lives
significantly. Proximity to workplaces allowed many women to manage
household responsibilities alongside their employment. However, the demands
of factory labor often encroached upon family life, leading to a complex
juggling act of work and domestic duties.

In these towns, the role of women expanded beyond traditional family

responsibilities. They became integral to the industrial workforce, contributing
significantly to household incomes. Yet, the work was grueling and left little
time for rest or family interaction. The daily realities of factory life often meant
that women returned home exhausted, with little energy to care for children or
manage household duties. Historian Eileen Boris notes that this dual burden
underscored the challenges of balancing work and family life during the
Industrial Age, creating a persistent strain on women’s health and well-being.

wage gap

During the Industrial Revolution in Europe, a significant wage gap existed

between men and women, largely shaped by gendered societal norms, labor
structures, and economic roles. Women were generally paid much less than
men, often earning only one-third to one-half of what their male counterparts
received, despite performing similar tasks. Historians such as Jane Humphries
have argued that this disparity was justified by the notion that men were the
primary breadwinners, while women’s labor was considered supplementary,
even though entire families relied on female earnings for survival.

Gendered work segregation also contributed to the wage gap, as women were
primarily employed in lower-paid sectors like textiles, domestic service, and
unskilled labor, while men dominated higher-paying skilled trades and factory
supervision. Tilly and Scott’s research highlights how women’s work was
devalued, both in terms of wages and status, as industrial society prioritized
male labor.

Moreover, the experience of women in factories was marked by long hours,

unsafe conditions, and limited opportunities for upward mobility. Many were
exploited, working under more precarious contracts than men. Ultimately, the
wage gap during the Industrial Revolution not only reflected economic
inequality but also entrenched gender roles, with lasting impacts on women's
status in the labor market.

Work-life-imbalance
Despite the disparity in pay, the conditions in many factories were no less
dangerous for women. They could work as many as 80 hours in a week, were
offered few breaks, and often served inedible food. In 1832, 23-year- old
Elizabeth Bentley was interviewed by a parliamentary investigation into
conditions for textile workers. She described working in the card room of a flax
mill near Leeds. “It was so dusty, the dust got up my lungs, and the work was so
hard... I got so bad in health, that when I pulled the baskets down, I pulled my
bones out of their places."
As well as the long hours and physical demands of factory labour, the domestic
roles traditionally viewed as women’s work continued – unpaid. Tasks such as
cooking, cleaning and childcare still needed to be carried out. Perhaps
unsurprisingly, few employers were understanding. Bentley described a practice
known as ‘quartering’: “If we were a quarter of an hour too late, they would
take off half an hour; we only got a penny an hour, and they would take a
halfpenny more.”

Isabel Wilson, a 38-year-old coal putter (someone who pushed tubs of coal from
the coal face to the pit eye) was interviewed as part of Lord Ashley’s Mines
Commission of 1842. She told how the dual roles of having children and
producing for a family came with immense hardship. “When women have
children thick [fast] they are compelled to take them down early. I have been
married 19 years and have had 10 bairns; seven are in life,” she said,One job
carrying coals “caused me to miscarry five times from the strains, and was ill
after each. Putting is no so oppressive; last child was born on Saturday morning,
and I was at work on the Friday night.”
But jarringly, it was not such testimony in Lord Ashley’s report that caused the
most public outcry. Pushing carts underground was hot work, and both young
men and women would strip to the trousers in efforts to keep cool. One small
detail in the report noted that some women were working topless alongside
men. Outrage in the press fuelled a belief that mining girls were being corrupted
by their surroundings, and making bad wives and mothers. It was of no matter
that the investigators found just one pit where females worked without tops .It
wasn’t long before the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 had banned women
from underground work to protect their health and morals.
CHILD LABOR

Child labor became another tragic consequence of industrialization. Factories

often employed young girls, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality.
Scholars like David B. Sicilia have documented how these children faced the
same harsh conditions as adult workers, sacrificing their health and education
for survival. The toll on their physical and emotional well-being was profound,
as they navigated the challenges of work at an age when they should have been
in school.
During the Industrial Revolution, child labor was widespread, with girls facing
a particularly heavy burden. Girls, like boys, were employed in factories, mines,
and domestic service, but their experience was distinct due to gendered
expectations. Historian Jane Humphries highlights that while boys were often
given physically demanding tasks in factories, girls were frequently assigned to
textile mills, where they worked long hours in cramped, unhealthy conditions.
These girls were not only expected to work but also to assist in household
duties, which added to their already heavy workload.

Girls as young as five were employed in textile mills, where they worked 12 to
16 hours a day. E.P. Thompson, in The Making of the English Working Class,
notes that girls were more vulnerable to exploitation due to their perceived
docility, making them easier to control by factory owners. Evidence from
parliamentary reports in the early 19th century reveals the grim conditions they
faced, such as being forced to work in poorly ventilated, dust-filled rooms,
leading to respiratory illnesses.

Girls’ labor was essential to their families’ survival, but it also reinforced their
subordinate social position, limiting their access to education and better
opportunities. The Industrial Revolution not only exploited girls' labor but also
deepened the gender inequalities of the time.
Spotlight Story: A Day in the Life of a Textile Mill Worker
Consider the life of Mary, a young textile mill worker in the late 1800s. She
rises before dawn, her body weary from the previous day's toil. After a quick
breakfast, she heads to the mill, where the sound of machinery greets her—a
cacophony of spinning wheels and looms. The day ahead stretches long, filled
with the monotonous rhythm of work.
Mary operates a spinning machine, a job requiring constant attention to ensure
the threads do not tangle. The work is physically demanding, and the air is thick
with cotton dust, making her throat dry and scratchy. Despite her skill, she
knows her pay will be significantly less than that of her male coworkers, a fact
that fills her with frustration but little choice. The factory whistle blows for
lunch, a brief respite during which Mary shares her meager meal with fellow
workers, discussing the latest news and their families.
As the day drags on, fatigue sets in. The mill closes its doors late in the evening,
and Mary makes the journey home, where her children await her return. The
cycle of factory work, motherhood, and domestic responsibilities never seems to
end, a relentless rhythm that defines her life.