Exam 1 Study Guide

fThis is not an exhaustive list of all concepts and terms for the first exam. Any information
from lectures or the book is fair game for the exam. Be sure to study your notes from class as
well as the readings. Please contact me with any questions at rkonkel@uwm.edu.

What are the main differences between criminal justice and criminology?
Criminology is theoretical; criminal justice is hypothetical

CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

What are the over-arching goals of the CJ system?
o​ Doing justice - fairness, accountability, equity
o​ controlling crime - law enforcement and punishment
o​ preventing crime - address root causes, reduce crime opportunities

What are the three facets of the CJ system? What are the main functions/tasks of each branch?
o​ Police - law enforcement, crime prevention, community safety
o​ Courts - due process, sentencing, legal proceedings, sentencing
o​ Corrections - post-sentencing, rehabilitation, community safety

What is the process of the CJS, and which branches are involved in each step?

Summary of Branches Involved:

1.​ Law Enforcement: Investigation, arrest.
2.​ Judiciary: Charging, hearings, trials, sentencing, appeals.
3.​ Corrections: Punishment, rehabilitation, and release.

1. Investigation and Arrest - Law enforcement investigates reported crimes, collects evidence,
and identifies suspects. If sufficient evidence exists, an arrest is made, and the suspect may be
taken into custody. Branch: Law Enforcement (police, detectives, and investigative agencies)
2. Charging - The prosecutor (district attorney or equivalent) reviews evidence and determines
whether to formally charge the suspect with a crime. If charges are filed, the case moves forward.
If not, the suspect may be released. Branch: Judiciary (Prosecution is part of the legal system,
working in conjunction with courts)
3. Initial Appearance - The accused is brought before a judge, informed of their rights, and the
charges against them. Bail or pretrial release may be determined. Branch: Judiciary (Judges and
court personnel)
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4. Preliminary Hearing or Grand Jury - A judge (or a grand jury) evaluates the evidence to
determine if there is probable cause to proceed to trial. If probable cause is found, an indictment
or formal charge is issued. Branch: Judiciary
5. Arraignment - The accused enters a plea (guilty, not guilty, or no contest) in court. If the plea
is "not guilty," a trial date is set. Branch: Judiciary
6. Trial - A trial is conducted before a judge (bench trial) or a jury. The prosecution presents
evidence to prove the defendant's guilt "beyond a reasonable doubt," while the defense argues
their case. Witnesses are called, and evidence is examined. Branch: Judiciary
7. Sentencing - If the defendant is found guilty, the judge imposes a sentence (e.g., fines,
probation, imprisonment). Sentencing guidelines and recommendations from the prosecution and
defense are considered. Branch: Judiciary
8. Appeals - If the defendant believes there was a legal error in the trial, they may appeal the
decision to a higher court. The appeals court reviews the case but does not retry it. Branch:
Judiciary (Appellate courts)
9. Corrections - The sentence is carried out. This may involve incarceration, probation, parole,
or rehabilitation programs. The focus may be on punishment, deterrence, or rehabilitation.
Branch: Corrections (prisons, probation/parole officers, rehabilitation programs)
10. Release - The offender is released after serving their sentence or completing parole. Some
may be reintegrated into society through support programs. Branch: Corrections

How has media influenced the CJ system (and perceptions of it)?

o​ sensationalizes crimes like murder and distorts the perception of the amount and
seriousness of the crime.

DUE PROCESS
What do “Due Process” and “Crime Control” mean?
●​ Due Process - Protects individual freedoms (individuals are treated fairly and lawfully)
Key points about due process:
●​ Notice: Being informed of the charges or actions against you.
●​ Opportunity to be heard: Having the chance to present your side of the story
and evidence.
●​ Fair trial: Access to a legal process with impartial decision-making
●​ Crime control - apprehend, convict, and punish offenders as quickly as possible to
maintain public safety and public order;
Key points about the crime control model:
○​ Focus on efficiency:​
Prioritizes swift processing of cases through the criminal justice system, aiming
to quickly identify and punish offenders.
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○​ Expanded police powers:​

Allows for more aggressive policing tactics like profiling and warrantless
searches in certain situations.
○​ Presumption of guilt:​
May lean towards assuming a suspect is guilty until proven innocent, prioritizing
community safety over individual rights
​
Due process protects the accused, while crime control focuses on society and victims.

●​ Who developed these models? Herbert L Packer

●​ Why are these models important?

o​ Together, they create a balance between protecting individual rights and
ensuring public safety.

●​ Describe an example that emphasizes each model.

o​ Due Process - A school student being given a hearing before being expelled for
disciplinary reasons

o​ Crime Control - a policing strategy that heavily utilizes "stop-and-frisk" tactics,

where police officers can detain and search individuals based on reasonable
suspicion, prioritizing swift apprehension of potential criminals over extensive
legal processes to ensure individual rights

DISCRETION
What does the term discretion mean? The freedom of officials to make choices based on
personal judgment.

●​ How is it used by each branch of the CJ system?

o​ police-a police officer may decide whether to issue a warning or make an arrest
o​ courts-might choose whether to pursue charges or to offer a plea bargain; judge
has discretion with severity of sentencing;
o​ corrections-a parole board might decide to release somebody into community
supervision or to keep them incarcerated

●​ why it is necessary? allows flexibility within systems/the law

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LAWS
Types of laws:
●​ What is a law?
Rules are enacted by the legislature, published in the criminal code, and enforced by authorities.

●​ Why do we need laws? What do laws do?

Without laws, the government and people can get away with some of the worst acts without legal
repercussions. Laws keep order, keep people safe and manage behavior.

●​ What is the social contract?

Arrangement of citizens to follow laws with the promise of protection.

●​ What does the Rule of Law mean?

The government cannot punish anyone without adhering to the law.

What are each of the four types of laws?

Type of law characteristics In what type of What is the burden

situations would these (standard) of proof for
laws apply? each type of law?

Criminal Law -public harm Violent Crimes: proving or disproving

-punitive nature Property Crimes: guilt “beyond a
-state is the prosecutor Drug-Related Offenses:. reasonable doubt”
-defined offenses Financial Crimes:
-Aims to protect Sexual Offenses:
individuals and societal Crimes Against Public
interests, including life, Order:
property, and public Cybercrimes:
order. Driving Offenses:
Crimes Against
Government:
Hate Crimes:.
Environmental Crimes:
Public Health/Safety
Violations:
Organized Crime:
Crimes Against Justice:
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Civil Law -disputes between private Contract Disputes “preponderance of the

individuals, Property Disputes: evidence”:
organizations, or entities Torts (Civil Wrongs): requires 50% of the
-goal is to provide Family Law Matters: evidence to be in the
remedies (e.g., monetary Employment Disputes: plaintiffs favor
compensation or specific Consumer Protection:
performance) to the Intellectual Property:
injured party Estate and Probate:
-Cases are initiated by Business Disputes:
the aggrieved party Debt Collection:
(plaintiff), not the state or Medical Malpractice:
government. Construction Disputes:
Insurance Claims:
Environmental Issues:.

Substantive Law -establishes the legal Defining Crimes:

rights and obligations of Contract Enforcement:
individuals and entities. Property Ownership:
-forms the foundation of Tort Claims:.
the legal system by Family Law:
providing the framework Employment Rights:
for laws governing Consumer Protection:
relationships and Business Law:.
conduct. Criminal Penalties:
-codified in statutes, Intellectual Property:
regulations, or legal Human Rights:
codes, providing clear Environmental
guidelines on rights and Protections:
responsibilities. Debt and Bankruptcy:
-applicable to everyone Inheritance and Estate
within a jurisdiction, Law
ensuring uniformity and
fairness.
-Provides the underlying
legal framework within
which procedural laws
operate, making it
relatively stable and
long-standing.
-addresses the "what"
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(content of the law),

while procedural law
addresses the "how"
(process of enforcement).

Procedural Law -addresses the "how" Filing a Lawsuit:

(process of enforcement). Jurisdiction
-establishes the rules and Determination:
guidelines for enforcing Service of Process:
substantive law in courts Pretrial Procedures:
and other legal settings. Discovery Process:
-outlines how cases are Rules of Evidence:
initiated, conducted, and Trial Conduct:
resolved, rather than Appeals Process:
defining rights or Enforcement of
obligations. Judgments: Alternative
-Specifies what evidence Dispute Resolution:
is admissible, how it is Statute of Limitations:
presented, and how it is Criminal Proceedings:
evaluated in legal Jury Selection:
proceedings. Due Process Protections:
-which court or authority Court Rules Compliance:
has the power to hear a
case and where the case
should be filed.
-Aims to ensure that legal
processes are fair,
transparent, and efficient
for all parties involved.

●​ What are the characteristics of Municipal, State, and Federal laws?

Municipal Laws (Local Laws)

●​ Jurisdiction: Apply within a specific city, town, or county.
●​ Governance: Enacted by local governing bodies, such as city councils or county boards.
●​ Focus: Address community-specific issues like zoning, public safety, noise ordinances,
and sanitation.
●​ Enforcement: Enforced by local agencies, such as city police or municipal inspectors.
●​ Examples:
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○​ Parking regulations.
○​ Building codes.
○​ Curfews for minors.
○​ Trash collection and recycling rules.
●​ Scope: Limited to local matters and cannot conflict with state or federal laws.
State Laws
●​ Jurisdiction: Apply throughout an entire state.
●​ Governance: Enacted by state legislatures and signed by the governor.
●​ Focus: Address issues specific to the state, including education, transportation,
healthcare, and criminal law.
●​ Enforcement: Enforced by state agencies and state police.
●​ Examples:
○​ Traffic laws (e.g., speed limits on state roads).
○​ Marriage and divorce laws.
○​ Gun ownership and licensing requirements.
○​ State income taxes.
●​ Scope: Must comply with federal law but have broader authority over matters not
expressly reserved for the federal government.

Federal Laws
●​ Jurisdiction: Apply across the entire United States.
●​ Governance: Enacted by Congress and signed by the President; regulated by federal
agencies.
●​ Focus: Govern areas of national importance, such as interstate commerce, immigration,
defense, and civil rights.
●​ Enforcement: Enforced by federal agencies, such as the FBI, DEA, or IRS.
●​ Examples:
○​ Immigration laws.
○​ Federal tax laws.
○​ Civil rights protections (e.g., anti-discrimination laws).
○​ Environmental regulations (e.g., Clean Air Act).
●​ Supremacy: Federal law takes precedence over conflicting state or municipal laws, as
established by the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution.

Key Differences
●​ Scope of Authority: Federal law governs the entire nation, state law governs a single
state, and municipal law governs a specific locality.
●​ Focus Areas: Federal laws handle national concerns, state laws address regional matters,
and municipal laws tackle local issues.
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●​ Hierarchy: Municipal laws must comply with state laws, and state laws must comply
with federal laws.

CRIME
What is a crime?
●​ Understand the historical context of how criminal laws were developed.
the laws change and evolve to reflect the values of it’s populus to be proportional to the crime
commited.

●​ How does a behavior become defined as a criminal offense?

o​ legislature
o​ social norms
o​ precedent
o​ laws in place

●​ What are the four categories/level of crimes and how do they differ?
o​ inchoate offenses - incomplete or partial offenses. So these are crimes that were
planned or initiated, but they weren't completed. These offenses are still
punishable because there was intent to commit the crime, even if the act wasn't
fully carried out.
o​ infractions - offense not serious enough to warrant any sort of arrest or jail time
o​ misdemeanors - less serious offenses and have lighter penalties
o​ felonies - severe crime that deserve severe punishment

Characteristics of crime:
●​ Which types of crimes are the most (and least) likely to occur?
Misdemeanors (most)
felonies and celebrated cases (least)

o​ What illustration do we use to describe this?

Wedding Cake Model of Criminal Justice
• Misdemeanors: Minor offenses
• Lower-Level Felonies: Non-violent crimes
• Serious Felonies: Violent crimes
• High-Profile Cases: Extensive media coverage
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●​ What are the four components that must be present for a crime to occur?
o​ The act (Actus Reus)
o​ The criminal intent (mens rea)
o​ The concurrence (act and intent happen together)
o​ Causation (must cause harm)

●​ What does intent mean? motivation and mental state of the defendant at the time

●​ What are the different types of intent, and what are examples for each?
o​ Specific intent
o​ General intent
o​ Transferred intent
o​ Constructive intent

Definitions of crimes:
●​ Be able to define, identify, and provide examples for each type of crime discussed in
class and the textbook.

●​ Crimes can be broken up into six categories. What are these categories, and the crimes
that fall under each type?

Measuring Crime:
●​ What are the different databases used to measure crime?

o​ How do they differ from one another?

●​
o​ What are dis/advantages of each type?

●​ What types of crimes are included in each of the databases?

o​ What offenses are considered to be Part I/Index crimes?

o​ How frequently do these crimes occur?

●​ What are the special categories of crimes discussed in class?

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o​ What are the main features of each of these types of crimes?

o​ What makes them “special?”

●​ Finding regarding characteristics of offenders and victims

CRIMINAL DEFENSES
Criminal defenses:
●​ How do criminal defenses apply to the definition of a crime?

●​ Describe each: innocence, affirmative, excuse, justification, and procedural defenses.

o​ What are examples of cases/scenarios that would fall under each type of defense?

●​ Insanity defenses:
o​ What are the different types of defenses related to mental health?

definition key points

Insanity defense Definition: The defendant

claims they were legally The specific legal standard
insane at the time of the varies by jurisdiction, such
crime and, therefore, as:
lacked the capacity to
understand the nature or M’Naghten Rule: The
wrongfulness of their defendant could not
actions. distinguish right from
wrong.

Irresistible Impulse Test:

The defendant was unable
to control their actions due
to mental illness.

Durham Rule: The crime

was the product of a mental
disease or defect.

Model Penal Code Test:

The defendant lacked
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substantial capacity to
appreciate the criminality
of their actions or conform
their behavior to the law.

●​ Outcome: If
successful, the
defendant is often
found not guilty by
reason of insanity
(NGRI) and
committed to a
mental health
facility rather than
prison.
●​ Criticism: Some
argue this defense is
overused, while
others believe it’s
necessary to protect
individuals with
severe mental
illness.

diminished capacity Definition: The defendant Key Difference from

argues that, due to a mental Insanity Defense:
disorder or impairment,
they lacked the ability to Diminished capacity does
form the specific intent or not claim the defendant
premeditation required for was entirely incapable of
certain crimes (e.g., distinguishing right from
first-degree murder). wrong but that their mental
state reduced their
culpability.

Outcome: May result in a

conviction for a lesser
offense (e.g., manslaughter
instead of murder).
Criticism: Some
jurisdictions have limited
or abolished this defense,
arguing it complicates trials
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unnecessarily.

competency to stand trial Definition: This is not a Key Requirements:

defense to the crime itself
but a challenge to the ●​ The defendant must
defendant's ability to be able to:
participate in their own ○​ Understand
trial. the charges
and legal
proceedings.
○​ Communica
te
effectively
with their
attorney.
●​ If found
incompetent, the
defendant’s trial is
delayed while they
receive treatment to
restore competency.

Outcome: The trial is

postponed until the
defendant is deemed
competent.

automatism Definition: The defendant Examples:

claims they committed the
crime in an unconscious or ●​ Sleepwalking.
involuntary state, often ●​ Seizures or other
linked to mental health medical conditions
issues like dissociation or affecting
trauma. consciousness.

Outcome: If successful,
the defendant may be
acquitted, as they did not
have control over their
actions.

Post-Traumatic Stress Definition: PTSD may be Examples:

Disorder (PTSD) Defense presented as a defense to
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explain why a defendant

acted in a certain way, ●​ A veteran reacts
particularly in cases violently due to a
involving extreme stress or perceived threat
perceived danger. that triggers
combat-related
PTSD.
●​ A survivor of
prolonged abuse
harms their abuser
in a situation
triggering a
traumatic memory.

Outcome: This defense

can support claims of
diminished capacity,
self-defense, or temporary
insanity.

Guilty but Mentally Ill Definition: This verdict is

(GBMI) an alternative in some ●​ The defendant’s
jurisdictions where the mental illness did
defendant is found guilty not meet the
but acknowledged to have threshold for an
a mental illness. insanity defense.
●​ The defendant is
sent to a mental
health facility for
treatment but may
serve a prison
sentence after
recovery.

Outcome: Balances
accountability with
treatment for mental health
conditions.

Self-Defense Related to Definition: In some cases,

Mental Health defendants may claim they ●​ Example: A person
acted in self-defense due to with severe
a mental health condition paranoia harms
that influenced their someone they
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perception of threat or believe is about to

danger. attack them.
●​ Outcome: If
successful, this may
result in acquittal or
reduced charges.

Temporary Insanity Definition: The defendant

argues they were insane Similar to the insanity
only at the time of the defense but focuses on a
crime and have since temporary state of mental
recovered. incapacity.

Outcome: If successful,
the defendant is often
treated as NGRI and may
be committed to a mental
health facility.

Duress or Coercion Definition: Mental health Example: A defendant

conditions may be used to with a history of abuse
argue that the defendant claims they were coerced
acted under duress, into committing a crime by
believing they had no other their abuser.
option due to psychological Outcome: May mitigate
or emotional manipulation. the severity of charges or
sentencing.

Intoxication (Voluntary or Definition: Mental Voluntary Intoxication:

Involuntary) impairment due to May reduce culpability for
intoxication is sometimes specific-intent crimes but is
used as a defense, though not a full defense.
its success depends on Involuntary Intoxication:
whether the intoxication Can be a complete defense
was voluntary or if the defendant was
involuntary. unknowingly drugged or
forced to ingest substances.

The success of these defenses depends on the specific legal standards in a jurisdiction, the
quality of evidence presented, and expert testimony. While these defenses ensure justice
considers the role of mental illness, they are often controversial and require careful
application to balance fairness and accountability.
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▪​ What are the paramount differences between each?

▪​ Describe a scenario that applies to each.

o​ Be able to recall differences in the “Notorious Cases” that we discussed, highlighting

hallmark features.
▪​ • John Hinckley Jr.: Not guilty by reason of insanity
(Reagan assassination attempt).
▪​ • Dan White: Twinkie defense used in Harvey Milk’s murder.
▪​ • Jeffrey Dahmer: Insanity plea rejected, found legally sane.
▪​ • James Holmes: Insanity plea rejected (Aurora theater
shooting).

o​ How often (and successful) are insanity defenses?

Not very successful, if ever.

THEORY
What is a theory? Is a set of ideas that is used to explain a particular phenomenon or concept

●​ What are the four paradigms of criminological theory?

Criminological theories are frameworks for understanding the causes of crime and criminal
behavior. The four paradigms of criminological theory are the foundational perspectives that
guide criminological research and thought. These paradigms are:

1. Classical Paradigm

●​ Core Idea: Crime is a result of free will and rational choice.

●​ Key Beliefs:
○​ Humans are rational beings who weigh the costs and benefits of their actions.
○​ Crime occurs when the perceived benefits outweigh the risks or consequences.
○​ Punishment should be proportionate, swift, and certain to deter criminal behavior.
●​ Key Theorists: Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham.
●​ Implications:
○​ Focus on deterrence through legal sanctions (e.g., fines, imprisonment).
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○​ The foundation of modern criminal justice systems, emphasizing law enforcement

and punishment.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Overly simplistic, as it doesn’t account for social, psychological, or economic
factors influencing crime.

2. Positivist Paradigm

●​ Core Idea: Crime is caused by factors beyond an individual's control (biological,

psychological, or sociological).
●​ Key Beliefs:
○​ Criminal behavior is determined by external or internal influences, not free will.
○​ These influences include genetics, mental illness, upbringing, socioeconomic
conditions, and environment.
○​ Focus on studying criminals scientifically to understand the root causes of crime.
●​ Key Theorists: Cesare Lombroso (biological positivism), Émile Durkheim (sociological
positivism), Sigmund Freud (psychological positivism).
●​ Implications:
○​ Shift toward rehabilitation and treatment rather than punishment.
○​ Development of crime prevention strategies based on addressing root causes.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Can lead to overgeneralization and deterministic views that ignore individual
agency.

3. Conflict Paradigm

●​ Core Idea: Crime arises from social and economic inequalities and power struggles.
●​ Key Beliefs:
○​ Laws and the criminal justice system reflect the interests of the powerful elite
rather than the common good.
○​ Crime is often defined and enforced in ways that maintain the dominance of those
in power.
○​ Marginalized and oppressed groups are disproportionately labeled as criminals.
●​ Key Theorists: Karl Marx (economic conflict), Richard Quinney, and William
Chambliss.
●​ Implications:
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○​ Highlights systemic issues like racism, classism, and inequality in the criminal
justice system.
○​ Advocates for reforms to address structural inequities and social justice.
●​ Criticism:
○​ May oversimplify the complexity of crime and overlook individual responsibility.

4. Integrated Paradigm (Contemporary and Critical Theories)

●​ Core Idea: Crime is a complex phenomenon influenced by a combination of individual,

social, and structural factors.
●​ Key Beliefs:
○​ This paradigm seeks to combine insights from classical, positivist, and conflict
perspectives to offer a more comprehensive view of crime.
○​ Modern theories include feminist criminology, labeling theory, routine activity
theory, and cultural criminology.
○​ Recognizes that criminal behavior is dynamic and influenced by situational and
systemic factors.
●​ Key Theorists: Travis Hirschi (social control theory), Robert Agnew (general strain
theory), and contemporary critical criminologists.
●​ Implications:
○​ Development of multifaceted crime prevention strategies.
○​ Emphasis on reducing harm through societal changes and community-based
solutions.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Can be difficult to operationalize or apply uniformly across all contexts.

●​ Define and be able to apply examples of each theory discussed in class and in the
textbook. Additionally, know the scholars attached with each theory. These theories
include, but not limited to:
o​ Classical Criminology
▪​ Hedonistic Free Will
these people believe that they have full control over their actions, thus
having free will
▪​ Deterrence Theory
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stopping people through fear and consequences

o​ Positivist Criminology
▪​ The Criminal Man
some people are born more likely to commit crime
▪​ Models of Somatotyping
physical characteristics influencing mental characteristics
o​ Psychological Theories
▪​ Freud (boo)
▪​ id:instinct
▪​ ego:reason
▪​ superego:stronger reason
▪​ constructive drive:building, peace, etc.
▪​ destructive drive:drive for violence, destruction, death, mwahahahahaha.

o​ Bio-Psychological Theories
▪​ Hormones
high testosterone is linked to criminal activities
▪​ Brain Injuries
brain injuries increase the risk for engaging in crime
o​ Sociological Theories of Crime
▪​ Anomie and Strain Theories
a group or one person lacking morals
▪​ Social Disorganization Theory
crime rises where people are unable to work together
o​ Differential Association Theory
criminal behavior is learned from interacting with others
o​ Labeling Theory
you’re more likely to act the way you’re labeled
o​ Social Learning Theory
learning criminal behavior from observing and imitating others.

VICTIMIZATION
Victimization - Individuals harmed by another’s actions.

What are the different types of victimization? Mendelson’s Typology:

(1) completely innocent victims;
(2) victims with minor guilt;
(3) voluntary victims;
(4) victims more guilty than the offender;
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(5) victims who alone are guilty; and

(6) the imaginary victims.

●​ What are the impacts of victimization?

The impacts of victimization can be on the individual, family, and community - and can be
psychological, physical, social, financial/economic, legal

Why do some people not report victimization? (Von Henting is researcher)

●​ certain characteristics make people more desirable targets:
o​ elderly as they're physically weaker or often possess valuable assets.
o​ Women, as they're seen as physically weaker and easier to overpower.
o​ Immigrants, as there are cultural and language barriers and reluctance to report
crimes due to legal status concerns.
o​ lonely individuals, as they're easier to isolate and manipulate.
o​ **highlighted how vulnerabilities shape victimization risk, but also face
criticisms for contributing to victim blaming narratives.

What strategies and policies are implemented to support those who have experienced
victimization?
●​ Reagan's Task Force on Victims of Crime was set into place in 1982.
●​ Victims and Witness Protection Act of 1982 provided legal protections for victims and
witnesses of crimes, aiming to reduce intimidation and improve participation in the justice
system.
●​ Passed in 2004, the Crime Victims Rights Act, CVRA, expanded legal protections and
participation rights for victims in federal crimes. Key rights under CVRA include
protection from the accused, so victims have the right to be reasonably protected from
the perpetrator through the legal process. They also have the right to notification of legal
proceedings, so they must be informed of court appearances, hearings, and other
significant updates about the court case. Victims also have the right to attend and
participate in public court and district court proceedings involving the accused. Victims
also are entitled to consultation with the prosecuting attorney during key stages of the
legal process. Victims also have the right to timely and full restitution, ensuring financial
recovery from losses resulting from the crime. The speedy trial also applies to victims'
rights, so the accused must face a timely trial to minimize the impact of delays on the
case, which could be harmful and traumatic for the victim.
●​ Victims are also guaranteed to be treated with dignity, respect, and fairness through the
justice process through the Crime Victims' Rights Act of 2004.
●​ Students' Right to Know and Campus Security Act of 1990 requires colleges and
universities to disclose information about campus crime and security policies.
●​ Hate Crime Statistics Act, also of 1990, mandates the collection and publication of data
on hate crimes categorized by race, religion, sexual orientation, and ethnicity.
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●​ The Victim's Right Restitution Act of 1990 establishes services and support for federal
crime victim,s including counseling, compensation, and information about their rights.
●​ The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 introduced reforms to
address violent crime, emphasizing crime prevention and funding law enforcement and
community programs.
●​ Violence Against Women Act, also known as VAWA, in 1994 provided funding through
grants to investigate and prosecute violent crimes against women. This focuses on
domestic violence and intimate partner violence and helps women obtain restraining
orders and file civil lawsuits.
●​ In 1996, we saw Megan's Law, which requires states to establish sex offender registries
and notify communities about the presence of sex offenders within their areas.
●​ The Crime Victims and Disabilities Awareness Act of 1998 promotes awareness and
data collection on crimes committed against individuals with disabilities.
●​ And the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, the TBPA, of 2,000 provides grants to
enhance laws against domestic violence and stalking. It offers additional aid and
protection to victims who are immigrants, disabled, or elderly.

●​ What gaps in services still remain? (See the end of #4)

Underreporting of crimes,
victim-blaming narratives,
disparities in victim protection still need to be addressed:
●​ Continued support for victim rights legislation and community-based initiatives are critical
for ensuring all victims' justice, safety, and dignity.
●​ And this leads to the importance of advocacy in victimization and victimology.

RANDOM STUFF FROM QUIZZES

Stuff on the quizzes that weren’t on the review before:

Serial vs mass killings

1st degree vs 2nd degree intentional homicide.

Id vs Ego vs Super Ego (Freud)