Unit II

Nutrients and Food Additives

 Slide Title
• Macronutrients
• Micronutrients
• Vitamins
• Nutritional Physiology
• Biotechnology of food additives
 Macronutrients
Lipids (Fats)
Carbohydrates Proteins
•
•
Classification of Lipids
• Types of Carbohydrates Types of Amino
• Digestion & Absorption of Acids • Functions of Lipids
Carbohydrates
• Protein Structure • Saturated vs. Unsaturated
• Role of Carbohydrates in Energy
Production (ATP generation) • Functions of Fats
• Glycemic Index and its Impact on Proteins
Blood Sugar Levels • Role of Omega-3 & Omega-
• Protein Metabolism
• Dietary Sources of 6 Fatty Acids in
Carbohydrates: Whole grains, • High – Quality
fruits, vegetables and refined Cardiovascular Health
Protein Sources
sugars
• Lipid Digestion &

Absorption
 MACRO
NUTRIENTS
List of
contents
TYPES FUNCTIONS
STRUCTURE
SOURCES
ABSORPTION IN THE
BODY
RIDDLE TIME !!!

I’m the drama queen of energy! If

you eat too much of me, you crash. If
you don’t eat enough, you get
cranky. You find me in cakes, pasta,
and even your morning cereal. Who
am I?
CARBOHYDRATES
RIDDLE TIME !!!

I’m the bodybuilder of the group.

You want muscles? I got you. You
want strong hair and nails? That’s me
too. You find me hanging out in eggs,
chicken, and beans. Who am I?
PROTEINS
RIDDLE TIME !!!

I’m the sneaky one. People think

I’m bad, but without me, you’d
have dry skin and no energy
reserve. I love chilling in butter,
nuts, and avocados. Who am I?
LIPIDS
(FATS)
RIDDLE TIME !!!

I’m that friend who never lets you

starve. You might forget about me,
but I’m always there—keeping you
full and satisfied. You find me in
steak, tofu, and lentils. Who am I?
PROTEINS
RIDDLE TIME !!!

I’m basically sugar’s best friend. Eat

too much of me, and you’ll need a
nap. Ignore me, and you’ll feel
weak. You find me in potatoes,
bread, and rice. Who am I?
CARBS
 MACRO
NUTRIENTS
• Essential nutrients required in large
amounts for energy and body
functions.

Carbohydrates
Protein

Fat
CARBOHYDRATES
 • Carbohydrates (Carbs) are macronutrients that provide quick energy to the body.
• 1 gram carbs = 4 calories

Carbs are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a ratio of
1:2:1 (like C₆H₁₂O₆ for glucose).
They exist in three main forms:
• Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars) – Smallest unit, easy to absorb.
• Disaccharides (Double Sugars) – Two monosaccharides linked together.
• Polysaccharides (Complex Carbs) – Long chains of sugar molecules.
 TYPES
A. Simple Carbohydrates (Quick Energy)
• Structure: Made of 1-2 sugar molecules (easy to break down).
• Function: Provides instant energy, but can cause sugar spikes.
Examples:
• Monosaccharides: Glucose (fruits, honey), Fructose (fruits), Galactose
(milk)
• Disaccharides: Sucrose (table sugar), Lactose (milk sugar),Maltose (malt).
• Fun Fact: Sugar rush from candy or soda happens because simple carbs
are absorbed super fast
B. Complex Carbohydrates (Sustained Energy)
• Structure: Long chains of sugar molecules (takes longer to digest).
• Function: Provides long-lasting energy and keeps you full longer.
Examples:
• Starch: Potatoes, rice, wheat, corn, beans.
• Fiber: Whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts (helps digestion).
• Glycogen: Stored form of glucose in muscles & liver.
• Fun Fact: Athletes “carb-load” before marathons to store glycogen for
endurance!
CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION

1) Mouth or Oral Cavity

2) STOMACH
The low pH in the stomach
inactivates salivary amylase,
so it no longer works once it
arrives at the stomach.
Although there’s more
mechanical digestion in the
stomach, there’s little
chemical digestion of
carbohydrates here.
CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION
3)SMALL INTESTINE
• Maltose is digested by maltase, forming 2 glucose molecules.

• Lactose is digested by lactase, forming glucose and galactose.

• Sucrose is digested by sucrase, forming glucose and fructose.

Recall that if a person is lactose intolerant, they don’t make enough

lactase enzyme to digest lactose adequately. Therefore, lactose passes
to the large intestine. There it draws water in by osmosis and is
fermented by bacteria, causing symptoms such as flatulence, bloating,
and diarrhea.
SOURCES
Common foods with carbohydrates include:
• Grains, such as bread, noodles, pasta, crackers, cereals, and rice
• Fruits, such as apples, bananas, berries, mangoes, melons, and oranges
• Dairy products, such as milk and yogurt
• Legumes, including dried beans, lentils, and peas
• Snack foods and sweets, such as cakes, cookies, candy, and other desserts
• Juices, regular sodas, fruit drinks, sports drinks, and energy drinks that
contain sugar
• Starchy vegetables, such as potatoes, corn, and peas
PROTEINS
THE BUILDING BLOCKS
OF LIFE
• Proteins are essential macronutrients
made of amino acids, which help in
growth, repair, and body functions. They
are present in every cell and play a vital
role in maintaining overall health.
LEVELS OF PROTEIN
• Primary Structure: A simple chain of
amino acids.
• Secondary Structure: Twists and folds
(alpha helices & beta sheets).
• Tertiary Structure: 3D shape formed by
further folding.
• Quaternary Structure: Multiple protein
chains combined.
FACT !!!
Here’s a fact that will boggle your mind. There is a retinal protein named after the
cartoon character Pikachu! It is called Pikachurin.

Classification of Proteins
Classification of proteins is done on the basis of the following:
• Shape
• Constitution
• Nature of molecules
Shape
On the basis of shape
• Fibrous protein(Scleroprotein): We can find these proteins in animals and are
insoluble in water. Fibrous proteins are resistant to proteolytic enzymes and are
coiled and exist in threadlike structures to form fibres. e.g. collagen, actin, and
myosin, keratin in hair, claws, feathers, etc.
• Globular proteins: These proteins, unlike fibrous proteins are soluble in water.
They are made up of polypeptides that are coiled about themselves to form oval
or spherical molecules e.g. albumin, insulin, and hormones like oxytocin, etc.
Constitution
Derived proteins: When proteins are hydrolyzed (broken into smmaler
components) by acids, alkalies or enzymes, the degradation products obtained from
them are called derived proteins.

Nature of molecules
• Acidic proteins: They exist as anion and contain acidic amino acids. e.g. blood
groups.
• Basic proteins: They exist as cations and are rich in basic amino acids e.g. lysine,
arginine etc.
Protein Digestion
and Absorption
1) In the mouth
2) In the Stomach
SOURCES
• Eggs: A great source of bio-available protein
• Lentils: A vegan protein source that may also help reduce the risk of
certain infections
• Quinoa: A pseudocereal that contains almost all essential amino acids
• Chickpeas: A rich source of protein, carbohydrates, fat, and fiber
• Cottage cheese: A high-quality protein option
• Almonds: A protein-rich nut that also contains iron
• Tofu: A soy product that contains all essential amino acids
• Greek yogurt: A versatile, high protein food
FATS
 FATS/ LIPIDS
Fats, also known as lipids, are organic molecules made up of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). They are an essential macronutrient that
provides energy, insulation, and cell structure to the body.
Structure of Fats

Fats are primarily made up of fatty acids and glycerol.

1.Glycerol (a sugar alcohol)
2.Fatty Acids (chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen)

Types of fat

1) Unsaturated Fat
2) Saturated Fat
3) Trans Fat
Fat Digestion and
Absorption
sources
• Sunflower, sesame, and pumpkin seeds.
• Flaxseed.
• Walnuts.
• Fatty fish (salmon, tuna, mackerel, herring, trout, sardines) and fish
oil.
• Soybean and safflower oil.
• Soymilk.
• Tofu.
THANK YOU
VITAMINS
 what are Vitamins?
Vitamins are organic compounds

1. required in small amounts for various

physiological functions. They are
essential for growth, metabolism, and
overall health.
Since the body cannot produce most
2. vitamins in sufficient quantities, they
must be obtained from food or
supplements.

Humans require 13 essential vitamins, 4

3. fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-
soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
Classification:
• Fat-soluble: These vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are
stored in the body's fatty tissues and liver.

• Water-soluble: These vitamins (B vitamins and

vitamin C) are not stored and excess amounts are
excreted through urine.
Functions and Roles of Vitamins

Vitamin A: Essential for vision, immune function, and skin

Vitamin D: Helps in calcium absorption and bone health.
Vitamin E: Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from
Vitamin K: Aids in blood clotting and bone metabolism.
Vitamin C: Boosts immunity and aids in wound healing.
B Vitamins: Support energy production, brain function, and
cell formation.
B Vitamins:
B1 (Thiamin): Crucial for energy metabolism.
B2 (Riboflavin): Helps the body convert food into energy.
B3 (Niacin): Important for maintaining a healthy nervous system, skin, and
digestive system.
B5 (Pantothenic acid): Involved in the metabolism of food.
B6 (Pyridoxine): Helps the body keep a balance of protein, fat,
and carbohydrate and the creation of red blood cells.
B7 (Biotin): Important for metabolism of carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins.
B9 (Folate): Necessary for DNA synthesis and repair, cell division, and
growth.
B12 (Cobalamin): Important for forming red blood cells and DNA, and for
Vitamin B4 (Adenine & Choline)
• Initially considered a vitamin, but later found to be synthesized
by the body.
• Adenine is a component of DNA and ATP, and Choline is still
essential but classified as a nutrient, not a vitamin.
Vitamin B8 (Inositol)
• Once called a vitamin, but the body produces enough of it.
• Now classified as a pseudovitamin (a nutrient but not a vitamin).
Vitamin B10 (Para-Aminobenzoic Acid - PABA)
• Originally considered a vitamin, but later found to be non-
essential for humans.
• It is involved in bacterial folate synthesis but not required in the
human diet.
 Vitamin B11 (Folate & Salicylic Acid)
This term was used in Europe for folate, but
folate is now officially Vitamin B9.
Salicylic acid (also once called B11) is used in
medicine but not as a vitamin.
These vitamins were removed from the official B-complex
list because they are either:
• Synthesized by the body
• Not essential for human survival
• Reclassified as nutrients or other compounds
Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
water-soluble vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins are not
stored in the body, so they must
be consumed regularly. Excess
amounts leave the body through
the urine. The exception is vitamin
B12, which can be stored in the
liver for many years.
Deficiencies and Toxicity of Vitamins
1. Which of the following is a primary source of Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine)?
A) Dairy products
B) Pork, legumes, peanuts, whole grains
C) Green vegetables and oranges
D) Nuts and seeds

2. Which vitamin is found in dairy products, meat, and enriched grains?

A) Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin)
B) Vitamin B₁₂ (Cobalamin)
C) Vitamin B₆ (Pyridoxine)
D) Vitamin C
3. Which vitamin is mainly found in nuts, meats, and grains?
A) Vitamin B₆
B) Niacin
C) Biotin
D) Pantothenic Acid
4. Which of the following vitamins helps in red blood cell formation and is
found in meats, eggs, and dairy products?
A) Vitamin B₁
B) Vitamin B₉ (Folic Acid)
C) Vitamin B₁₂ (Cobalamin)
D) Vitamin C
5. Green vegetables, oranges, nuts, and legumes are rich in which vitamin?
A) Vitamin C
B) Folic Acid (Vitamin B₉)
C) Niacin
D) Vitamin B₁

6. Which vitamin is also known as Ascorbic Acid?

A) Vitamin B₂
B) Vitamin B₆
C) Vitamin C
D) Vitamin B₁₂
7. What is the main function of Vitamin B₆ (Pyridoxine)?
A) Helps in blood clotting
B) Supports brain health and metabolism
C) Strengthens bones
D) Protects vision

8. Which of the following vitamins is synthesized in small amounts by

colon bacteria?
A) Vitamin C
B) Vitamin B₉ (Folic Acid)
C) Vitamin B₆
D) Niacin
9. A deficiency of which vitamin leads to scurvy, causing bleeding gums and
weak immunity?
A) Vitamin B₁₂
B) Vitamin B₆
C) Vitamin C
D) Vitamin B₂
10. Which vitamin is found in almost all foods, including meats, dairy, and
whole grains?
A) Biotin
B) Pantothenic Acid
C) Vitamin B₆
D) Vitamin C
 11. Which water-soluble vitamin is an exception because it can be stored in
the liver for many years?
A) Vitamin B₁
B) Vitamin B₆
C) Vitamin B₁₂
D) Vitamin C
12. Which vitamin deficiency can lead to a disease called Pellagra, which causes
diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia?
A) Niacin (Vitamin B₃)
B) Vitamin B₁₂
C) Vitamin C
D) Vitamin B₂
Thank you
MICRONUTRIENTS
Introduction
Micronutrients are essential nutrients
required in small amounts for various
body functions.

Minerals are inorganic nutrients that

support bone health, muscle function,
immunity, and metabolism.
Calcium Iron

Copper

Magnesium

Zinc Selenium
 Deficiency
Osteoporosis and weak
Functions bones
Supports bone and teeth health Muscle cramps and
Aids muscle contraction and nerve signaling numbness
Helps in blood clotting Delayed growth in children

Sources Benefits
Dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt) Stronger bones and teeth
Nuts and seeds Reduces risk of osteoporosis
Leafy greens (kale, spinach) Supports heart and muscle
function
CALCIUM
 Deficiency
Functions
Muscle cramps and
Supports nerve and muscle function
Regulates blood pressure and blood sugar
spasms
Helps in energy production Fatigue and weakness
Irregular heartbeat
Sources
Nuts (almonds, cashews) Benefits
Whole grains (brown rice, oats) Reduces stress and anxiety
Leafy greens (spinach, kale) Improves sleep quality
Supports heart and bone
health
Magnesium
 Deficiency
Functions Iron-deficiency
Essential for oxygen transport (hemoglobin) anemia
Boosts energy production Fatigue and dizziness
Strengthens i m m u n e function Weakened i m m u n e
system
Sources
R e d m e a t and poultry Benefits
Leafy greens (spinach, kale) Prevents anemia
Fortified cereals and legumes Enhances energy levels
Improves cognitive function
Iron
 Deficiency
Functions Weakened
Supports i m m u n e function and w o u n d healing immunity
Helps in growth and development Slow w o u n d healing
Aids in D N A synthesis
Hair loss and skin problems
Sources
Meat and seafood Benefits
Legumes (chickpeas, lentils) Boosts i m m u n i t y
Nuts and seeds Speeds u p w o u n d healing
Supports reproductive
health
Zinc
 Deficiency
An e mi a and
Functions fatigue
Helps in iron absorption and red blood cell Weak bones
formation
Neurological disorderss
Supports nerve function
Acts as an antioxidant
Benefits
Sources
Improves iron
Shellfish (oysters, crabs) metabolism
Nuts and seeds Supports brain function
Whole grains and dark chocolate Strengthens bones
Copper
 Deficiency
Weakened i m m u n e
Functions function
Acts as an antioxidant Thyroid disorders
Supports thyroid function
Increased risk of heart
Boosts i m m u n e system
disease
Sources
Brazil nuts and seafood Benefits
Eggs and dairy products Protects cells from damage
Whole grains Maintains healthy thyroid
Enhances i m m u n it y
Selenium
Conclusion
B a l a n c e d d i e t is e s s e n t i a l for
getting these minerals
Deficiency can lead to serious
h e a l t h issues

E a t a v a r i e t y of n u t r i e n t - r i c h f o o d s
THANK YOU
Biotechnology of Food
Additives
Biotechnology of Food Additives
• Biotechnology of food additives refers to the use of biological system
including microbial fermentation, plant cell culture, and recombinant
DNA technology to produce compounds that enhance the sensory,
nutritional, and functional attributes of foods. This approach offers
controlled, scalable, and eco-friendly alternatives to traditional
extraction or chemical synthesis methods, which can suffer from
variability, sustainability issues, and consumer concerns over
synthetic additives.
Key Advantages:

• Consistency and Purity: Controlled bioprocessing ensures that

additives have uniform quality and performance.
• Sustainability: Utilizes renewable resources and minimizes
environmental impact.
• Customization: Genetic and process engineering allow for the design
of additives with tailored properties meeting specific processing and
consumer demands.
• Safety: Advanced purification and quality control protocols reduce
risks of contaminants
Bioflavors and Biocolors
Bioflavors
Production Techniques:
• Fermentation Processes: Bioflavors are often produced through
fermentation. Microorganisms such as yeast, bacteria, or filamentous
fungi convert basic substrates (like sugars or organic acids) into
complex volatile compounds esters, alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones
that are key to natural flavors.
• Metabolic Engineering: It is genetically modifying microorganisms,
metabolic pathways can be enhanced to increase the yield of desired
flavor compounds. For example, engineering yeast to convert ferulic
acid into natural vanillin allows for more controlled and sustainable
production.
Application and Integration:

• Food Systems: The resulting flavor compounds must be compatible

with various food matrices. Optimizing the fermentation and
downstream processes is essential to maintaining the integrity and
sensory profile of these bioflavors when incorporated into finished
products.
Biocolors
Production Techniques

• Microbial and Plant Cell Cultures: Instead of relying on seasonal and

inconsistent extraction methods, controlled fermentation and plant
cell culture systems are employed to produce natural pigments
reliably.
• Genetic Engineering: Microbial strains can be engineered to
overexpress key enzymes in pigment biosynthesis pathways, resulting
in higher yields and the possibility of developing novel colors that
meet modern clean-label standards.
Benefits and Challenges:

• Safety and Consumer Appeal: Natural pigments are preferred over

synthetic dyes due to health and environmental benefits. However,
ensuring pigment stability resistance to heat, light, and pH changes
remains a technical challenge, addressed through process
optimization and stabilization techniques..
Microbial Polysaccharides
Production and Processing:
• Fermentation: Microbial polysaccharides, such as xanthan gum,
gellan gum, and dextrans, are produced via controlled fermentation.
Careful regulation of fermentation conditions including nutrient
composition, pH, temperature, and agitation ensures reproducibility
and the development of desired polymer characteristics.
• Molecular Structure and Functionality:
• The rheological properties, such as viscosity and gelation, are
directly linked to the molecular structure (chain length, branching)
of these polysaccharides. Process conditions are critical in
determining these characteristics, and biotechnological strategies
are used to modify structures for improved performance.
Applications in Food:
• Textural Enhancement: Used in sauces, dressings, dairy, and bakery
products to improve texture and stability.
• Nutritional Aspects: Some polysaccharides also contribute dietary
fiber, which aligns with nutritional trends and adds value beyond their
functional properties.
Recombinant Enzymes in the Food Sector
Fundamentals of Production:
• Recombinant DNA Technology: Recombinant enzymes are produced
by inserting the gene coding for a specific enzyme into a host
organism (such as Escherichia coli, yeast, or filamentous fungi). This
process involves cultivating the genetically engineered organism
under optimized conditions to express the enzyme at high levels.
• Process Optimization: Effective process control from gene cloning
and expression through to fermentation and downstream purification
is crucial to ensure that the enzymes are active, stable, and free of
contaminants.
Applications in Food Processing:

• Baking and Dairy: Recombinant amylases improve starch breakdown

in baking, while proteases and lipases in dairy processing enhance
texture and flavor.
• Juice Clarification and Brewing: Enzymes like pectinases and
cellulases facilitate clarification, improve yield, and enhance product
consistency.
Quality and Regulatory Considerations:

• Safety Protocols: Ensuring the purity of recombinant enzymes is

paramount. Advanced purification techniques and stringent quality
control measures help eliminate impurities, such as residual host DNA
or endotoxins.
• Regulatory Compliance: Modern biotechnological practices adhere to
regulatory standards by providing consistent product quality and
ensuring consumer safety.