AIRPORTS & HARBOURS

PART – A
1. Advantages of Airport Transportation
 Enables fast movement of passengers and cargo over long distances.
 Reduces road congestion and provides emergency response access.
 Suitable for perishable, high-value, and time-critical goods.
 Offers better connectivity across remote and global locations.

2. Layouts of Airport and Harbor Transportation

 Airport layout includes runway, taxiway, apron, terminal, and ATC for controlled aircraft operations.
 Harbor layout includes breakwater, quay, berth, warehouse, and channel for safe ship movement and
docking.

3. Types of Airport
 Domestic Airport: Handles flights within a country.
 International Airport: Facilitates international travel with customs facilities.
 Military Airport: Exclusively used for defense aircraft and operations.
 Cargo Airport: Dedicated for freight handling and logistics services.

4. Difference between Highway Pavement and Airfield Pavement

Criteria Highway Pavement Airfield Pavement

Load Intensity For lighter, continuous vehicle traffic For heavier, less frequent aircraft loads

Friction Requirement Moderate surface friction High skid and fuel-resistance required

Thickness Thin layered construction Thicker pavement with strong base/sub-base

Impact Resistance Lower impact load design High impact stress from landing gears

5. Basic and Actual Runway Length

 Basic length: Theoretical runway length under standard conditions (sea level, 15°C, no wind).
 Actual length: Adjusted basic length considering elevation, temperature, surface gradient, and local
factors.

6. Instrumental Landing Advantages

 Allows aircraft landing in low visibility using ILS signals.
  Enhances safety by providing precise vertical and horizontal guidance.
 Supports all-weather operations and reduces delays due to fog or rain.
 Essential for Category II and III airport operations.

7. Ports and Harbors

 Port: A place where ships load/unload cargo and passengers with facilities like cranes and
warehouses.
 Harbor: A protected waterbody offering safe anchorage, either naturally or by man-made structures
like breakwaters.

8. Breakwater
 A marine structure built using rubble or caissons to deflect or absorb wave energy.
 Protects the harbor basin from direct wave action and prevents coastal erosion.
 Ensures safer ship operations inside harbor during rough sea conditions.

9. Wave Action
 Refers to the impact of sea waves on marine and coastal structures.
 Affects harbor layout, sediment deposition, and causes structural stress.
 An important factor in designing breakwaters, seawalls, and quay walls.

10. What is EIA?

 EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment.
 A pre-construction study to evaluate the environmental consequences of infrastructure projects.
 Aims to prevent ecological damage and support sustainable development.
 Legally mandated for large-scale airport and harbor constructions.

PART – B
11.
i). Characteristics of air transportation?
 Air transportation offers high-speed connectivity, with commercial aircraft operating at cruising speeds
of 850–900 km/h, reducing travel time significantly over long distances.
 It ensures accessibility to remote and geographically isolated regions, where terrain challenges limit
road or rail connectivity.
 The mode offers high reliability, as operations are less affected by surface conditions; advanced
navigation systems like ILS, ADS-B, and VOR ensure all-weather operations.
  Air transport requires minimal continuous infrastructure between origin and destination since aircraft
fly freely over air routes, unlike roads or rails.
 Land consumption is lower per passenger-kilometer than surface transport systems, as infrastructure
is concentrated at airports.
 It has strict safety protocols governed by ICAO and DGCA, making it one of the safest modes for
passenger kilometers traveled.
 Aircraft are capable of overcoming physical barriers such as mountains and oceans, enhancing global
connectivity.
 Despite advantages, air transport involves high capital and maintenance costs, is fuel-intensive, and
sensitive to weather disruptions.
 Environmental concerns like noise pollution and emissions are significant, though newer aircraft are
designed for better fuel efficiency and reduced carbon footprint.
 The sector is driven by technology, requiring regular updates in avionics, maintenance protocols, and
skilled manpower for safe operations.

ii) Airport types – based on functions?

 Airports are functionally categorized into civil, military, and joint-use types based on operations and
users.
 Civil airports cater to passenger and cargo flights and are divided into domestic and international
types, with international airports having customs and immigration facilities.
 Military airports are used exclusively for defense operations and training and are equipped with
fortified infrastructure, radar systems, and secure perimeters.
 Joint-use airports are designed to handle both civil and military traffic with shared control towers,
operational areas, and coordinated traffic management systems.
 Based on operational capacity, airports are further classified into hub, regional, reliever, and cargo
airports, each designed for specific traffic loads and connectivity roles.
 Hub airports follow a hub-and-spoke model, connecting regional airports to main routes, facilitating
international and intercity transfers.
 Cargo airports are equipped with specialized handling zones, cold storage, apron space, and
warehouse facilities tailored for freight logistics.
 ICAO also categorizes airports under Categories I, II, and III, based on the precision of instrument
landing systems and visual aid availability during low-visibility conditions.
 Operational functions influence airport layout, pavement strength, terminal design, and airspace
management regulations.
 The classification helps in defining development plans, security measures, and licensing norms based
on expected usage and aircraft operations.
12.

i). Airport/Airfield components?

 Airside components include runways, taxiways, aprons, holding bays, and aircraft stands, designed
according to ICAO Annex 14.
 Runways serve as primary surfaces for aircraft takeoff and landing, built to accommodate code-
specified aircraft load, length, and width.
 Taxiways provide safe maneuvering paths between runways and terminals, designed with turning
radii and curve transitions for smooth aircraft movement.
 Aprons are parking areas where aircraft are refueled, boarded, loaded, and unloaded; apron
pavements are designed for heavy static loads.
 Airfield pavements can be flexible or rigid, designed using ESWL and CBR values, ensuring
durability and load-bearing strength.
 Runway End Safety Areas (RESA), blast pads, and shoulders are designed to enhance safety and
mitigate overrun damage.
 Landside components include passenger terminals, ATC towers, hangars, cargo areas, and airport
access roads.
 Terminals house ticketing, check-in, baggage handling, immigration, and boarding gates, designed
for passenger flow efficiency.
 ATC towers manage flight movement using radar, visual surveillance, and communication systems
like ADS-B and VHF radios.
 Support facilities include firefighting stations, drainage networks, fuel farms, and power supply
units, ensuring operational continuity and safety.

ii) Geometric design of the Runway?

 Runway length is calculated using aircraft performance data and corrected for elevation (7% per 300
m), temperature, gradient, and surface type.
 Width depends on code number and letter; for example, Code E aircraft like B777 require 45 m or
more.
 Longitudinal gradient is limited to 1% for code 4 runways, and transverse slope ranges between
1.5% to 2% for drainage.
 Shoulders are typically 7.5 m wide on either side to support aircraft and prevent structural damage
from jet blast.
 Orientation is selected using wind rose analysis to align with prevailing winds, minimizing
crosswind components.
  Runway sight distance must allow line-of-sight for half the runway length from any point, ensuring
safe visibility for pilots.
 The runway safety area extends up to 240 m beyond the runway end and 60 m on each side to reduce
damage during overrun.
 Runway markings include threshold, centreline, touchdown zone, and edge markings painted with
high-friction, retroreflective paint.
 Lighting systems such as approach lights, edge lights, and runway end lights enable night and low-
visibility operations.
 Runway geometric design ensures compliance with ICAO safety margins and aircraft performance
limits.

13.

i) Runway, taxiway markings (dia)?

 Threshold markings indicate the beginning of the usable runway, consisting of 4 to 16 longitudinal
white stripes, depending on runway width.
 The runway centreline is a series of dashed white lines guiding aircraft alignment during takeoff and
landing.
 Touchdown zone markings begin 150 m from the threshold and help in guiding landing aircraft for
proper descent and braking.
 Edge markings are solid white lines defining the runway width and assist pilots in maintaining lateral
alignment.
 Runway numbers are based on magnetic heading, rounded to the nearest 10°, with 'L', 'C', and 'R' for
parallel runways.
 The taxiway centreline is a continuous yellow line guiding aircraft along the designated taxi path.
 Edge markings on taxiways use solid or dashed yellow lines to differentiate load-bearing surfaces
from safety areas.
 Holding position markings at runway-taxiway intersections consist of two solid and two dashed
yellow lines, indicating holding limits.
 Surface-painted signs, direction arrows, and location identifiers help pilots navigate ground
operations.
 All markings use weather-resistant, retroreflective paint and are maintained for night visibility in
conjunction with taxiway lighting.
RUNWAY CROSS SECTION

ii) Airport zones?

 Airside zone includes runways, taxiways, aprons, and restricted access areas used exclusively for
aircraft operations.
 The landslide zone comprises terminal halls, access roads, car parks, and public utilities used by
passengers and cargo handlers.
 The terminal zone acts as the transition area for passenger movement, including immigration,
customs, and security clearance.
 Clear zones beyond runway ends must remain obstacle-free to ensure safe takeoff and landing
operations.
 Noise exposure zones are defined using DNL values to regulate land use planning and prevent
construction in high-noise regions.
 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS) define airspace clearance slopes around the airport to avoid
physical intrusions by structures.
  Zoning also defines spatial allocation for maintenance hangars, fuel farms, cargo terminals, and
ground transport hubs.
 Proper airport zoning ensures operational safety, infrastructure segregation, and compliance with
ICAO and DGCA norms.
 Airspace management is coordinated with ATC zoning for arrival, departure, and enroute air traffic
segments.
 Zoning regulations limit high-rise construction, radio tower installations, and waste-disposal units
near airport perimeters.

14.

i). Harbour Components?

 Breakwaters are protective barriers designed to absorb or reflect wave energy, creating calm waters
inside the harbor basin.
 Entrance channels are navigable paths aligned with deep water, designed with specific depth, width,
and turning radii.
 Quays and wharves are fixed structures for berthing ships, providing interfaces for cargo transfer and
passenger movement.
 Jetties extend into the sea allowing vessels to dock away from shallow shorelines and are designed
with fender systems.
 Mooring systems including bollards and hooks are installed to secure ships during berthing and
unloading.
 Navigation aids such as buoys, beacons, and lighthouses ensure directional guidance and prevent
collisions.
 Harbor basin is the main water body where vessels anchor, turn, and wait; it is kept dredged to
required depths.
 Dredging equipment is used to maintain required draft and prevent siltation in navigation channels
and basins.
 Cargo terminals, transit sheds, and warehouses support logistics, cargo storage, and customs
processing.
 Firefighting systems, oil spill control, and stormwater drainage ensure environmental and operational
safety.
ii) How do you design the harbour layout?

 Harbor layout is planned considering wave direction, sediment movement, and ship maneuvering
requirements.
 Breakwaters are placed to form semi-enclosed basins with minimal wave disturbance and prevent silt
entry.
 Entrance channel is aligned with the approach path and designed to maintain navigable depth and
safety radius.
 Turning basins are located with a radius 1.5–2 times the ship length to allow vessel rotation.
 Cargo and fishing zones are separated to reduce operational conflicts and improve traffic flow.

5.

i). Shore protection & Reclamation?

 Reclamation uses structures like seawalls, revetments, and groynes to protect reclaimed land from
erosion and wave action.
 Seawalls are vertical concrete walls reflecting waves, while revetments are sloped rubble structures
that absorb energy.
 Groynes are constructed perpendicular to shore to trap sediment and stabilize beach profiles.
 Reclamation bunds with geotextile lining are constructed to contain fill material and prevent seepage
losses.
 Hydraulic fill method uses dredged materials deposited inside the bunded area, requiring soil
stabilization methods post-fill.
 Vertical drains and sand wicks are used for consolidation and settlement reduction in soft marine
soils.
 Design calculations use Hudson’s formula to size armor units and check stability under wave
loading.
 Environmental concerns are addressed through EMPs, silt curtains, and water quality monitoring.
 Coastal slopes are protected with filter layers and riprap to resist scouring and storm surge effects.
 Site-specific conditions like tidal range, wave height, and sediment transport are considered in
protection system design.

ii) Coastal Regulation Act?

 CRZ Notification under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 regulates coastal development
activities and land use.
 CRZ 2019 divides coastlines into four zones: CRZ-I (ecologically sensitive), CRZ-II (urban), CRZ-
III (rural), and CRZ-IV (marine).
 No Development Zone (NDZ) is 20–200 m from the High Tide Line, depending on land category
and activity.
 CRZ-I prohibits any construction; CRZ-II allows regulated redevelopment; CRZ-III permits
agriculture and tourism with conditions.
 Projects like ports, harbours, and SEZs require clearance from the MoEFCC along with approved
CZMPs.
 Environmental Impact Assessments are mandatory for major infrastructure projects in CRZ areas.
 Coastal hazard line mapping is enforced to regulate construction in flood-prone and erosion-sensitive
areas.
 Penalties for violations include fines, demolitions, and imprisonment under EPA guidelines.
 CRZ norms aim to balance ecological protection with sustainable coastal development and economic
growth.
 Fishing, traditional livelihood, and environmental conservation are prioritized through zone-specific
guidelines and development controls.