ASSESSMENT OF KULEKHANI WATERSHED’S HEALTH BASED ON WATER

QUALITY

RESEARCHER: SUMAN SHRESTHA

TU Registration: 2-2-47-26-2017

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY

POKHARA CAMPUS

POKHARA

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY

September, 2022
 ASSESSMENT OF KULEKHANI WATERSHED’S HEALTH BASED ON WATER
QUALITY

RESEARCHER: SUMAN SHRESTHA

TU Registration: 2-2-47-26-2017

BSc. Forestry

Advisor

Mr. Rajan Subedi

Assistant Professor (Watershed Management)

Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara

Email: rsubedi@iofpc.edu.np

Tribhuvan University
Institute of Forestry
Pokhara Campus
Pokhara

Project Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of
Science in Forestry

Sept, 2022
©Suman Shrestha,

Sept, 2022

Email: sthas844@gmail.com

Tribhuvan University

Institute of Forestry

Pokhara Campus

Hariyokharka, Pokhara-15, Kaski

Website: www.iofpc.edu.np

Citation:

Shrestha, S. (2022). Assessment of Kulekhani watershed's health based on water quality.

 DECLARATION

By my signature below, I, Suman Shrestha certify that my report is entirely the result of my work
and, all those other sources of information used are duly acknowledged. I am responsible for any
errors that occur. I have cited all sources of information and data I have used in my thesis report.
This report has not been submitted to any university for any academic award.

……………………………………

Suman Shrestha

B.Sc. Forestry

Tribhuvan University

Institute of Forestry

Pokhara, Pokhara Campus

Date: Sept, 2022

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my advisor Professor Mr. Rajan Subedi for
the critical analysis, valuable feedback, comments, guidance, and suggestions who has the
attitude and the substance of a genius: he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of
adventure in regarding research, without his guidance and persistent help this dissertation would
not have been possible. Similarly, I would like to acknowledge Office of Dean and Department
of Forest and Soil for granting this study and for the evergreen support in each and every step.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Mr. Shreedhar Sir for the useful comments, remarks
and engagement through the learning process of this thesis. A particular mention goes to the
participant or assistant in my survey, who has willingly shared his precious time during the
process of data collection namely Er. Pramod Shrestha. I would like to thank my entire family
for being proud of me and making me proud of them.

I express my deepest gratitude to my friends (Six Jinx), and to everyone who has supported me
throughout entire process, both by keeping me harmonious and helping me putting pieces
together. Words aren’t enough of how thankful I am to Mr Prabesh Kunwar, both by keeping me
harmonious and helping me putting pieces together. I will be grateful forever for everyone’s
support.

ii
 ABSTRACT

Kulekhani watershed is situated in Makwanpur district under Bagmati Province of Nepal which
is being a popular tourist destination and many developmental works are done. Kulekhani
Multipurpose reservoir (Indrasarobar) was constructed in 1981 and its major contributing
streams are now being exploited more by domestic tourists. This is welcoming deforestation,
infrastructure development like construction of hotels and restaurants around the site, pollution
side by side. Indrasarobar lake is the main outlet of this watershed. Human health, industrial
development, and food security are directly dependent on an adequate supply of suitable quantity
and quality of water.

The water quality index which was calculated by weighted arithmetic method by Brown et al.,
was found to be high in Chitlang River 68.94 which shows poor condition of water which is due
to high ammonia and high lead metal. Extensive agriculture increases the ammonia in water and
lead metal was found higher than of its standard value. Lead and Iron didn’t fall under the
National Drinking Water Quality Standard 2062 in most of them. We can see that Sim
Bhanjyang River also known as Thado Khola is the cleanest of them all with WQI 5.56 falling
under the excellent category which can be used as drinking water. Other streams Palung river,
Bisinkhel river, Sim River, Chakkhel river falls under good category with WQI 29.8, 44.68,
34.89, 47.30 respectively. These stations were surrounded with some agricultural land and
mostly forest land. The stations didn’t have any phytoplankton but different aquatic animals were
found. Hence eutrophic state of the streams was minimal. In case of fish farming there is
decrease in production. Agriculture, waste management, tourism, and urbanization are the most
probable cause for that. Forest in the land use land cover from 2013 to 2019 is increasing with
2.5 sq.km in these years. Urban or built-up area is increasing yearly and is 0.48 sq.km more than
that of 2013. Cropland (Agricultural land) has been transformed to different form which has
decreased 2.9 sq.km since 2013 to 2019. Other wooded lands are decreasing. And other
categories are fluctuating. Out of 1241 precipitation yearly 497.2 mm and 26.15 evaporates or
transpiration through surface or shallow aquifer. 297.17mm of water goes to surface runoff and
252.59mm of water had lateral flow and 159.75mm of water had return flow. The flow in the
Kulekhani reservoir seems to be increasing from year 2014 to 2021 which is due to increasing
precipitation trend yearly.

Keywords: Kulekhani watershed, Water quality index, SWAT, Land use land cover

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii
Chapter-1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1Background ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Problem statement and justification ..................................................................................... 3
1.3. Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Limitation of the study .......................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 5
2.1 Water quality parameters ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Water Quality and Plankton Assemblages ............................................................................ 6
2.3 Sediment Yield Using SWAT Model.................................................................................... 6
2.4 GIS-based assessment of debris flow .................................................................................... 6
2.5 Lake Eutrophication .............................................................................................................. 7
Chapter -3: MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................. 8
3.1 Study Area ............................................................................................................................. 8
3.1.1 Introduction of watershed and study site ........................................................................ 8
3.1.2 Topography and Climatic condition of the study area ................................................... 9
3.2 Data Collection Methods..................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.2 Equipment and Software .............................................................................................. 12
3.2.3 Secondary data .............................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter-4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 16
4.1 Water Quality Index (WQI): ............................................................................................... 16
4.1.1 Physio-chemical parameters ......................................................................................... 17
4.2 Fish Farming: ...................................................................................................................... 19
4.3 SWAT modeling ................................................................................................................. 22
4.3.1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Soil Map ............................................................ 22

iv
 4.3.2 Land Use Land Cover Map .......................................................................................... 23
4.3.3 Output and reports ........................................................................................................ 25
4.3.4 Flow trend ..................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.5 Precipitation trend (annually in station): ...................................................................... 30
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................. 31
5.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 6: REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 33
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 36
PHOTOPLATES ....................................................................................................................... 36

v
 Chapter-1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with a brief introduction of reservoir and its importance, watershed, land use
land cover and their relation with water quality of reservoir with respect to sub-watershed. It also
explains the need of this study.

1.1Background
An area of land in which all the water or snowmelt drains to a single stream, river, lake or
reservoir is known as watershed. It can also be assumed as a smooth, clean and shiny porcelain
bowl (Goodman, 2011). Water sources are vital renewable sources which are for the
development and survival of any society. Likewise, human health, industrial development, and
food security are directly dependent on an adequate supply of suitable quantity and quality of
water. Water is an essential requirement of human life and activities associated with them like
industry, agriculture, etc. Water is the most delicate part of our environment (J. Das and B. C.
Acharya). Watershed management is like a holistic approach to manage watershed reservoir to
integrate forestry, agriculture, pasture and water for sustainable management of natural resources
(Pandit et al., 2007,). In broader sense, the watershed management is an effort for ensuring
hydrological, soil as well as biotic regime based on which the water development projects are
planned, maintained or even enhanced to prevent it from deterioration. Now, we are well-known
about the water and soil regimes of any watershed are affected by the changing land use pattern
of that site (Biswas, 1980).

As sub-watershed is considered the appropriate unit of watershed management, this management

approach has been followed by the government of Nepal since the ninth five-year plan (from
1997/98 to 2001/02) in which the sub-watershed needs to be ranked by erosion severity
(DSCWM, 2015,). Watershed management term is the integrated process that must be applied to
sustain resources through the balanced use of water resources and in a way that does not harm
animals and plants living there. Rivers are the primary concern and their discharge and water
quality are the key components of watershed ecosystems. These interchanges can be affected by
vegetation cover and land use decisively. The crucial ecosystem services (e.g., ecotourism,

1
biodiversity, food production, and sediment retention) would be affected by land-use changes
(Liang et al., 2017,). After all proper utilization must be practiced for the management of the
quantity and quality of water resources. Water quality is the primary factor in the health of
aquatic habitats, including habitats for fish, planktons, and other organisms. Water quality
assessment refers to the overall process of evaluation of the physical, chemical, and biological
nature of water in relation to natural quality. The flora and faunal diversity of wetlands are
influenced by several physiochemical parameters. Nepal’s wetlands are facing degredation
primarily due to eutrophication and land reclamation.

Reservoirs are essential for storing water and providing necessary to run turbines for
conventional hydroelectric power (Bodaly et al., 2004). The siltation of reservoirs is one of the
most important off-site impacts of soil erosion (Sharma, 1998,) that are closely linked to
desertification problems like reservoir sedimentation, flooding problems, the loss of fertile foot
slopes and floodplains, nutrient loss, eutrophication and the destruction of ecological habitats
(Vanmaercke et al). The processes of soil erosion, sediment retention, and sediment transport
are the key components and functions of the watershed area (Morgan, 2005).

The Kulekhani reservoir (also known as Indrasarobar) is the source of water to the Kulekhani
hydropower generation of 92 MW (60MW from Kulekhani-I and 32MW from Kulekhani-II) in
running and 14 MW from Kulekhani-III under final stage of completion. Kulekhani hydro
electricity plant (KHEP) is the first and only reservoir-based hydropower plant in Nepal, which
was accomplished in the 1980s. Despite having a century-long history of electricity generation
and consumption, half of the population is still deprived of use of electricity and the other half is
facing long hours of power cut (NEA, 2011). Because of the increased sedimentation level, the
water level of this reservoir to be increased though the precipitation has been observed to
decline. General knowledge and the physiographical characteristics of the river basin should be
considered while planning new reservoirs (Shrestha, 2012).

This study investigates the potential impact of land-use change on the hydrology of the
Kulekhani watershed and assesses its consequences on the hydropower production of the
Kulekhani hydropower project and water quality of Kulekhani watershed as well.

2
1.2. Problem statement and justification
Water quality degradation is a crucial problem in Nepal where urbanization is rapid. To protect
the physical, chemical, and biological wholeness of watersheds, a broader view of the watershed
is essential. A healthy watershed has the quality to improve the flexibility of local ecology to a
broad topic, “Climate Change”. A watershed can be called a social-ecological system (Behera,
S., & Panda, R. K. 2006) that comprises multiple units like rivers, streams, dams, cities, etc.
which are nowadays affected by both anthropogenic activities (overfishing, habitat expansion,
deforestation, land-use) and non-anthropogenic phenomenon (climate change).

Kulekhani Multipurpose reservoir (Indra Sarobar) was constructed in 1981 and its major
contributing streams are now being exploited more by domestic tourists due to it’s increasing
beauty. This is welcoming deforestation, infrastructure development like construction of hotels
and restaurants around the site, pollution side by side and it is important to assess the magnitude
of the problems so the effective measures can be applied in the study area (Shrestha, 2012). Over
the past 20 years, In Nepal, there seem degradations in soil resources as a result of road
construction and land overexploitation along with the expansion of agricultural land (Gardner
and Gerrard, 2003). This leaves more soils prone to erosion and eutrophication in the watershed
increases. Different water quality changes and indicators (pH, Total dissolved oxygen (TDO),
Total Nitrogen(T-N), Total Phosphorus(T-P), heavy metals, etc.) was to be found in the area with
time. Both financial and environmental problems occurred and it will be out of hand to solve
easily (Ahn, S., & Kim, S. 2017). With time passing by, this study aims to assess the prime cause
for the watershed health degradation or improvisation following past studies.

In the Kulekhani watershed, there are extensive agricultural activities in the tributaries and
valleys of the main river, leading to the addition of different chemicals (Ammonia, Nitrate) and
solid metals that harm the aquatic ecosystem and life (Knisel, W. G. 1980). This is due to high-
intensity rainfall which leads to sweeping of those materials (Lemma T. B. 2015). These and
other related problems degrade the watershed health of the Kulekhani watershed which is the
only seasonal reservoir in Nepal. This study tried to identify reliable indicators of the water
ecosystem health of the Kulekhani watershed and evaluate with the existing data on it. Therefore,
understanding the impacts of watershed health degradation and looking for solutions to
minimize, it is paramount. Therefore, in order to plan further watershed management and
development, it is very instrumental to commission the value of water quality. So far, no research

3
has been conducted to assess the watershed health in Kulekhani watershed. This research will
serve as a frontier to estimate the water quality condition.

1.3. Objectives
The general objective of this study is to assess the Kulekhani watershed health from a water
quality perspective.

The specific objectives are:

1. To compare the water quality status of contributing streams using WQI (Water Quality
Index).
2. To analyze the water quality trend in terms of fish production.
3. To simulate the SWAT model to understand water balance of the watershed.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the water quality status of the contributing streams of the reservoir?
2. How does land use, soil, climate and topography determined water balance of the
watershed?
3. Is existing water quality suitable for fish farming and aquatic ecosystem or not?

1.5 Limitation of the study

 Time constraints had limited the researcher to collect data and analyze them in a short
time period.
 The samples were taken only once i.e, premonsoon period. So, the result cannot be
generalized for throughout the year.

1.6 Structure of the thesis

The specific guideline provided by Institute of Forestry, Pokhara helped to organize the thesis.
This includes six chapters, we have Introduction on first followed by namely Literature review,
Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion and lastly Conclusion and Recommendation along
with Appendix.

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Chapter 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is related to reviewing relevant literatures for the study under major heading of
Kulekhani watershed, water quality and aquatic ecosysyem. The major objective of this topic is
to highlight results and facts from different past works in the Kulekhani watershed in general.
Kulekhani reservoir is one of Nepal’s largest manmade lakes which is becoming a favorite to
tourists these days. It has become a masterpiece of nature that has added glamour. Not only
tourist but eutrophication, acidification, contamination, sedimentation, and invasive species in
the Kulekhani watershed has affected water quality drastically. There are fewer studies in terms
of water qualities and factors affecting them in Nepalese lakes and watersheds. Agricultural
runoff and untreated sewage from the catchment are high in this watershed which meets the
criteria of Nepal standard for aquaculture and irrigation (Gurung S. et al, 2019).

2.1 Water quality parameters

Water is considered polluted if some substance is present to such a degree or quantity that it
cannot be used for a specific purpose. Water pollution results when contaminants are introduced
into the natural environment. For example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural
water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystems, intensive agricultural practices,
everyday human activities etc. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for people living
downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or bathing or irrigation.
Water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease, e.g., due to water-borne
diseases. Several scientists have studied mineral levels in different bodies of water, and have
found that the levels of phosphates and nitrates heavily impact the overall health of the water and
its inhabitants. Phosphates and nitrates occur in small amounts in all aquatic environments and
are required to maintain the growth and metabolism of plants and animals. However, in excess
amounts, these minerals can prove to be quite harmful. Through the process of eutrophication,
dissolved minerals and nutrients flow into streams, lakes and other bodies of water. Levels of
phosphates and nitrates that are intolerable to local organisms have been known to deplete
dissolved oxygen levels by causing algal blooms. Eutrophication, bringing with it high number
of phosphates and nitrates, is a main cause in the destruction of Lake ecosystems around the
world (Ansar & Khad, 2005).

5
2.2 Water Quality and Plankton Assemblages
Four classes of phytoplankton and three groups of zooplankton were identified in the Kulekhani
watershed which is favored by the water quality within the watershed. Eutrophication and the
presence of different chemical constituents have promoted the growth and distribution of
plankton assemblages. These interactions can help in other utilities in reservoirs i.e., fish
farming. Seasonal water level change and fluctuations in water quality have affected the
distribution of planktons which is hampering the cage culture in fish farming, affecting the
livelihood of people relying on fish farming (Adhikari et al, 2017).

2.3 Sediment Yield Using SWAT Model

Many models are found which simulate the different factors which predicts the impacts of
management practices on different factors like water quality, sediment etc. One of these models
involves CREAMS (Chemical, Runoff, and Erosion from Management System) (Knisel, 1980).
Likewise, the simulation of the runoff and sediment yield from Kulekhani watershed was done
through SWAT2012 which has examined the applicability of the SWAT model. SWAT model
was unable to simulate the sediment from gully erosion, landslides. Distributed rainfall data,
longer period of runoff and sediment data, better quality land use and soil data could have
improved the SWAT modeling (Lemma T. B, 2015).

2.4 GIS-based assessment of debris flow

Debris flows are the hazardous natural calamity in hilly regions of Nepal and which directly
harms the water quality. Torrential rainfall triggers in slopes and initiation of landslides in these
regions. The topography of the mountains and poor land use practices contribute to these
instabilities.

High-intensity rainfall is triggering instability in the slopes in mountainous regions of Nepal. The
study was carried out based on the GIS model to assess the debris flow hazard which is directly
related to the water quality and chemical constituents in the Kulekhani watershed. The rain-fall-
induced debris flow also warns the watershed around it (Paudel B. 2020).

6
The major problems of the Kulekhani watershed need a strategy to cope with which will extend
its life span, maintain its cleanliness and promote it as a tourist destination. To achieve this target
there should be an integrated and holistic approach along with the responsibilities among
stakeholders (Pokharel, 2019). Water quality data for the seven contributing streams to
Indrasarobar lake is unknown and how land use and management system affects the water
quality is unknown too. These small sub-watersheds could affect the main watershed, in general,
which is the main topic of this study and will be hard to cope with when time passes by.

2.5 Lake Eutrophication

Eutrophication is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients
which induce excessive growth of algae (Chislock et al., 2018). One example is an "algal bloom”
as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of
nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and some other elements are essential for plant growth; however, if a
water body receives more nitrogen and phosphorus than necessary, the ecosystem can experience
changes such as algal blooms; therefore, eutrophication can be considered as a biological or
ecological concept. In this sense, using nitrogen, phosphorus, or other environmental factors is
not the most appropriate way to evaluate the trophic level of a lake; instead, the evaluation
should be based on primary productivity of macrophytes and phytoplankton, but these indicators
are difficult to assess.

7
Chapter -3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes about all the materials and methods that have been used to conduct the
study as well as procedures those were undertaken in this study.

3.1 Study Area

3.1.1 Introduction of watershed and study site

Figure 1: Study area

The Kulekhani watershed area was selected for this study. It is situated in Makwanpur district
under Bagmati Province of Nepal. The reservoir is synonymously known as Kulekhani
hydropower (only a reservoir type hydropower in Nepal) at the present context. With a total area
of about 125 km2, the watershed extends approximately between 27°30′00″N and 27°40′46″N
latitude and 85°1′41″ E and 85°13′56″ E longitude.

8
3.1.2 Topography and Climatic condition of the study area
Geomorphologically, the area has been considered to be divided in to the Mahabharat range and
the midlands valley. It is located about 50 km southwest of the capital city Kathmandu with an
altitude varying from 1534 to 2621m at the peak of Simbhanjyang. Wide land of Kulekhani
watershed spreads throughout Palung, Tistung and Chitlang valleys.

Precambrian to Cambrian metamorphic rocks of the Markhu formation, Kulekhani formation,

Chisapani formation, Kalitar formation and granites compose the geology of the Kulekhani
watershed. According to (Dijkshoorn & Huting 2009, p. 10), the watershed area is covered by
two types of dominated soils namely Eutric Cambisols and Chromic Cambisols.

Because of the variation in topography, the climate of Kulekhani also varies from subtropical to
temperate i.e., from low lands to higher elevations. However, watershed has four distinct seasons
like pre-monsoon (March to May), monsoon (June to September), post-monsoon (October to
November) and winter (December to February); it has been found mainly affected by monsoon
season. The average annual rainfall has been found recorded as 1863mm/year.

The river system of this watershed is as tributary of the Bagmati river that belongs to the second
category in the middle mountain. The system has been created by the network of the six main
contributing rivers namely Palung khola, Bisinkhel khola, Chitlang khola, Simbhanjyang khola,
Sim khola, Chakkhel khola. Tamang, Magar, Gurung, Chhetri and Brahmin are the major ethnic
groups to make a heterogeneous composition. The watershed covers total 17779 HHs having
102058 population those livelihood and daily life mainly depends on agriculture to meet their
basic needs for food, fodder, wood, firewood, fiber and shelter (Sthapit, 1996, p. 1).

9
3.2 Data Collection Methods
3.2.1 Primary data
Primary data included water sampling, measurement of some in-situ parameters, GPS points of
sample locations, fish farming practices and SWAT model inputs preparation.

3.2.1.1 Water Quality Index

Different water samples were collected from the six main contributing streams of the
Indrasarobar lake namely:

(i)Palung Khola

(ii)Bisinkhel Khola

(iii)Chitlang Khola

(iv)Sim Bhanjyang Khola

(v)Sim Khola

(vi)Chakkhel Khola.

Figure 2: Sampling location in different streams

All parameters Total nitrogen (T-N), Total phosphorous (T-P), Total hardness, pH, Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), Ammonia, Nitrate, Heavy metals like Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Lead were tested in

10
lab. Data collection started on the pre-monsoon season (April and starting days of May). Stations
for data collection of water is done through Adhoc sampling method which means continuously
consulting with stakeholders and one local guide. Three water samples were collected from each
stream other than Sim Khola on the left, right and middle of the stream. Due to small and narrow
current in Sim khola only one sample was taken. The water samples were collected where there
is current and from the mid-depth of the stream. Total of 16 water samples were collected near to
the boundary of Indrasarobar lake. Then it’s mean concentration data was used. Water samples
were collected in specific airtight bottles provided by the Soil Water and Air Testing lab and
washing them with the same station water. And it is labelled and transported to the lab for its
chemical composition testing.

3.2.1.2 Fish Farming Data

A consultation and interview with Fisheries Development Officer namely Anju Gharti Magar
was done where there were data collected about fish farming in Indrasarobar Lake.

3.2.1.3 SWAT Modeling

For the SWAT model run different inputs were needed for e.g.;

SWAT HYDROLOGY WEATHER NUTRIENTS

MAPS DATA

(i)Digital Elevation Model (DEM): Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is vital data for raster
analysis and the most common parameter in GIS application. It has main uses like generating
contour lines, slope and drainage basin extraction of a particular area and mainly delineating
watershed. The DEM with 30 m spatial resolution was downloaded from the USGS Earth
Explorer.

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Table 1: Details about DEM used:

Specification and projection Details

Raster data format .tiff
Projection WGS_1984_UTM_45N
Resolution 30m
False easting 500000
False northing 0
Pixel depth 16-bit signed integer
Number of Columns and Rows 641 & 354

(ii)Land Use Land Cover Map: LULC map uploaded by the ICIMOD 2019 was used for the
model run with four LULC maps to insert as input for SWAT modeling (2013, 2015, 2017,
2019). This image was downloaded due to its availability and particularly focuses only in Nepal
and due to its convenience and genuine data.

(iii)Soil Map: Soil map of Kulekhani watershed was extracted from FAO/ORG in which there is
data Digital Soil Map of the world in ESRI shapefile. It is then extracted and masked according
to shapefile of Kulekhani watershed in ArcGIS, which is ready for the SWAT model run.

(iv)Weather Data: Data was collected from the Hydrological and Meteorological Department,
Kathmandu. We selected a climatology station Hetauda N.F.I and precipitation station Markhu
gaun. We collected daily maximum and minimum temperature data, daily relative humidity,
daily rainfall data from 2012-2022. Only rainfall data was available in Markhugaun station
whereas Hetauda had all.

3.2.2 Equipment and Software

GPS was used to point out the location where water samples were collected and bottles for
sample collection, camera for pictures, laptop for data storing are used as equipment in this
study. The software used for the study is given below:

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Table 2: Software used for study

S. Software Purpose
N
1 ArcGIS10.3 Spatial analysis and mapping
2 Arc SWAT interface For modeling
3 Microsoft excel 2016 Statistical calculation and data management
4 Map Window Making Soil Map
5 IDM For Downloading Files

3.2.3 Secondary data

All the relevant journal papers, books and published and unpublished reports were consulted for
the collection of secondary data.

3.3 Data Analysis

 After the lab test of following chemical constituents in water samples like Total nitrogen
(T-N), Total phosphorous (T-P), Total hardness, pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Ammonia,
Nitrate, Heavy metals like Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Lead which are used to find the Water
Quality Index through weighted arithmetic method prescribed by Brown, et al.
 The standards used are National Drinking Water Quality Standard (2062) standards for
drinking water.
 The value obtained through lab of the physio-chemical parameters were analyzed and
given mean value to the three samples of each station.
 For WQI calculation we use WQI Formula (Brown et. Al., 1972) and following are the
steps:

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Step 1: Calculate the unit weight (Wn) factors for each parameter by using formula,

Wn=K/Sn

Where,

K= ______________1_____________________ = 1___

1/S1+1/S2+………….+1/Sn Σ1/Sn

Sn= Standard desirable value of nth parameters

(Note: On summation of all selected parameters unit weight factors, Wn = 1 unity)

Step 2: Calculate the sub-index value by using formula,

Qn=(Vn-Vo)/(Sn-Vo) *100

Where,

Vn= mean concentration of the nth parameters

Sn= Standard desirable value of the nth parameter

Vo= Actual values of the parameters in Pure water (generally Vo=0 for
most parameters except for pH which is 7 and Dissolved Oxygen which is 14.6.

Step 3: Combining Step1 and Step2 we get WQI

Overall WQI = ΣWnQn/ ΣWn

Table 3: As Per Brown following is the rating of WQI and categorization as per the WQI:

Water Quality Index Water Quality Status for

drinking water
0-25 Excellent

26-50 Good

51-75 Poor

76-100 Very poor

>100 Unfit for consumption

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  From the water quality test by “Matsaya Bikas Kendra” which is conducted in every
month helps to analyze watershed health condition and whether it is good for fish farming
and aquatic ecosystem in general. And consulting with stakeholder gives some data about
the fish farming and water quality test which was conducted monthly.
 The SWAT model is a river basin model which is physically based, continuous time, long
term simulation originated from agricultural models. The main objective of the model is
to predict the impact of land management practices on water, sediment and nutrient loss
in large watersheds. SWAT model which will analyze the land cover of the watershed
and gives the output which will provide different information about the watershed.
SWAT model help analyze the health of the watershed and gives an idea of the long-term
effects of hydrological and environmental changes. Therefore, the model is efficient
simulator of hydrology and water quality at various scale. The output given by this model
was how hydrology, precipitation, temperature and humidity affect plant growth as well.
The model was run for the year 2012-2022 by fixing the warm up period of two years.
The warm up period of 2 years is generally recommended for SWAT model to reach
hydrological equilibrium.

The conceptual framework and for analysis of SWAT modeling that is applied is given below:

Requirement of the model

Set objective Data collection and preparation
(model input format)

Model setup and run

Delineate the watershed
Import prepared data into the
Create HRUs
model
Model setup and run
Provide reports and output data

15
Chapter-4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter describes the findings on value of different physiochemical parameters,

eutrophication status of the lake, fish farming condition, land use changes and swat model output
of Kulekhani watershed.

4.1 Water Quality Index (WQI):

The water quality status of Kulekhani watershed is described through Physio-chemical
parameters and test in the lab.

Table 4: Water Quality Index for calculation of each stream:

Name of Streams WQI Sampling date and X (deg, min, Y Category

time sec) and status
Palung River 29.8 May 2nd, 2 pm 316294 3057403 Good
Bisinkhel River 44.68 May 2nd, 12 noon 317239 3057064 Good
Sim Bhanjyang 5.56 May 1st, 11:30 am 317383 3054809 Excellent
River
Chitlang River 68.94 May 3rd, 12 noon 318158 3056599 Poor
Chakkhel River 47.30 April 30, 11 am 318705 3055057 Good
Sim River 34.89 April 30 3 pm 318118 3054102 Good

WQI
90
80
70
60
50
STATUS

40
30 68.94
20 44.68 47.3
29.8 34.89
10
0 5.56
-10
Palung River Bisinkhel River Sim Bhanjyang Chitlang Chakkhel Sim River
WQI 29.8 44.68 5.56 68.94 47.3 34.89

WQI

16
4.1.1 Physio-chemical parameters
The Physio-chemical characters measured for the water samples of Kulekhani watershed during
the study were found slightly different in different stations.

Table 5: Physio-chemical parameters

S. Parameters Unit Relevant Method

N Standard
1. pH - 6.5-8.5 4500 H+ B. APHA 23rd edition
2. Dissolved mg/L 14 DO Meter
oxygen (DO)
3. Total hardness mg/L 60 Ca-Mg hardness
(TH)
4. Total % - 4500-NorgC. Semi Micro Kjeldahl
Nitrogen(T-N) Method 23rd edition
5. Total mg/L 3 4500-P E. Ascorbic Acid Method, APHA
Phosphate(T- 23rd edition
P)
6. Ammonia mg/L 0.2 4500 NH3 F. APHA 23rd edition
7. Nitrate mg/L 50 4500 NO3 B. APHA 23rd edition
8. Manganese mg/L 0.5 3111 B APHA, 23rd edition
(Mn)
9. Iron mg/L 0.3 3500-Fe B. APHA 23rd edition
10. Lead (Pb) mg/L 0.01 3111 B APHA, 23rd edition
11. Zinc (Zn) mg/L 3 3111 B APHA, 23rd edition

Relevant Standard: NDWQS =National Drinking Water Quality Standard (2062)

17
Table 6: Parameter and their chemical composition in each stream

Rivers pH D T T-N T-P NH Nitrat Mn Iro Pb Zn WQ

O H 3 e n I
Palung 8.0 7.2 69 0.004 0.05 0.02 9.66 0.0 0.05 0.02 0.0 29.8
River 0 % 9 2 6
Bisinkhel 7.6 6.3 88 0.006 0.04 0.08 22.23 0.0 0.71 0.01 0.0 44.6
River 2 % 2 3 5 8
Sim 7.2 9.6 53 0.001 0.01 0.01 2.27 0.0 0.03 0.00 0.0 5.56
Bhanjyan 0 % 9 1 1 2
g River
Chitlang 8.3 6.8 80 0.01 0.00 0.31 3.52 0.0 0.66 0.07 0.0 68.9
River 7 7 3 5 4
Chakkhel 8.0 7.2 92 0.006 0.01 0.09 14.39 0.0 0.32 0.01 0.0 47.3
River 2 9 8 8 0
Sim River 7.3 6.9 95 0.01 0.03 0.03 17.22 0.0 0.4 0.06 0.0 34.8
1 2 4 8 9

Table 7: Mean Concentration of all six streams contributing to Kulekhani reservoir:

Parameters pH DO TH T-N T-P NH3 Nitrate Mn Iron Pb Zn

Mean 7.75 7.3 79.5 0.006 0.029 0.09 11.54 0.035 0.36 0.02 0.05
value

18
The water quality index which was calculated by weighted arithmetic method was found to be
high in Chitlang River 68.94 which shows poor condition of water which is due to high ammonia
and high lead metal. Extensive agriculture increases the ammonia in water and lead metal was
found higher than of its standard value. Lead and Iron didn’t fall under the National Drinking
Water Quality Standard 2062 in most of them. We can see that Sim Bhanjyang River also
known as Thado Khola is the cleanest of them all with WQI 5.56 falling under the excellent
category. Other streams Palung river, Bisinkhel river, Sim River, Chakkhel river falls under good
category with WQI 29.8, 44.68, 34.89, 47.30 respectively. These stations were surrounded with
some agricultural land and mostly forest land. The stations didn’t have any phytoplankton but
different aquatic animals were found. Hence eutrophic state of the streams was minimal.

Eutrophication is a natural process but is accelerated by human activities in the span of time
period. Stream and lake ecosystems are altered because of anthropogenic activities with
increment in the concentration of nutrients for plants, agricultural runoff, waste water, sediment
ware off are the major sources for eutrophication.

4.2 Fish Farming:

After the interview with the Fisheries development officer of “Matsaya Bikas Kendra (2041)"we
get to know following things:

 Warm water fishes are found which consist of

(a) Common Carp,
(b) Silver Carp,
(c) Bighead,
(d) Grass Carp,
(e) Rohu,
(f) Naini,
(g) Bhakur etc.
 All these types of fishes were introduced not native.
 “Asala, Katle” fish which were native are not found nowadays.
 Government providing training and source of income as fish farming to 685
shareholders after the encroachment by the government to local peoples’ land.

19
  Probable cause of decrease in production of fish (ranking as per officer):

(1) Agriculture
(2) waste management
(3) Tourism
(4) Urbanization (Developmental works)
 The increase in weight of fish is decreasing annually. Before it used to increase 1kg
annually but nowadays only 250gm weight increases individually.
 Fish pellet feeding has been started in 2021.
 Cage were formed where continuous fish species data; stocking data and harvest data
are kept.
 Description of Indrasarobar Reservoir (Average of whole year)
a. Height from sea level: 1430-1530 m
b. Area: 216 He.
c. Maximum depth: 80 m
d. Average depth: 48 m
e. Average lake length: 7 kms
f. Lake’s width: 50-500 m
g. Water temperature range: 10–26-degree celcius
h. pH: 7.5-8.5 (basic)
i. Water transparency: 0.5-2.5 m
j. Dissolved oxygen: 4.5-8.5 mg/L
k. Total Hardness: 50-200 mg/L
l. Alkalinity: 40-180 mg/L
m. Carbondioxide: 0.5-5 mg/L
 Water quality is tested monthly in Indrasarobar lake the only in which following
parameters are tested:
Temperature, DO, pH, Alkalinity, Total hardness, Co2 level, Transparency

20
Table 8: Average Water Quality in Indrasarobar Reservoir 2078/2079

Month Temp DO pH Alkalinity Total Co2 Transparency

Cel (ppm) Hardness
July 25 6.5 7.8 95 106 2.3 0.6
Aug 24.8 6.5 8.0 92 102 1.8 0.7
Sept 23.5 6.4 7.6 70 80 1.2 1.5
Oct 19 7.5 7.2 86 80 0.8 1.8
Nov 16.9 8.5 6.9 87 95 0.6 2.0
Dec 14.3 6.8 7.2 82 81 0.7 2.1
Jan 12.8 8.5 6.9 70 75 0.6 2.7
Feb 12.4 7.5 7.6 75 73 0.8 2.5
Mar 15.5 6.5 6.6 70.1 80 0.6 0.5
Apr 18.6 6.6 7.8 72 75 1.2 0.8
May 22.3 6.5 7.5 72.2 74 1.3 0.6
June 23.8 6.7 7.5 62 53 2.1 0.6

Source: “Matsaya Bikas Kendra”

21
4.3 SWAT modeling
From the SWAT modelling we got following outputs and results:

4.3.1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Soil Map

Digital elevation model had the elevation which ranges from 1362 to 2600m. Single
type of soil is found all over the watershed which is Dystic Cambisols.

Figure 3: DEM (30m) and Soil Map

22
4.3.2 Land Use Land Cover Map

Table 9: Land Use and Land Cover Statistics

Year Category Area (sq.km) Percentage

2013 Water Body 1.37 1.14
Forest 81.68 68.23
Urban 0.13 1.00
Cropland 35.55 29.69
Grassland 0.11 0.09
Other wooded land 0.86 0.71
Total: 119.7 100

23
Year Category Area (sq.km) Percentage

2015 Water Body 1.17 0.97

Forest 81.75 68.29

Urban 0.15 0.12
Cropland 35.44 29.60
Grassland 0.35 0.2
Other wooded land 0.70 0.70

Total: 119.7 100

Year Category Area (sq.km) Percentage

2017 Water Body 1.16 0.96

Forest 83.31 69.59

Urban 0.24 0.20

Cropland 33.90 28.32

Grassland 0.34 0.28

Other wooded land 0.74 0.61

Total: 119.7 100

Year Category Area (sq.km) Percentage

2019 Water Body 1.39 1.16
Forest 84.18 70.31
Urban 0.61 0.50
Cropland 32.65 27.27
Grassland 0.18 0.15
Other wooded land 0.69 0.57
Total: 119.7 100

24
 LULC 2013 LULC 2015

Water Body Forest Water Body Forest

Urban Cropland Urban Cropland
Grassland Other wooded land Grassland Other wooded land

LULC 2017 LULC 2019

Water Body Forest Water Body Forest

Urban Cropland Urban Cropland
Grassland Other wooded land Grassland Other wooded land

4.3.3 Output and reports

There was 207 hydrologic response units defined for the whole watershed containing 29
subbasins. There was single outlet selected for the whole watershed which is reservoir. In
addition to predicting the oulet flow and sediment yield, SWAT model predicted different
phenomenon and outputs in surroundings as well which is mentioned below.

25
4.3.3.1 Hydrology Report

In the simulated data we got precipitation 1240.9 mm whereas observed data from the weather
station Markhugaun had precipitation of 1350mm on average. Out of 1241 precipitation 497.2
mm and 26.15 evaporates or transpiration through surface or shallow aquifer. 297.17mm of
water goes to surface runoff and 252.59mm of water had lateral flow and 159.75mm of water
had return flow.

26
4.3.3.2 Sediment Report

As surface runoff is 297.17mm/yr it sweeps up the sediments from the forest area, farmlands,
urban and valley floor which are then collected in the point outlet or single outlet of this
Kulekhani watershed i.e, reservoir.

27
4.3.3.3 Nitrogen Cycle and Phosphorus Cycle

28
4.3.3.4 Plant growth

4.3.3.5 Landscape nutrient loss

29
4.3.4 Flow trend
Figure 4: Simulated Inflow and Outflow in Kulekhani Reservoir (From Single outlet)

Total Inflow (cms) Total Outflow (cms)

250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Total Inflow (cms) Total Outflow (cms)

4.3.5 Precipitation trend (annually in station):

Figure 5: Hetauda and Markhugaun precipitation annually (2012-2021)

Hetauda N.F.I Rainfall(mm) Markhugaun Rainfall(mm)

3000 1800
1600
2500
1400
2000 1200
1000
1500
800
1000 600
400
500
200
0 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Hetauda N.F.I Rainfall(mm) Markhugaun Rainfall(mm)

30
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion
Kulekhani watershed streams chemical parameters were combined and in mean the water is
slightly basic with mean pH 7.75. Dissolved oxygen was found 7.3mg/L which was within the
standard acceptable level which is sufficient for the survival of aquatic life. Total hardness was
found 79.5 and could be said as slight hard water. Streams have very low concentration of
nutrient supply with a less total nitrogen, phosphate, and nitrate which means water is not
potentially harmful to human and animal health and also leads to less phytoplanktons as well.
Ammonia was 0.09mg/L which will not hamper the aquatic ecosystem and irritate the fishes.
Zinc and Manganese was in normal level with quantity 0.05mg/L and 0.035 respectively. But
Iron and Lead was found little more 0.36mg/L and 0.02mg/L respectively which can hamper the
water for using as drinking water but won’t harm fish farming.

Out of six streams, Simbhanjyang River was found to have excellent water with WQI 5.56 and is
drinkable which could be due to the higher forest land cover area around that stream. On the
other hand, Chitlang river comes through different cropland and build up area, it takes ammonia
and different metals within and have 68.94 WQI which falls under poor category. This water
from Chitlang can be used for irrigation only.

Forest in the land use land cover from 2013 to 2019 is increasing with 2.5 sq.km in these years.
Urban or built-up area is increasing yearly and is 0.48 sq.km more than that of 2013. Cropland
(Agricultural land) has been transformed to different form which has decreased 2.9 sq.km since
2013 to 2019. Other wooded lands are decreasing. And other categories are fluctuating. As an
output the simulated data we got is precipitation 1240.9 mm whereas observed data from the
weather station Markhugaun had precipitation of 1350mm on average. Out of 1241 precipitation
497.2 mm and 26.15 evaporates or transpiration through surface or shallow aquifer. 297.17mm
of water goes to surface runoff and 252.59mm of water had lateral flow and 159.75mm of water
had return flow. The flow in the Kulekhani reservoir seems to be increasing from year 2014 to
2021 which could be due to incresing precipitation trend.

31
5.2 Recommendations
Based on field visit and discussions, the following recommendations might be appropriated to be
addressed in future improvement:

1. Sub-watershed carries sediments in loads so it is found sensitive to the reservoir, different

strategies should be applied either bioengineering or land use practices.
2. Ammonia and Nitrate should be also tested which are the vital chemical in case of fish
farming. These chemicals or parameters determines the well being of aquatic life.
3. Different developmental programs are running like making roads and building
construction which is changing ecosystem and clean environment of Kulekhani which
should be taken care as well.
4. This study provides insight to water quality parameters of pre-monsoon season.
Therefore, detailed study needs to be done overtime.
5. Direct discharge of pollution load into streams should be controlled which is quite less.
6. Plantation of soil retaining species like Bambusa, Rattan, Amriso should be promoted in
bare lands to avoid landslides and ware off of soil.

There is plenty of rooms for improvement of this work in the future.

32
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Appendix

PHOTOPLATES
Figure: Field Activities and Data Collection

36