A Project Report On

TRANSMISSION LINE FAULT DETECTION SYSTEM

Submitted for partial fulfillment of award of

DIPLOMA
In
Electrical Engineering
By

ASHUTOSH KUMAR (E22228832800015)

RAMASHARY KUMAR (E22228832800005)
AMAN (E22228832800037)
KARAN RAJPOOT (E22228832800065)
ABHISHEK SINGH (E23228837800002)

Under The Guidance of

Mr. Saurabh Gupta
(Project Incharge)

Mr. Santosh Kr. Kushwaha Mr. Saurabh Gupta

(H.O.D.) (Principal)

Session 2024-25

M.G. INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

LUCKNOW (2288)
TRANSMISSION LINE FAULT DETECTION SYSTEM

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the project work entitled “Transmission Line Fault Detection System” is bonafide
work carried out by Ashutosh Kumar, Ramashary Kumar, Aman, Karan Rajpoot and Abhishek
Singh in partial fulfillment for the award of 3-Year Diploma in Electrical Enginnering from
M.G. Institute of Management and Technology, Lucknow during the year 2024-25. This
project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirement and work carried out by
thm under by supervision and guidance.We wish him bright future.

Date: Mr. Santosh Kr. Kushwaha

(H.O.D of Electrical Engineering)

Date: Mr. Saurabh Gupta

(Project Incharge & Principal)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of task would be
incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and encouragement
made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project, which is result of studies
blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to Mr. Santosh Kumar Kushwaha (Head of Department) and
all the faculty of the Electrical Engineering Polytechnic Department especially for their
intellectual support during my work.

I am thankful to Mr. Saurabh Gupta (Principal Polytechnic) for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable suggestion.
Finally we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or
indirectly for the completion of this project.

ASHUTOSH KUMAR (E22228832800015)

RAMASHARY KUMAR (E22228832800005)
AMAN (E22228832800037)
KARAN RAJPOOT (E22228832800065)
ABHISHEK SINGH (E23228837800002)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.

CERTIFICATE ............................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1-5

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Motivation of the Project .............................................................................................. 3
1.3 Overview of Power Line Transmission ........................................................................ 3
1.4 Objective of Project ...................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Advantages of Project ................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 2: FAULTS AND EFFECTS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM ............. 6-13

2.1 Effects of Faults on Transmission Line ......................................................................... 7

2.1.1 Open Circuit Fault ............................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Short Circuit Fault ............................................................................................... 8
2.2 Causes of Electrical Faults ........................................................................................... 11
2.3 Effects of Electrical Faults ........................................................................................... 12
2.4 Fault limiting devices ................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER 3: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION .................................................................. 14-30

3.1 Hardware Requirements ............................................................................................... 15

3.1.1 Accessories ........................................................................................................ 16
3.1.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED) .............................................................................. 18
3.1.3 Resistance .......................................................................................................... 20
3.1.4 Capacitor ........................................................................................................... 22
3.1.5 BC 547 NPN Transistor .................................................................................... 23
3.1.6 Diode ................................................................................................................. 24
3.1.7 Board ................................................................................................................. 26

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3.1.8 Rectifier ............................................................................................................. 27

3.1.9 Wires ................................................................................................................. 28
3.1.10 PCB Board ....................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Working Project Model ................................................................................................ 30

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 31-32

5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 32

5.2 Future Scope ................................................................................................................ 32

REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................... 33

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Power Transmission Flow .......................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2.1: Different types of power system fault .................................................................................................. 7

Figure 2.2: Open Circuit Fault .......................................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2.3: Line – Line – Line Fault ............................................................................................................................. 9

Figure 2.4: Three-phase line to the ground fault ............................................................................ 9

Figure 2.5: Single Line to Line Ground ........................................................................................ 10

Figure 2.6: Line – to – Line Fault ................................................................................................ 11

Figure 2.7: Double Line – to – line Ground Fault ....................................................................... 11

Figure 3.1: Power Source Circuit ................................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 3.2: Fault Detector Circuit ................................................................................................................................ 16

Figure 3.3: Adapter ............................................................................................................................................................. 16

Figure 3.4: DIP Base .......................................................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 3.5: Power Jack ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 3.6: Different types of Switches .................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 3.7: Different types of LEDs ........................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 3.8: Symbol of LED ............................................................................................................................................ 19

Figure 3.9: Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 3.10: Resistors Colour Codes .......................................................................................................................... 21

Figure 3.11: Transistor ...................................................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 3.12: P-N junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied ............................... 24

Figure 3.13: Equilibrium, forward and reverse biased conditions in a p-n junction ........................... 25

Figure 3.14: Forward and reverse bias characteristics of a diode and it’s circuit symbol ................ 26

Figure 3.15: Relay Internal Structure ......................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 3.16: Relay Operational diagram .................................................................................................................. 27

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Figure 3.17: Half-Wave Rectifier ................................................................................................................................ 27

Figure 3.18: Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier .................................................................................................................. 28

Figure 3.19: Copper Wire ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Figure 3.20: Dotted PCB Boards .................................................................................................................................. 30

Figure 3.21: Working Model .......................................................................................................................................... 30

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Introduction

Power transmission is a major issue in electrical engineering after power generation. Fault in
transmission line is common and main problem to deal with in this stream. The faults occurring
in power systems can be broadly classified into open circuit faults and short circuit faults short
circuit faults are more serve and common and can further classified into symmetrical faults and
unsymmetrical faults. The study of these faults is necessary to ensure that reliability and stability
of the power system. The fault in the power system is defined as the defect or imperfection in the
power system due to which the current is deflected from the intended path. The fault creates the
abnormal condition which reduces the insulation strength between the conductors and disturbs
the normal flow of the electric current. The reduction in insulation causes excessive damage to
the system.

The faults in the power system may occur due to different factors like insulation failure of
equipment caused by the number of natural disturbances like lightning, high-speed winds,
earthquake, etc. It may also occur because of some accidents, like switching surges are coming in
contact and also when foreign object came in contact with bare power lines, falling off a tree,
vehicle colliding, with supporting structure, aero plane crashing, etc.

Electricity has become the most sought after amenity for all of us. Gone are the days when
electricity would be only limited to cities. It is now reaching to every distant parts of the world.
So we have now a complex network of power system. This power is being carried by the
transmission lines. These lines travel very long distances so while carrying power, fault
occurring is natural. These faults damages many vital electrical equipments like transformer,
generator, transmission lines. For the uninterrupted power supply we need to prevent these faults
as much as possible. So we need to detect faults within the shortest possible time.

The relays are more reliable and have faster response. They have increased range of setting, high
accuracy, reduced size, and lower costs, along with many other functions, such as fault event
recording, autoresetting, etc. This project is about designing the relay where the fault is detected
when the input value exceeds the reference value set in the relay which then gives the trip signal
to the circuit breaker.

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1.2 Motivation of the Project

Due to various random causes there may be unexpected failure on power transmission line since
fault is unavoidable. The motivation behind this project is Fault detection and diagnosis has been
an active working still and the problem is not solved yet. Electrical power transmission systems
suffer from unexpected failures due to various random causes. Un-predicted faults that occur in
power systems are required to prevent from propagation to other area in the protective system.
The functions of the protective systems are to detect, then classify and finally determine the
location of the faulty.

1.3 Overview of Power Line Transmission

To transmit the electricity from the point of generation to the end user, an interconnected
network of electric grid is used. The network of electric grid consists of countable number of
generating stations, high-voltage transmission lines and distribution lines. We know that when a
low voltage power is transmitted over long distance, the power loss we acquire will be more.
Hence, the electricity generated from various sources is stepped up before transmission. This
stepped up power is transmitted to the substations through transmission network. In the
substation the high voltage power is stepped down for various purposes according to the needs.
From the substation, low voltage electricity suitable for end users can be distributed. This flow is
described in detail in Figure 1.1.

One of the most preferable methods used for transmitting power is through overhead lines.
Especially in developing countries like India, about 72% of the power transmission is by
overhead transmission lines. As the majority of the income is through agriculture or industries,
uninterrupted power supply is needed. To provide uninterrupted power supply, transmission lines
need to be maintained properly with at most care. Also, in power transmission, power loss
(technical loss) due to this transmission is 22.5%.

This loss is due to the energy dissipation in the conductor (transformer, sub transmission line and
distribution line). Though regular maintenance is carried out periodically, some unexpected
issues arises due to trees, wind, construction, and corrosion caused by the wind coming through
the sea water in the overhead transmission lines near the sea shore. Though, manpower is

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allocated for maintaining the transmission lines, it is difficult and a time consuming process.
Mostly for tracking the point of failure, one has to climb multiple posts (towers) across the
transmission line which is a cumbersome activity.

Figure 1.1: Power Transmission Flow

One reason for faults in the transmission lines may be due to sparking due to the failure of the
insulators at the towers. Usually, the failure in the transmission lines between a transformer and
the targets (factories, homes etc.,) is easily traceable when compared to the HT (high tension)
transmission lines over long distances spanning to hundreds of towers. Hence, an efficient and
effective solution is necessary to overcome this problem

1.4 Objective of Project

Transmission of electricity through transmission lines is a widely used method for power
transmission from one location to another. Failure is a critical issue in this essential service. The
location of the fault must be identified for recovery from the failure. Though there is human
effort involved in fault detection, technology assisted solutions can save time and resources.

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1.5 Advantages of Project

The major advantages are as follows:

• Work in real time response.

• Coverage area is large compared with other existing system.
• Cost efficient.
• Devices enable by wireless communication.
• Economically reliable.
• Number of components used are compact in size.

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CHAPTER 2

FAULTS AND EFFECTS IN

ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

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2.1 Effects of Faults on Transmission Line

The fault in the power system is defined as the defect in the power system due to which the
current is distracted from the intended path. The fault creates the abnormal condition which
reduces the insulation strength between the conductors. The reduction in insulation causes
excessive damage to the system. The fault in the power system is mainly categorised into two
types they are:

1. Open Circuit Fault

2. Short Circuit Fault.

The different types of power system fault are shown below in the image.

Figure 2.1: Different types of power system fault

The faults in the power system may occur because of the number of natural disturbances like
lightning, high-speed winds, earthquake, etc. It may also occur because of some accidents like
falling off a tree, vehicle colliding, with supporting structure, aeroplane crashing, etc.

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2.1.1. Open Circuit Fault

The open circuit fault mainly occurs because of the failure of one or two conductors. The open
circuit fault takes place in series with the line, and because of this, it is also called the series
fault. Such types of faults affect the reliability of the system. The open circuit fault is categorised
as-

• Open Conductor Fault

• Two conductors Open Fault
• Three conductors Open Fault.

Figure 2.2: Open Circuit Fault

2.1.2. Short Circuit Fault

In this type of fault, the conductors of the different phases come into contact with each other with
a power line, power transformer or any other circuit element due to which the large current flow
in one or two phases of the system. The short-circuit fault is divided into the symmetrical and
unsymmetrical fault.

 Symmetrical Fault

The faults which involve all the three phases is known as the symmetrical fault. Such types of
fault remain balanced even after the fault. The symmetrical faults mainly occur at the terminal of
the generators. The fault on the system may arise on account of the resistance of the arc between

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the conductors or due to the lower footing resistance. The symmetrical fault is sub-categorized
into line-to-line-to-line fault and three-phase line-to-ground-fault

 Line – Line – Line Fault – Such types of faults are balanced, i.e., the system remains
symmetrical even after the fault. The L – L – L fault occurs rarely, but it is the most
severe type of fault which involves the largest current. This large current is used for
determining the rating of the circuit breaker.

Figure 2.3: Line – Line – Line Fault

 L – L – L – G (Three-phase line to the ground fault) – The three-phase line to ground

fault includes all the three phase of the system. The L – L – L – G fault occurs between
the three phases and the ground of the system. The probability of occurrence of such type
of fault is nearly 2 to 3 percent.

Figure 2.4: Three-phase line to the ground fault

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 Unsymmetrical Fault

The fault gives rise to unsymmetrical current, i.e., current differing in magnitude and phases in
the three phases of the power system are known as the unsymmetrical fault. It is also defined as
the fault which involves the one or two phases such as L- G, L – L, L – L – G fault. The
unsymmetrical makes the system unbalanced. It is mainly classified into three types. They are

• Single Line-to-ground (L – G) Fault

• Line-to-Line Fault (L – L)
• Double Line-to-ground (L – L – G) Fault

The unsymmetrical fault is the most common types of fault occur in the power system.

 Single Line-to-Line Ground – The single line of ground fault occurs when one
conductor falls to the ground or contact the neutral conductor. The 70 – 80 percent of the
fault in the power system is the single line-to-ground fault.

Figure 2.5: Single Line to Line Ground

 Line – to – Line Fault – A line-to-line fault occurs when two conductors are short
circuited. The major cause of this type of fault is the heavy wind. The heavy wind
swinging the line conductors which may touch together and hence cause short-circuit.
The percentage of such type of faults is approximately 15 – 20%.
 Double Line – to – line Ground Fault – In double line-to-ground fault, the two lines
come in contact with each other along with the ground. The probability of such types of
faults is nearly 10 %.

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Figure 2.6: Line – to – Line Fault

Figure 2.7: Double Line – to – line Ground Fault

The symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault mainly occurs in the terminal of the generator, and the
open circuit and short circuit fault occur on the transmission line.

2.2 Causes of Electrical Faults

 Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt
deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission
lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the power supply and also damage
electrical installations.
 Equipment failures: Various electrical equipments like generators, motors,
transformers, reactors, switching devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to
malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures result in
high current to flow through the devices or equipment which further damages it.

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 Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting
improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting parts
after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.
 Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead lines
results in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This flashover
causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.

2.3 Effects of Electrical Faults

 Over current flow: When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the current
flow. This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing tripping of
relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipments.
 Danger to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals.
Severity of the shock depends on the current and voltage at fault location and even may
lead to death.
 Loss of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components
being burnt completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device.
Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the equipments.
 Disturbs interconnected active circuits: Faults not only affect the location at which they
occur but also disturbs the active interconnected circuits to the faulted line.
 Electrical fires: Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of air
between two conducting paths which further leads to fire as we often observe in news
such as building and shopping complex fires.

2.4 Fault limiting devices

It is possible to minimize causes like human errors, but not environmental changes. Fault
clearing is a crucial task in power system network. If we manage to disrupt or break the circuit
when fault arises, it reduces the considerable damage to the equipments and also property.

Some of these fault limiting devices include fuses, circuit breakers, relays, etc. and are discussed
below.

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 Fuse: It is the primary protecting device. It is a thin wire enclosed in a casing or glass
which connects two metal parts. This wire melts when excessive current flows in circuit.
Type of fuse depends on the voltage at which it is to operate. Manual replacement of wire
is necessary once it blowout.
 Circuit breaker: It makes the circuit at normal as well as breaks at abnormal conditions. It
causes automatic tripping of the circuit when fault occurs. It can be electromechanical
circuit breaker like vacuum / oil circuit breakers etc, or ultrafast electronic circuit
breaker.
 Relay: It is condition based operating switch. It consists of magnetic coil and normally
open and closed contacts. Fault occurrence raises the current which energizes relay coil,
resulting in the contacts to operate so the circuit is interrupted from flowing of current.
Protective relays are of different types like impedance relays, mho relays, etc.
 Lighting power protection devices: These include lighting arrestors and grounding
devices to protect the system against lighting and surge voltages.

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CHAPTER III

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

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3.1 Hardware Requirements

The hardware components required for the project are listed as follows:

1. Power Source Circuit

 IN 4007 Diode
 Capacitors
 IC 7805 5V Convertor
 1K ohm Resistors
 Transformer
 Dotted PCB
 LED

Figure 3.1: Power Source Circuit

2. Fault Detector Circuit

 BC 574 NPN Transistors
 5 V Relay
 Resistors
 Green and Red LED

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 Rainbow Wire
 Pin Connector
 Push Switches
 Battery
 Dotted PCB

Figure 3.2: Fault Detector Circuit

3.1.1 Accessories

• ADAPTERS

The adapters are the device that has inbuilt circuitry for converting the 230V AC in to desired
DC like +5V adapter, +12V adapter, +9V adapter and many more. This consists of inbuilt circuit
for HIGH AC to low voltage DC conversion.

Figure 3.3: Adapter

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• DIP BASES

The case outlines of the plastic and ceramic Dual In-line Packages (DIPs) are nearly identical.
The lead configuration consists of two rows of leads, both with 100 mil pitch. The plastic DIP is
shown in Figure. If the DIP base is of 18 pin then 9 lines will be in one side and 9 on other side.
The IC bases of have round cut from the left of which the pin 1 of base is considered similar is
the case with integrated chips.

Figure 3.4: DIP Base

Basically IC is sensitive to short circuit or voltage so in place of that we first install the bases of
the IC with same number of pins and before placing the IC’s we check all voltage points of the
IC then mount the IC once proper configuration is assured. The DIP base depends on number of
pins of the IC and ranges from 4pin configuration to 40 pin configuration. They are available in
different pin configuration and size depending on IC need.

• POWER JACK

Power Jack is basically a connector to connect the adapter output to the board directly. It has the
proper connection designed to connect with the adapter as well as out connection to connect to
the board. It has three terminals output 1 Vcc, 2 GND and 3 No connection.

Figure 3.5: Power Jack

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• SWITCHES

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

Figure 3.6: Different types of Switches

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can
be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non-conducting.
The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a
"toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for
"off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a

computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to
indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a
position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as
pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system.

3.1.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LEDs are special diodes that emit light. LED devices are becoming popular because they
consume very less power than other light device. LEDs have been used in electronics circuit for
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long time. They are available in red, yellow, green and multicolor and mainly used as indicators
in electronic devices.But the new technological makes it possible to have white LEDs. Super
bright LEDs made it possible to get more light with very low power consumption.

Figure 3.7: Different types of LEDs

Symbol & Structure of LED

Figure 3.8: Symbol of LED

Therefore now LEDs find its use as a light source.LEDs are so far used in digital display ,
indicator on electronic instruments like TV, Computer.But now they started finding application
in making bulb, torch, and emergency lamps, traffic signal, street lights and so on.LEDs are
diode, which emits photons.

Figure 3.9: Light Emitting Diode (LED)

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Advantages:

1) A Range of colors :- LED are available in variety of colours like a violet, blue, yellow, green,
orange, red and white.
2) Efficiency :- LED consumes very less energy they are very efficient than incandescent bulb.
3) Low maintenance :- LED does not necessarily need maintenance. Their rated life is 10000hrs.
4) Durability :- LEDs are extremely resistance to shock, vibration.
5) The low operation voltage of LEDs eliminats sparks.

Disadvantages:

1) The viewing angle is less.

2) Direct viewing into LED may damage your eyes.

3.1.3 Resistance

Resistance is inserted into a circuit in order to reduce the current or to produce a desired IR
voltage drop. The components for these uses, manufactured with the specific R, are resistors.The
two main characteristics of a resistor are its R in ohms and the voltage rating. Resistors are
available in a wide range of R values, from a fraction of ohm to many mega ohms. The power
rating may be as high as several 100watts.

The power rating is important because it specifies the maximum wattage the resistance can
dissipate without excessive heat. Wire wound resistors are used where the power dissipation is
about 5 watts or more. For 2 watt or less, the carbon and wire wound resistors can be either fixed
or variable. A fixed resistor has a specific R that cannot be adjusted. A variable resistor can be
adjusted for any value between its 0ohms and its maximum R. An application for a variable wire
wound resistor is to divide the voltage from a power supply. A carbon composition variable
resistor is commonly used for control such as volume control in a radio. Hence there are many
types of resistors some of them are :

 Wire wound resistors

 Carbon composition resistors

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 Carbon film resistors

 Metal film resistors
 Variable resistors

Resistors Colour Codes:

COMPOSITION TYPE RESISTORS:

FILM TYPE RESISTORS:

Figure 3.10: Resistors Colour Codes

Band A: The first significant figure of the resistance value.

Band B: The second significant value of the resistance value.
Band C: The multiplier is the factor by which the two significant figures are multiplied to yield
the nominal resistance value.
Band D: The resistor’s tolerance
Band E: When used on composition resistors, band E indicates the established reliability failure
rate level. On film resistors, this band is approximately 1.5 times the width of the other bands,
and indicates type of terminal.

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3.1.4 Capacitor

The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions
as filter, passing AC, and blocking DC. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates
separated by insulator. They are also used in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor
to fill with charge. They can be used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as reservoir of
charge. The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This
symbol ( ) is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed
with two electrode plates facing each other but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode.
While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the
capacitor has fully charged. Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the
dielectric. The most used are mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors. Electrolytic
capacitors use a molecular thin oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large capacitance values.
There is no required polarity, since either side can be the most positive plate, except for
electrolytic capacitors.

These are marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the internal electrolytic
action that produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should be noted that the
polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the changing source determines the
polarity of the capacitor voltage.

Types of Capacitors
There are various types of capacitors available in the market. Some of them are as follows:

 Mica Capacitor
 Paper Capacitor
 Ceramic Capacitor
 Variable Capacitor
 Electrolytic Capacitor

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 Tantalum Capacitor
 Film Capacitor

3.1.5 BC547 NPN Transistor

BC547 is a normal NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) junction transistor. It is a BJT transistor

and is often used to satisfy the need of quick switching.

Figure 3.11: Transistor

Followings are the key knowledge of BC547 that:

 BC547 is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).

 It is kind of an NPN transistor.
 It has three terminals: Emitter, Collector and Base.
 The maximum current gain of BC547 is 800A.
 The Collector−Emitter Voltage is 65V.
 The Collector-Base Voltage is 80V.
 The Emitter-Base voltage is 8V.

BC547 has two operation status: forward bias and reverse bias. In the status of the forward bias,
the current can pass when the collector and emitter are connected. While in the status of the
reverse bias, it acts as a disconnect switch and current cannot pass.

BC547 is usually used for current amplifier, quick switching and pulse-width modulation
(PWM).

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3.1.6 Diode

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one
direction. A semiconductor diode is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to
two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and
a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction while blocking current in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current to direct current and to extract modulation from radio signals
in radio receivers.

When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction is depleted
of charge carriers and behaves very differently than either type of material. The electrons in n-
type material diffuse across the junction and combines with holes in p-type material. The region
of the p-type material near the junction takes on a net negative charge because of the electrons
attracted. Since electrons departed the N-type region, it takes on a localized positive charge. The
thin layer of the crystal lattice between these charges has been depleted of majority carriers, thus,
is known as the depletion region. It becomes nonconductive intrinsic semiconductor material.
This separation of charges at the p-n junction constitutes a potential barrier, which must be
overcome by an external voltage source to make the junction conduct.

Figure 3.12: P-N junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied

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The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both
electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to
generate more space charge and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to
counteract the diffusion.

Figure 3.13: Equilibrium, forward and reverse biased conditions in a p-n junction

When the diode is forward biased, the positive charge applied to the P-type material repels the
holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electrons
and holes are pushed towards the junction, the width of depletion zone decreases. This lowers the
barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes
thin enough that the electric field of the zone can't counteract charge carrier motion across the p–
n junction, consequently reducing electrical resistance. The electrons which cross the p–n
junction into the P-type material will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

When the diode is reverse biased, the holes in the p-type material and the electrons in the n-type
material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the depletion zone to increase
with increase in reverse bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance
to the flow of charge carriers thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction.
The increase in resistance of the p-n junction results in the junction to behave as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases.
Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p-n junction depletion zone
breaks down and current begins to flow.

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Figure 3.14: Forward and reverse bias characteristics of a diode and it’s circuit symbol

3.1.7 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solidstate relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate lowpower signal, or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on
another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to
perform logical operations.

Figure 3.15: Relay Internal Structure

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Figure 3.16: Relay Operational diagram

Electromagnetic relays are those relays which are operated by electromagnetic action. Modern
electrical protection relays are mainly micro-processor based, but still electromagnetic relay
holds its place. It will take much longer time to be replaced the all electromagnetic relays by
micro-processor based static relays.

3.1.8 Rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized
by pulsating voltages and currents (although still unidirectional

 Half-Wave Rectification

Figure 3.17: Half-Wave Rectifier

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In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC
wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in
a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but
pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers,
and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

 Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarit
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and
a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source
(including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single semiconductor diodes, double
diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as
single components.

Figure 3.18: Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

3.1.9 Wire

Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. Copper wire is used in
power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics
circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment Copper and its alloys are also used to make
electrical contacts. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important market for the copper

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industry. Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable
conductors.

Figure 3.19: Copper Wire

3.1.10 PCB Board

A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed
circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used both
for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the meaning. Alternatives to PCBs
include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must initially be designed and laid out,
but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable for high-volume
production since production and soldering of PCBs can be automated. Much of the electronics
industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards published by
the IPC organization.

PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and
higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much
cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design,
assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC
organization.

Printed Circuit Boards are primarily an insulating material used as base, into which conductive
strips are printed. The base material is generally fiberglass, and the conductive connections are e
generally copper and are made through an etching process. The main PCB board is called the
motherboard; the smaller attachment PCB boards are called daughter boards or daughter cards.

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Figure 3.20: Dottod PCB Boards

3.2 Working Project Model

Figure 3.21: Working Model

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CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

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4.1 Conclusion

Thus, in this project a novel approach for detecting failure of transmission lines is proposed. The
proposed approach can also be used for identifying transmission line break down and short
circuit. In this project, various circuitry are used for identifying the symptoms that leads to
network failure.

4.2 Future Scope

This model can also adopted as,

• This system can be tested in the field for real time fault monitoring system.
• Underground line or cable fault locating.
• By implementing the model we will locate unsymmetrical faults

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REFERENCES

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resistance
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/led
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capacitance
4. Kang miao, bidirectional battery charger for electric vehicles, asia (isgt asia) 2018.
5. Pituk Bunnoon, “Fault Detaction Aprroaches to Power System : Stateof-the Art Article
Review for Searching a New Approach in the Future,” International Journal of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, vol. 3, No. 4, pp 553-560, August 2013.
6. P. Chandra shekar., “Transmiision Line Fault Detection & Indication through GSM,”
Internation Journal of Recent Advancs in Engineering & Technology , vol. 2, issue 5, pp
28-30, 2014.
7. S.Chavhan, V.Barsagade, A.Dutta, S.Thakre., “ Fault Detection in Power Line using
Wireless Sensor Networks,” IPASJ Internaional Journal of Electrical Engineering , vol. 3,
issue 3, pp 8-13, March 2015.
8. Ing. Komi Agbesi, Felix Attuquaye Okai., “Automatic Fault Detection and Location in
Power Transmission Lines using GSM Technology,” Internation Journal of Advance
Reasearch in Science and Engineering , vol. 5, issue 1, pp 193-207, January 2016.
9. Manohar Singh, Dr.B.K.Panigrahi, Dr.R.P.Maheswari, „‟ Transmission Line Fault
Detection and Classification”, Proceedings of ICETECT, 2011.
10. Nweke Chisom B., Iroegbu Chibuisi, Oge Chikanma Ihekweaba, Henkwe Clement E., “
Using GSM to Detect Fault in Microcontroller Based Power Transformer,” Internaional
Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, vol. 2, issue 8, pp
271- 274, August 2014.

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